Marian reforms - Knowledge

24: 950:. There is no direct evidence for this contention, which is driven largely by literary sources' silence on those branches after the 2nd century; continued inscriptional evidence attests both citizen cavalry and light infantry into the end of the republic. The decline of Roman light infantry has been connected not to reform but cost. Because the logistical cost of supporting light infantry and heavy infantry was relatively similar, the Romans chose to deploy heavy infantry in extended and distant campaigns due to their greater combat effectiveness, especially when local levies could substitute for light infantry brought from Rome and Italy. 1047: 1262:, also questioned the extent to which Polybius' descriptions reflected the army of the mid-second century, noting that many aspects therein were notably archaic and only could have been true in the early third century BC. Gabba's posited property level qualifications and Brunt's attacks on Polybius' credibility broke one of the main assumptions of the 19th century German scholars, namely that the Polybian army persisted largely unchanged until Marius' time. Brunt also found no evidence that volunteers took over the legions and instead concluded that the 1134:'s history entirely passes over the events from Marius' first consulship and Numidian command (108 – 105 BC), noting only that he was victor over Jugurtha, indicating that Livy or his epitomiser thought Marius' irregular levy unimportant. It is likely, however, that most of the ancient narratives which connected the collapse of the free state to the self-serving armed proletarian did so in the context of civil war. As literary themes, they were then retrojected into the time of Marius and the Jugurthine War, more than two generations earlier. 829:, a heavy javelin designed to stick into shields, by including a wooden peg which broke when the javelin was thrown. Many scholars believe this was to prevent the javelin from being thrown back, but it is more likely that the swinging motion of the broken peg was meant to force someone to discard a shield into which the javelin was struck. Regardless of the efficacy or purpose of the redesign, archaeological evidence from the 80s BC through to the early imperial era show that Marius' redesign was not adopted. Roman 1299:, largely disproved the traditional narrative that Marius' volunteers had a substantial impact on the composition of the army, that the late republic's armies were made up largely of volunteers, and that those armies were largely drawn from the landless poor. Cadiou, moreover, argued that historians' unwillingness to discard the theory that Marius decisively changed army recruitment, despite the limited evidence for it, emerged from the attractiveness of the theory as a simple explanation for the republic's collapse. 961:(a unit of only 160 men) as the basic unit of manoeuvre. This attribution is rather dubious and there is no ancient evidence of it; cohorts may have been used as far back as the Second Punic War near the end of the third century BC. The cohort itself emerged as an administrative unit conscripted from Rome's Italian allies and is first attested in a description by Polybius, a usually reliable historian, of a battle which occurred in 206 BC. By the 130s BC, through the 47: 1164:('History of the Infantry') which presented the Marian reforms – here conceived as a full overhaul including the abolition of the citizen cavalry, institution of a single form of heavy infantry, uniform equipment, and introduction of the cohort – as an established fact. However, he viewed it only as a step in the full professionalisation of the Roman army and believed that the putative reforms reflected real military needs. 690: 804:

landlessness. Many of the soldiers of the 1st century BC possessed modest lands. Nor did the legions meaningfully professionalise: as, in general, both soldiers and commanders served only for short periods intending, respectively, to secure plunder or political advancement from military victory. There is little evidence that this putative change in army recruitment created anti-republican client armies.

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then used them to seize power in Rome and plunge the republic into civil wars that eventually brought about its collapse. There are, however, no indications that Roman conscription ceased. Nor is there much evidence that later Roman armies during the 1st century BC were made up of volunteers; almost all ancient references to army recruitment, outside private armies, involve conscription.

1214:, an Italian historian, which held that instead of being a revolutionary change, Marius' decision to enrol the poor was the logical culmination of progressive reductions of the property qualifications in the face of chronic shortages of recruits. Marius' presumed reform then simply swept away the last vestige of a property qualification that by 107 BC had largely ceased to be binding. 878:); according to Plutarch, Gracchus passed a law to abolish deductions from soldier pay for clothing. The Italian historian Emilio Gabba argued, for example, that Plutarch's text could be emended from merely encompassing clothing to equipment more generally, reflecting Gabba's belief that this policy emerged from the recruitment of poor soldiers unable to pay for their own equipment. 1342:, such appeals were rooted in the consuls' legitimacy and prerogatives given as a gift of the people. Client armies, instead of being a consequence of putative changes in recruitment, emerged from the prolonged civil wars – themselves fought between armies which believed they were defending the republic – and generals' attempts to secure military loyalty with pay increases. 1280:, an American classicist, showed in 1979 that complaints about conscription largely emerged only during campaigns which offered few prospects for plunder; this recast Marius' call in 107 BC for volunteers as reflecting less a dearth of soldiers but rather the relatively little plunder expected for service in Numidia. J W Rich then showed in a 1983 article in 565:. It was commonly believed that Marius changed the soldiers' socio-economic background by allowing citizens without property to join the Roman army, a process called "proletarianisation". This was thought to have created a semi-professional class of soldiers motivated by land grants; these soldiers in turn became clients of their generals, who then used them to 1071:. Some say that he did this through lack of good men, others because of a desire to curry favour, since that class had given him honour and rank. As a matter of fact, to one who aspires to power the poorest man is the most helpful, since he has no regard for his property, having none, and considers anything honourable for which he receives pay. 1706:, p. 316. "The view that the property qualification... was progressively reduced derives much of its plausibility from the fact that it fits well with received doctrine on Roman manpower... It would thus smack of circularity to use the supposed second century reduction in the property qualification as evidence for the shortage of 896:("Marius' mules"). Some modern historians have read this action as a permanent reduction in the size of Roman baggage trains, increasing the speed of army movement. However, attempts to force soldiers to carry their own equipment were common among successful generals at the time; Marius' predecessor in Numidia, 993:

Moreover, through the post-Marian period, land distributions were sporadic and volunteers were taken on with no promises or reasonable expectations of land at discharge. Soldiers both in the Marian and post-Marian periods largely went home peacefully when land demands were not immediately met, though

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and operations with Italian allies, the cohort had developed into a tactical unit. While, after 109 BC, the maniple disappears from the literary evidence, Marius' predecessor in Numidia is documented to have used cohorts in battle: if cohorts replaced maniples around this time, Marius was likely

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L'armée romaine dite ‹ post-marienne › est un mirage historiographique. Elle n'a jamais existé que dans l'esprit des spécialistes modernes ... En ce sens, l'armée de citoyens pauvres à laquelle l'historiographie moderne a coutume d'attribuer une responsabilité décisive dans la crise et la

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Neither a Gracchan abolition of deductions for equipment or a Marian programme to equip soldiers is attested in the evidence. There are no indications that Gracchus' law ever came into effect and literary evidence indicates that deductions for clothing and equipment were common in the imperial army

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viewed it as an expedient to evade popular opposition to conscription. R J Evans, with whom François Cadiou agreed, instead proposed that Marius' decision emerged from his promise of a quick victory in Numidia followed by an energetic effort to follow through by raising and bringing an army as

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In these terms, the abolition of the property qualification was just another stage in the evolution of the Roman army on the long journey to the professional army of the Augustan age. With no sources indicating that the social background of the legions had changed much, if at all, Gabba attributed

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Most scholars have now abandoned the belief that Marius was responsible for any proletarianisation of the Roman legions in the early 1st century BC and that such proletarianisation occurred at all, concluding that the reforms attributed to Marius are largely figments of modern historiography.

