156:, and found that the penultimate glacial period's presence was felt in central China. The dating showed an increased presence of oxygen-18, an isotope that reflects the meteoric water and cave temperature, as well as precipitation of the penultimate glacial period. This data led to the confirmation of intense monsoons that impacted most of south-east Asia, and up to modern day Xi'an China. The increase in the intensity of monsoons was due to the orbital shifting of the planet, but was amplified by the ice sheets that formed for the same reason. These factors combined then affected the atmospheric hydrological cycle, creating more intense seasonal winds that led to increased precipitation over south-east Asia.
20:
1203:
2071:
118:, the biggest expansion of glaciation of the last 400,000 years covered the northern region in a thick ice sheet, which caused a drastic reduction of vegetation. In the Mediterranean, polar winds from the now extended ice sheets brought cooler and wetter conditions that caused a significant reduction in large vegetation such as trees. Pollen sequences found from MIS 6 indicated that early in the glacial period, tree abundance fluctuated heavily.
165:
ice sheet in North
America have shown that a smaller ice sheet is probable, as the simulation produced weather data that is consistent with hypothesized temperatures at the time. This simulation showed the precipitation rates over North America doubled during MIS6, which would have been a result of the icy winds expanding southward further into the continent, as well as the increased storms.
364:
Jouzel, J.; Barkov, N. I.; Barnola, J. M.; Bender, M.; Chappellaz, J.; Genthon, C.; Kotlyakov, V. M.; Lipenkov, V.; Lorius, C.; Petit, J. R.; Raynaud, D.; Raisbeck, G.; Ritz, C.; Sowers, T.; Stievenard, M.; Yiou, F.; Yiou, P. (July 1993). "Extending the Vostok ice-core record of palaeoclimate to the
164:
In contrast to Europe, there is no geological evidence to support a similarly sized ice sheet in North
America. Ice-rafted debris from the Hudson area indicates that during MIS6, there were far fewer icebergs in the North Atlantic than in the last glacial period. Simulations testing the extent of an
84:
of Earth. This eccentricity causes greater seasonal impacts than normal because it limits the amount of sunlight that reaches the earth's surface, lowering the temperature. Due to this, northern insolation (the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface) is reduced, meaning that during summer, less
55:
in the last 400,000 years over
Eurasia, and could be the second or third coolest glacial period over the last 1,000,000 years, as shown by ice cores. Due to this, the global sea level dropped to between 92 and 150 metres below modern-day global mean sea level. The penultimate glacial period expanded
121:
Later in the glacial period, extreme conditions were followed by a mainly treeless landscape all across Europe. This rendered Europe a polar desert just south of the now expanded ice sheets, and the rest of Europe was left with a sporadic herb based plant cover. Europe north of the
176:
In South
America, the intensity of the South American Summer Monsoon (SASM) varied with a cyclical periodicity of about 3,500 years, with gradual increases in the SASM's strength being punctuated by sudden decreases. These sudden decreases are thought to be related to
218:
during the
Penultimate Glacial Period which reduced numbers to a low level, but a 2012 analysis of three modern African populations finds no evidence for a bottleneck at this time. The dislocation of vegetation during the PGP was thought to have displaced
684:
Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Wang, Yongjin; Kong, Xinggong; Ming, Yanfang; Kelly, Megan J.; Wang, Xianfeng; Gallup, Christina D.; Liu, Weiguo (1 March 2006). "A penultimate glacial monsoon record from Hulu Cave and two-phase glacial terminations".
585:
Wainer, Karine; Genty, Dominique; Blamart, Dominique; Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Quinif, Yves; Plagnes, Valérie (15 April 2013). "Millennial climatic instability during penultimate glacial period recorded in a south-western France speleothem".
126:
was a tundra-steppe of predominantly grasses, sedges, and chenopods, while land south of the Alps featured discontinuous steppe vegetation patterns. There were some refugia in the sheltered areas of the mountainous Alps and the western
56:
ice sheets and shifted temperature zones worldwide, which had a variety of effects on the world's environment, and the organisms that lived in it. At its height, the penultimate glacial period was a more severe glaciation than the
500:
Holbourn, Ann; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Clemens, Steven; Prell, Warren; Andersen, Nils (December 2013). "Middle to late
Miocene stepwise climate cooling: Evidence from a high-resolution deep water isotope curve spanning 8 million years".
