Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world

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to present to your Excellency its opinion in regard to certain matters . . . which are prejudicial to the national movement. In the first place, the Communist Party regrets, nay abhors, the acts of provocation hatched against our Jewish brethren by the retainers of British imperialism on the one side, and the propagandists of German imperialism on the other. The violation of liberties, the intrusion into homes, the plundering of possessions, the beating and even murder of people are, your Excellency, acts which not only contravene law and justice but run counter to this nation's natural disposition for generosity, gallantry, and highmindedness. . . . Such criminal acts injure the reputation of the national movement and lead to a fissure in the ranks of the united national front and hence to failure and who could benefit from this but the imperialists? While thus expressing our disapproval, we do not in the least deny the existence of traiors who belong to the Jewish sect and who have made common cause with the wicked band of 'Abd-ul-Ilāh and Nurī as-Sa'īd and their henchmen but we feel that punishment should be meted out to them according to the provisions of the law. Secondly, we are of the opinion that in regard to propaganda, the directorate concerned should orient the Iraqi people along proper nationalist lines but we have observed not without distress . . . that it has deviated into paths which could only bring harm to the people. . . . Lately we have heard only drummings about the "j"st cause" of the Axis powers . . . and you, no doubt, agree with us, your Excellency, that the powers in question are no less imperialist than Britain. Thirdly, there is the matter of foreign assistance. . . . To depend on the help of any imperialist state is tantamount to a betrayal of the movement and a lapse into another imperialism and this is surely what your Excellency does not desire. . . . We are dwelling on this point in view of the widely spread report, attributed to a responsible source, that foreign troops will arrive in the capital allegedly in order to defend the independence of Iraq side by side with the brave Iraqi army. If, contrary to what we hope, this is true, then our national movement has been sullied and become part of the Second Imperialist War, a war from which we warned the country to hold aloof. . . . Moreover, we asserted in the past and we now assert once again that the only state on which we could depend without the slightest risk to our national sovereignty is the Soviet Union.

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the camp's Jews, who had previously been mixed in with the Europeans, and separated them from the French, or rather, from the Europeans. This wretched Deriko was responsible for yet more provocations. The Europeans to one side, the Arabs to one side, same for the Jews. The latter again share the first section. The same courtyard serves both Muslims and Jews. There was no doubt: Deriko did this with the intention of seeing Jews slaughtered by Muslims, since there were not many Jews. But, the Jews understood his scheme. So did the Arabs. Commander Deriko wanted Arabs and Jews to stab one another, but the opposite occurred. A friendly understanding spread between the two communities. Never would you have believed that the Arabs and the Jews in the camp's first section would become real friends, even brothers. Indeed, whether they wanted it or not, they were brothers in hunger, suffering, misery, sorrow, etc. in Deriko's camp. ... Since the trap set for the Jews and Arabs did not result in anything, one fine day commander Louis divided the courtyard between Jews and Arabs with a piece of chalk—a demarcation of the border—and informed everyone that each person had to stay within his bounds. I would like to conclude simply by paying homage not only to the Muslim militants, and in particular to the organizers, but also to the Jews who knew how to thwart all of Deriko's and his deputy's petty attempts to provoke incidents among Arabs and Jews.

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destroy their property. Egypt can never forget that it is the Jews who are carrying out Britain's imperialist policy in the Arab countries and that they are the source of all the disasters, which have befallen the countries of the East. The Jews aim at extending their domination throughout the Arab countries, but their future depends on a British victory. That is why they are trying to save Britain from her fate and why Britain is arming them to kill the Arabs and save the British Empire. You must kill the Jews, before they open fire on you. Kill the Jews, who have appropriated your wealth and who are plotting against your security. Arabs of Syria, Iraq and Palestine, what are you waiting for? The Jews are planning to violate your women, to kill your children and to destroy you. According to the Moslem religion, the defense of your life is a duty which can only be fulfilled by annihilating the Jews. This is your best opportunity to get rid of this dirty race, which has usurped your rights and brought misfortune and destruction on your countries. Kill the Jews, burn their property, destroy their stores, annihilate these base supporters of British imperialism.Your sole hope of salvation lies in annihilating the Jews before they annihilate you.

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German, at least for the time being. Slovakia also became an independent state under German protection. Meanwhile, Hungary took over the Ruthenian Ukraine region. I must admit that I had some special sympathy for Germany, because I viewed them as a distinguished people, and in the past I thought that their humiliation (after World War I) was a kind of crime and betrayal. But now, after they have become strong and powerful, they have begun to attack peaceful nations. Even if Hitler succeeds in his path and his policy, still, every person of conscience must feel discomfort from, and even disapproval of Hitler's deeds, and the matter will even cause serious damage to Germany, because all of Europe will become tense and stand on its guard, and in the end will come out against the German people, which does not really seek such a confrontation. I am also afraid that Hitler's course will force the democratic governments to try to appease the eastern states, and of course, these developments will have repercussions in the Arab states, and especially in Syria.

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illustrates the topicality of Nazism as an intellectual point of reference. In this context, two facets of early Ba'thist ideology are important. While the elaboration of Ba'thism was still in its initial beginnings, already in the writings of the early 1940s two central ideas are discernible: the idea of an 'eternal message' (al-risala al-khalida) attributed to the Arab nation and the construction of communism as the ultimate negation of national thought. Both facets are related to each other, as well as to the very concept of nationalism that was further developed in post-war Ba'thist reflections. .... Despite a lack of explicit references to National Socialist sources, these writings resonated with tropes that were attributed to National Socialist thought. Considering the assumption of a particular and eternal message, in the early sources of Ba'thism, traces of essentialist imaginations of a superior Arab nation can already be identified. Even more so, the Ba'thist perception of communism as an antinational

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contempt for philosophers, politicians, and thinkers. He thinks he has come into existence to lead Germany, and with it the world, toward a new phase of their destiny... I give thanks to God that I did not wait until the declaration of war to hate Hitler and his regime. In fact, I have hated them both since they made their appearance; I have resisted them with all my strength. I have always envisioned Hitler as a man whose conscience drips with blood, who considers nothing respectable or sacred, an enemy of the spirit, of humanity, of all the ideals of civilization. And now his acts and words confirm in everyone's eyes what I had understood from the beginning of his fateful rise. It is therefore a duty more than a right for anyone who believes in spiritual, moral, and religious values, and in liberty, to stand up as the adversary of that man and that regime, and to mobilize every resource against both so that humanity may one day recover its civilization intact and its conscience in integrity.

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on the political plane, it presented itself in the main as a conflict between Germany and England, but ideologically it was a battle between National Socialism and the Jews. It went without saying that Germany would furnish positive and practical aid to the Arabs involved in the same struggle, because platonic promises were useless in a war for survival or destruction in which the Jews were able to mobilize all of England's power for their ends....the Fuhrer would on his own give the Arab world the assurance that its hour of liberation had arrived. Germany's objective would then be solely the destruction of the Jewish element residing in the Arab sphere under the protection of British power. In that hour the Mufti would be the most authoritative spokesman for the Arab world. It would then be his task to set off the Arab operations, which he had secretly prepared. When that time had come, Germany could also be indifferent to French reaction to such a declaration.

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islamique en passant par le marxisme et le nationalisme. Sur ces quatre courants, deux rejetaient clairement le nazisme : l'occidentalisme libéral et le marxisme, en partie pour des raisons communes (l'héritage des lumières, la dénonciation du nazisme comme racisme), et en partie à cause de leurs affiliations géopolitiques. Le nationalisme arabe est contradictoire sur cette question. Mais si on regarde de près, le nombre de groupes nationalistes qui se sont identifiés à la propagande nazie est finalement très réduit. Il y a un seul clone du nazisme dans le monde arabe, c'est le Parti social nationaliste syrien, fondé par un chrétien libanais, Antoun Saadé. Le mouvement égyptien Jeune Egypte a flirté un temps avec le nazisme, mais c'était un parti girouette. Quant aux accusations selon lesquelles le parti Baas était d'inspiration nazie à sa naissance dans les années 40, elles sont complètement fausses.

1944: 3012: 1057: 250: 7224: 1430:

El-Okbi, a spiritual leader of Algerian Muslims, sent a letter to Dr. Mohammed Loufrani, a proponent of Jewish-Muslim understanding, denying that Jews and Muslims were antagonistic in Algeria. Far from rejoicing in the abrogation of the Crémieux decree, they wrote, Algerian Muslims "saw the dubious worth of a citizenship that the granting authority can take away after seventy years' enjoyment." In the April 1943 session of the Oran Conseil général, the regional governing body, all the Muslim members signed a declaration affirming their "sincere friendly understanding with Frenchmen of the Israelite religion" and their support for restoring the Crémieux decree. The European settlers in Algeria, by contrast, tried to retain anti-Jewish legislation even after the Allied armies arrived in November 1942.

2701: 2394: 2062:". Iraqi Jews were massacred in the street and in their houses, while the British army refused to enter until the next day. The estimates of Jewish victims vary from less than 110 to over 600 killed, and from 240 to 2,000 wounded. The historian Edwin Black concludes that the exact numbers will never be known, pointing out the improbability of the initial estimate in the official reports of 110 fatalities that included both Arabs and Jews (including 28 women), as opposed to the claims of Jewish sources that as many as 600 Jews were killed. Similarly, the estimates of Jewish homes destroyed range from 99 to over 900 houses. Though these figures are debated in the secondary literature, it is generally agreed that over 580 Jewish businesses were looted. The Iraqi-Arab 7233:, p. 65 "The one area where al-Muqattam was utterly condemnatory of Nazi policy was in regard to the racism and antisemitism manifested by the new German regime. For al- Muqattam, Nazi theories about race and the effort to apply them in practice constituted a basic flaw in the Nazi project and placed an ugly stain upon Nazi Germany. As early as 1934-35, al-Muqattam was criticizing the new Nazi regime for its policies toward religious communities that legitimized the marginalization and persecution of Jews, stating that the Nazi premise that the inferior Jewish race was corrupting the superior German race was both intellectually baseless and politically intolerable ... Hence it was vital to oppose the racist ideology and antisemitic policies of the Nazi regime.". 2209:

plundering of possessions, the beating and even murder of people are, your Excellency, acts which not only contravene law and justice but run counter to this nation's natural disposition for generosity, gallantry, and highmindedness. . . . Such criminal acts injure the reputation of the national movement and lead to a fissure in the ranks of the united national front and hence to failure and who could benefit from this but the imperialists? While thus expressing our disapproval, we do not in the least deny the existence of traiors who belong to the Jewish sect and who have made common cause with the wicked band of 'Abd-ul-Ilāh and Nurī as-Sa'īd and their henchmen but we feel that punishment should be meted out to them according to the provisions of the law.

3556:: "If war breaks out now, after all the efforts and sacrifices which England and France have made and which Czechoslovakia has accepted, the meaning of all that is that Hitler is a madman who wishes to destroy the world in order to satisfy his arrogance and his desires." The expansionist policy of the Axis powers was criticized as a 'hysteria of conquest and aggression'. The historian James Jankowski wrote: "All of this should not be taken to mean that Young Egypt was totally negative towards the fascist states; as we shall see in the next chapter, fascist ideas had a considerable impact on the movement, particularly in the later 1930's. But it does show that Young Egypt was not acting as an apologist for the Axis powers in the tense year before the war." 976: 234:, Mussolini caused to be conferred on himself by a few wretched brutes whom he had either bribed or terrorized into doing so. We had a great chance of pursuing a splendid policy with regard to Islam. But we missed the bus, as we missed it on several other occasions, thanks to our loyalty to the Italian alliance! In this theatre of operations, then, the Italians prevented us from playing our best card, the emancipation of the French subjects and the raising of the standard of revolt in the countries oppressed by the British. Such a policy would have aroused the enthusiasm of the whole of Islam. It is a characteristic of the Moslem world, from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the Pacific, that what affects one, for good or for evil, affects all. 8043:, p. 66"It is, therefore, significant that a number of the Free Officers who were to be responsible for the overthrow of the king in 1952 obtained their political 'initiation' within the army through Ali Mahir's secret Officers' Organisation. The most obvious examples are Yusuf Mansur Sadiq, Abd al-Wahhab Salim al-Bishri and Muhammad Rashad Mahanna. In addition, Muhammad Nagib and his brother Ali were members of the organisation. Indeed, it has been suggested that virtually all of the most prominent Free Officers were members of what became known later as King Faruq's 'Iron Guard'. This claim should be treated with caution. Nevertheless, one of its aspects receives unwitting corroboration by one of the Free Officers, Anwar al-Sadat." 500: 222:] and the whole of the Near East were all ready to rise in revolt. Just think what we could have done to help them, even to incite them, as would have been both our duty and in our own interest! But the presence of the Italians at our side paralysed us; it created a feeling of malaise among our Islamic friends, who inevitably saw in us accomplices, willing or unwilling, of their oppressors. For the Italians in these parts of the world are more bitterly hated, of course, than either the British or the French. The memories of the barbarous, reprisals taken against the Senussi are still vivid. Then again the ridiculous pretensions of the Duce to be regarded as 2665:. On November 26, the Italian government requested Germany to release the imprisoned Tunisian leaders. After the prisoners were freed, they were met with Italian representatives, eager to exploit them for Italian control of Tunisia. Bourguiba and his colleagues were transferred to luxurious estates for the meetings. Bourguiba's demands of a government led by Moncef Bey and a nationalist government were rejected, however. He then refused to work for the Axis unless his political conditions were met, and he asked to be returned to Tunisia. Bourguiba was unimpressed by Axis, and wrote a secret letter around this time: 3707:

racist and imperialist phenomenon. It was criticized by the liberals or what I call the liberal Westernizers, i.e. those who were attracted by Western liberalism, as well as by the Marxists and left-wing nationalists who denounced Nazism as another form of imperialism. In fact, only one of the major ideological currents in the Arab world developed a strong affinity with Western anti-Semitism, and that was Islamic fundamentalism—not all Islam or Islamic movements but those with the most reactionary interpretations of Islam. They reacted to what was happening in Palestine by espousing Western anti-Semitic attitudes.