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changed the socio-economic background of the army by allowing the poor to take it over. These poor soldiers then professionalised and lived only as soldiers. These professional soldiers, disconnected from a society in which they had no property stake, over time became clients of their generals who

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was reduced over the course of the second century to a nugatory level due to a shortage of manpower. The basis for that belief, however, was merely three undated Roman figures for the amount of property required to serve which would serve as evidence for reductions only if forced into a descending

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in 1928. While both noted that there were no ancient sources which described any putative large-scale reforms by Marius, they both largely repeated previous scholarship that accepted the Marian reforms as a revolutionary turning point for the Roman army. From there, this view moved into reference

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Some modern historians have also attributed to Marius reforms in the training of Roman soldiers which ostensibly reflected a professionalising service. Such training and drilling, however, had become common before Marius due to the loss of collective experience in the generations after the Second

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and Marius were attributable to a single reform event. This belief was spread relatively uncritically and was accepted as largely proven by the 1850s and through much of the 20th century. There is, however, little ancient evidence for any permanent or significant change to recruitment practice in

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of Marius, depending on emendation, may claim that Marius enrolled slaves, which would be a profound exaggeration. Gellius' discussion indicates that there was some disagreement in the sources before him as to the year (during the Cimbric War in 104 or the Jugurthine War in 107 BC) in which

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Marius' open recruitment, as documented in Sallust, may also be explained not in terms of ambition but also by his desire to recruit as large an army as possible to send to Africa, to do so quickly, or to do so without harming his popularity. One of the other main sources is Valerius Maximus; he

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per day – and irregular. Moreover, although the surviving sources frequently characterise soldiers as "poor", these sources largely reflect the perspectives of the elite, by whom the vast majority of the population were considered "poor" and for whom the notion of poverty was broader than actual

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Various motives have been ascribed to Marius' decision to accept volunteers. The motive attributed in Sallust, Marius' personal ambition to seize power, may more reflect Sallust's desire to connect the republic's collapse with moral decline and failure to adhere to tradition. The second edition

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Ancient narratives on the Marian reforms largely discussed them in service of the respective narrative's themes. Sallust, the closest source to 107 BC, wrote a narrative lamenting moral decline among the citizenry. To that end, he portrayed Marius' enrolment in 107 in terms of his alleged

1553:, p. 301. " starts from a position that has become increasingly accepted among scholars (although unfortunately not popular among popular writers), namely that Marius was not responsible for the key changes that distinguished first-century legions from their mid-republican predecessors". 844:

attributes Marius with adopting the eagle as the universal legionary standard. This has been interpreted as a rallying symbol for each cohort. Pliny's claim, however, is incorrect; sources show late republican and early imperial legions with other animal symbols such as bulls and wolves.

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It is also sometimes claimed that Marius – because the poor citizens enrolled could not afford to purchase their own weapons and armour – arranged for the state to supply them with arms, displacing the traditional system of self-purchase. Such a scheme may have been incipient during

1290:. Further work on the demography of second-century Italy, especially by Nathan Rosenstein in the early 2000s, showed more definitively from the basis of archaeology there had been no population decline in the decades before Marius' first consulship, as had previously been believed. 1323:

BC. The large-scale downsizing of Roman cavalry detachments likely emerged from the extension of citizenship to all of Italy. Because Italy's enfranchisement meant that Rome was now directly liable for the cavalry's upkeep rather than their local communities, Rome instead levied

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Other reforms to the army's operations and equipment, said to have been implemented by Marius, are also largely rejected by scholars. Few of them have any basis in the ancient and archaeological evidence. Others are wrongly dated or misattributed. Changes in the

990:) distributing lands to Marius' veterans and poor Romans. No such client army can be seen in Marius' own land laws, which required cooperation from civil society – the senate, people, and other magistrates – and was not imposed by military decree. 1333:

Contrary to the traditional story of quiescent client armies following their generals, contemporary historiography has established that Roman soldiers during the civil wars needed to be convinced of the legitimacy of their generals' causes. For

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Modern historiography has regularly cast Marius as abolishing the propertied militia and replacing it with landless soldiers motivated largely by pay. This belief emerges from the ancient literary sources, but rests on a relatively weak basis.

725:, in 107 BC. However, it is also possible that other far-reaching actions, especially in opening army recruitment, were undertaken during Marius' repeated consulships from 104 to 100 BC during which Rome faced the serious threat of 1306:

and the civil wars from 49 to 31 BC. After the Social War, the state also started to keep men under arms for longer periods to maintain available experienced manpower, and coupled this with longer terms for commanders, particularly

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Modern historians have also attributed to Marius the development of the client armies, tying the loyalty of the veterans to generals securing land grants on discharge. This picture, however, is largely an exaggeration stemming from the

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Conscription continued after Marius' time, especially during the Social War, and the wealth and social background of the men who joined before and after the opening of recruitment changed little. Pay remained extremely low – only five

938:); Metellus similarly drilled his men prior to their departure to Africa in 109 BC. Such attempts to reintroduce discipline reflected the recruits' lack of military training rather than a class of budding professional soldiers. 2044:, pp. 65–66. Matthew believes the redesign was a one-time expedient and that Marius' rapid departure from active command in the immediate aftermath of victory over the Cimbri prevented the redesign from being fully adopted. 1002:. Only during the civil wars during the later last century BC did demands for land become more prevalent, though not always explicitly to agrarian ends, due to the soldiers' increased bargaining power. For example, during 2953:, pp. 22–23. Faszcza approvingly mentions a 1915 article by Theodor Steinwender which questioned whether Polybius' army description was accurate; it did not, however, challenge the belief in comprehensive reforms. See 1141:. The hypothesis rested on the assumption that any differences between the army of Marius' time and that of Polybius' time could be attributed to a single reform event of which Marius could have been the only progenitor. 741:

writing in the early 1st century AD. Two further reforms (distinguished from mere actions taken by Marius) are attributed, in sources postdating his career by hundreds of years, to Marius directly: a redesign of the

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in 107, 104–100, and 86 BC). The most important of those putative changes concerned the altering of the socio-economic background of the soldiery. Other changes were supposed to have included the introduction of the

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Most of the reforms attributed to Marius in various sources emerged only in modern times. These reforms have little ancient pedigree. They rest largely on the basis of comparison between the army described by

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Marius' time. The occurrence of such a comprehensive reform led by Marius is no longer widely accepted by specialists; 21st-century scholars have called the reforms a "construct of modern scholarship".

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quickly as possible to Africa so to maximise his time campaigning as consul. Regardless, after Marius' victorious return from the Jugurthine War, his volunteers were discharged and, in the following

1254:) of conscripts continued through the 2nd century into the late republic; this undermined the previous assumption that volunteer service became dominant after 107 BC. The British classicist 717:

Some or all of the following reforms have been attributed to Marius in modern historiography. They are, however, variably dated. Many modern sources date them to his first consulship, during the

1468:, pp. 93–94. "Marius did few, if any, of the things he is sometimes supposed to have done. He did not make the Roman army an army of mercenaries... he did not create a revolutionary army". 3652: 1284:

that there was no general manpower shortage in Italy and that Marius' use of voluntary enlistment was in fact precedented, undermining the main proposed rationale for recruiting the

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order. Many scholars have also now abandoned the notion that Italy suffered in the second century BC any deficit of manpower which would have driven such putative reductions.

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The main putative reform attributed to Marius is a change to recruitment starting, as is generally held, in 107 BC. In that year, Marius was consul, had himself assigned by

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Beyond changes to army recruitment, there are two other reforms attributed to Marius specifically in the ancient sources: a redesign for a javelin, and the designation of the

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of Augustus into the 1st century AD. If Marius purchased equipment for his troops in Numidia at his own expense, later generals and the state in general did not do so.

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there is only a single example of a citizenship grant for martial valour. Most scholars believe that grants of citizenship to veterans became common only under the emperor

1498:. "Modern research for the most part agrees, it can no longer be said that the Marian reforms and the military service of unpropertied men revolutionised the Roman army". 1456:, p. 283. "The idea of a wide-ranging 'Marian reform' that permanently abolished property qualifications for military service has recently been thoroughly rebutted". 2212:, 44–45: " is said to have removed the incentives to indolence by an edict... that no private soldier should have a slave or a pack animal in the camp or on the march". 1189: 572:

Belief in a comprehensive scheme of reforms under Marius emerged in 1840s German scholarship, which posited that any changes in the Roman army between the times of

2904:, p. 21. Rüstow's book became the main progenitor of the comprehensive Marian reforms hypothesis, likely because it was written in German instead of Latin. 1981:, p. xvii. "Nothing suggests that the soldiery had developed a separatist mentality, let alone that they contemplated toppling the republic. Even those who 515: 3787:

Morstein-Marx, Robert (2011). "Consular appeals to the army in 88 and 87: the locus of legitimacy in late-republican Rome". In Beck, Hans; et al. (eds.).