839:; Opitz, Stephan; Noren, Anders; Roberts, Helen M.; Stockhecke, Mona; Tiedemann, Ralph; Vidal, Céline M.; Vogelsang, Ralf; Cohen, Andrew S.; Lamb, Henry F.; Schaebitz, Frank; Trauth, Martin H. (26 September 2022).
85:
heat is exposed to the snows of the winter, which don't completely melt. This buildup of ice and snow over thousands of years eventually leads to residual ice sheets, which would also reflect light away from the
280:
Colleoni, Florence; Wekerle, Claudia; Näslund, Jens-Ove; Brandefelt, Jenny; Masina, Simona (1 April 2016). "Constraint on the penultimate glacial maximum
Northern Hemisphere ice topography (≈140 kyrs BP)".
131:
where tree populations survived. This was due to temperature variations not being extreme in these locations, as well as precipitation still being sufficient. This is unlike the rest of Europe, such as in
834:
Foerster, Verena; Asrat, Asfawossen; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher; Brown, Erik T.; Chapot, Melissa S.; Deino, Alan; Duesing, Walter; Grove, Matthew; Hahn, Annette; Junginger, Annett; Kaboth-Bahr, Stefanie;
193:
downward, and oak trees occupying the
Mediterranean coast, disappeared. This is thought to have occurred due to southward migration of the subtropical, and high pressure zone of the Mediterranean.
223:, although studies have shown that the region which the early humans occupied was very lightly disturbed, and a bottleneck due to the Penultimate Glacial Period is thus unlikely to have occurred.
465:
Roucoux, K. H.; Tzedakis, P. C.; Lawson, I. T.; Margari, V. (August 2011). "Vegetation history of the penultimate glacial period (Marine isotope stage 6) at
Ioannina, north-west Greece".
43:. The penultimate glacial period is officially unnamed just like the Last Glacial Period. The PGP lasted from ~194,000 years ago, to ~135,000 years ago, and was succeeded by the
136:
where pollen samples revealed a precipitation decrease of almost 60% compared to the modern day. The drastic changes in the climate also resulted in increased storms in the
101:
was absorbed, and more light was reflected off the ice sheets, furthermore expanding the ice sheets, this self-reinforcing cooling setting the world into a glacial period.
93:, are a result of the expanded ice sheets. This is because as the Earth cooled, and ice sheets expanded, the ocean waters became colder, which then could absorb more CO
536:
Baumann, Karl-Heinz; Lackschewitz, Klas S.; Mangerud, Jan; Spielhagen, Robert F.; Wolf-Welling, Thomas C.W.; Henrich, Rüdiger; Kassens, Heidemarie (1 March 1995).
1074:
1134:
1160:
720:
Batchelor, Cameron J.; Orland, Ian J.; Marcott, Shaun A.; Slaughter, Richard; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Zhang, Pu; Li, Xianglei; Cheng, Hai (2019-11-28).
196:
The time interval during which the PGP took place coincided with numerous important phases of hominin evolution in Africa, including the evolution of
1411:
1857:
640:
Van Andel, T.; Tzedakis, P. C. (1 January 1996). "Palaeolithic landscapes of Europe and environs, 150,000-25,000 years ago: An overview".
1851:
1202:
1785:
1761:
1749:
1404:
1791:
985:
2031:
168:
A 2019 study suggested that the
Penultimate Glacial Period was warmer in North America than the Last Glacial Period.
2021:
1724:
1397:
908:
Civel-Mazens, M.; Crosta, X.; Cortese, G.; Michel, E.; Mazaud, A.; Ther, O.; Ikehara, M.; Itaki, T. (1 July 2021).
1718:
769:"Millennial and orbital scale variability of the South American Monsoon during the penultimate glacial period"
325:"Resequencing Data Provide No Evidence for a Human Bottleneck in Africa during the Penultimate Glacial Period"
1337:
538:"Reflection of Scandinavian Ice Sheet Fluctuations in Norwegian Sea Sediments during the Past 150,000 Years"
415:
Manabe, S.; Broccoli, A. J. (1985). "The influence of continental ice sheets on the climate of an ice age".