3487:, who can hardly be accused of ignorance of the subject (willful ignorance aside), have done so in the context of a campaign to retrospectively denigrate Arab nationalism and its anti-Zionism. The political motivation is patent. Moreover, as Rene Wildangel points out, arguments based on such isolated elements as the two quotations from Sami al-Jundi—to say nothing of the fact that one has been truncated, a circumstance of which Wildangel himself seems unaware—are made by certain academics with no regard for the scholarly precaution that is one of the elementary intellectual standards of their profession. 3565: 8285:, p. 47"There is only the example of Mahmid al-Watari, a former Arabic teacher of Sha'al during primary education at the Alliance school. He had not heard of him until 1938, when one day the Baghdadi newspapers published a report on their front pages that an Iraqi mission headed by al-Watari had returned from Berlin. It had paid a visit to the teachers of the Nazi capital and its associations, responding to a special invitation by Goebbels to strengthen the bonds of friendship between the two peoples. There was a picture in the papers of al-Watari shaking hands with Goebbels." 1373: 1654: 492:", an old term referring to black people. He was also barred from marrying his Germany fiance due to his race. The Egyptian government was able to secure his release due to his ill health. Despite being targeted by the regime, he helped foreign workers and Germans avoid conscription and hid a Jewish patient, Anna Boros, during the war. He obtained documents to protect Boros, including a certificate of her conversion to Islam and a marriage certificate. Helmy also assisted Boros' family by finding hiding places for them. He later became the first Arab 1336:

struck down on a daily basis in the name of racism. Our adversaries did not suspect that in making the Jews inferior, they could only bring them closer to the Muslims. Most of them believed that the Muslims would be delighted with the abrogation of the Crémieux decree, whereas they may simply have realized that a citizenship that can be withdrawn after seventy years of being exercised was questionable, through the fault of the very ones who had granted it…. They refuse to be "overgrown children," dupes, or bargaining chips.

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to this end must be closely coordinated during the preparatory period. As central agency abroad I nominate Special Staff F, which is to take part in all plans and actions in the Arab area, whose headquarters are to be in the area of the Commander Armed Forces South-east. The most competent available experts and agents will be made available to it. The Chief of the High Command of the Armed Forces will specify the duties of Special Staff F, in agreement with the Foreign Minister where political questions are involved.

1569: 1291:, Reinhard Heydrich, Heinrich Himmler's deputy and head of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (Reich Security Main Office, or RSHA), noted the numbers of Jews to be eliminated in each territory. In the notation for France there are two entries, 165,000 for Occupied France, and 700,000 for the Unoccupied Zone, which included France's North African possessions, i.e. Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The SS had established a special unit of 22 people in 1942 "to Kill Jews in North Africa". It was led by the SS functionary 791:, Rudolf Hess, the head of the SS Heinrich Himmler, and Marshal Hermann Göring. This led to the signing of an agreement to train 150 SS officers in the Italian Colonial School in Tivoli or Rome in 1937. Additionally, German state officials began an active program of fieldwork, examining the Italian colonial experience, contacting Italian officials and conducting fieldwork visits to Italy and the colony of Libya between 1938 and 1941, with numerous German books and press articles published during this time. 2039: 932:- stating that there were few radios in the Arab World, most owned by Jews or Allied troops, and that the few Arabs who did own radios surely did not all listen to the broadcasts. In 1943 a radio poll was conducted on Palestinian listeners. Of the 1,516 listeners interviewed, only 13% tuned into the Berlin station (8 percent listened only once a month, 4 percent daily, 1 percent listened twice a day, none listened three times), with the majority preferring Cairo (98%), Jerusalem (98%), London (87%), 2692:. Immediately after arriving in Tunisia, he tried to stop any pro-Axis sentiment among the nationalists, understanding that this jeopardized their position post-war. Bourguiba's position during his imprisonment was vague, while he privately denounced the Axis, he willingly presented himself as a useful pawn for Nazi ambitions in the region and was in contact with Amin al-Husseini. He later fled Tunisia after learning that the French government was planning on arresting his for collusion. 1140:

Mufti of Jerusalem, did not play any particularly important role in this case. Despite the fact that his Arabic speeches were broadcast by Radio Berlin and he was always presented as a role model, al-Husseini did not have any influence on the broadcast content. The Arabs in general did not seem to have been partners with equal rights. Instead they were secondary recipients of propaganda and orders, Goldenbaum concluded. Cooperation never went beyond the emphasized common battle against

2973:

to a strategy of "Fighting the White Paper as if there was not War, and fighting the War as if there was no White Paper". Zionists would smuggle Jews in Palestine whenever possible, regardless if this brought them into conflict with the British authorities. At the same time, the Zionists and other Jews would ally themselves to the British struggle against Germany and the Axis powers, even while the British authorities refused to allow the migration of European Jews into Palestine.

2231:- better known as Comrade Fahd - sent a letter to the coup leader Rashid Gaylani, imploring him to stay away from the Axis powers - which the ICP considered imperialist - and anti-semitism, instead suggesting an alliance with the Soviet Union. Fahd later denounced the al-Gaylani as fascist and criminal, regretting his previous support. The Iraqi Communist Party then voiced its supported for Britain and the government of Nuri al-Said in the war against Nazism. 888:“ewspapers simply are not prepared to publish any articles that might be in any way offensive to the Jews. You always have to keep in mind that Jewish influence is much greater than German influence, and that here much more so than anywhere else where material interest alone decides. ... The educational level of the broad masses is not advanced enough for them to understand racial theory. The awareness of the Jewish danger has not been roused here as yet. 901: 1327: 20: 7388:

reawakened aspiration and united the whole country under one leader. Then what happened? It became apparent that these seemingly powerful systems were a real disaster. The inspiration and aspirations of the people were shattered and the system of democracy did not lead to the empowerment of the people but to the establishment of chosen tyrants. Eventually after a deadly war in which innumerable men women and children died, these regimes collapsed

3111:. The unit was to incite against the British and organize a new Arab rebellion. The mission was carried out on October 5, 1944. The five agents were flown out of Greece, and at midnight they parachuted into Palestine. The mission failed. One of the few contacts in Palestine the mufti had given the agents, Nafith al-Hussaini, told them to leave immediately. Within ten days, all five agents were arrested by the Palestinian police or members of the 3126: 471: 7620:"Devil and infidel : representations of Adolf Hitler in the Egyptian public sphere, 1938-1945 / Israel Gershoni | I. Gershoni author (Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Institute of Asian and African Studies. Nehemia Levtzion Center for Islamic Studies | Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Institute of Asian and African Studies. Nehemia Levtzion Center for Islamic Studies; (host institution issuing body) | הספרייה הלאומית" 1303:, a decree which granted Algerian Jews French citizenship but did not grant Algerian Muslims French citizenship. The abolition of the Crémieux Decree served as the legal basis for the antisemitic laws which were enforced by the regime. The French fascists thought that by abolishing this decree, they would increase their popularity among Muslim nationalists in Algeria, which did not occur. The Algerian nationalist 1750:

Mediterranean and the Semitic and Oriental people all generally belong to the inferior people that should be avoided by the Aryan race, which should be careful not to mix with them there is no need to say that this theory is not based on proper science nor proper research or proper thought, it is only a new form of the attitude of hate of western people towards and a new form of western colonialism.

1618: 848:, new general counsel of Jerusalem, to request support for the "battle against the Jews". Doehle found that Germany's hesitation in supporting the rebels had caused pro-German sentiment among Palestinian Arabs to waver. Some limited German funding for the revolt can be dated to around the summer of 1938 and was perhaps related to a goal of distracting the British from the ongoing 216:

it. Had we been on our own, we could have emancipated the Moslem countries dominated by France; and that would have had enormous repercussions in the Near East, dominated by Britain, and in Egypt. But with our fortunes linked to those of the Italians, the pursuit of such a policy was not possible. All Islam vibrated at the news of our victories. The Egyptians, the Irakis [

2859:'Azmi al-Nashashibi dismissed the German supported for the 1941 Iraqi revolt as merely a ploy to fight to British, not with any real interest to support the Arabs. Nashashibi argued that they were two types of nations, those that submitted to the Germans like a "a slave bought on the slave market", or those who bravely resisted, asking "To which group the Arabs want to belong?". 3297:. The hatred against the Zionist plan in Palestine grew long before Nazism and Fascism. . . . But always, when Arabs protest the pro-Zionist policies of England, we heard: Arab Palestinians learned it from the Nazis. And the English believe this? Reality is different. The Arabs don't expel the Jews from the home, but those foreigners want to push the Arabs out of the country. 2964:, benefitting from more modern scholarship, has written that 60,000 German Jews immigrated into Palestine between 1933 through 1936, bringing with them $ 100,000,000 ($ 1.6 billion in 2009 dollars). This precipitous increase in the Jewish Palestinian population stimulated Palestinian Arab political resistance to continued Jewish immigration, and was a principal cause for the 3307: 2985:. Al-Husseini sent Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni to Germany in 1938 for explosives training. Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni then worked with al-Husseini to support the Golden Square regime, and consequently was tried and sent to prison by the British after they recaptured Iraq. He subsequently became the popular leader of approximately 50,000 Palestinian Arabs who joined the Mufti's 1916:, led a policy of spreading Nazism in Iraq. A local branch of the Nazi party was formed for the German diaspora in Iraq, while trade between Germany and Iraq from 1935 to 1938 doubled. A kindergarten was opened in Baghdad, and Iraqi students with proficiency in German were eligible for free education in Germany. In 1938, the Iraqi Director General of Education and later 8273:, p. 31"In December 1937, Baldur von Schirach, the leader of the Hitler Youth, while on a trip through the Middle East, invited the Iraqi government to send twenty young people to the Reichsparteitag in summer 1938 as guests of the Hitler Youth organization. The Iraqi government accepted the invitation, and a group of young people went to Nuremberg." 3682:, argues that historical narratives often overemphasize collaboration and under-appreciate progressive Arab political history, overshadowing the many dimensions of conflict between Nazism and the Arab World. He accuses Zionists of promulgating a collaborationist narrative for partisan purposes. He proposes that the dominant Arab political attitudes were 1819:. After he was caught, al-Masri claimed he was actually flying there to stop the rebellion. During an inquiry, it was revealed that, in a meeting with the British Colonel C. M. J. Thornhill on the 12th, he proposed this idea. Whether or not he was telling the truth about his intentions, the fact that Thornhill proposed that Iraq and Egypt should become 2287:, asking that the sheikh should be recognized for his efforts to save Iraqi Jews. Other Basran locals participated in the defense; Sayyid Muhammad Salih al-Radini, with a group of armed men, threatened two individuals who tried to break into the home of the Jewish Sofer family. The two individuals were later assaulted as a "cautionary" measure. 2560:, who later fled Germany with his wife due to their outspoken opposition to Nazism. During his time in Germany, he became interested in radios, believing that the Muslim world needed to invest in more stations to broadcasts religious teachings. In 1939, he became a speaker for the Arabic propaganda section of Radio Berlin, then led by 531:, were aware of the Arab inmates, yet did nothing to free them. Al-Husseini refused to intervene when a Palestinian called Boutros S. was arrested for "political expressions" and sent to a work camp near Berlin. In December 1943, an Iraqi student Sayd Daud Y was arrested for helping the desertion of his future brother-in-law, a 2863:"The Germans] have descended to a low level of stupidity and idiocy. We expect from the Germans that they would treat us well. But while we respect them as a valuable nation, they mistreat the European people. . . . We know that from a German perspective the Arabs belong to the inferior races, who have no right to enjoy life." 3624:. More recently however, this narrative has been challenged by a number of scholars who assert that Arab political debates in the 1930s and 1940s were quite complex. Fascism and Nazism, they argue, were discussed alongside other political ideologies, such as communism, liberalism, and constitutionalism. Moreover, the recent 2613:, he deliberately stalled implementation of these policies. Moncef Bey went even farther; just eight days after ascending the throne, he awarded the highest royal distinction to about twenty prominent Tunisian Jews. Moncef later went on to say that Tunisian Jews are "his children" like Tunisian Muslims. His prime minister, 1266:("Racism and Islam") which sought to illustrate the threat of Nazism and fascism by arguing that they went against the teachings of Islam. The pamphlet consisted illustrations to alert the Muslim community of Nazism and fascism, with excerpts of Mein Kampf in both Arabic and French. In the preface to the book, he wrote: 1128:, he also claimed that the evidence which was used against him was forged by his Jewish enemies, and he even denied the authenticity of the evidence which proved that he had met Eichmann. He is still a controversial figure, he is both vilified and honored by different political factions in the contemporary Arab world. 1295:, who helped develop the mobile gassing vehicles the Germans used to murder Russian prisoners and Jewish people in Russia and Poland. A network of labor camps was established in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. In 1941, some Jews joined anti-Nazi underground rebel movements. Many of these Jews were caught and sent to 310: because we were jointly fighting the Jews. This led him to discuss Palestine and the conditions there, and he then stated that he himself would not rest until the last Jew had left Germany. Khalid Al Hud observed that the Prophet Mohammed had acted the same way. He had driven the Jews out of Arabia 3588:(the leader), and the party anthem was sung to the same tune as the German national anthem. He founded the SSNP with a program that Syrians were "a distinctive and naturally superior race". However, when Saadeh found out that the Argentinian branch of the SSNP newspaper had been voicing its outright support for 2130:, that the rule of one man and one people over another was immoral and incompatible with Islam. Saut al-Sha'b produced a series of short commentaries called "Sawanih" ('Thoughts' in Arabic). One article compared Germany and Italy to wolves, attacking the 'lambs' of Europe. In August 1940, an article in 8723:

To His Excellency, the Esteemed Prime Minister Rashīd Ālī al-Gailānī: The Iraqi Communist Party congratulates your Excellency on the affection and backing you have won among the people ... On this basis and in such spirit and driven by its sense of national duty, the Communist Party feels called upon

3075:

was certainly legitimate when it was addressed as an appeal to the British mandatory authorities... It had no legitimacy whatsoever when addressed to Nazi authorities who had cooperated with the Zionists to send tens of thousands of German Jews to Palestine and then set out to exterminate the Jews of

2972:

decision to abandon the League of Nations Mandate to establish a Jewish national home in Palestine. The resultant change in British policy effectively closed Palestine to most European Jews who were fleeing Nazi persecution during World War II. After 1938 the majority of Zionist organizations adhered

2678:

The truth is that we were all so pro-Nazi that we had hoped for the victory of the Axis. We were mistaken but that is how it was. It has to be said that the first to be doubtful of such a victorious outcome was Bourguiba. As best I remember, one evening in December 1940 we were following on the radio

2487:

refused to make the 200,000 Jews who were living in Morocco wear yellow stars, even though this discriminatory practice was enforced in France. He is reported to have said: "There are no Jews in Morocco. There are only subjects." However, the French government did impose some antisemitic laws against

2195:

was a Shi'a religious leader and anti-colonial activist in Iraq. In 1910, he argued that the answer to colonialism was Islamic unity, one that went beyond ethnic exclusivity. In 1937, he argued that Islam was a religion based on the universal brotherhood of all men, that celebrated the dignity of the

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Exploitation of the Arab Freedom Movement. The situation of the English in the Middle East will be rendered more precarious, in the event of major German operations, if more British forces are tied down at the right moment by civil commotion or revolt. All military, political, and propaganda measures

1592:

had articles that denounced Hitler, such as a 1939 editorial that said: "Nazism by its very nature is contradictory to freedom of expression and freedom of opinion; it is based on the rule of force" and "The competition between fascism and Hitlerism is for the enslavement of people", as well as other

1546:

This was not all. He was always searching for new ways to create problems between internees. He demolished a wall that separated the first section from the second section and added four or five rooms to the first section. These rooms had belonged in the past to the second section. There, he assembled

1429:

There is no truth to the allegation that the Algerian anti-Jewish campaign was a concession to Muslim pressures. The Western-educated Muslim elite, leaning toward the Resistance, seems even to have supported the Jews. ... On November 29, 1942, a group of Muslim leaders, including Boumendjel and Sheik

3085:

Heinrich Himmler... told him in summer 1943 that the Germans had 'already exterminated more than three million' Jews: "I was astonished by this figure, as I had known nothing about the matter until then."... Thus. in 1943, Husseini knew about the genocide... Himmler... again in the summer of 1941...

3080:

would not allow him to justify himself to the Jews... gloating that the Jews had paid a much higher price than the Germans... he cites: "Their losses in the Second World War represent more than thirty percent of the total number of their people... Statements like this, from a man who was well placed

3057:

I ask your Excellency to permit me to draw your attention to the necessity of preventing the Jews from leaving your country for Palestine, and if there are reasons which make their removal necessary, it would be indispensable and infinitely preferable to send them to other countries where they would

1462:

Yesterday evening, the Jews of Paris were arrested— the elderly, women, and children. In exile like us, workers like us, these are our brothers. Their children are like our children. If you encounter one of their children, you must give him asylum and protection until the time that the misfortune—or

1403:

The Arabs do not participate . It is not their war. But, as regards the Jews, they are perfect. The functionaries the German agents try to push them into demonstrations and pogroms. In vain. When Jewish goods were put up for public auction, an instruction went around the mosques: "Our brothers are

1270:

A Muslim cannot accept this doctrine so contrary to the teachings of his religion; he cannot give his sympathy to the Third Reich which officially proclaims: Law is what benefits the German people. Hitler and Mussolini are the two marabouts of an identical doctrine and the illustrations which follow

1051:

Germany stood for uncompromising war against the Jews. That naturally included active opposition to the Jewish national home in Palestine, which was nothing other than a center, in the form of a state, for the exercise of destructive influence by Jewish interests. ... This was the decisive struggle;

581:

An officer informed us that by order of higher authority we will be shot this morning as hostages. We protested, but in vain. We go to death, satisfied with having, in all circumstances, fulfilled our duty, all our duty. We are struck by fate, and fate is, alas, unjust. We die prematurely, but it is

10901:

27 March 2010.'D'abord, les Arabes, ça n'existe pas. Parler d'un discours arabe au singulier est une aberration. Le monde arabe est traversé par une multitude de points de vue. A l'époque, on pouvait distinguer quatre grands courants idéologiques, qui vont de l'occidentalisme libéral à l'intégrisme

4058:

Achcar argues that the two paragraphs were out of order in the Wild's 1985 paper. He also claimed that Wild mistranslated "and Darré's The Race" as "which revolves around race". "Darré's The Race" refers to Richard Walther Darré's 'Neuadel aus Blut und Boden' which was translated into Franch as "La

3098:

It is the duty of Muhammadans in general and Arabs in particular to drive all Jews from Arab and Muhammadan countries ... Germany is also struggling against the common foe who oppressed Arabs and Muhammadans in their different countries. It has very clearly recognized the Jews for what they are and

3066:

We combatted this enterprise by writing to Ribbentrop, Himmler, and Hitler, and, thereafter, the governments of Italy, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and other countries. We succeeded in foiling this initiative, a circumstance that led the Jews to make terrible accusations against me, in which

2854:

This was an achievement for the war, meant to counteract the Axis, which at that time was giving the Arab world twenty-two daily transmissions in its own language. But what most interested me was the fact that Squadron Leader De Marsac had avoided turning it into a British or Allied station; it was

2726:

extensively covered Germany's new armament policy. In 1934, the newspaper warned, "Europe will see no peace if it will not keep distance from the spirit of the swastika that dominates Germany today. . . . is an ideology full of disrespect of all peoples; it glorifies the German, and therein lies a

2282:

saw looting of Jewish homes as well. The historian Orit Bashkin argues that Basra did not experience an event at the same scale as Baghdad, because the nationalist forces were not as powerful as local Islamic traditions. The mayor, Sheikh Ahmad Bash-A'yan, formed a local militia to restore order to

959:

A French report dated September 14, 1940, quotes a local Muslim leader: "We do not wish to be the instruments to others' grievances, because we would only have to bear the consequences; Satan continues to excite the French against the Jews, we'll just be spectators." Muslim leaders in Algeria tried

2976:

One consequence of al-Husseini's opposition to Britain's mandate in Palestine and his rejection of the British attempts to work out a compromise between Zionists and Palestinian Arabs was that the Mufti was exiled from Palestine. Many of his followers, who had fought in guerrilla campaigns against

2793:

theory of Nazi racism fundamentally contradicts the teachings of Islam, since Islam sees in all of its followers one equal essence, as it proclaims that all the believers are brothers.'" Since racial equality is integral to Islam, Nazism "represents the lowest level of concrete greed," going on to

2134:

joked about the difference in character between Germany and England: A German and an Englishman drive and stop in the middle of a one-lane bridge. The German then issues a three-hundred page declaration why the Englishman should retreat. The Englishman responds: "When you have finished reading it,

1741:

for publishing his anti-Nazi book "Hitler in the Balance". He argued that Hitler and Nazism were the ultimate danger to freedom and liberalism, and believed democracy was a better model for Egypt than dictatorship. Aqqad believed that "the fulfillment of the needs of these countries can by ensured

1408:

In the same year, the Vichy Regime imposed a two percent quota for Jews in the medical profession. In response, Marcel Lūfranī, an Algerian Jewish doctor, and two of his Muslim colleagues - Saʿadān and Būmalī - created a petition demanding the reinstatement of Algerian Jewish doctors. It was later

1139:

broadcasts was able to prove "that the texts were supplied by German personnel and not, as sometimes believed, by the reader of the Arabic broadcasts ". Furthermore, Goldenbaum concludes "that the man who was long regarded as the Reich's most important Muslim of all, Mohammed Amin al-Husseini, the

458:

and armchairs at them, injuring them, and that "oddly enough" the police had not arrested the perpetrators, but the Egyptians. The Nazis attackers were later acquitted; one of its officers, penciled the word "Jude" after the names of three of the attacked Egyptians. In February 1934, the Egyptian

215:

Our Italian ally has been a source of embarrassment to us everywhere. It was this alliance, for instance, which prevented us from pursuing a revolutionary policy in North Africa. In the nature of things, this territory was becoming an Italian preserve and it was as such that the Duce laid claim to

10789:

Until recently, European and Anglo-American research on these topics – often based on a history of ideas approach – tended to take for granted the natural affinity of Arabs towards Nazism. More recent works have contextualized authoritarian and totalitarian trends in the Arab world within a broad

3655:

The grand mufti of Jerusalem al-Hajj Amin al-Husayni and his active involvement in the Jewish genocide have figured prominently in Israeli efforts to prove the tangible collaboration between the "Arab world" and Nazis. Here, it is imperative to distinguish between "official" and academic efforts.