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to the war against Jugurtha, and recruited additional soldiers to send to war by enlisting volunteers from both those in the five census classes and also the

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Marius is said in ancient sources to have moved much of the baggage off beasts of burden and onto the backs of the common soldiers, giving them the moniker

1522:, p. 79. "Relatively modest facts have been spun into the overarching 'Marian reforms', which are ultimately the construct of modern scholarship". 1218:

the notability of the episode to Marius' political opponents' fear that voluntary service undermined traditional methods of gaining political support.

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The first time a modern historian posited and attributed to Marius a revolutionary and comprehensive reform was in an 1846 book by the German scholar

1222: 1084:, an aetiology which historians have dismissed as "puerile, naïve, and fanciful". Valerius Maximus' narrative is largely in the interest of creating 667:

being called up was some time in the fourth century; they first received arms at state expense in 281 BC, probably related to the start of the

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from the top five census classes. Those classes were assigned in decreasing order of wealth and allotted citizens to a corresponding century in the

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without Marius' peg often bent or broke on impact, but this was more likely a by-product of their long, narrow shanks than an intentional feature.

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wrote, in a longer passage on the customs of the Roman army, that Marius disregarded its traditional recruitment practices due to his status as a

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Taylor, Michael J (2023). "Goodbye to all that: the Roman citizen militia after the great wars". In Balbo, Mattia; Santangelo, Federico (eds.).

1909:, p. 283, "the sources show that soldiers were usually still recruited according to their census rating even in the late Republic", citing 2937: 4205: 1184: 1175:. By the early twentieth century, two major overviews in German played a substantial role in also spreading these views. The first was by 1154:, which served to bring the idea of the Marian reforms into the core of scholarship. It received more attention in the military historian 2441:, 51.3, where amid an uncertain battle "Metellus... opposed four legionary cohorts to the enemy's infantry", pushed through, and won the 508: 293: 189: 2266: 105: 946:

Modern historians have also sometimes credited to Marius the abolition of Roman cavalry and light infantry and their replacement with

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are reported in the sources; "nothing warrants the presumption that the figures are to be arranged in a descending sequence" however.

1054:, who spread the idea of Marian reforms, especially in terms of cohortal legions, state-purchased equipment, and volunteer enlistment 1276:

The belief in the Marian reforms, by the late 20th century, largely rested on the argument that they reflected a manpower shortage.

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Tweedie, Fiona C (2011). "The case of the missing veterans: Roman colonisation and veteran settlement in the second century BC".

772:. The senate had in fact given Marius the right to conscript, but he chose to also enrol some three to five thousand volunteers. 247: 1682:, pp. 62–64 – that reductions in property qualifications, if they happened, were driven not by a quantitative shortage of 585:

did occur, but appear to have happened later than at the end of the 2nd century BC. Rather, these shifts were during the

501: 167: 4215: 4190: 4135: 4006: 3944: 3925: 3898: 3808: 3732: 3641: 3561: 3519: 3407: 3368: 3349: 3171: 3124: 2135: 1641: 1636:. Studies in the history of Greece and Rome. Chapell Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 14, 235 n. 75. 897: 647:. These least-wealthy citizens were grouped into a single century which voted after all the others. Under this scheme, the 590: 2957: 1893:, p. 367. "And the Marian reforms... did not abolish the levy. Conscription continued... to the end of the republic". 4050: 3841:"Review of "L'armée imaginaire: les soldats prolétaires dans les légions romaines au dernier siècle de la République"" 4114: 4074: 3713: 3540: 2623: 1367: 909: 55: 393: 71: 3221:, p. 284. "I... instead look at the Social War, as well as the civil wars, as the periods of pivotal change". 674:

For much of the 20th century, historians held that the property qualification separating the five classes and the

4026: 1391: 582: 149: 2865: 661:, was declared; under such circumstances, the poorest were levied as well. The first documented instance of the 4162: 2262: 263: 224: 175: 23: 2630:

Mouritsen notes also that Marius' citizenship grant during the Cimbric War is the only pre-Social War example.

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Marius gave citizenship to a few cohorts during the Cimbric War. However, this was done ad hoc and only once.

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The view inherited from the 19th century sources was challenged in two articles published in 1949 and 1951 by

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Matthew notes "the theory of equipping at state expense has no confirmatory basis in the ancient record".

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and the elimination of non-eagle standards. Both ancient claims are disproved by archeological evidence.

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L'armée imaginaire: les soldats prolétaires dans les légions romaines au dernier siècle de la République

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Rosenstein, Nathan (2022). "Armies and political culture". In Arena, Valentina; Prag, Jonathan (eds.).

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Historia mutationum rei militaris Romanorum inde ab interitu rei publicae usque ad Constantinum Magnum

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Other than army recruitment, the only two changes attributed to Marius directly are a redesign of the

1006:(49–45 BC), mutineers demanded lands as a pretext for larger cash donatives, and only during the 4200: 1303: 1150: 1018: 619:. Citizens who owned less wealth than that required for bottom of the fifth census class were called 586: 3378:

Gauthier, François. "The transformation of the Roman army in the last decades of the Republic". In

408: 63: 4057:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rolfe, John C. William Heinemann – via LacusCurtius. 962: 958: 840: 1936: 1339: 1172: 954: 550: 275: 124: 3955: 3623: 3606: 3589: 2335: 2272: 4210: 2368:, p. 48, explaining also that three maniples made up a cohort, which was itself 600 men. 1316: 1277: 1003: 374: 110: 4033:. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 9. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. William Heinemann. 2798:, 9.1; the specific emendation is δοῦλον (referring to slaves) for φαῦλον (merely the poor). 1302:

The changes to the Roman army during the 1st century BC are now more attributed to the

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and the army in the texts of the 1st century BC with an assumed attribution to Marius.

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Lintott, Andrew (1994). "Political history, 149–95 BC". In Crook, J A; et al. (eds.).

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in a coin minted by Gaius Fundanius in 101 BC. He triumphed due to his victory in the

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in the manner of our forefathers, but allowing anyone to volunteer, for the most part the

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Rich, J W (1983). "The supposed Roman manpower shortage of the later second century BC".

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Marius was credited with setting the precedent for recruiting the poor by the historian

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There is also no evidence that Marius created or operated any system to give veterans

4141: 4131: 4110: 4080: 4070: 4034: 4002: 3987: 3975: 3940: 3921: 3904: 3894: 3869: 3848: 3827: 3804: 3779: 3767: 3728: 3709: 3708:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3694: 3682: 3637: 3567: 3557: 3536: 3515: 3490: 3481: 3469: 3403: 3364: 3345: 3233:. "The first act that revolutionised the Roman army was Sulla’s march on Rome in 88". 3167: 3120: 2966: 2720:, 86.4, states Marius arrived in Africa with more men than the senate had authorised. 2619: 2575: 2555: 2468: 2355: 2308: 2296: 2131: 1637: 1373: 1363: 1180: 1168: 1014: 901: 467: 333: 322: 1155: 4062: 3967: 3796: 3759: 3672: 3664: 3619: 3602: 3585: 3459: 3451: 2547: 2347: 2288: 1199: 763: 738: 444: 433: 348: 67: 1176: 785:, he assumed command of consular legions recruited via hitherto normal procedure. 4125: 3996: 3703: 3551: 3530: 3161: 2125: 1315:. Client armies emerged not in the 100s BC but rather in the decades before 1145: 1094: 1051: 800: 438: 416: 359: 3971: 3439: 2551: 2292: 1916: 1483:

l'armée romaine dite « post-marienne » est un mirage historiographique

3893:. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 236–47. 1090:(moral parables) of traditions broken rather than conveying historical events. 913: 868: 815: 751: 718: 558: 554: 537: 453: 423: 384: 3763: 3668: 3464: 3455: 2872:

Lange admitted his theory was speculative and noted how it could be falsified.

2870:(in Latin). Vol. 1. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 3–30. 144: 4184: 3979: 3873: 3852: 3840: 3831: 3819: 3800: 3771: 3686: 3571: 3473: 2970: 2559: 2472: 2359: 2300: 1308: 1112: 924: 562: 428: 400: 328: 31: 4145: 4084: 4038: 2693: 2351: 1538:

chute de la République romaine s'apparente, en fait, à une armée imaginaire.

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from allies who, by treaty, were responsible for their contingents' upkeep.

1211: 782: 726: 602: 545: 541: 27: 2618:. BICS Supplement 70. London: Institute of Classical Studies. p. 90. 2459:

Bell, Michael J V (1965). "Tactical reform in the Roman republican army".