1452:
767:
Burns, Stephen J.; Welsh, Lisa Kanner; Scroxton, Nick; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence (4 February 2019).
178:
910:"Antarctic Polar Front migrations in the Kerguelen Plateau region, Southern Ocean, over the past 360 kyrs"
2115:
1815:
917:
2120:
1688:
537:
2026:
1682:
1457:
1219:
1112:
437:
97:
from the atmosphere. These factors all feedback into each other: as the ice sheets extended, more CO
2100:
1981:
1773:
1712:
721:
189:
Oceanic cores, taken from western Africa, show the deserts expanded, pushing the savannah and the
1730:
1225:
722:"Distinct Permafrost Conditions Across the Last Two Glacial Periods in Midlatitude North America"
1863:
1767:
1706:
1694:
1492:
1379:
1250:
1066:
978:
432:
210:, and other critical cultural and behavioural innovations. Several studies have suggested that
137:
2006:
1941:
1839:
1617:
1571:
1432:
1342:
1187:
1090:
1007:
1002:
48:
24:
2110:
2016:
1971:
1809:
1487:
1442:
1437:
1070:
1062:
1043:
926:
854:
782:
733:
694:
649:
595:
552:
510:
474:
424:
374:
290:
81:
57:
19:
8:
1966:
1755:
1666:
1362:
1296:
1277:
1273:
1244:
1152:
1078:
1039:
1029:
190:
40:
930:
909:
858:
786:
737:
698:
653:
599:
556:
514:
478:
428:
378:
323:
Sjödin, Per; E. Sjöstrand, Agnès; Jakobsson, Mattias; Blum, Michael G.B. (1 July 2012).
294:
80:
Much like the last glacial period, the penultimate glacial period was caused by a great
2046:
2041:
1976:
1315:
885:
840:
811:
773:
768:
390:
215:
207:
61:
51:(MIS6). At the glacial ages' height, it is known to be the most extensive expansion of
1530:
1058:
2105:
2095:
2074:
2051:
1946:
1632:
1520:
1126:
1118:
1100:
1086:
1082:
971:
942:
890:
872:
845:
816:
798:
749:
661:
346:
236:
69:
44:
938:
302:
1581:
1288:
1156:
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1104:
934:
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862:
806:
790:
741:
702:
657:
603:
560:
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482:
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394:
382:
336:
298:
89:, further cooling the earth. A decrease in greenhouse gas concentrations such as CO
65:
1920:
1889:
1821:
1803:
1561:
1540:
1462:
1447:
1148:
1140:
1096:
607:
841:"Pleistocene climate variability in eastern Africa influenced hominin evolution"
2056:
1925:
1884:
1352:
1347:
1332:
1265:
867:
836:
794:
232:
2089:
2036:
2001:
1833:
1827:
1797:
1779:
1700:
1642:
1591:
1576:
1535:
1144:
1130:
1122:
1051:
946:
876:
802:
753:
141:
446:
341:
324:
1986:
1951:
1472:
1467:
1357:
894:
820:
564:
350:
23:
Diagram of glacial cycles, with the Penultimate Glacial Period labelled as
1389:
2011:
1996:
1991:
1845:
1637:
1525:
1482:
1307:
1047:
745:
522:
1915:
1894:
1627:
1586:
1477:
1261:
1024:
1016:
240:
1236:
1211:
1179:
706:
535:
486:
386:
203:
1899:
1607:
1171:
1956:
1566:
1556:
1367:
1175:
994:
128:
52:
36:
279:
907:
719:
322:
133:
115:
833:
584:
1612:
1515:
198:
153:
86:
464:
1622:
963:
123:
499:
363:
16:
Glacial age that occurred before the Last Glacial Period
766:
683:
235:
expanded northwards until encompassing the northern
152:Isotope dating was conducted in Hulu Cave, eastern
639:
588:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2087:
239:, as evidenced by the maximum abundance of the
1858:Withrow Moraine and Jameson Lake Drumlin Field
414:
1405:
979:
1852:Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area
1419:
1412:
1398:
986:
972:
275:
273:
271:
269:
267:
884:
866:
810:
460:
458:
456:
436:
340:
580:
578:
576:
574:
410:
408:
406:
404:
318:
316:
314:
312:
60:. The PGP covers the last period of the
18:
635:
633:
631:
629:
627:
625:
623:
621:
619:
617:
264:
2088:
1786:Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail
1750:Chippewa Moraine State Recreation Area
679:
677:
675:
673:
671:
453:
1393:
967:
571:
401:
309:
68:in Britain, and is equivalent to the
956:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
614:
1792:Ice Age National Scientific Reserve
668:
13:
14:
2132:
1780:Horicon Marsh State Wildlife Area
2070:
2069:
1725:Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine
1201:
171:
159:
939:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103526
901:
827:
760:
713:
417:Journal of Geophysical Research
329:Molecular Biology and Evolution
303:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.01.024
47:. The PGP also occurred during
1788:, Idaho, Oregon and Washington
529:
493:
357:
140:, affecting Europe as well as
1:
2032:Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal
1338:Greenhouse and icehouse Earth
467:Journal of Quaternary Science
365:penultimate glacial period".