3516:

Despite Jundi's insistence that Ba'thism was indeed a 'different school', Nazism obviously figured prominently in these circles' reflections on society, history, and culture. Although neither Arsuzi nor 'Aflaq explicitly introduced National Socialist ideologists in their writings, Jundi's account

2683:

On February 26, 1943, an Italian plane returned the men to Tunis in a plot to lessen hostilities from the local population, due to the harsh conditions of Arab workers. The German government tried to incite anti-Jewish sentiment in the country. In October 1942, Bourguiba had sent his wife and son

2424:

he stated that Germany was like any other European country, writing "I do not care for Hitler, nor do I defend him or believe his ideology". In his diary, he wrote that if Italy took over Palestine, it would not liberate the Palestinians, but instead turn it into an Italian colony. His diary also

1893:

passed a message from King Farouk to the Shah of Iran and the German Minister in Iran. The message alerted to a British plan to occupy the Iranian oilfields, as well as sending a message of "the King’s desire for open and loyal relations with Germany". The British government was so afraid of King

4077:

al-Arsuzi disagreed with the committee saying "I do not cooperate with anyone. It is better that we stand on our feet". In a response to al-Jundi, he elaborated: "Are you crazy? The British are encircling Syria from all sides, they will soon occupy us. Do you want us to be hanged like traitors –

3706:

Grand Mufti Hajj Amin al-Husseini, who collaborated with the Nazis. But the historical record is actually quite diverse. The initial reaction to Nazism and Hitler in the Arab world and especially from the intellectual elite was very critical towards Nazism, which was perceived as a totalitarian,

3482:

The foregoing is by no means intended to excuse the Baaths later degeneration, which, as we will see, was aggravated in the 1960s. Indeed, it is precisely the Baath's decline into dictatorship that makes claims such as Wilds credible in the eyes of nonspecialists. Those who have knowingly spread

2765:

The Arab people . . . stand at the side of those who fight Fascism. The differences between England and the Palestinian Arabs . . . do not change this. Those are local struggles, which have to be delayed until the end of the tensions in the world. . . . We are not stupid to believe the sentence

1749:

German National Socialism does not stop its view about the racial superiority at this point, but it goes much beyond that. It announces the superiority of the Aryan race over all other races, not only over the Jewish race and considers all non-Aryan races as inferior; and the people of the south

915:

In the face of this barbaric procedure by the British we think it best, if the life of the Egyptian nation is to be saved, that the Egyptians rise as one man to kill the Jews before they have a chance of betraying the Egyptian people. It is the duty of the Egyptians to annihilate the Jews and to

3007:

in November 1938, most Jewish and Zionist organizations aligned with Britain and its allies in opposition to Nazi Germany. After this time, the organized assistance which the Gestapo provided to the Jewish organizations which transported European Jews to Palestine became much more sporadic, but

1335:

I can assure you that, in general, the Muslims have understood that it would be inappropriate for them to rejoice in the special measures of which the Jews of Algeria are the victims. They cannot reasonably get behind those who are attempting to practice a racial policy when they themselves are

7387:

Nazism came to power in Germany, Fascism in Italy and both Hitler and Mussolini began to force their people to conform to what they thought; unity, order, development and power. Certainly, this system led the two countries to stability and a vital international role. This cultivated much hope,

3507:

were the first who thought about translating Mein Kampf. Whoever has lived through this period in Damascus will have noticed the inclination of the Arab people towards Nazism. Nazism was the force that took revenge for them. The defeated naturally admire the victorious. We, however, were of a

2429:

The oppressed became the oppressor. Hitler obliterated Czechoslovakia's independence. Czechia , became a kind of German district under Germany's protection (a protectorate), and in fact there is no different between it and Germany's other districts, apart from the fact that its language is not

2114:

fled to Iran and later Turkey, where he was captured and hanged at the entrance of the at the gate of the Ministry of Defense in 1945. Rashid Ali al-Gaylani, the leader of the Square, fled to Iran and then Italy and formed a pro-Nazi government-in-exile, later fleeing to Saudi Arabia, avoiding

1648:

Hitler is an intellectually limited man who does not like to delve deeply into problems or to reflect in any depth. He hates books and culture, he is superbly ignorant about what science and experience could offer him, and he resorts only to wild fantasies that have no precise aim. He has only

1368:

ordered the confiscation of the property of the Jews. However, in a sign of the solidarity, not a single Muslim Algerian took advantage of the law by purchasing confiscated Jewish property; on a Friday in 1941, religious leaders throughout Algiers delivered sermons in which they warned Muslims

1255:

says that humans are born brothers and that Islam does not make a difference between races. True Muslims do not belittle other races. They are against hatred of people, injustice and inequality." Some of these Muslim intellectuals were criticized for allying with Jewish leaders and calling for

2208:

In the first place, the Communist Party regrets, nay abhors, the acts of provocation hatched against our Jewish brethren by the retainers of British imperialism on the one side, and the propagandists of German imperialism on the other. The violation of liberties, the intrusion into homes, the

2026:

into Arabic, summoned the Chief Rabbi of Baghdad Sassoon Kadoori. al-Sabawi ordered Kadoori to instruct the Jewish community to lock themselves in their homes for a few days, stay off the telephones, cook enough food for a three-day journey, pack a single suitcase and prepare for transport to

424:"The Führer has the same impression of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem as I have. He considers him to be a descendant of the crusaders, and he also looks like one ... This Grand Mufti makes a very good impression on me. One might almost believe that it is about his completely Nordic appearance." 3656:

Although scholars are certainly more cautious in depicting the Husayni and Arab-Nazi collaboration, sometimes their work mirrors the generalization that indicts Arabs at large as active supporters or sympathizers with Nazism. The Arab-Israeli conflict's escalation and its redefinition as the

714:. The Algerians Kermiche Areski and Messaoud ben Hamiche belonged to the "Brigade française d'Action liberatrice" that formed in the camp in June 1944. On April 11, 1945, the brigade took part in the prisoners' armed revolt that made it possible to transfer the camp to the American troops. 2310:

The reader must know that human rights, even in their bourgeois democratic version, are threatened with extinction. How great then must be the threat to the Socialist version of human rights ?! The reader must realize that we are at a turning point of history. This forces us to fight two

138:‘The Islamic concept of Holy War cannot be applied with the current distribution of powers. Arabism and Islam are not congruent. The Arabs that we have to take into account do not fight in favor of religious, but political goals. Matters of Islam need to be dealt with in a tactful manner." 7649: 535:

in the Wehrmacht. Daud was engaged to the soldier's sister and had a child with her, but "for racial considerations" was not allowed to marry her. His brother tried to help him by appealing to al-Kailānī and to the Grand Mufti to intervene, though they refused to help. He was brought to

2731:

would later go on to print that "The Jews are oppressed only because they are Jews, no more, and there is no justification for that." An article in Filastin titled "T"e Truth about the Hitler Movement: Reasons for the Persecution of the Jews": denounced Nazi racial ideology, saying:

1792:, along others, were firmly anti-Nazi and anti-fascist. Both the Italian and German legation in Egypt complained ti the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about “allegedly absurd caricatures of the Duce and the Führer in certain Egyptian weekly reviews". The political cartoonist 706:"It was a cold winter and 'Ali' had to stand for hours outdoors, where cold water was poured over him and he was punched and kicked. 'Ali' was about 45 years old at that time and it was surely more than he could take. But I don't know which SS man did that to 'Ali' at that time." 3549:, the organized labor service, as 'a return to true Islamic society, when there was no employer and no employee but all were brothers co-operating together.' In a letter to Hitler, Hussein praised the economic situation and the 'end of class struggle' through compulsory work. 10078:"The Mufti of Jerusalem and the Nazis: The Berlin Years" by Klaus Gensicke, translated by Alexander Fraser Gunn ( London & Portland, OR: Vallentine Mitchell;2011); Original edition: "Der Mufti von Jerusalem" (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft; 2007), pp. 26—28 3451:

Achcar argues that al-Arsuzi was still a racist, even drawing criticism by al-Jundi, who called al-Arsuzi a "racist who believed in authenticity and nobility, a man of an aristocratic temperament and turn of mind." Jalal al-Sayyid, who founded the Ba'ath party with Aflaq and

2789:. He believed that Muslims must pause the fight against Britain and support the war against Germany, which he believed was the greater enemy. He wrote that the racist beliefs of the Germans were in complete disagreement with Islam, citing both Nazi and Islamic sources: "The 1962:

was funded by the German legation in Baghdad, though the historian Peter Wien argues that the paper's pro-authoritarian attitudes were not caused by any outside funding, but by genuine belief. A 1934 article in the paper analyzed the political developments of nations since

2564:. While Bahri relied on nationalism - greeting every broadcast with "Here is Berlin, greetings to the Arabs" - for his propaganda, al-Hilali relied on Islamic pride, highlighting French colonialism's suppression of traditional Islam in Morocco. He left Germany in 1942 for 1184: 1823:

in the meeting, which would have angered the Egyptian public if it was revealed and be easy propaganda for the Axis, convinced British authorities to drop the case. Al-Masri was dismissed from his post. His secret clique of anti-British officers as well as prime minister

884:, attempted to spread antisemitism in Egypt as early as the 1930s, to "counter Jewish influence" - really to pressure the Egyptian government to crack down on local Jewish anti-Nazi activities. So called "Jewish influence" was, according one German lawyer, so strong that: 1597:, while he worked as an editor for Ar-risala, wrote scathing articles on Hitler and fascism. 'Abd al-Mun'am Khallaf denounced the notion of "death for the nation's sake" and argued that Islam did not value ethnicity or race but rather mercy and compassion. The newspaper 1315:, wrote: " cannot be considered as progress for the Algerian people—lowering the rights of Jews did not increase the rights of Muslims." While Hadj was imprisoned, he refused a deal for his release if he wrote a declaration in support of the French fascist collaborator 1880:

told the Hungarian Ambassador that every Egyptian nationalist fervently hoped the Axis would win the war – but Egypt did expect full independence when the British were defeated. Though he was assured Egypt would gain its independence, he was disturbed by an article in

7143: 6009:

In detailing the ways that European anti-Jewish anti-Semitism was imported to the colony and embedded within Muslim society, I am in no way trying to diminish or excuse racism coming from Arabs or Muslims directed at Jews, nor that coming from Jews aimed at Arabs or

3430:

Whoever has lived during this period in Damascus will appreciate the inclination of the Arab people to Nazism, for Nazism was the power which could serve as its champion, and he who is defeated will by nature love the victor. But our belief was rather different....

1721:

Here, Al-Hakim comments on Nazism, Fascism and liberalism through fiction. He writes a fictional conversation between Mussolini and his prison guard, where Mussolini learns that millions of Italians are celebrating his removal. He also writes a conversation between

1099:. He was involved in planning "wartime operations directed against Palestine and Iraq, including parachuting Germans and Arab agents to foment attacks against the Jews in Palestine." He assisted the German entry into North Africa, particularly the German entry into 94:

which held colonies in the Arab World. This hostility was used in Nazi propaganda to allege an anti-colonial common interest that Nazi Germany held. However this interest conflicted with interests of Nazi Germany's allies who held colonies in the Arab world, namely

3199:"recognize in principle the unity, independence, and sovereignty, of an Arab state, including Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and Transjordan", he offered support in the war against Britain and stated his willingness to discuss the issues of "the Holy Places, Lebanon, the 1111:

with a forty-eight-hour warning of the Allied invasion of North Africa. The Wehrmacht, however, ignored this information, which turned out to be completely accurate. He intervened and protested to government authorities in order to prevent Jews from emigrating to

9848: 413:

With his blonde hair and blue eyes, he gives the impression, despite his shrew-like face, of a man whose ancestors were more likely to have been Aryans, and who perhaps is descended from the best Roman blood...In sheer intelligence he almost comes close to the

3026:

Al-Husseini opposed all immigration of Jews into Palestine. His numerous letters which appealed to various governmental authorities to prevent Jewish emigration to Palestine have been widely republished and they have also been cited as documentary evidence of

2669:

Our support of the Allies must be without condition. Because for us it is essential that at the end of the war - which now should happen before long - we would find ourselves in the camp of the winners, having contributed, however little, to the common

1636:

in Nazi Germany, writing "They live like a society of insects. They must behave like ants in an anthill or like bees in a hive." Hussein disagreed with neutrality, urging the Egyptians to fight the Germans in the war. In 1940, he wrote a book review of

1046:

met with Amin al-Husseini on 28 November 1941. The official German notes of that meeting contain numerous references to combatting Jews both inside and outside Europe. The following excerpts from that meeting are statements from Hitler to al-Husseini:

8644: 1855:, which was under the Vichy government at the time, but since his car broke down on the way, he missed the secret German plane that was intending to transport him. Then he tried to seize an Egyptian plane, but it hit a post on takeoff, grounding it. 2736:

Hitler followers want to make their race the ruler of all races in the world. One would think, the Nazis are Christians, and is not Christianity a fruit of the Semites and not of the Aryan people? Therefore, the view of Hitler's supporters is very

2839:

station was run by the British to counteract the Axis programming. Journalist Ajjaj al-Nuwayhid led the Arab department, insisting on editorial independence. His broadcasts included anti-fascist content and lectures by Arab intellectuals, such as

2434:

It is worth noting that Arslan's objections to Germany and Italy were only made in private; in public he promoted and endorsed these regimes to further his political interests. His view on the situation is best described in an article he wrote in