1194:, and then into Anglophone scholarship via the highly cited 1928 overview 1255: 1068: 668: 338: 229: 35: 2978: 2567: 1889:, p. 92. "The Romans continued to levy regularly by conscription". 1398:. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association. p. 589. 3881: 3677: 2480: 1362:. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 328. 1167:

Rüstow's views were largely repeated uncritically by authors including

1079: 904:, was said to have forced their soldiers to carry their own equipment. 713:. Marius, according to Pliny, abolished non-eagle legionary standards. 593:, and emerged from circumstance rather than a reformist Marian vision. 533: 369: 134: 90: 3133: 2515: 1866: 1864: 1221:

Later historians also downplayed these reforms. The French historian

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Romans at war: soldiers, citizens, and society in the Roman republic

3180: 1678:, p. 48 n. 64, also mentioning an alterative theory – given in 788:

It was believed that Marius' decision to enlist volunteers from the

2834:, pp. 6 (Plutarch discussing Sulla), 7 (Appian discussing the 1104: 1022: 928: 855: 656: 573: 3908: 3744:"The Battle of Vercellae and the alteration of the heavy javelin ( 1861: 4067:

Memorable deeds and sayings: one thousand tales from ancient Rome

4046: 3956:"Tactical reform in the late Roman republic: the view from Italy" 3440:"Reformy Mariusza, czyli długie trwanie historiograficznego mitu" 2386:: no ancient text specifically attributes this reform to Marius". 1833: 1657: 1377: 947: 653:

were exempt from conscription except when an emergency, called a

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A community in transition: Rome between Hannibal and the Gracchi

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From the Gracchi to Nero: a history of Rome from 133 BC to AD 68

3288: 689: 2496:, pp. 149–50. Evans largely dismisses Appian's narrative ( 1312: 1144:

The idea was spread by the influential 19th-century classicist

1126:. However, other sources are entirely silent: for example, the 1108: 1097:(2nd century AD), also associate Marius with allowing the 912:

drilled his men for almost a year before deploying them in the

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Rome at war: farms, families, and death in the middle republic

923:); Scipio Aemilianus, for example, drilled his men before his 532:

were putative changes to the composition and operation of the

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Kubitschek, Wilhelm (1924). "legio (republickanische Zeit)".

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Steinwender, Theodor (1912). "Zum Polybianischen Feldlager".

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Rome at war: farms, families and death in the middle republic

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Plutarch relates that Marius altered the design of the Roman

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Marius has also been credited with the introduction of the

3891:

A companion to the political culture of the Roman republic

3312: 2215: 2090: 1821: 1783: 1781: 3402:. Mondes anciens (in French). Paris: Les Belles Lettres. 3260: 3094: 3092: 3077: 2881:

No trace, for example, of the Marian reforms is found at

2582: 2145: 2080: 2078: 885: 3248: 3029: 2985: 2413: 2190: 2188: 2102: 1793: 1501: 2841: 2813: 2801: 2173: 1778: 1744: 1742: 1715: 1613: 4069:. Translated by Walker, Henry. Indianapolis: Hackett. 3236: 3196: 3089: 3065: 3021:

Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft

3012:

Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft

2723: 2633: 2075: 2059: 1727: 557:

with uniform equipment; the universal adoption of the

4127:

The making of the Roman army: from republic to empire

3053: 2889:

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology

2645: 2503: 2185: 2019: 2007: 1960: 1849: 1754: 1093:

Other sources, largely far later and dating from the

3041: 2751: 2681: 2401: 2315: 2047: 1948: 1739: 969: 3340:Armstrong, Jeremy; Fronda, Michael P, eds. (2020). 2926:(in German). Vol. 2. Berlin. pp. 194–197. 1766: 1577: 1422: 601:The Roman army traditionally found its manpower by 4130:(Revised ed.). University of Oklahoma Press. 4102: 3937:Recruitment and the programme of Tiberius Gracchus 3492:Financing war in the Roman republic: 201 BCE–14 CE 3426:(DLitt et Phil thesis). University of South Africa 3117:War and imperialism in republican Rome: 327-70 BC 3006:, p. 28, calling attention to two articles: 1589: 1041: 4182: 1985:responded to appeals on constitutional grounds". 1610:, citing, among others, Cassius Hermina fr 21 P. 1268:raised by the traditional levy still dominated. 18:Putative reforms of the Roman military in 107 BC 3795:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 259–78. 3512:The fall of Carthage: the Punic Wars 265–146 BC 3388: 3379: 3339: 3023:(in German). Vol. Suppl. 6. cols. 1420–22. 1945:, p. 369, calling it a "bare subsistence". 3820:"Review of "The army in the Roman revolution"" 3653:"The army and the spread of Roman citizenship" 1271: 1198:by Henry Michael Denne Parker. Only after the 1059:ambition and disregard for ancestral customs: 3786: 3612: 3550:Hornblower, Simon; et al., eds. (2012). 3294: 3282: 2277:really disappear in the late Roman republic?" 2130:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 25. 1607: 861: 820:(eagle) as the universal legionary standard. 509: 4001:. Oxford University Press. pp. 146–64. 3535:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1535: 1481: 1294: 1159: 1010:(43–31 BC) did this pretext fall away. 994:land distributions became more common after 3920:. London and New York: Routledge Classics. 3793:: holding high office in the Roman republic 3506: 2954: 2395: 2381: 1707: 1689: 1683: 1649: 1563: 1325: 1285: 1263: 1239: 1233: 1121: 1098: 1085: 1077: 976: 891: 830: 824: 813: 789: 767: 743: 708: 694: 675: 662: 654: 648: 642: 626: 620: 614: 606: 3888: 3386: 3318: 3306: 3159: 2936:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2891:. London: John Murray – via Perseus. 2333: 1631: 1550: 757: 516: 502: 4160: 3862:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 3676: 3556:(4th ed.). Oxford University Press. 3532:The last generation of the Roman republic 3463: 2613: 2540:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 2461:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 1390: 3915: 3838: 3631: 3488: 3377: 3254: 3218: 3190: 3186: 3014:(in German). Vol. 12. cols. 1201–2. 2847: 2831: 2675: 2663: 2588: 2525: 2521: 2365: 2270: 2257: 2179: 2163: 2151: 2084: 1954: 1906: 1902: 1874: 1648:The figures of 11,000, 4,000, and 1,500 1477: 1465: 1453: 1441: 1357: 1063:enrolled soldiers, not according to the 1045: 702: 688: 22: 3934: 3741: 3701: 3624:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6603 3607:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5361 3595: 3590:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1466 3437: 3143: 3110: 3098: 3083: 3071: 3059: 3035: 3019:Weynand, Rudolf (1935). "Marius (14)". 3003: 2991: 2950: 2921: 2917: 2905: 2901: 2864:Lange, Christian Conrad Ludwig (1846). 2859: 2537: 2509: 2377: 2111: 2041: 2025: 2013: 1886: 1802: 1679: 1583: 1507: 1408: 732: 4183: 4123: 4045: 4024: 3994: 3953: 3817: 3722: 3613:Treves, P; Cornell, T. "tumultus". In 3397: 3358: 3278: 3266: 3242: 3230: 3214: 3202: 3166:. University of North Carolina Press. 3155: 3139: 3114: 3047: 2819: 2807: 2792: 2788: 2773: 2769: 2757: 2741: 2714: 2699: 2687: 2671: 2667: 2651: 2500:1.29–30) as "little less than absurd". 2454: 2435: 2431: 2419: 2407: 2321: 2233: 2221: 2206: 2194: 2096: 2065: 2053: 2037: 1998: 1994: 1910: 1870: 1855: 1843: 1839: 1827: 1787: 1760: 1748: 1675: 1663: 1619: 1571: 1531: 1519: 1495: 1428: 1416: 1412: 1232:, writing in the 1960s, noted how the 848: 553:; the institution of a single form of 4100: 4061: 3650: 3578: 3528: 3416: 3158:, p. 400, citing, among others, 2882: 2863: 2779:, 9.1; Flor. 1.36.13; Gell. 16.10.14. 2729: 2639: 2601: 2493: 2260:, p. 284, citing, among others, 2245: 2124:Matthew, Christopher Anthony (2010). 1978: 1966: 1942: 1930: 1926: 1890: 1815: 1772: 1733: 1721: 1595: 1396:The magistrates of the Roman republic 1205: 684: 4206:2nd century BC in the Roman Republic 4167:A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry 4163:"The Marian reforms weren't a thing" 3859: 3614: 3597: 3580: 3549: 2745: 2744:, p. 85, citing, among others, 2458: 2269:. See also, especially pages 69–71, 1922: 1703: 957:(a unit of 480 men) in place of the 807: 3725:The breakdown of the Roman republic 3420:Gaius Marius: a political biography 3387:Rosenstein, Nathan. "Epilogue". In 2772:, p. 37 nn. 7–9. Cadiou cites 2336:"Space and manpower in Roman camps" 941: 13: 4093: 3705:The last age of the Roman republic 3361:The Pilum: The Roman Heavy Javelin 1293:François Cadiou, in his 2018 book 14: 4227: 4154: 2958:Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 1148:in the 1855 second volume of his 1028: 970:Land and citizenship for veterans 910:Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus 707:Modern reconstruction of a Roman 4196:Military history of ancient Rome 3634:The army in the Roman revolution 3438:Faszcza, Michał Norbert (2021). 3281:, p. 420 nn. 82–83, citing 3272: 3224: 3208: 3149: 3104: 1392:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 485: 45: 3553:The Oxford classical dictionary 3495:(PhD thesis). McGill University 3327: 2997: 2944: 2911: 2895: 2875: 2853: 2825: 2782: 2763: 2735: 2708: 2607: 2594: 2531: 2487: 2448: 2425: 2371: 2327: 2251: 2227: 2200: 2157: 2117: 2031: 1988: 1972: 1880: 1808: 1697: 1669: 1625: 1601: 1556: 1544: 1525: 1513: 998:'s example in the aftermath of 583:Roman army of the late republic 4161:Devereaux, Bret (2023-06-30). 4105:Italian manpower: 225 BC–AD 14 3727:. Cambridge University Press. 3723:Mackay, Christopher S (2009). 3344:. Routledge. pp. 283–96. 1489: 1471: 1459: 1447: 1434: 1402: 1384: 1351: 1202:were these views re-examined. 1042:Ancient and 19th century views 1: 3742:Matthew, Christopher (2010). 3596:Lintott, A. "proletarii". In 3389:Armstrong & Fronda (2020) 3380:Armstrong & Fronda (2020) 2340:Oxford Journal of Archaeology 1632:Rosenstein, Nathan S (2004). 1345: 984: 932: 917: 872: 699:bent on impact after throwing 613:. These citizens were called 596: 380:Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes 4216:Crisis of the Roman Republic 4191:Reform in the Roman Republic 3417:Evans, Richard John (1995). 2883:Smith, William, ed. (1848). 2236:, p. 160, citing, App. 2068:, p. 78, citing Plin., 1358:Crawford, Michael H (1974). 1025:in the 1st century AD. 886:"Marius' mules" and training 294:Frontiers and fortifications 7: 4109:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3972:10.25162/historia-2019-0004 3489:Gauthier, François (2015). 3160:Rosenstein, Nathan (2004). 3119:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2552:10.25162/historia-2011-0019 2293:10.25162/historia-2021-0004 2271:Gauthier, François (2021). 1666:, pp. 42 n. 24, 49–50. 1272:Contemporary historiography 1179:in 1900; the second was by 754:as the legionary standard. 561:; and the abolition of the 106:Decorations and punishments 10: 4232: 4017: 3954:Taylor, Michael J (2019). 3845:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 3824:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 3115:Harris, William V (1979). 2670:, pp. 40, 78 et seq; 2614:Mouritsen, Henrik (1998). 2166:, p. 83, citing Tac. 1480:. "'s conclusion is that ' 898:Quintus Caecilius Metellus 862:Equipment at state expense 4041:– via LacusCurtius. 3764:10.1017/S0066477400002070 3669:10.1017/S0075435819000662 3632:Keaveney, Arthur (2007). 3579:Derow, P S. "census". In 3456:10.17951/rh.2021.51.13-42 3398:Cadiou, François (2018). 