257:
248:Pseudodictyophimus gracilipes
226:
1453:Glacial history of Minnesota
993:
726:Geophysical Research Letters
662:10.1016/0277-3791(96)00028-5
608:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.02.026
7:
1816:Kettle Moraine State Forest
1719:Lion's Head Provincial Park
918:Global and Planetary Change
10:
2137:
1962:Penultimate Glacial Period
1689:Big Rock (glacial erratic)
1035:Penultimate Glacial Period
868:10.1038/s41561-022-01032-y
795:10.1038/s41598-018-37854-3
642:Quaternary Science Reviews
283:Quaternary Science Reviews
202:, the transition from the
104:
33:Penultimate Glacial Period
2065:
2027:Late Glacial Interstadial
1934:
1908:
1877:
1806:, Minnesota and Wisconsin
1740:
1683:Arrowhead Provincial Park
1675:
1659:
1600:
1549:
1508:
1501:
1458:List of prehistoric lakes
1425:
1376:
1325:
1306:
1287:
1260:
1235:
1210:
1199:
1170:
1015:
1001:
184:
179:Dansgaard-Oeschger events
109:
39:that occurred before the
1982:Holocene glacial retreat
1774:Glacial Lakes State Park
1713:Foothills Erratics Train
75:
2022:Bølling–Allerød warming
1762:Devil's Lake State Park
1731:Ovayok Territorial Park
1420:Continental glaciations
1226:Late Paleozoic icehouse
447:10.1029/JD090iD01p02167
147:
1864:Yosemite National Park
1768:Glacial Lake Wisconsin
1707:Eskers Provincial Park
1695:Cypress Hills (Canada)
1493:Timeline of glaciation
1380:Timeline of glaciation
1247:(579.88 to 579.63 Mya)
565:10.1006/qres.1995.1019
64:in Europe, called the
49:Marine Isotope Stage 6
28:
2007:Quaternary glaciation
1942:Quaternary glaciation
1840:Mill Bluff State Park
1804:Interstate State Park
1618:Giant current ripples
1433:Cordilleran ice sheet
1343:Great Oxidation Event
342:10.1093/molbev/mss061
254:during this glacial.
244:Dictyophimus bicornis
22:
2017:Wisconsin glaciation
1972:Last Glacial Maximum
1488:Post-glacial rebound
1443:Last Glacial Maximum
1438:Laurentide ice sheet
1228:(360 Mya to 260 Mya)
1222:(460 Mya to 430 Mya)
1044:Last Glacial Maximum
746:10.1029/2019GL083951
523:10.1002/2013PA002538
191:tropical rainforests
82:orbital eccentricity
58:Last Glacial Maximum
2002:Pre-Illinoian Stage
1967:Last Glacial Period
1756:Coteau des Prairies
1667:Greenland ice sheet
1363:Milankovitch cycles
1040:Last Glacial Period
931:2021GPC...20203526C
859:2022NatGe..15..805F
787:2019NatSR...9.1234B
738:2019GeoRL..4613318B
732:(22): 13318–13326.