3279:, wrote in 1946, "Let it be known that we are not anti-British, anti-Soviet, anti-American or antisemitic. Equally, we are not pro-Nazis, pro-Fascists. We are what we are—Arabs and nothing but Arabs. So help us God." The Palestinian newspaper 812:, the German Ambassador to Iraq, met with a Pan-Arab committee in Baghdad to arrange close cooperation. While Grobba verbally gave the Arabs his best wishes, he rejected any material support at the time - later send a telegraph back to Berlin: 2123:

The newspaper Saut al-Sha'b took a firm anti-German stance. In February 1940, it stated that Nazi Germany was a threat to the small countries of Europe, whose fate could only be secured by Allied victory. It later argued that democracy was a

9198:"Liste officielle ... des prisonniers de guerre français : d'après les renseignements fournis par l'autorité militaire allemande : nom, date et lieu de naissance, unité / Centre national d'information sur les prisonniers de guerre" 4425:"German Exploitation of Arab Nationalist Movements in World War II" by Gen. Hellmuth Felmy and Gen, Walter Warlimont, Historical Division, Headquarters, United States Army, Europe, Foreign Military Studies Branch, 1952, p. 11, by Gen. Haider 3460:"His education had made him too categorical. He made no place for socialist values in his political philosophy and had greater affinities for Nazi or even ancient Roman thought, categorizing people as slaves or masters, nobles or plebeians." 3759:

is contradictory. If one looks into it closely, however, the number of nationalistic groups which identified themselves with Nazi propaganda turns out to be quite scaled-down. There is only one clone of Nazism in the Arab world, namely the

3478:. Aflaq also published an essay in 1938 which warned against "the nationalism that comes to us from Europe", which Achcar suggests that "no reader could have doubted whose nationalism he had in mind". He summarizes his argument as follows: 1438:, in World War II, only one Arab in North Africa, Hassan Ferjani, was convicted for performing actions that led to the deaths of Jews by an Allied military tribunal, while many other Arabs acted to save Jews. Algerian religious leaders 463:. The perpetrator had complained that he was not permitted to dance with a "German" because he was "black" and of a "lower race" and had punched him. The attacker was not punished. On the onset of war, Egyptians living in Germany were 963:

Some believed that the Germans would help them gain their independence from French and British rule. After France's defeat by Nazi Germany in 1940, some Arabs were making public chants against the French and British in the streets of

3076:

Europe. The Mufti was well aware that the European Jews were being wiped out; he never claimed the contrary. Nor, unlike some of his present-day admirers, did he play the ignoble, perverse, and stupid game of Holocaust denial... His

2741:

Editor Yusuf Hanna predicted the "biggest confrontation in history" and he dismissed the idea of a Nazi "preventive war" against Communism: "Nazism does not fight communism, but wants to enslave all peoples." In the summer of 1941,

762:. Upon witnessing the cleansing of indigenous people and the settling of 20,000 Italian peasants, he described the process as "successful", a key topic for Nazi leaders who had a plan to settle 15 million Germans in Eastern Europe. 1024:, Rashid Ali, al-Husseini and other pro Nazi Iraqi veterans took refuge in Europe, where they supported Axis interests. They were particularly successful in recruiting several tens-of-thousands of Muslims for membership in German 1271:

will show the terrible consequences that a victory of German or Italian racism would have for the world of Islam. By defending its rights in Africa, France defends its subjects; she doesn't want them to become slaves to racism.

511:

Hans Hauck was born in Frankfurt in 1920. Since his father was Algerian, he was persecuted for being half-Arab. At the age of 17, he was summoned by the Gestapo and was sterilized. Then 14-year-old Lucie M. was sent in 1943 to

1507:

The historian Haim Saadon opines that bar some exceptions, there was no violence against Jews by Muslims and although there was no particular sense of camaraderie between Jews and Muslims, they treated each other quite well.

2078:

club, was chief of surgery at Baghdad Medical College, and attended to wounded Iraqi Jews in his hospital. When some of his Jewish nurses reported rape threats by wounded Iraqi officers, he threatened to shoot the officers.

3635:

published "The Arab War Effort, a documented account", arguing that the Arabs worked with the Allies with reluctance because they were eager collaborators with the Axis. This sparked a response by the Egyptian nationalist

6974: 2679:

developments in the battle of England when Bourguiba declared: The battle of England is lost, therefore the Germans will lose the war, it's only a question of time, remember Napoleon. We protested without persuading him.

9955: 5831:

Collins & Lapierre, pp. 49, 50 : "Fully aware of the Final Solution, he had done his best to see that none of the intended victims were diverted to Palestine on their way to Reichsfuhrer Heinrich Himmler's gas

2270:

with his tribesmen. While large-scale violence was averted, three Jews were attacked while boarding a train - one died later died in the hospital. al-Qazwini then confronted the governor, arguing that the murder was a

3540:

was founded in 1933, and has been criticized as 'fascist'. The party had a youth wing, the 'Green Shirts', which engaged in marches and street battles with the Wafd's Blue Shirts. The founder and leader of the party,

2516:

Do not be mistaken, fellow Jews, Morocco is for Moroccans, that is for us Muslims and for you Jews. It is our duty to collaborate together to defend our homeland. Say it once and for all that you have one homeland

868:

During the war, Nazi Germany launched a massive propaganda campaign for the Arab world. This propaganda portrayed Germany as a "savior" of Arabs from colonialism, while relying heavily on anti-Jewish verses in the

3464:

Achcar believes that Aflaq was more invested in communism during his time in 1930s France, citing the fact he was on the four member editorial committee of the communist Al-tali'a, which produced articles such as

10719:

Among them are the works by Peter Wien (2006) and Orit Bashkin (2009) on Iraq, Rene Wildangel (2007) on Palestine, Götz Nordbruch (2009) on Lebanon and Syria, and Israel Gershoni and James Jankowski (2010) on

3446:

As for the Jews, my opinion is that Arabs and Jews should come to an understanding in this world and cooperate in order to re-establish the Arabs' glory and realize the Semitic genius, which is the Judeo-Arab

385:

man, who appraises the value of men on a racial basis, I am prevented by mere knowledge of the racial inferiority of these so-called 'oppressed nations' from linking the destiny of my own people with theirs".

3473:

Aflaq wrote an article in 1935 where he praises the "communist revolutionary" in contrast to the "fascist warrior". Aflaq later also joined the Lebanese Communist journal Al-Tariq, which published papers for

2633:

The Jews are having a hard time but they are under our patronage and we are responsible for their lives. If I find out that an Arab informer caused even one hair of a Jew to fall, this Arab will pay with his

2306:. The League organized anti-fascist conferences in Lebanon, with Khoury often giving speeches at these events. Khoury alerted the Lebanese public through pamphlets and articles, such as in one article saying: 1770:

and Amin al-Husseini, who attempted to convince him to join the Axis, even promising him the presidency of an Egyptian republic. He refused, instead opting to cooperate with the British. In 1942, he promised

1873:, but was disappointed over his lack of explicit support for the plan. Sadat then met with two German agents in Cairo to discuss his plan, but was caught by the British and sentenced to two years in prison. 1613:

compared Nazi Germany to Sparta, not as a compliment, but to criticize the "disintegration of the individual", arguing that Athenian values of enlightenment and democracy outlasted the failed city-state of

3668:

and extensive, sometimes disproportionate, study of the intimate Nazi-mufti collaboration that is embodied by Husayni's unabashed enthusiasm for Nazi antisemitism and his historical role in the atrocities.

181:. In June 1941, Wehrmacht High Command Directive No. 32 and the "Instructions for Special Staff F" designated Special Staff F as the Wehrmacht's central agency for all issues that affected the Arab world. 2900: 2382:. Arslan wrote to al-Husseini that "I follow the Axis in the hope that by means of their victory, Islam will be liberated from its slavery". He was also unique in being an apologist for Mussolini and his 3226:

Germany and Italy recognize the right of the Arab countries to solve the question of the Jewish elements, which exist in Palestine and in the other Arab countries, as required by the national and ethnic

968:: "No more Monsieur, no more Mister, Allah's in Heaven and Hitler's on earth." Posters in Arabic stating "In heaven God is your ruler, on earth Hitler" were frequently displayed in shops in the towns of 2254:, the imam of the city, upon hearing that young men were planning to attack the Jewish population, denounced them as criminals who rejected Islam, highlighting that Jews were under their protection. In 1851:. There were meetings and talk among junior officers as early as 1939 about a potential revolt, with Sadat describing how he wanted to make Egypt "a second Iraq". Sadat writes that al-Masri's goal was 1251:, and Sheikh Tayeb El-Okbi. Lecache believed in Arab-Jewish reconciliation against rising inter-communal tensions. El-Okbi would later say that "LICA is the true incarnation of the Islamic spirit. The 743:. Historian Ali Abdullatif Ahmida stated that the extreme violence carried out against Libyans by Italian fascists served as a blueprint for the atrocities that Nazi Germans later committed in Europe. 601:

Abdallah ben Ahmed and Salem Ammamouche were convicted of forgery and trafficking with food stamps. The former died of tuberculosis in the Brandenburg jail in March 1944, and the later was executed in

4068:

Bernard Lewis cites Wild (1985) in the 1999 edition of "Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice" pg.280, calling it "a scholarly and scrupulously objective study of the issue"

188:'s efforts to acquire German backing for Arab independence, Hitler refused to support them, remarking that he "wanted nothing from the Arabs". Nazi Germany was reluctant to initiate disputes with the 6292: 3067:

they held me accountable for the liquidation of four hundred thousand Jews who were unable to emigrate to Palestine in this period. They added that I should be tried as a war criminal in Nuremberg.

3495:

claims that Aflaq was neither a member of the Communist Party, nor taking an active role in its activities. Aflaq and al-Bitar organized support for the fascist backed Iraqi government during the

2746:

predicted that Germany could never win a multifront war: "There is no doubt that we will soon witness the time of punishment for Nazi Germany, according to all the bestialities it has committed."

2319:: a jihad to preserve the rights guaranteed by bourgeois democracy; and another jihad for an extension of these rights to its Socialist version. Each of these jihads is complementary to the other. 3651:

has created a war of narratives, in which history is used for modern political purposes, overemphasizing the importance of certain events in an attempt to paint an image of eager collaboration:

279:

In speeches, Hitler purportedly made warm references towards Islam, such as: "The peoples of Islam will always be closer to us than, for example, France". Hitler was transcribed as saying: "Had

1503:

Men who you have always known to be devoted to the North African cause are now . They call you to holy war against the enemy of Islam, against the enemy of humanity, Hitler and the Nazi regime.

11491:

Ryad, Umar (2014). "A Salafi Student, Orientalist Scholarship, and Radio Berlin in Nazi Germany: Taqi al-Din al-Hilali and His Experiences in the West". In Nordbruch, Götz; Ryad, Umar (eds.).

896:“ne has to start with the issue where real conflicts of interest exist between Arabs and Jews: Palestine. The antagonism between Arabs and Jews existing there has to be transplanted to Egypt.” 11809:

Cherif, Fayçal (2011). "Jewish-Muslim Relations in Tunisia during World War II: Propaganda, Stereotypes, and Attitudes, 1939–1943". In Gottreich, Emily Benichou; Schroeter, Daniel J. (eds.).

4569:, p. 140Wir werden weiterhin die Unruhe in Fernost und in Arabien schiiren. Denken wir als Herren und sehen in diesen V6lkern bestenfalls lackierte Halbaffen, die die Knute spiir wollen. 9447: 2354:. His critique of colonialism and defense of Islam made him one of the most influential early 20th century Arab intellectuals. His relations with Germany preceded the Nazis; he had stood by 787:

Historian Patrick Bernhard notes that the Nazi Commissariat organised special programmes to visit the Libyan colony. Visits to Tripoli occurred in 1937 and 1938 by high Nazi leaders such as

1932:, whose leader was personally introduced to Hitler. In 1937, Iraqi Jewish students complained to the Ministry of Education about teachers who spread German propaganda in the classroom. Dr. 1196:

French colonialism in North Algeria began in the 1830s, solidifying in the 1870s. Algeria had been integrated into France since 1848, but few Algerians had been granted French citizenship.

2235: 2196:

individual. Thus, Nazism was incompatible with Islamic beliefs. He was not the only Islamic leader to reject the ultra-nationalist currents of the time; when Hajj Amin al-Husayni visited

1894:

Farouk defecting to the Axis that when the King flew on his plane to Alexandria, British airplanes escorted him; the pilots had instructions to force his plane to land if it turned west.