3332: 2922:Mommsen, Theodor (1855). 2334:Richardson, Alan (2003). 1688:but rather a shortage of 1608:Treves & Cornell 2012 1161:Geschichte der Infanterie 1017:on discharge. Before the 778:Cambridge Ancient History 3839:Rafferty, David (2021). 3801:10.1017/CBO9780511736124 3657:Journal of Roman Studies 1360:Roman republican coinage 1103:to join in 107 BC: 409:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum 394:Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes 64:Military of ancient Rome 4124:Keppie, L J F (1998) . 4101:Brunt, Peter A (1971). 3935:Shochat, Yanir (1980). 3916:Scullard, H H (2011) . 2352:10.1111/1468-0092.00189 1319:, which broke out in 49 758:Army proletarianisation 492:Ancient Rome portal 3818:Probst, Peter (2008). 3359:Bishop, M. C. (2017). 2382: 2127:On the wings of eagles 1997:, pp. 78, citing 1929:, pp. xvii, 367; 1708: 1690: 1684: 1650: 1564: 1536: 1534:, p. 395. « 1482: 1326: 1295: 1286: 1264: 1234: 1173:Theodore Ayrault Dodge 1160: 1122: 1099: 1086: 1078: 1073: 1055: 977: 892: 871:' plebeian tribunate ( 831: 825: 814: 790: 768: 744: 714: 709: 700: 695: 676: 663: 655: 649: 643: 621: 615: 607: 567:overthrow the republic 540:usually attributed to 39: 3651:Lavan, Myles (2019). 3529:Gruen, Erich (1995). 3113:, p. 33, citing 2920:, p. 21, citing 2862:, p. 17, citing 2791:, p. 90, citing 2457:, p. 82, citing 2434:, p. 89, citing 1411:, p. 21. See eg 1278:William Vernon Harris 1120:Marius recruited the 1061: 1049: 706: 692: 636:those counted by head 375:Neckar-Odenwald Limes 190:Technological history 26: 4051:"Bellum Iugurthinum" 2380:, p. 50 n. 3. " 1830:, pp. 106, 110. 750:and sole use of the 733:Ancient attributions 365:Lower Germanic Limes 264:Strategy and tactics 199:Military engineering 101:Unit types and ranks 4169:. Acoup Collections 3514:. London: Phoenix. 3508:Goldsworthy, Adrian 3391:, pp. 297–307. 2924:The History of Rome 2616:Italian unification 2224:, p. 79 n. 18. 2099:, p. 79 n. 14. 1983:crossed the Rubicon 1258:, in his 1971 book 1151:The History of Rome 849:Modern attributions 723:Jugurtha of Numidia 544:(a general who was 360:Lauter Valley Limes 4025:Plutarch (1920) . 3748:) by Gaius Marius" 3465:20.500.12128/21768 3382:, pp. 283–96. 3309:, pp. 243–44. 3297:, pp. 276–78. 3295:Morstein-Marx 2011 3283:Morstein-Marx 2011 3269:, pp. 419–20. 3142:, pp. 49–50; 2836:Second Triumvirate 2604:, p. 28 n. 6. 2422:, pp. 76, 82. 1913:, pp. 392–93. 1724:, pp. 99–100. 1317:Caesar's civil war 1296:L'armée imaginaire 1206:Post-war critiques 1056: 1004:Caesar's civil war 988: 100 BC 936: 133 BC 921: 145 BC 876: 122 BC 715: 701: 685:Attributed reforms 609:comitia centuriata 461:Limes Tripolitanus 82:Structural history 40: 4137:978-0-8061-3014-9 4008:978-0-19-765524-5 3946:978-2-87031-109-7 3927:978-0-415-58488-3 3900:978-1-4443-3965-9 3810:978-0-511-73612-4 3734:978-0-521-51819-2 3643:978-0-415-39486-4 3563:978-0-19-954556-8 3521:978-0-304-36642-2 3409:978-2-251-44765-0 3370:978-1-4728-1590-3 3351:978-1-138-48019-3 3173:978-0-8078-2839-7 3126:978-0-19-814866-1 3086:, pp. 31–32. 3038:, pp. 28–30. 2994:, pp. 24–27. 2822:, pp. 79–80. 2810:, pp. 37–38. 2732:, pp. 92–93. 2678:, pp. 93–94. 2642:, pp. 28–29. 2591:, pp. 63–64. 2398:, pp. 20–21. 2154:, pp. 82–83. 2137:978-1-4438-1813-1 2114:, pp. 18–19. 1818:, pp. 92–93. 1805:, pp. 91–92. 1790:, pp. 81–83. 1694:willing to serve. 1643:978-0-8078-2839-7 1622:, pp. 52–53. 1510:, pp. 14–15. 1444:, pp. 47–48. 1415:, p. 76 and 1196:The Roman Legions 1181:Johannes Kromayer 1169:Joachim Marquardt 1050:1881 painting of 1015:Roman citizenship 1008:triumviral period 966:not responsible. 902:Scipio Aemilianus 808:Equipment changes 727:Germanic invasion 526: 525: 477: 476: 468:Limes Mauretaniae 323:Limes Britannicus 284: 283: 248:Political history 238: 237: 158: 157: 4223: 4201:Military reforms 4177: 4175: 4174: 4149: 4120: 4108: 4088: 4063:Valerius Maximus 4058: 4042: 4027:"Life of Marius" 4012: 3991: 3950: 3931: 3912: 3885: 3856: 3835: 3814: 3783: 3738: 3719: 3698: 3680: 3647: 3618: 3601: 3584: 3575: 3546: 3525: 3503: 3501: 3500: 3485: 3467: 3434: 3432: 3431: 3425: 3413: 3392: 3383: 3374: 3355: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3252: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3153: 3147: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3087: 3081: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3057: 3051: 3045: 3039: 3033: 3027: 3024: 3015: 3001: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2982: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2935: 2927: 2915: 2909: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2879: 2873: 2871: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2829: 2823: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2786: 2780: 2767: 2761: 2755: 2749: 2739: 2733: 2727: 2721: 2712: 2706: 2697: 2691: 2685: 2679: 2661: 2655: 2649: 2643: 2637: 2631: 2629: 2611: 2605: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2580: 2579: 2535: 2529: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2501: 2491: 2485: 2484: 2452: 2446: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2396:Goldsworthy 2006 2393: 2387: 2385: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2313: 2312: 2255: 2249: 2231: 2225: 2219: 2213: 2204: 2198: 2192: 2183: 2177: 2171: 2161: 2155: 2149: 2143: 2141: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2073: 2063: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2035: 2029: 2023: 2017: 2011: 2005: 1992: 1986: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1934: 1920: 1914: 1900: 1894: 1884: 1878: 1868: 1859: 1853: 1847: 1837: 1831: 1825: 1819: 1812: 1806: 1800: 1791: 1785: 1776: 1770: 1764: 1758: 1752: 1746: 1737: 1731: 1725: 1719: 1713: 1711: 1701: 1695: 1693: 1687: 1673: 1667: 1661: 1655: 1653: 1647: 1629: 1623: 1617: 1611: 1605: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1581: 1575: 1569: 1560: 1554: 1548: 1542: 1540: 1529: 1523: 1517: 1511: 1505: 1499: 1493: 1487: 1485: 1475: 1469: 1463: 1457: 1451: 1445: 1438: 1432: 1426: 1420: 1406: 1400: 1399: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1355: 1329: 1322: 1298: 1289: 1267: 1260:Italian Manpower 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1231: 1200:Second World War 1191:Realencyclopädie 1163: 1125: 1102: 1089: 1083: 989: 986: 982: 942:Unit composition 937: 934: 922: 919: 895: 877: 874: 834: 828: 819: 793: 771: 749: 739:Valerius Maximus 712: 698: 679: 666: 660: 652: 646: 640: 637: 634: 631: 628: 624: 618: 612: 536:during the late 518: 511: 504: 490: 489: 488: 349:Limes Germanicus 299: 298: 276:Infantry tactics 269: 268: 225:Triumphal arches 195: 194: 176:Wars and battles 168:Campaign history 87: 86: 49: 48: 42: 41: 30:, depicted as a 4231: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4224: 4222: 4221: 4220: 4181: 4180: 4172: 4170: 4157: 4152: 4138: 4117: 4096: 4094:Further reading 4091: 4077: 4020: 4015: 4009: 3947: 3928: 3901: 3811: 3735: 3716: 3644: 3564: 3543: 3522: 3498: 3496: 3429: 3427: 3423: 3410: 3371: 3352: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3319:Rosenstein 2022 3317: 3313: 3307:Rosenstein 2022 3305: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3277: 3273: 3265: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3217:, p. 162; 3213: 3209: 3201: 3197: 3189:, p. 283; 3185: 3181: 3174: 3154: 3150: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3090: 3082: 3078: 3070: 3066: 3058: 3054: 3046: 3042: 3034: 3030: 3018: 3009: 3002: 2998: 2990: 2986: 2949: 2945: 2929: 2928: 2916: 2912: 2900: 2896: 2880: 2876: 2858: 2854: 2850:, pp. 6–7. 