699:2006Geo....34..217C
654:1996QSRv...15..481V
600:2013PPP...376..122W
557:1995QuRes..43..185B
545:Quaternary Research
515:2013PalOc..28..688H
479:2011JQS....26..616R
429:1985JGR....90.2167M
379:1993Natur.364..407J
295:2016QSRv..137...97C
208:Middle Palaeolithic
41:Last Glacial Period
2116:Pleistocene events
2047:4.2 kiloyear event
2042:8.2 kiloyear event
1977:Mousterian Pluvial
1709:, British Columbia
1276:(717 to 660 Mya);
1253:(547 to 541.5 Mya)
837:Lane, Christine S.
774:Scientific Reports
216:genetic bottleneck
72:in North America.
62:Saalian glaciation
29:
2121:Quaternary events
2083:
2082:
2052:Piora Oscillation
2012:Sangamonian Stage
1873:
1872:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1387:
1386:
1318:(2.9 to 2.78 Gya)
1197:
1196:
846:Nature Geoscience
373:(6436): 407–412.
237:Kerguelen Plateau
45:Last Interglacial
2128:
2073:
2072:
1673:
1672:
1598:
1597:
1582:Terminal moraine
1506:
1505:
1414:
1407:
1400:
1391:
1390:
1299:(2.4 to 2.1 Gya)
1289:Paleoproterozoic
1280:(650 to 635 Mya)
1205:
1013:
1012:
988:
981:
974:
965:
964:
958:
957:
955:
953:
914:
905:
899:
898:
888:
870:
831:
825:
824:
814:
764:
758:
757:
717:
711:
710:
707:10.1130/G22289.1
681:
666:
665:
648:(5–6): 481–500.
637:
612:
611:
582:
569:
568:
542:
533:
527:
526:
503:Paleoceanography
497:
491:
490:
487:10.1002/jqs.1483
462:
451:
450:
440:
412:
399:
398:
387:10.1038/364407a0
361:
355:
354:
344:
335:(7): 1851–1860.
320:
307:
306:
277:
252:P. platycephalus
66:Wolstonian Stage
2136:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2101:Holocene events
2086:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2061:
1947:Illinoian Stage
1930:
1921:Lambert Glacier
1904:
1890:Killary Harbour
1869:
1822:Lake Bonneville
1742:
1736:
1671:
1647:
1596:
1545:
1541:U-shaped valley
1531:Roche moutonnée
1497:
1463:Proglacial lake
1448:Canadian Shield
1421:
1418:
1388:
1383:
1372:
1321:
1302:
1283:
1256:
1231:
1206:
1193:
1190:(34 to 2.5 Mya)
1178:
1174:
1166:
1006:
997:
992:
962:
961:
951:
949:
912:
906:
902:
853:(10): 805–811.
832:
828:
765:
761:
718:
714:
682:
669:
638:
615:
583:
572:
540:
534:
530:
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463:
454:
438:10.1.1.352.9495
413:
402:
362:
358:
321:
310:
278:
265:
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229:
214:went through a
187:
174:
162:
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112:
107:
100:
96:
92:
78:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2134:
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2108:
2103:
2098:
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2080:
2078:
2077:
2066:
2063:
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2060:
2059:
2057:Little Ice Age
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1928:
1926:Ross Ice Shelf
1923:
1918:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1905:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1885:Hardangerfjord
1881:
1879:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1810:Kelleys Island
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1758:, South Dakota
1753:
1746:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1697:, Saskatchewan
1692:
1686:
1679:
1677:
1670:
1669:
1663:
1661:
1657:
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1653:
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1649:
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1584:
1579:
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1569:
1564:
1559:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1521:Glacial striae
1518:
1512:
1510:
1503:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
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1440:
1435:
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1427:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1416:
1409:
1402:
1394:
1385:
1384:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1353:Snowball Earth
1350:
1348:Little Ice Age
1345:
1340:
1335:
1333:Glacial period
1329:
1327:
1326:Related topics
1323:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1312:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1293:
1291:
1285:
1284:
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1281:
1270:
1268:
1266:Snowball Earth
1258:
1257:
1255:
1254:
1248:
1241:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1223:
1220:Andean-Saharan
1216:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1192:
1191:
1184:
1182:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1163:(2.5 to 0 Mya)
1137:
1115:
1093:
1055:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1010:
999:
998:
991:
990:
983:
976:
968:
960:
959:
900:
826:
759:
712:
693:(3): 217–220.