5884: 5859: 2416:

that, while Germany was the enemy of their enemies, he was not ignorant; if German control over the Arab world became unbearable, "they would have only changed masters". In a letter to

287:

then we should in all probability have been converted to Mohammedanism, that cult which glorifies the heroism and which opens up the seventh Heaven to the bold warrior alone. Then the

4230: 2642:

doubted this charge and tried to prevent his ouster. The real reason he was removed was because he formed the first solely Tunisian government, causing an outcry by French settlers.

1135:, Meir Zamir, and Hans Goldenbaum agree on the importance of the German propaganda effort in the Middle East and North Africa. But the latest research on the massive and influential 990:

The two most noted Arab politicians who actively collaborated with the Nazis were the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini, and the Iraqi prime minister Rashid Ali al-Gaylani.

781:

and the architect behind the concentration camps, also made an official visit to Libya to witness the outcomes of the Italian methods. He is credited with conceiving the idea of the

8499:"Blitzkrieg to Defeat: Hitler's War Directives, 1939–1945" edited with an Introduction and Commentary by H. R. Trevor-Roper (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston; 1964), pp. 80–81. 1088:. He contributed to Axis propaganda services and he also contributed to the recruitment of both Arab Muslim and non-Arab Muslim soldiers for the Nazi armed forces, including three 3989: 2805:, went to Spain as a journalist. Ali Abdel Halik, another Arab communist, left for Spain immediately after being freed from prison and later died from his wounds in a hospital in 1061: 2757:

victory: "If Fascism will prevail, and the Arab lands will be enslaved with iron and fire, our struggle for independence will be set back for years." On the outbreak of the war,

1572:

The Egyptian paper Al-Ithnayn wa al-Dunya mistakenly believed that Hitler would not be able to conquer Poland and would be stuck there. "He cannot swallow it." September 18, 1939

3362:

will appreciate the inclination of the Arab people to Nazism, for Nazism was the power which could serve as its champion, and he who is defeated will by nature love the victor.

1232:, Muslims generally sided with Dreyfus. Antisemitism, which had existed in the Muslim world long before, was influenced in many ways due to an importing of French antisemitism. 323: 7648:

Gershoni, Israel (2016). "The Demise of "t"e Liberal Age"? ʿAbbas Mahmud al-ʿAqqad and Egyptian Responses to Fascism During World War II". In Hanssen, Jens; Weiss, Max (eds.).

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that the police commander had guaranteed their safety. On June 1, officers were guarding the streets in the city; they remained at these posts throughout the following day. In

4118:

Bougarel, Xavier; Korb, Alexander; Petke, Stefan; Zaugg, Franziska (2016) . "Muslim SS units in the Balkans and the Soviet Union". In Böhler, Jochen; Gerwarth, Robert (eds.).

828:

We must make every effort to avoid anything which might be construed as taking advantage of the situation by attempting to make common cause with the pan-islamic Nationalists.

6089:"al-Jinsīyah wa-al-Islām / bi-qalam ʻAbd al-Raḥmān Fītrāw = Le racisme et l'Islam / par Abder-Rahmane Fitrawe. - Collections Search - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum" 1299:

or executed. Algerian Jewish survivors were the last to receive compensation from Germany for the Holocaust. After the fall of France, the Vichy French regime abolished the

2142:, owned by Nuri Thabit, also criticized fascism, for example, attacking Mussolini when he declared himself the 'protector of Islam'; he supported the Ethiopians during the 1330:

An advertisement for the Comité de L'Union Sémite shows a Jewish–Arab handshake. Captions in both Hebrew and Arabic say "Unity with Ishmael will bring redemption to Israel"

10790:

political spectrum, choosing subaltern perspectives and privileging the analysis of local voices in the press over colonial archives and the voices of grand theoreticians.

8140: 3822: 2370:. He believed, since Germany and the Arab world shared the same enemies, Britain and France, an alliance between the two was the best hope for independence. In a visit to 9171:

Maghraoui, Driss (2015). "The Moroccan "E"fort de Guerre" in World War II". In Byfield, Judith A.; Brown, Carolyn A.; Parsons, Timothy H.; Sikainga, Ahmad Alawad (eds.).

2960:

wrote in 1968: "Up to the middle of 1938, Palestine had received one third of all the Jews who had emigrated from Germany since 1933 – 50,000 out of a total of 150,000."

8891: 4196: 3995: 3747:. In regard to these four, two, namely western liberalism and Marxism, clearly rejected Nazism, in part, they rejected Nazism on shared grounds (such as the heritage of 2200:, he was told by the chief judge, Ra'uf al-Mufti, that the people of Mosul had no intention of attacking Jews, because Islam commands Muslims to defend their neighbors. 3215:, who met al-Husseini on 27 October. According to al-Husseini's account, it was an amicable meeting in which Mussolini expressed his hostility to the Jews and Zionism. 1680:

at first supported Germany's industrialization under Hitler, but later denounced it as a totalitarian state, arguing instead for traditional liberal democratic values.

800:

The extent of which Nazi Germany supported pre-war Arab movements is unclear. Heinrich Wolff, the then German Consul General of Jerusalem, refused a deal in 1934 with

8709:

The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of its Communists, Ba'thists and Free Officers

3008:

bribery of individual Germans frequently enabled the Jewish organizations to accomplish such operations, even after Nazi Germany's official policy discouraged them.

940:(32%). The Berlin station also received the worst credibility rating of all the stations; interviewers explained they only tuned in to listen to the music programs. 3253:

Several emerging movements in the Arab world were said to have been influenced by European fascist and Nazi organizations during the 1930s. The fascist pan-Arabist

2362:

where he called Germany 'the protector of 300 million Muslims' in 1898. During the interwar period, he tried to convince German leaders to revive the spirit of the

589:

Essaid Haddad, Mohamed Thami-Lakhdar and Mohamed Sliman, all of whom were active resistance members, were also killed. Mohamed Lattab, an Algerian, was interned at

4049:, a website dedicated to archiving the names of victims of the Holocaust, returns 109 results for the search "Moamed OR Mohammed OR Mohamed OR Mohamet OR Mehmed" 3031:

and his participative support of their actions. For instance, in June 1943, al-Husseini recommended to the Hungarian minister that it would be better to send the

1404:

suffering misfortune. Do not take their goods." Not one Arab became an administrator either. Do you know other examples of such an admirable, collective dignity?

6561:"The role of the Jewish underground in the American landing in Algiers, 1940-1942 / Gitta Amipaz-Silber | Gitta Amipaz-Silber | | The National Library of Israel" 4028: 1766:- who was prime minister from 1942 to 1944 - refused to ally himself with the Nazis. According to his memoirs, he was approached by the Italian Foreign Minister 1621:

Nazi: "I brought you a new fez!" Masri Effendi (Caricature of Egypt): "But this fez will crush me and take my breath away!" From Ākhir sāʼah - 26th of July, 1942

11080:

El Houssi, Leila (2018). "The Ethiopian War as Portrayed in the Italian Fascist and Antifascist Press in Tunisia". In Gorman, Anthony; Monciaud, Didier (eds.).

2977:

Jews and the British in Palestine, followed him and continued to work for his political goals. Among the most notable Palestinian soldiers in this category was

2801:(ANTIFA). He was highly critical of the Moroccan troops who fought for Franco, who he described as an enemy of the Arab nation. Mustafa Sa'adi, a member of the 8618: 2455: 1275:

On 20 January 1942, 15 high-ranking Nazi Party and German government officials met at a villa in Wannsee, a Berlin suburb, to coordinate the execution of the "

3910: 2629:, a Tunisian Jew who later became an Israeli politician, Moncef Bey gathered all the senior officials of the realm at the palace and gave them this warning: 1236: 1167: 201: 5785:

Nazi War Crimes & Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group Final Report to the United States Congress April 2007, 1-880875-30-6,

2688:

with a personal message to the American consulate that the Tunisians could expect nothing from the Germans and he was telling his followers to support the

1319:. As a result, he was sentenced to sixteen years of hard labor, was banned from visiting France for twenty years, and had all of his property confiscated. 1994:, Hitler's Germany, and Mussolini's Italy as examples as 'unselfish' rulers making strong decisions based of 'virtue'. In 1935, a letter was published in 1745:

The author Muhamad Abdallah Inan warned against the Nazi party, specifically against its racism and repression of the free press. In Ar-Risala, he wrote:

688: 2185:, including the Iraqis Nuri Roufeal Kotani and his compatriot Setty Abraham Horresh, who traveled from Syria to Lebanon to France, finally crossing the 816:"Avoid any connection with said group or its representatives. We want nothing to do with these efforts. Exchange of information is out of the question". 3817: 3028: 1073: 585:

By addressing this word to you, I say goodbye to a profession that I loved; I will have been, until the end, the defender of human dignity and truth.

63: 55: 2146:. Thabit, a teacher himself, complained that students in the Iraqi nationalist clubs didn't know any history: one student said Egypt was founded by 9823:

Elmaleh, Omri (2024). ""F"ghting Other People's War" Arab Palestinian Volunteers in the Spanish Civil War". In Rein, Raanan; Zepp, Susanne (eds.).

6113: 6022: 4963: 2889: 1943: 10265:

Memories of state: politics, history, and collective identity in modern Iraq by Eric Davis Eric Davis, University of California Press, 2005, P. 14

3062:

Achcar quotes al-Husseini's memoirs about these efforts to influence the Axis powers to prevent emigration of Eastern European Jews to Palestine:

2617:, regularly warned Jewish leaders of German plans. He helped Jews avoid arrest, intervened to prevent deportations, and even hid individual Jews. 1887:‘the Egyptian bastion was bound to fall under Italian/German domination, and the fate of Egypt would be carved out in Rome and Berlin for all time 9937: 4932: 1093: 83: 6150: 1669:, concluding that "t"e democratic system is still the best, most appropriate system that the human race has even known."The Egyptian journalist 12432: 5854: 2990: 5876: 2086:

on 23 May 1941, to support their cause. This order began: "The Arab Freedom Movement in the Middle East is our natural ally against England."

1344:

Abdelhamid Ben Badis, who was tolerant of different religions and cultures. When he discovered that the leaders of the pro-fascist group, the

12614: 10894: 6935:

Trois années de camps Un an de camp de concentration Deux ans de centre disciplinaire Djenien-Bou-Rezg sud oranais (1940 à 1943 régime Vichy)

1166:

due to Nazi Germany hostilities against British and French forces in the Middle East while others fought along allied forces both within the

375:, a sentiment which was echoed in deprecating statements made by Hitler and other Nazi leaders. Referring to the Arab world, Hitler wrote in 10869: 4212: 3731:

is driven by a multiplicity of points of view. At the time, one could single out four major ideological currents, which extend from western

3331:, specifically regarding its historic anti-semitism, authoritarian and nationalist tendencies. The historian Stephen Wild in his 1985 paper 3011: 211:, Hitler complained that Italy's colonies in the Libya and East Africa damaged the credibility of the Axis powers as an anti-colonial force: 177:'s skills in politics and military leadership. Minor Nazi party branches were established in the Middle East before the war by local German 849: 193: 6267: 4001: 2166:. Thabit complained: "Every day a sports competition! Every day a sporting exercise! Every day a parade!" ... "when you ask a student on 2050:. From 1–2 June 1941, immediately after the collapse of the pro-Fascist Rashid Ali government in Iraq, al-Husseini and others inspired a 2479:. During the celebrations, loud enough for the French attendees to hear him, he said: "I must inform you that, just as in the past, the 363:. Let us think as men and let us see in these peoples at best lacquered half-apes who are anxious to experience the lash." The official 66:

and propaganda throughout the Arab world in search of alliance for their political goals. One foundation of such collaborations was the

12599: 755: 739:

publications, most notably "Libya al-Musawara", and films from the colonial period indicate numerous visits to Libya by officials from

6848: 3405:. He claims that Wild's translation was out of order, out of context and incorrect. The full, correctly translated al-Jundi quote was: 1811:

was an Egyptian officer who was suspected by the British to be in contact with the Axis early in the war. On May 16, 1941, during the

1665:, while teaching law in Baghdad, argued that Nazism was also anti-Arab as well. al-Sanhuri denounced fascism in an essay he wrote for 1056: 3896: 3390: 1710:

and argued that the West should abandon appeasement and should instead confront Germany. One of the pioneers of Egyptian literature,

409:" status by the Nazis for his close collaboration with Hitler and the Third Reich. After a meeting with al-Husseini, Hitler remarked: 249: 134:

levies. German Arabic propaganda was launched to stoke anti-Allied sentiment in the region. In 1941, the German Foreign Office noted:

8892:"Salim Khayyata, 'Oppressed Ethiopia, or The Start of The Final Fight Against Colonialism in the Period of its Downfall' (Excerpts)" 6698: 459:

Embassy in Berlin complained to the Reich Ministry of the Interior that a student had been attacked and insulted in a dance hall in

12460: 5943: 4006: 1542:

alongside Jews. He explains how the camp commander Lieutenant Deriko tried to provoke fighting between Arabs and Jews at the site:

804:

of Jordan to seek cooperation with Arab issues. The German foreign office refused to arrange a meeting with the Syrian nationalist

8199: 5907: 4226: 4192: 3856: 1002: 208: 8817: 7704: 3099:

resolved to find a definitive solution for the Jewish danger that will eliminate the scourge that Jews represent in the world.