2846: 2842: 2830: 2826: 2818: 2814: 2806: 2802: 2787: 2783: 2768: 2764: 2756: 2752: 2740: 2736: 2728: 2724: 2713: 2709: 2698: 2694: 2686: 2682: 2662: 2658: 2650: 2646: 2638: 2634: 2626: 2612: 2608: 2599: 2595: 2587: 2583: 2536: 2532: 2524:, p. 101; 2520: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2492: 2488: 2453: 2449: 2430: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2394: 2390: 2376: 2372: 2332: 2328: 2320: 2316: 2256: 2252: 2232: 2228: 2220: 2216: 2205: 2201: 2193: 2186: 2178: 2174: 2162: 2158: 2150: 2146: 2138: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2110: 2103: 2095: 2091: 2083: 2076: 2064: 2060: 2052: 2048: 2036: 2032: 2024: 2020: 2012: 2008: 1993: 1989: 1977: 1973: 1969:, p. xvii. 1965: 1961: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1937: 1925:, p. 329; 1921: 1917: 1901: 1897: 1885: 1881: 1869: 1862: 1854: 1850: 1842:, p. 160; 1838: 1834: 1826: 1822: 1813: 1809: 1801: 1794: 1786: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1759: 1755: 1747: 1740: 1732: 1728: 1720: 1716: 1702: 1698: 1674: 1670: 1662: 1658: 1644: 1630: 1626: 1618: 1614: 1606: 1602: 1594: 1590: 1582: 1578: 1561: 1557: 1551:Rosenstein 2020 1549: 1545: 1530: 1526: 1518: 1514: 1506: 1502: 1494: 1490: 1476: 1472: 1464: 1460: 1452: 1448: 1439: 1435: 1427: 1423: 1407: 1403: 1389: 1385: 1370: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1320: 1274: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1225: 1223:Jacques Harmand 1208: 1188:works like the 1146:Theodor Mommsen 1095:Antonine period 1052:Theodor Mommsen 1044: 1031: 987: 972: 944: 935: 920: 888: 875: 864: 851: 841:Natural History 810: 760: 735: 687: 638: 635: 632: 629: 599: 563:citizen cavalry 522: 486: 484: 479: 478: 473: 445:Limes Sarmatiae 439:Anastasian Wall 417:Pannonian Limes 296: 286: 285: 280: 266: 256: 255: 254: 250: 240: 239: 234: 220: 192: 182: 181: 180: 170: 160: 159: 154: 129: 115: 84: 74: 46: 19: 12: 11: 5: 4229: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4179: 4178: 4156: 4155:External links 4153: 4151: 4150: 4136: 4121: 4115: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4089: 4075: 4059: 4043: 4031:Parallel Lives 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4013: 4007: 3992: 3951: 3945: 3932: 3926: 3913: 3899: 3886: 3868:(3): 287–331. 3857: 3836: 3815: 3809: 3784: 3739: 3733: 3720: 3714: 3699: 3648: 3642: 3629: 3628: 3627: 3610: 3593: 3562: 3547: 3541: 3526: 3520: 3504: 3486: 3435: 3414: 3408: 3395: 3394: 3393: 3384: 3369: 3363:. Bloomsbury. 3356: 3350: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3323: 3321:, p. 245. 3311: 3299: 3287: 3271: 3259: 3257:, p. 286. 3247: 3245:, p. 162. 3235: 3223: 3207: 3205:, p. 117. 3195: 3179: 3172: 3148: 3132: 3125: 3103: 3088: 3076: 3064: 3052: 3040: 3028: 3026: 3025: 3016: 2996: 2984: 2943: 2910: 2894: 2874: 2852: 2840: 2824: 2812: 2800: 2781: 2762: 2750: 2748:, p. 325. 2734: 2722: 2707: 2692: 2680: 2656: 2654:, p. 161. 2644: 2632: 2624: 2606: 2593: 2581: 2546:(4): 458–473. 2530: 2514: 2502: 2486: 2467:(4): 404–422. 2447: 2424: 2412: 2400: 2388: 2370: 2346:(3): 303–313. 2326: 2314: 2250: 2226: 2214: 2199: 2197:, p. 160. 2184: 2182:, p. 102. 2172: 2156: 2144: 2136: 2116: 2101: 2089: 2074: 2058: 2046: 2040:, p. 78; 2030: 2018: 2006: 1987: 1971: 1959: 1947: 1935: 1915: 1895: 1879: 1873:, p. 97; 1860: 1858:, p. 399. 1848: 1832: 1820: 1807: 1792: 1777: 1765: 1763:, p. 107. 1753: 1738: 1726: 1714: 1696: 1668: 1656: 1642: 1624: 1612: 1600: 1588: 1576: 1555: 1543: 1524: 1512: 1500: 1488: 1470: 1458: 1446: 1433: 1421: 1419:, p. 395. 1401: 1383: 1368: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1273: 1270: 1207: 1204: 1156:Wilhelm Rüstow 1043: 1040: 1030: 1029:Historiography 1027: 971: 968: 943: 940: 914:Lusitanian War 887: 884: 869:Gaius Gracchus 863: 860: 850: 847: 809: 806: 759: 756: 734: 731: 719:Jugurthine War 693:The head of a 686: 683: 598: 595: 589:and following 559:eagle standard 555:heavy infantry 538:Roman republic 530:Marian reforms 524: 523: 521: 520: 513: 506: 498: 495: 494: 481: 480: 475: 474: 472: 471: 464: 457: 454:Limes Arabicus 449: 448: 441: 436: 431: 426: 424:Limes Alutanus 420: 419: 413: 412: 404: 403: 397: 396: 390: 389: 388: 387: 385:Wetterau Limes 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 344: 343: 342: 341: 336: 334:Hadrian's Wall 331: 318: 317: 316: 315: 302: 297: 292: 291: 288: 287: 282: 281: 279: 278: 272: 267: 262: 261: 258: 257: 252: 251: 246: 245: 242: 241: 236: 235: 233: 232: 227: 221: 219: 218: 213: 205: 202: 201: 193: 188: 187: 184: 183: 179: 178: 172: 171: 166: 165: 162: 161: 156: 155: 153: 152: 147: 141: 138: 137: 131: 130: 128: 127: 122: 116: 114: 113: 108: 103: 97: 94: 93: 85: 80: 79: 76: 75: 66: 60: 59: 51: 50: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4228: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4186: 4168: 4164: 4159: 4158: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4128: 4122: 4118: 4116:0-19-814283-8 4112: 4107: 4106: 4099: 4098: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4076:0-87220-675-0 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4022: 4010: 4004: 4000: 3999: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3929: 3923: 3919: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3747: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3715:0-521-25603-8 3711: 3707: 3706: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3639: 3636:. Routledge. 3635: 3630: 3625: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3576: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3559: 3555: 3554: 3548: 3544: 3542:0-520-02238-6 3538: 3534: 3533: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3494: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3446:(in Polish). 3445: 3444:Res Historica 3441: 3436: 3422: 3421: 3415: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3375: 3372: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3353: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3337: 3320: 3315: 3308: 3303: 3296: 3291: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3268: 3263: 3256: 3255:Gauthier 2020 3251: 3244: 3239: 3232: 3227: 3220: 3219:Gauthier 2020 3216: 3211: 3204: 3199: 3192: 3191:Rafferty 2021 3188: 3187:Gauthier 2020 3183: 3175: 3169: 3165: 3164: 3157: 3152: 3146:, p. 34. 3145: 3141: 3136: 3128: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3107: 3101:, p. 32. 3100: 3095: 3093: 3085: 3080: 3074:, p. 31. 3073: 3068: 3062:, p. 30. 3061: 3056: 3050:, p. 43. 3049: 3044: 3037: 3032: 3022: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3007: 3005: 3000: 2993: 2988: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2961:(in German). 2960: 2959: 2952: 2947: 2939: 2933: 2925: 2919: 2914: 2908:, p. 22. 2907: 2903: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2878: 2869: 2868: 2861: 2856: 2849: 2848:Keaveney 2007 2844: 2837: 2833: 2832:Keaveney 2007 2828: 2821: 2816: 2809: 2804: 2797: 2796: 2790: 2785: 2778: 2777: 2771: 2766: 2760:, p. 88. 2759: 2754: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2731: 2726: 2719: 2718: 2711: 2704: 2703: 2696: 2690:, p. 79. 2689: 2684: 2677: 2676:Keaveney 2007 2673: 2669: 2665: 2664:Rafferty 2021 2660: 2653: 2648: 2641: 2636: 2627: 2625:0-9005-8781-4 2621: 2617: 2610: 2603: 2597: 2590: 2589:Keaveney 2007 2585: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2528:, p. 62. 2527: 2526:Keaveney 2007 2523: 2522:Gauthier 2015 2518: 2512:, p. 92. 2511: 2506: 2499: 2495: 2490: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2456: 2451: 2444: 2440: 2439: 2433: 2428: 2421: 2416: 2410:, p. 81. 2409: 2404: 2397: 2392: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2367: 2366:Scullard 2011 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2330: 2324:, p. 86. 2323: 2318: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2276: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2259: 2258:Gauthier 2020 2254: 2247: 2243: 2240:, 65; Front. 2239: 2235: 2230: 2223: 2218: 2211: 2210: 2203: 2196: 2191: 2189: 2181: 2180:Gauthier 2015 2176: 2169: 2165: 2164:Gauthier 2015 2160: 2153: 2152:Gauthier 2015 2148: 2139: 2133: 2129: 2128: 2120: 2113: 2108: 2106: 2098: 2093: 2087:, p. 48. 2086: 2085:Scullard 2011 2081: 2079: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2056:, p. 42. 2055: 2050: 2043: 2039: 2034: 2028:, p. 57. 2027: 2022: 2016:, p. 54. 2015: 2010: 2003: 2002: 1996: 1991: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1968: 1963: 1956: 1955:Rafferty 2021 1951: 1944: 1939: 1933:, p. 91. 1932: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1912: 1908: 1907:Gauthier 2020 1904: 1903:Rafferty 2021 1899: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1877:, p. 47. 1876: 1875:Scullard 2011 1872: 1867: 1865: 1857: 1852: 1846:, p. 79. 1845: 1841: 1836: 1829: 1824: 1817: 1811: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1789: 1784: 1782: 1775:, p. 92. 1774: 1769: 1762: 1757: 1751:, p. 78. 1750: 1745: 1743: 1735: 1730: 1723: 1718: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1692: 1686: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1665: 1660: 1652: 1645: 1639: 1635: 1628: 1621: 1616: 1609: 1604: 1597: 1592: 1585: 1580: 1574:, p. 78. 1573: 1568: 1567: 1559: 1552: 1547: 1539: 1533: 1528: 1521: 1516: 1509: 1504: 1497: 1492: 1484: 1479: 1478:Rafferty 2021 1474: 1467: 1466:Keaveney 2007 1462: 1455: 1454:Gauthier 2020 1450: 1443: 1442:Scullard 2011 1437: 1431:, p. 18. 1430: 1425: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1397: 1393: 1387: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1369:0-521-07492-4 1365: 1361: 1354: 1350: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1331: 1328: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1297: 1291: 1288: 1283: 1279: 1269: 1266: 1261: 1257: 1236: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1215: 1213: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1192: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1177:Hans Delbrück 1174: 1170: 1165: 1162: 1158:'s 1857 book 1157: 1153: 1152: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1118: 1115:. Plutarch's 1114: 1113:Aulus Gellius 1110: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1088: 1082: 1081: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1053: 1048: 1039: 1035: 1026: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 1000:his civil war 997: 991: 981: 980: 967: 964: 960: 956: 951: 949: 939: 930: 926: 915: 911: 905: 903: 900:, as well as 899: 894: 883: 879: 870: 859: 857: 846: 843: 842: 836: 833: 827: 821: 818: 817: 805: 802: 796: 792: 786: 784: 779: 773: 770: 765: 755: 753: 748: 747: 740: 730: 728: 724: 720: 711: 705: 697: 691: 682: 678: 672: 670: 665: 659: 658: 651: 645: 623: 617: 611: 610: 604: 594: 592: 588: 584: 578: 575: 570: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 519: 514: 512: 507: 505: 500: 499: 497: 496: 493: 483: 482: 470: 469: 465: 463: 462: 458: 456: 455: 451: 450: 447: 446: 442: 440: 437: 435: 434:Trajan's Wall 432: 430: 429:Limes Moesiae 427: 425: 422: 421: 418: 415: 414: 411: 410: 406: 405: 402: 401:Norican Limes 399: 398: 395: 392: 391: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 352: 351: 350: 346: 345: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 329:Antonine Wall 327: 326: 325: 324: 320: 319: 314: 311: 310: 309: 308: 304: 303: 301: 300: 295: 290: 289: 277: 274: 273: 271: 270: 265: 260: 259: 249: 244: 243: 231: 228: 226: 223: 222: 217: 216:Siege engines 214: 212: 211: 207: 206: 204: 203: 200: 197: 196: 191: 186: 185: 177: 174: 173: 169: 164: 163: 151: 148: 146: 143: 142: 140: 139: 136: 133: 132: 126: 123: 121: 118: 117: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 98: 96: 95: 92: 89: 88: 83: 78: 77: 73: 69: 65: 62: 61: 57: 53: 52: 44: 43: 37: 33: 29: 25: 21: 16: 4211:Gaius Marius 4171:. 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Retrieved 3419: 3399: 3360: 3341: 3328:Bibliography 3314: 3302: 3290: 3274: 3262: 3250: 3238: 3226: 3210: 3198: 3182: 3162: 3151: 3144:Faszcza 2021 3135: 3116: 3111:Faszcza 2021 3106: 3099:Faszcza 2021 3084:Faszcza 2021 3079: 3072:Faszcza 2021 3067: 3060:Faszcza 2021 3055: 3043: 3036:Faszcza 2021 3031: 3020: 3011: 3004:Faszcza 2021 2999: 2992:Faszcza 2021 2987: 2962: 2956: 2951:Faszcza 2021 2946: 2923: 2918:Faszcza 2021 2913: 2906:Faszcza 2021 2902:Faszcza 2021 2897: 2888: 2877: 2866: 2860:Faszcza 2021 2855: 2843: 2827: 2815: 2803: 2794: 2784: 2775: 2765: 2753: 2737: 2725: 2716: 2710: 2701: 2695: 2683: 2659: 2647: 2635: 2615: 2609: 2596: 2584: 2543: 2539: 2533: 2517: 2510:Lintott 1994 2505: 2497: 2489: 2464: 2460: 2450: 2437: 2427: 2415: 2403: 2391: 2378:Matthew 2010 2373: 2343: 2339: 2329: 2317: 2287:(1): 69–82. 2284: 2280: 2274: 2261: 2253: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2217: 2208: 2202: 2175: 2167: 2159: 2147: 2126: 2119: 2112:Faszcza 2021 2092: 2069: 2061: 2049: 2042:Matthew 2010 2033: 2026:Matthew 2010 2021: 2014:Matthew 2010 2009: 2000: 1990: 1974: 1962: 1950: 1938: 1918: 1898: 1887:Lintott 1994 1882: 1851: 1835: 1823: 1810: 1803:Lintott 1994 1768: 1756: 1729: 1717: 1699: 1680:Shochat 1980 1671: 1659: 1633: 1627: 1615: 1603: 1591: 1584:Lintott 2012 1579: 1558: 1546: 1527: 1515: 1508:Faszcza 2021 1503: 1491: 1473: 1461: 1449: 1436: 1424: 1409:Faszcza 2021 1404: 1395: 1386: 1359: 1353: 1332: 1301: 1292: 1281: 1275: 1259: 1220: 1216: 1212:Emilio Gabba 1209: 1195: 1190: 1166: 1149: 1143: 1139:Ludwig Lange 1136: 1123:capite censi 1116: 1100:capite censi 1092: 1074: 1062: 1057: 1036: 1032: 1012: 992: 973: 963:Spanish wars 952: 945: 906: 893:muli Mariani 889: 880: 865: 852: 839: 837: 822: 811: 797: 791:capite censi 787: 777: 774: 769:capite censi 761: 736: 716: 677:capite censi 673: 622:capite censi 603:conscription 600: 579: 571: 542:Gaius Marius 529: 527: 466: 459: 452: 443: 407: 347: 321: 305: 208: 28:Gaius Marius 20: 15: 3939:. Latomus. 3791:res publica 3678:10023/18193 3279:Cadiou 2018 3267:Cadiou 2018 3243:Taylor 2023 3231:Probst 2008 3215:Taylor 2023 3203:Cadiou 2018 3156:Cadiou 2018 3140:Cadiou 2018 3048:Cadiou 2018 2820:Cadiou 2018 2808:Cadiou 2018 2789:Cadiou 2018 2770:Cadiou 2018 2758:Cadiou 2018 2742:Cadiou 2018 2688:Taylor 2019 2672:Probst 2008 2668:Cadiou 2018 2652:Taylor 2023 2455:Taylor 2019 2432:Taylor 2019 2420:Taylor 2019 2408:Taylor 2019 2322:Taylor 2019 2234:Taylor 2023 2222:Taylor 2019 2195:Taylor 2023 2097:Taylor 2019 2066:Taylor 2019 2054:Bishop 2017 2038:Taylor 2019 1995:Taylor 2019 1911:Cadiou 2018 1871:Mackay 2009 1856:Cadiou 2018 1844:Taylor 2019 1840:Taylor 2023 1828:Cadiou 2018 1788:Cadiou 2018 1761:Cadiou 2018 1749:Taylor 2019 1676:Cadiou 2018 1664:Cadiou 2018 1620:Cadiou 2018 1572:Taylor 2019 1532:Cadiou 2018 1520:Taylor 2019 1496:Probst 2008 1429:Cadiou 2018 1417:Cadiou 2018 1413:Taylor 2019 1256:Peter Brunt 1226: [ 1185:Georg Veith 1128:abridgement 1069:proletariat 979:lex agraria 908:Punic War. 783:Cimbric War 669:Pyrrhic War 339:Saxon Shore 36:Cimbric War 32:triumphator 4185:Categories 4173:2023-06-30 3909:2021024437 3752:Antichthon 3615:OCD (2012) 3598:OCD (2012) 3581:OCD (2012) 3499:2023-07-01 3430:2019-06-08 2730:Evans 1995 2640:Lavan 2019 2602:Lavan 2019 2494:Evans 1995 1979:Gruen 1995 1967:Gruen 1995 1943:Gruen 1995 1931:Evans 1995 1927:Gruen 1995 1891:Gruen 1995 1816:Evans 1995 1773:Evans 1995 1722:Evans 1995 1596:Derow 2012 1346:References 1304:Social War 1287:proletarii 1080:novus homo 1019:Social War 764:plebiscite 664:proletarii 650:proletarii 644:proletarii 597:Background 591:civil wars 587:Social War 534:Roman army 370:Main Limes 4049:(1921) . 3988:165437350 3980:0018-2311 3874:0018-2311 3853:1055-7660 3832:1055-7660 3780:145449944 3772:0066-4774 3758:: 50–67. 3695:199951632 3687:0075-4358 3663:: 27–69. 3572:959667246 3510:(2006) . 3482:237739140 3474:2082-6060 3450:: 13–42. 2971:0035-449X 2965:: 48–66. 2932:cite book 2746:Rich 1983 2705:, 86.2–3. 2576:252451787 2560:0018-2311 2473:0018-2311 2360:0262-5253 2309:230543924 2301:0018-2311 2246:Val. Max. 2244:, 4.1.1; 1923:Rich 1983 1734:Val. 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