667:
613:
570:
551:(2): 185–197.
528:
509:(4): 688–699.
492:
473:(6): 616–626.
452:
400:
356:
308:
262:
261:
259:
256:
233:Antarctic Zone
228:
225:
186:
183:
173:
170:
161:
158:
149:
146:
138:North Atlantic
111:
108:
106:
103:
98:
94:
90:
77:
74:
37:glacial period
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2133:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2076:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2037:Younger Dryas
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1834:Lake Missoula
1832:
1829:
1828:Lake Lahontan
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1798:Ice Age Trail
1796:
1793:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1701:Eramosa River
1699:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1660:North America
1658:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1592:Veiki moraine
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1577:Rogen moraine
1575:
1573:
1572:Pulju moraine
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1562:Erratic block
1560:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1536:Tunnel valley
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1415:
1410:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1382:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1275:
1272:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1145:Pre-Illinoian
1142:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1123:Pre-Illinoian
1120:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1052:Younger Dryas
1049:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1008:Late Cenozoic
1004:
1000:
996:
989:
984:
982:
977:
975:
970:
969:
966:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
919:
911:
904:
896:
892:
887:
882:
878:
874:
869:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
847:
842:
838:
830:
822:
818:
813:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
775:
770:
763:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
716:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
680:
678:
676:
674:
672:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
636:
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
618:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
581:
579:
577:
575:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
539:
532:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
496:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
461:
459:
457:
448:
444:
439:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
411:
409:
407:
405:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
360:
352:
348:
343:
338:
334:
330:
326:
319:
317:
315:
313:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
276:
274:
272:
270:
268:
263:
255:
253:
249:
245:
242:
238:
234:
224:
222:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
200:
194:
192:
182:
180:
172:South America
169:
166:
160:North America
157:
155:
145:
143:
142:North America
139:
135:
130:
125:
119:
117:
102:
88:
83:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
35:(PGP) is the
34:
26:
21:
1987:Oldest Dryas
1961:
1957:Interstadial
1952:Interglacial
1935:Time periods
1866:, California
1860:, Washington
1601:Glacifluvial
1550:Depositional
1473:Lake Chicago
1468:Lake Agassiz
1378:
1358:Interglacial
1034:
950:. Retrieved
922:
916:
903:
850:
844:
829:
778:
772:
762:
729:
725:
715:
690:
686:
645:
641:
591:
587:
548:
544:
531:
506:
502:
495:
470:
466:
423:(D1): 2167.
420:
416:
370:
366:
359:
332:
328:
286:
282:
251:
247:
243:
241:radiolarians
230:
220:
211:
199:Homo sapiens
197:
195:
188:
175:
167:
163:
151:
120:
114:In northern
113:
79:
32:
30:
2111:Pleistocene
1997:Pleistocene
1992:Older Dryas
1854:, Wisconsin
1846:Oneida Lake
1842:, Wisconsin
1818:, Wisconsin
1800:, Wisconsin
1794:, Wisconsin
1782:, Wisconsin
1776:, Minnesota
1770:, Wisconsin
1764:, Wisconsin
1752:, Wisconsin
1638:Outwash fan
1633:Kettle hole
1526:Ribbon lake
1483:Teays River
1308:Mesoarchean
1251:Baykonurian
1113:Santa María
1067:Weichselian
952:25 December
781:(1): 1234.
594:: 122–131.
2090:Categories
1916:Antarctica
1909:Antarctica
1895:Monte Rosa
1848:, New York
1628:Kame delta
1587:Till plain
1478:Lake Tight
1262:Cryogenian
1157:Beestonian
1109:Wolstonian
1091:Llanquihue
1075:Midlandian
1025:Antarctica
1017:Quaternary
1003:Quaternary
925:: 103526.
289:: 97–112.
258:References
227:Antarctica
221:H. sapiens
212:H. sapiens
1836:, Montana
1733:, Nunavut
1727:, Ontario
1721:, Ontario
1715:, Alberta
1703:, Ontario
1691:, Alberta
1685:, Ontario
1509:Erosional
1502:Landforms
1237:Ediacaran
1212:Paleozoic
1188:Antarctic
1180:Oligocene
1139:7th–8th:
1135:Rio Llico
1117:3rd–6th:
1101:Illinoian
1071:Devensian
1063:Wisconsin
1030:Greenland
947:0921-8181
877:1752-0908
803:2045-2322
754:0094-8276
433:CiteSeerX
204:Acheulean
70:Illinoian
2106:Ice ages
2096:Holocene
2075:Category
1900:Svalbard
1830:, Nevada
1608:Diluvium
1297:Huronian
1278:Marinoan
1274:Sturtian
1245:Gaskiers
1172:Pliocene
1153:Menapian
1079:Pinedale
995:Ice ages
895:36254302
821:30718651
351:22319141
53:glaciers
1878:Eurasia
1567:Moraine
1557:Drumlin
1426:General
1368:Stadial
1316:Pongola
1176:Miocene
1161:Caracol
1131:Anglian
927:Bibcode
886:9560894
855:Bibcode
812:6362059
783:Bibcode
734:Bibcode
695:Bibcode
687:Geology
650:Bibcode
596:Bibcode
553:Bibcode
511:Bibcode
475:Bibcode
425:Bibcode
395:4329245
375:Bibcode
291:Bibcode
206:to the
129:Balkans
105:Effects
1824:, Utah
1812:, Ohio
1743:States
1741:United
1676:Canada
1643:Sandur
1127:Elster
1119:Mindel
1087:Merida
1083:Fraser
945:
893:
883:
875:
819:
809:
801:
752:
435:
393:
367:Nature
349:
250:, and
185:Africa
134:France
116:Europe
110:Europe
1613:Esker
1516:Fjord
1105:Saale
1095:2nd:
1057:1st:
1048:Older
913:(PDF)
541:(PDF)
391:S2CID
154:China
87:earth
76:Cause
1623:Kame
1149:Elbe
1141:Günz
1097:Riss
1059:Würm
1050:and
954:2023
943:ISSN
891:PMID
873:ISSN
817:PMID
799:ISSN
750:ISSN
347:PMID
231:The
148:Asia
124:Alps
31:The
1151:or
935:doi
923:202
881:PMC
863:doi
807:PMC
791:doi
742:doi
703:doi
658:doi
604:doi
592:376
561:doi
519:doi
483:doi
443:doi
383:doi
371:364
337:doi
299:doi
287:137
25:MIS
2092::
1159:,
1155:,
1147:,
1143:,
1133:,
1129:,
1125:,
1121:,
1111:,
1107:,
1103:,
1099:,
1089:,
1085:,
1077:,
1069:,
1065:,
1061:,
1046:,
1005:/
941:.
933:.
921:.
915:.
889:.
879:.
871:.
861:.
851:15
849:.
843:.
815:.
805:.
797:.
789:.
777:.
771:.
748:.
740:.
730:46
728:.
724:.
701:.
691:34
689:.
670:^
656:.
646:15
644:.
616:^
602:.
590:.
573:^
559:.
549:43
547:.
543:.
517:.
507:28
505:.
481:.
471:26
469:.
455:^
441:.
431:.
421:90
419:.
403:^
389:.
381:.
369:.
345:.
333:29
331:.
327:.
311:^
297:.
285:.
266:^
246:,
181:.
144:.
27:6.
1413:e
1406:t
1399:v
1264:-
1081:/
1073:/
1054:)
1042:(
987:e
980:t
973:v
937::
929::
897:.
865::
857::
823:.
793::
785::
779:9
756:.
744::
736::
709:.
705::
697::
664:.
660::
652::
610:.
606::
598::
567:.
563::
555::
525:.
521::
513::
489:.
485::
477::
449:.
445::
427::
397:.
385::
377::
353:.
339::
305:.
301::
293::
99:2
95:2
91:2
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