2700: 1987:. The article argued that dictatorship, a nation led by "strength" and "virtue" instead of "words", was needed for Iraq, citing 12084:"Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings" 6372: 2982: 2965: 2782: 2182: 994: 833: 661: 7679:"Liberal Democratic Legacies in Modern Egypt: The Role of the Intellectuals, 1900–1950 - Ideas | Institute for Advanced Study" 4435: 4178: 2954:, Revisionist Zionists, and others), most notably in the Haavurah Agreement, to facilitate emigration to Mandatory Palestine. 1030:(SS) units, and as propagandists for the Arabic-speaking world. The range of collaborative activities was wide. For instance, 573: 12176: 11992: 11818: 11462: 11363: 11250: 11010: 10991: 10774: 10692: 10665: 10637: 10610: 10582: 10364: 10090:

The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry 1933-1945, by Nora Levin, (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company; 1968) p. 130

10006: 9996: 9832: 9530: 9180: 9123: 8691: 8312: 8255: 8230: 8182: 8093: 7910: 7871: 7662: 7466: 6882: 6780: 6446: 6397: 5977: 5770: 5707: 5658: 5545: 5440: 5400: 5381: 5323: 4600: 4482: 4330: 3938: 3861: 3104: 3032: 2283:

the city. Later, while in Palestine for medical reasons, the president of the Jewish community of Basra sent a letter to the

1782:

which were produced during that time frequently satirized politics in Egypt as well as foreign affairs. Cartoons produced by

1364:, whose efforts saved scores of Jews in Europe, though he took more personal risk as a Muslim in the French colony. In 1941, 1345: 824:

around the same time had a similar policy regarding the hostilities between the French colonists and the Arabs in the region:

306:. Earlier in this meeting, Hitler claimed that one of the three reasons why Nazi Germany had some interest in the Arabs was: 11202:"Living Propaganda and Self-Serving Recruitment: The Nazi Rationale for the German-Arab Training Unit, May 1941 to May 1943" 10730:

Motadel, David (3 March 2016). "Arab Responses to Fascism and Nazism: Attraction and Repulsion, edited by Israel Gershoni".

10103:: The Dramatic Story of the Pact between the Third Reich and Jewish Palestine" by Edwin Black (New York: First Dialog; 2009) 9320: 8865: 6437:

Muʾaddab, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-; Stora, Benjamin (2013). "The Diverse Reactions to Nazism by Leaders in the Muslim Countries".

2609:

by a German officer. Though Ahmed Pasha did sign anti-Jewish legislation, forced by the French Resident-General of Tunisia,

2577: 2022:, it provided air support. On May 30th, Younis al-Sabawi, a leader of the al-Muthana club and who had previously translated 12397: 12331:

Laskier, Michael M. (1994). "Under Vichy and the Nazi-German Menace: The Jews of North Africa during the 1930s and 1940s".

9150: 8716: 3792: 3039: 2844:

and 'Azmi al-Nashashibi, who openly criticized German and Italian policies and supported collaboration with Great Britain.

2471:'s quarter of a million Jews to the killing factories of Europe," and, in an act of defiance, insisted on inviting all the 9652:"A German-language propaganda pamphlet signed by General von Arnim, addressed to the population of Tunisia, December 1942" 6318: 433: 12136:"Defending the French Revolution during World War II: Raif Khoury and the Intellectual Challenge of Nazism in the Levant" 6486: 3891: 3812: 2393: 2336: 2214:

Yusuf Salman Yusuf, from The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (1978) - Hanna Batatu, pg.454

597:

on July 6, 1942, where he was murdered on either January 9 or March 5, 1943- his prisoner number was 45730. The Moroccan

7619: 3442:

He also cites a 1938 essay by al-Arsuzi where he argues that the two major semitic groups, Arabs and Jews, should unite:

2716:

published an article which contained the following statement: "There will be no peace in Europe until the spirit of the

2027:

detention centers. Kadoori and several other leading members of the Jewish community secretly met with mayor of Baghdad

975: 12594: 12274: 12195: 12034: 11956: 11500: 11070: 6525: 5169: 4515: 3702:

The Zionist narrative of the Arab world is based centrally around one figure who is ubiquitous in this whole issue—the

2908: 2767: 2606: 2262:

had weapons distributed to the Futuwwa youth movement and instructed them to attack local Jews. In response, the local

1917: 1563: 9691:"The Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin el-Husseini, and his diplomatic activity during world war II (October 1941 - July 1943)" 9369: 6949: 4026:

The Auschwitz Memorial and Museum puts the number of Muslims at 58, but this includes Muslim Soviets prisoners of war

3983: 1179: 488:

was one of those Egyptians, a doctor who was fired from his hospital and banned from practicing medicine for being a "

12568: 12449: 12416: 12378: 12359: 12340: 12296: 12255: 12124: 12072: 12053: 12011: 11926: 11841: 11616: 11594: 11550: 11523: 11481: 11394:"Year of the Typhus: Operation Torch through the eyes of Tunisian women, or how to make the Holocaust an Arab story?" 11382: 11138: 11108: 11089: 10972: 10943: 10924: 10241: 9548:"Year of the Typhus: Operation Torch through the eyes of Tunisian women, or how to make the Holocaust an Arab story?" 8025: 7497: 6618: 6212: 6185: 6002: 5819: 4145: 3345: 3311: 3276: 2912: 1866:

to appoint a pro-Allied prime minister, Sadat furthered his plans for a coup. He met with the Islamist leader of the

657: 540:

in April 1945. Soulayman K., a Lebanese man, was sent to Brandenburg for having a relationship with a German woman.

393:, which denigrated Arabs as racially inferior, individual Arabs who assisted the Third Reich by fighting against the 8593: 2386:, even meeting him multiples times, causing him to be criticized by other Arabs. Arslan was approached to translate 1340:

Tayeb el-Okbi was a member of the Algerian Islah (Reform) Party, and he was also a friend of the prominent Algerian

676: 641: 513: 11518:] (in French). Translated by Todd, Jane Marie; Smith, Michael B. Princeton University Press. pp. 349–374. 9879:"A Belated Inclusion: Jewish Volunteers in the Spanish Civil War and Their Place in the Israeli National Narrative" 7991: 3657: 3081:

to know what the Nazis had done... constitute a powerful argument against Holocaust deniers. Husseini reports that

2850:, a British official involved in supporting the Arab anti-fascist station, remarked on how independent it operated: 699: 680: 629: 10684:

The closed circle: an interpretation of the Arabs G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series

7484: 5027: 4369:

Hitler's apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi legacy, Robert S. Wistrich, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 17 Oct 1985, page 59

2625:. So did Si Ali Sakkat, a local land owner, took in sixty Jews who escaped from a nearby labor camp. According to 12609: 9472: 5786: 3973: 3761: 3573: 2904: 143: 12407:

Nicosia, Francis (1986). "Fritz Grobba and the Middle East Policy of the Third Reich". In Ingram, Edward (ed.).

11543:

The Secret War for the Middle East: the Influence of Axis and Allied Intelligence Operations during World War II

11422:"Partners against Anti-Semitism: Muslims and Jews respond to Nazism in French North African colonies, 1936–1940" 11393: 7513: 6347:"80 years ago, Nazi Germany occupied Tunisia – but North Africans' experiences of World War II often go unheard" 2529:

was a 20th century Moroccan Salafi Islamic scholar, most famous for English translations of the Quran, known as

7144:"Egyptian Liberalism in an Age of "Crisis of Orientation": Al-Risāla'S Reaction to Fascism and Nazism, 1933–39" 7051:"Egyptian Liberalism in an Age of "Crisis of Orientation": Al-Risala's Reaction to Fascism and Nazism, 1933-39" 3787: 3409:

We were racialists, admiring Nazism, reading its books and the source of its thought, particularly Nietzsche's

3382: 3207:". The Italian foreign ministry approved al-Husseini's proposal, recommended giving him a grant of one million 2927: 2526: 2323:

Khoury often used both Islamic religious and socialist secular imagery in his writings, commenting on both the

2055: 1859: 1197: 1100: 672: 645: 543:

Arabs who participated in the resistance were persecuted the worst. Arab members of the French communist group

3604:

The Arabic-speaking world has attracted particular attention from historians who have examined the history of

956:. In particular, the Nazis had considerable impact on the new generation of political thinkers and activists. 12604: 12388:

Hillgruber, Andreas (1988). "The Third Reich and the Near and Middle East, 1933-1939". In Dann, Uriel (ed.).

11302: 11151:

Arab nationalism in interwar period Iraq: A descriptive analysis of Sami Shawkat's al-Futuwwah youth movement

11099:

Gershoni, Israel; Schroeter, Daniel J.; Webman, Esther (2018). Nicosia, Francis R.; Ergene, Boğaç A. (eds.).

5104: 3637: 3542: 3500: 3178: 3154: 3042:

rather than let them find asylum in Palestine (it is not entirely clear whether al-Husseini was aware of the

2873: 2598: 2546: 2530: 2339:, wrote scathing reports on the rise of fascism in Europe and specifically the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. 949: 665: 653: 633: 610: 504: 478: 390: 2781:

in which he argued that Nazism is entirely contrary to Islamic beliefs. Sidqi had previously fought for the

1699: 1538:

concentration camp. Berkani's memoirs are unique in that they provide an insight into life as a Muslim in a

499: 12207:"Germany's Relations with Iraq and Transjordan from the Weimar Republic to the End of the Second World War" 11331:"Islamic Nationalism through the Airwaves: Taqī al-Dīn al-Hilālī's Encounter with Shortwave Radio, 1937–39" 6240: 5435:. Publications on the Near East University of Washington. Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press. p. 138. 5130: 4290:

Nafi, Basheer M. "The Arabs and the Axis: 1933-1940". Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 19, Issue 2, Spring 1997

3953: 3886: 3846: 3640:, arguing the document deliberately ignored and underplayed Egypt's contribution to the Allies in the war. 3632: 3521:

symbolizing the threats to the community noticeably paralleled National Socialist anti-communist agitation.

2951: 2894: 2602: 1491:. Between 200,000 and 250,000 North African Muslims served in the French armies on the Allied side. In the 907:

January – April 1941, a supplementary magazine produced by Radio Bari with details of its Arabic broadcasts

625: 594: 544: 5908:"President Trump mistakenly states that Kurds did not help us during World War II, here is the real story" 4906: 2638:

Moncef Bey was later ousted from power, with the French claiming that he was a Nazi collaborator. General

2224: 2007: 1976: 1010: 695:

named Mohamed Bouayad - was killed in a gas chamber at Mauthausen only eleven days before its liberation.

590: 115: 35: 4989: 3968: 3928: 3871: 3387: 3266: 2797:

Sidqi was not the only Palestinian Arab who supported the Republicans. Nagib Yussof was an member of the

2622: 2363: 2018:. While Nazi Germany was not openly allied with the government of Iraq like Fascist Italy was during the 1588:

member to be invaded. The paper also denounced Germany's aggressive expansion before the war. The weekly

836:. Soon after the outbreak of the revolt, in December 1936, Germany was approached by the rebel commander 553:, Mohamed Mould Abdallah and the Algerians Bouzid Kheloufi and Mohamed Tirouche, who volunteered for the 493: 7283: 3592:

and the Axis powers, he issued a lengthy letter to the editor-in-chef, restating that the SSNP is not a

3239:

in the German Army that hunted down Allied parachutists in the Balkans and fought on the Russian front.

2942:

inconsistently cooperated with a variety of Jewish organizations and efforts (e.g., Hanotaiah Ltd., the

2934:

which was supposed to be used as a place of refuge for Jews was "still internationally recognized". The

2794:

describe it as 'chaotic paganism'. He ended the book arguing that Arabs should mobilize for the Allies.

1702:

denounced Hitler's racial theories after Mein Kampf was translated into Arabic. The Egyptian journalist

1153: 724: 442:. Nazi harassment of Arabs began as early as 1932, where members of the Egyptian Student Association in 12520:"Arab Nationalism and National Socialist Germany, 1933-1939: Ideological and Strategic Incompatibility" 11126: 9992: 5482:"Review of Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World; From Empathy to Denial: Arab Responses to the Holocaust" 2816:

and Nazi Germany, leading to over 12,000 Palestinian Arab volunteers to serve in the British army. The

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responded: "Your racism runs in all direction, today against the Jews, and always against the Arabs."

1248: 1228:, a captain of Jewish heritage, was convicted of treason with forged documents. According to historian 649: 568:

was murdered by the Nazis for participating in the communist resistance. In his final letter, he wrote:

223: 159: 11661:"Islam as a 'Giant Progressive Leap'—Religious Critiques of Fascism and National Socialism, 1933-1945" 10847: 4940: 4831: 2483:

will remain under my protection...I refuse to make any distinction between my subjects." For example,

2083: 12589: 11562:"Borrowing from Mussolini: Nazi Germany's Colonial Aspirations in the Shadow of Italian Expansionism" 7375: 4766: 3881: 3698:

and anti-Axis (as evidenced by the high number of Arabs who fought for Allied forces). Achcar states:

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Egyptian officials were in contact with the Axis during the war. In 1941, the Egyptian Ambassador in

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and Hitler. Al-Hakim, through Scheherazade, argues with Hitler in favor of democracy against Nazism.

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was a growing movement among French political elites. One of the worst cases was in 1870, during the

637: 537: 352: 333: 11853:"The Palestinian National Movement and its Attitude toward the Fascist and Nazi Movements 1925-1945" 11745:"The Invention of "Islamofascism". Nazi Propaganda to the Arab World and Perceptions from Palestine" 10835: 8980: 7678: 5625: 5586: 3772:

flirted with Nazism for a time, but it was a fickle, weathercock party. As for accusations that the

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Achcar then notes that although al-Husseini's motivation to block Jewish emigration into Palestine:

2674:

In an interview after the war, one of Bourguiba's fellow prisoners, Dr. Slimane Ben Slimane, stated:

2504:

In August 1933, Muhammed al-Kholti, a Moroccan nationalist, wrote "The Jews and Us" in the magazine

1847:(1977), describe how he saw the military as the key to sparking revolution in Egypt, similar to the 11561: 11421: 11262:"Nationalsozialismus als Antikolonialismus: die deutsche Rundfunkpropaganda für die arabische Welt" 5053: 4741: 3978: 3958: 3943: 3769: 3537: 3531: 3368:

We were racialists, admiring Nazism, reading its books and the source of its thought, particularly

3036: 2284: 1829: 1759: 1662: 621: 517: 398: 303: 75: 11161:"Palestinians fighting against Nazis: The story of Palestinian volunteers in the Second World War" 10814: 10354: 9827:. Routledge/Canada Blanch studies on contemporary Spain. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge. 6732: 6672: 6560: 4716: 4691: 4136: 3420: 3319: 3195:

on 10 October 1941. He outlined his proposals before Alberto Ponce de Leon. On condition that the

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Der Mufti von Jerusalem und die Nationalsozialisten. Eine politische Biographie Amin el-Husseinis

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texte, Centre national d'information sur les prisonniers de guerre Auteur du (18 February 1941).

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and Hitler, concluding that "Germany cannot support the Arabs with money or with arms." In 1935,

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saved several Jewish lives during the Holocaust, and was the first Arab to be nominated for the

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to flee the city, preventing him from broadcasting his planned anti-semitic speech on the radio.

226:

evokes the same sneering chuckle now as it did before the war. This title, which is fitting for

12619: 10100: 9849:"Liberating Palestine in Spain: Novel on Palestinian Arab Volunteers in the IB - The Volunteer" 9093: 8426: 5797: 4217: 4183: 3963: 3744: 3695: 3625: 3378: 3373: 3162: 2922:" emphasized motivating German Jews to emigrate from German territory. During this period, the 2238:

Yusuf Salman Yusuf - also known as "Comrade Fahd" - leader of the Iraqi Communist Party in 1941

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to fight fascism. Kotani was promoted to corporal and later sergeant for his service in Spain.

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On 11 June 1941, Hitler and the supreme commander of the armed forces issued Directive No. 32:

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in Italy broadcast defeatist messages to the region in the hope of triggering an Arab revolt.

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The Press in the Middle East and North Africa, 1850–1950: Politics, Social History and Culture

10627: 7657:. Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 289–322. 5760: 5697: 5648: 5535: 5157: 3564: 2046:

By June 1st, the leaders of the coup had fled the city, coinciding with the Jewish holiday of

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Abitbol, Michel (2013). "Confronting Nazism". In Meddeb, Abdelwahab; Stora, Benjamin (eds.).

10682: 10605:. Hoover-Institution-publication. Stanford, Calif: Hoover Institution Press. pp. 33–34. 9910: 9878: 9286: 8818:

https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/mukafahat-al-fashishtiyya-combatting-fascism

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Massive programs of propaganda were launched in the Arab world: first, they were launched by

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In total, the historian Gerhard Höpp has confirmed the existence of 450 Arab inmates in Nazi

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The Record of Collaboration of King Farouk of Egypt with the Nazis and Their Ally, the Mufti

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and pro-Fascist forces, these scholars have tended to emphasize the appeal that Fascism and

2246:, a massacre of Iraqi Jews in Baghdad, the mufti of Mosul, Sheikh Ibrahim al-Rumi, promised 1657:

Hitler: Why are you so disappointed? Why did you enter the war? From Ākhir sāʼah. 1940-07-21

1188:

The poster was printed in the Algerian journal "an-Nasr" (Triumph) in June 1943. It depicts

12117:

Iraqi Arab Nationalism: Authoritarian, Totalitarian and Pro-Fascist Inclinations, 1932–1941

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slaying Nazism. The text reads, "By God, against the swastika, the enemy of all religions".

844:, both requesting arms and money, but again in vain. In July al-Husayni himself approached 801: 364: 322:"did not find it useful" to point out to his Arab visitors at that meeting that until then 130:

government which was swiftly overthrown by British forces with the help of local Christian

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Lessons of the Iraqi De-Ba'athification Program for Iraq's Future and the Arab Revolutions

9956:"12,000 Palestinians Fought for U.K. in WWII Alongside Jewish Volunteers, Historian Finds" 8645:"Far from Baghdad, Two Iraqi Volunteers in the XVth International Brigade - The Volunteer" 7256: 4046: 3580:

in 1932 adopted styles of fascism. Its emblem, the red hurricane, was taken from the Nazi

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National and International Politics in the Middle East: Essays in Honour of Elie Kedourie

11303:"Multivariable Casablanca: Vichy Law, Jewish Diversity, and the Moroccan Communist Party" 11241:

Roberts, Sophie B (2017). "Rupture: Vichy, State Antisemitism, and the Crémieux Decree".

10577:. Hoover-Institution-publication. Stanford, Calif: Hoover Institution Press. p. 15. 7836: 7809: 7782: 7755: 7190: 7116: 7023: 6646: 6530: 6088: 5811: 5185: 3369: 3236: 3174: 3086:

let him in on a secret that... Germany would have an atomic bomb in three years' time...

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in Tunisia, killing over 2,500 Tunisian Jews, including the famous Tunisian Jewish boxer

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Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East & North Africa: D-K Por Philip Mattar, p. 860

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Office of Strategic Service US Army Forces in the Middle East No.8043 October 10th, 1943

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We were idealists, basing social relationships on love. The Master used to speak about

3235:

Al-Husseini helped organize Arab students and North African emigres in Germany into the

1733:

was an outspoken critic of Nazism and a supporter of liberal democracy; he even fled to

438:

While Arabs were a small population in Europe at the time, they were not free from Nazi

70:

of the Nazis, which was shared by some Arab and Muslim leaders, most notably the exiled

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North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century: The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria

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The World in World Wars: Experiences, Perceptions and Perspectives from Africa and Asia

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Israel Gershoni, Arab Responses to Fascism and Nazism - Attraction and Repulsion, p. 3.

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in 1934, his request for Nazi assistance for the Arab world was denied by the diplomat

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Höpp, Gerhard (2010). "The Suppressed Discourse: Arab Victims of National Socialism".

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The Near East since the First World War: a history to 1995. A history of the Near East

8866:"The early history of Lebanese Communism reconsidered - Alexander Flores | libcom.org" 6805: 3830: 3776:

was, from the very outset in the 1940s, inspired by Nazism, they are completely false.

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radically increase the immigration rate of German and other European Jews to Palestine

2227:, due to its genuine popularity among the anti-British Iraqi masses. Communist leader 1316: 1300: 1201: 12564: 12551: 12445: 12412: 12393: 12374: 12369:

Tripp, Charles (1993). "Ali Mahir and the Politics of the Egyptian Army, 1936–1942".

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have stressed the anti-Fascist and anti-Nazi voices and movements in the Arab world.

3609: 3231:) interests of the Arabs, and as the Jewish question was solved in Germany and Italy. 3219: 2923: 2841: 2786: 2586: 2459:

Sultan of Morocco Muhammad V with FDR and Churchill at the 1943 Casablanca Conference

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ordering Muslims not to attack Jews. His actions were compared to French Archbishops

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Back in the summer of 1940 and again in February 1941, al-Husseini submitted to the

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with our colleagues Pitard and Rolnikas, to the German section of the Health Prison.

503:

Death certificate of Mohamed Bouayad, a Moroccan who was killed in a gas chamber in

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The Grand Mufti: Haj Amin al-Hussaini, Founder of the Palestinian National Movement

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Arabic Thought Beyond the Liberal Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the Nahda

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Cameron, Norman; Stevens, R. H.; Weinberg, Gerhard L.; Trevor-Roper, H. R. (2007).

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was composed of both Arabs and Jews, which eventually lead to the formation of the

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that if Egypt were to fall to Germany, Egypt would not enact any anti-Jewish laws.

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and Europe, notably with British and Soviet forces in a variety of military roles.

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Jewish and Greek Communities in Egypt: Entrepreneurship and Business before Nasser

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The Mufti of Jerusalem: Haj Amin al-Husseini and the Palestinian National Movement

2495:, more than 2,100 Moroccan troops were killed and 18,000 were taken prisoner. The 2413: 2135:

let me know, so that I can read it, too." In frustration, the German drives away.

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Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach Into Arab Lands

11577: 11437: 10231: 7992:"Kimon Evan Marengo [Kem] - British Cartoon Archive - University of Kent" 6933: 6072: 5863: 3512:

Nordbruch writes on the relationship between early Ba'athist thinkers and Nazism:

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which revolves on the race. We were the first to think of translating Mein Kampf.

3335:

briefly draws a direct line between these two ideologies. He cites the fact that

2919: 2650: 2437: 2159: 2028: 2019: 2015: 1903: 1870: 1863: 1825: 1812: 1711: 1681: 1584:, criticizing not just the brutal Italian conquest, but the world for allowing a 1568: 1455: 1284: 1240: 1213: 1209: 1021: 1017: 998: 562: 418: 284: 131: 123: 111: 96: 11901: 11868: 11793: 11711:"Arab Fascism – Arabs and Fascism : Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives" 11149: 10292: 4642:""Jeopardies of Memory": Arab Inmates in National Socialist Concentration Camps" 1516:

Mohammed Arezki Berkani was an Algerian nationalist who was an active member of

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Arab Nationalism: The Politics of History and Culture in the Modern Middle East

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Moroccan Jews pay homage to 'protector' – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News

4029:"Which Religious Denominations Did the People Deported to Auschwitz Belong To?" 3905: 3712: 3518: 3398: 3293:

The Arab Palestinians don't need Fascists or Nazis to be motivated against the

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from 1957 to 1987. When World War II began, he was residing a French prison in

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Except from the letter the Iraqi Communist Party sent to the Gaylani government

2038: 1999: 1832:, with many of the same officers involved, including future president of Egypt 1815:, al-Masri attempted to fly to Iraq, but the plane lost power and crashed near 1767: 1435: 1418: 1381: 1276: 1225: 1221: 1125: 1117: 1085: 782: 751: 669: 485: 406: 315: 280: 189: 87: 12535: 12442:

Islam Against the West: Shakib Arslan and the Campaign for Islamic Nationalism

12222: 12151: 12099: 11836:] (in German). Translated by Gunn, Alexander Fraser. Vallentine Mitchell. 11760: 11676: 11643: 11346: 10526: 10216: 9706: 9651: 8250:(1st ed.). London: Third World Centre for Research and Pub. p. 247. 7436: 7159: 7066: 6790: 6487:"Jews stand up for Muslims, as Muslims once stood up for them | +972 Magazine" 5135: