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productivity or the uptake of carbon. The soil contains microbial organisms such as bacteria, which break down leaf litter and other organic matter into inorganic forms of carbon usable by plants through a process called decomposition. During the decomposition process the microbial community is respiring, taking up oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. The decomposition rate can be evaluated by measuring the uptake of oxygen. High temperatures and precipitation increase decomposition rate, which allows plant litter to rapidly decay in tropical regions, releasing nutrients that are immediately taken up by plants through surface or ground waters. The seasonal patterns in respiration are controlled by leaf litter fall and precipitation, the driving force moving the decomposable carbon from the litter to the soil. Respiration rates are highest early in the wet season because the recent dry season results in a large percentage of leaf litter and thus a higher percentage of organic matter being leached into the soil.
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of the eastern and central Amazon as well as the
Southeast Asian Rainforest are old and mineral poor whereas the soils of the western Amazon (Ecuador and Peru) and volcanic areas of Costa Rica are young and mineral rich. Primary productivity or wood production is highest in western Amazon and lowest in eastern Amazon which contains heavily weathered soils classified as oxisols. Additionally, Amazonian soils are greatly weathered, making them devoid of minerals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, which come from rock sources. However, not all tropical rainforests occur on nutrient poor soils, but on nutrient rich floodplains and volcanic soils located in the Andean foothills, and volcanic areas of Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central America.
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1035:. Haffer proposed the explanation for speciation was the product of rainforest patches being separated by stretches of non-forest vegetation during the last glacial period. He called these patches of rainforest areas refuges and within these patches allopatric speciation occurred. With the end of the glacial period and increase in atmospheric humidity, rainforest began to expand and the refuges reconnected. This theory has been the subject of debate. Scientists are still skeptical of whether or not this theory is legitimate. Genetic evidence suggests speciation had occurred in certain taxa 1–2 million years ago, preceding the
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volcanic eruptions, river movements or an event as small as a fallen tree that creates gaps in the forest. In tropical rainforests, these same natural disturbances have been well documented in the fossil record, and are credited with encouraging speciation and endemism. Human land use practices have led to large-scale deforestation. In many tropical countries such as Costa Rica these deforested lands have been abandoned and forests have been allowed to regenerate through ecological succession. These regenerating young successional forests are called secondary forests or second-growth forests.
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litter for added nutrition. Additionally, these roots reduce soil erosion and maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains by diverting nutrient rich water flowing down the trunk into several smaller flows while also acting as a barrier to ground flow. Also, the large surface areas these roots create provide support and stability to rainforests trees, which commonly grow to significant heights. This added stability allows these trees to withstand the impacts of severe storms, thus reducing the occurrence of fallen trees.
887:. Ultisols are known as well weathered, acidic red clay soils, deficient in major nutrients such as calcium and potassium. Similarly, oxisols are acidic, old, typically reddish, highly weathered and leached, however are well drained compared to ultisols. The clay content of ultisols is high, making it difficult for water to penetrate and flow through. The reddish color of both soils is the result of heavy heat and moisture forming oxides of iron and aluminium, which are insoluble in water and not taken up readily by plants.
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562:. The vegetation at this layer generally consists of shade-tolerant shrubs, herbs, small trees, and large woody vines which climb into the trees to capture sunlight. Only about 5% of sunlight breaches the canopy to arrive at the understory causing true understory plants to seldom grow to 3 m (10 feet). As an adaptation to these low light levels, understory plants have often evolved much larger leaves. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are in the understory.
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599:, including orchids, bromeliads, mosses and lichens. These epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. It is suggested that the total arthropod species richness of the tropical canopy might be as high as 20 million. Other species inhabiting this layer include many avian species such as the
311:. The separation of the landmass resulted in a great loss of amphibian diversity while at the same time the drier climate spurred the diversification of reptiles. The division left tropical rainforests located in five major regions of the world: tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and New Guinea, with smaller outliers in Australia. However, the specifics of the origin of rainforests remain uncertain due to an incomplete fossil record.
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inhabited the rainforests for tens of thousands of years and have remained so elusive that only recently have some tribes been discovered. These indigenous peoples are greatly threatened by loggers in search for old-growth tropical hardwoods like Ipe, Cumaru and Wenge, and by farmers who are looking to expand their land, for cattle(meat), and soybeans, which are used to feed cattle in Europe and China. On 18 January 2007,
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1539:. Such people, however, obtain their food primarily from farm plots cleared from the forest and hunt and forage within the forest to supplement this. The issue arising is between the independent farmer providing for his family and the needs and wants of the globe as a whole. This issue has seen little improvement because no plan has been established for all parties to be aided.
1087:. Food resources within the forest are extremely dispersed due to the high biological diversity and what food does exist is largely restricted to the canopy and requires considerable energy to obtain. Some groups of hunter-gatherers have exploited rainforest on a seasonal basis but dwelt primarily in adjacent savanna and open
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to extinction. Niche partitioning is the other option for a species. This is the separation and rationing of necessary resources by utilizing different habitats, food sources, cover or general behavioral differences. A species with similar food items but different feeding times is an example of niche partitioning.
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to the rainforests. Rainforests are home to half of all the living animal and plant species on the planet. Two-thirds of all flowering plants can be found in rainforests. A single hectare of rainforest may contain 42,000 different species of insect, up to 807 trees of 313 species and 1,500 species of
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Tropical rainforests ecosystems are distinguished by their consistent, high temperatures, exceeding 18 °C (64 °F) monthly, and substantial annual rainfall. The abundant rainfall results in nutrient-poor, leached soils, which profoundly affect the flora and fauna adapted to these conditions.
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results from a high density of species with similar niches in the tropics and limited resources available. Species which "lose" the competition may either become extinct or find a new niche. Direct competition will often lead to one species dominating another by some advantage, ultimately driving it
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Soil chemical and physical characteristics are strongly related to above ground productivity and forest structure and dynamics. The physical properties of soil control the tree turnover rates whereas chemical properties such as available nitrogen and phosphorus control forest growth rates. The soils
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Some species of fauna show a trend towards declining populations in rainforests, for example, reptiles that feed on amphibians and reptiles. This trend requires close monitoring. The seasonality of rainforests affects the reproductive patterns of amphibians, and this in turn can directly affect the
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Tourism also has the potential to increase public appreciation of the environment and to spread awareness of environmental problems when it brings people into closer contact with the environment. Such increased awareness can induce more environmentally conscious behavior. Tourism has had a positive
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For the last three decades, the amount of carbon absorbed by the world's intact tropical forests has fallen, according to a study published in 2020 in the journal Nature. In 2019 they took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts and deforestation. The
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Tropical rainforests are located around and near the equator, therefore having what is called an equatorial climate characterized by three major climatic parameters: temperature, rainfall, and dry season intensity. Other parameters that affect tropical rainforests are carbon dioxide concentrations,
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agriculture to overcome these limitations and enable them to push deep into what were previously rainforest environments. However, these are not rainforest dwellers, rather they are dwellers in cleared farmland that make forays into the rainforest. Up to 90% of the typical
Yanamomo diet comes from
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An increase in tourism has increased economic support, allowing more revenue to go into the protection of the habitat. Tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas and habitat. Revenue from park-entrance fees and similar sources can be utilised specifically to pay for the
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and decomposition of organisms and leaves. Because of this, the buttress roots occur at the surface so the trees can maximize uptake and actively compete with the rapid uptake of other trees. These roots also aid in water uptake and storage, increase surface area for gas exchange, and collect leaf
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to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. This more open quality permits the easy movement of larger animals such as: ungulates like
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Rainforests are divided into different strata, or layers, with vegetation organized into a vertical pattern from the top of the soil to the canopy. Each layer is a unique biotic community containing different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular strata. Only the emergent layer is
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Tropical rainforests are hot and wet. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 1,680 mm (66 in) and can exceed 10 m (390 in) although it typically lies between 1,750 mm (69 in) and
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all originally came from tropical rainforest and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. In the mid-1980s and 1990s, 40 million tons of bananas were consumed worldwide each year, along with 13 million tons of mango. Central
American coffee exports were
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of trees. Instead of penetrating to deeper soil layers, buttress roots create a widespread root network at the surface for more efficient uptake of nutrients in a very nutrient poor and competitive environment. Most of the nutrients within the soil of a tropical rainforest occur near the surface
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Many indigenous peoples around the world live within rainforests as hunter-gatherers, or subsist as part-time small scale farmers supplemented in large part by trading high-value forest products such as hides, feathers, and honey with agricultural people living outside the forests. Peoples have
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is an ecological process that changes the biotic community structure over time towards a more stable, diverse community structure after an initial disturbance to the community. The initial disturbance is often a natural phenomenon or human caused event. Natural disturbances include hurricanes,
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is not always clear. Rainforests are dynamic and many changes affect the structure of the forest. Emergent or canopy trees collapse, for example, causing gaps to form. Openings in the forest canopy are widely recognized as important for the establishment and growth of rainforest trees. It is
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in the tropics has increased. While rainforests are becoming increasingly rare, people are travelling to nations that still have this diverse habitat. Locals are benefiting from the additional income brought in by visitors, as well areas deemed interesting for visitors are often conserved.
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such as fungi and termites that aid in the process as well. Nutrient recycling is important because below ground resource availability controls the above ground biomass and community structure of tropical rainforests. These soils are typically phosphorus limited, which inhibits net primary
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are a particularly interesting group as they are noted for their traditional headhunting culture. Fresh human heads were required to perform certain rituals such as the Iban "kenyalang" and the Kenyah "mamat". Pygmies who live in
Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as
1596:, atmospheric gases. Climate change has been significantly contributed to by the destruction of the rainforests. A simulation was performed in which all rainforest in Africa were removed. The simulation showed an increase in atmospheric temperature by 2.5 to 5 degrees Celsius.
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or shifting cultivation) and is considered a relatively benign disturbance. In fact, when looking at the level of individual swidden plots a number of traditional farming practices are considered beneficial. For example, the use of shade trees and fallowing all help preserve
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Some action has been taken by suggesting fallow periods of the land allowing secondary forest to grow and replenish the soil. Beneficial practices like soil restoration and conservation can benefit the small farmer and allow better production on smaller parcels of land.
1406:. Ecotourism can include a variety of activities including animal viewing, scenic jungle tours and even viewing cultural sights and native villages. If these practices are performed appropriately this can be beneficial for both locals and the present flora and fauna.
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Foley, Jonathan A.; Asner, Gregory P.; Costa, Marcos Heil; Coe, Michael T.; Defries, Ruth; Gibbs, Holly K.; Howard, Erica A.; Olson, Sarah; et al. (2007). "Amazonia revealed: forest degradation and loss of ecosystem goods and services in the Amazon Basin".
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solar radiation, and nitrogen availability. In general, climatic patterns consist of warm temperatures and high annual rainfall. However, the abundance of rainfall changes throughout the year creating distinct moist and dry seasons. Tropical forests are
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where food is much more abundant. Other people described as rainforest dwellers are hunter-gatherers who subsist in large part by trading high value forest products such as hides, feathers, and honey with agricultural people living outside the forest.
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population and variety of trees and higher plants are notable. Described as the "world's largest pharmacy", over a quarter of natural medicines have been discovered in them. However, tropical rainforests are threatened by human activities, such as
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This high rate of decomposition is the result of phosphorus levels in the soils, precipitation, high temperatures and the extensive microorganism communities. In addition to the bacteria and other microorganisms, there are an abundance of other
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Soil types are highly variable in the tropics and are the result of a combination of several variables such as climate, vegetation, topographic position, parent material, and soil age. Most tropical soils are characterized by significant
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Agriculture on formerly forested land is not without difficulties. Rainforest soils are often thin and leached of many minerals, and the heavy rainfall can quickly leach nutrients from area cleared for cultivation. People such as the
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can be classified as tropical moist or wet forests, which differ in regards to rainfall. Tropical forest ecology- dynamics, composition, and function- are sensitive to changes in climate especially changes in rainfall.
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The pygmy peoples are hunter-gatherer groups living in equatorial rainforests characterized by their short height (below one and a half meters, or 59 inches, on average). Amongst this group are the Efe, Aka,
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ranges from strict preservation of habitat to finding sustainable management techniques for people living in tropical rainforests. International policy has also introduced a market incentive program called
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at higher elevations. Depending on latitude, the lower limit of montane rainforests on large mountains is generally between 1500 and 2500 m while the upper limit is usually from 2400 to 3300 m.
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climates. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season, thus they are sometimes called "tropical mixed forest". They are found in parts of South
America, in
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De Jong, Wil; Freitas, Luis; Baluarte, Juan; Van De Kop, Petra; Salazar, Angel; Inga, Erminio; Melendez, Walter; Germaná, Camila (2001). "Secondary forest dynamics in the Amazon floodplain in Peru".
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protection and management of environmentally sensitive areas. Revenue from taxation and tourism provides an additional incentive for governments to contribute revenue to the protection of the forest.
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estimated that perhaps 75% of the tree species at La Selva
Biological Station, Costa Rica are dependent on canopy opening for seed germination or for growth beyond sapling size, for example.
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The canopy is the primary layer of the forest, forming a roof over the two remaining layers. It contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30–45 m in height. Tall, broad-leaved
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753:. These trees need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Several unique faunal species inhabit this layer such as the
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The understory layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. The understory is home to a number of birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, and predators. Examples include
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caused by geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, fast human driven
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Olson, David M.; Dinerstein, Eric; Wikramanayake, Eric D.; Burgess, Neil D.; Powell, George V. N.; Underwood, Emma C.; d'Amico, Jennifer A.; Itoua, Illanga; et al. (2001).
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efforts are diverse, focusing on both preservation and sustainable management. International policies, such as the
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (
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Barton, Huw; Denham, Tim; Neumann, Katharina; Arroyo-Kalin, Manuel (2012). "Long-term perspectives on human occupation of tropical rainforests: An introductory overview".
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1503:) occur underneath rainforests globally. These resources are important to developing nations and their extraction is often given priority to encourage economic growth.
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and poor nutrients, however there are some areas that contain fertile soils. Soils throughout the tropical rainforests fall into two classifications which include the
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Herrera, Rafael; Jordan, Carl F.; Medina, Ernesto & Klinge, Hans (1981). "How Human
Activities Disturb the Nutrient Cycles of a Tropical Rainforest in Amazonia".
131:. They are home to 40–75% of all species globally, including half of the world's animal and plant species, and two-thirds of all flowering plant species. Their dense
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by the amount of rainfall received each year, which has allowed ecologists to define differences in these forests that look so similar in structure. According to
3313:"Agricultural development with rainforest conservation: methods for seeking best bet alternatives to slash-and-burn, with applications to Brazil and Indonesia"
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of tropical ecosystems, true tropical rainforests have an annual rainfall greater than 2 m and annual temperature greater than 24 degrees
Celsius, with a
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around the world have inhabited rainforests for millennia, relying on them for sustenance and shelter, but face challenges from modern economic activities.
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species of reptiles that feed on these groups, particularly species with specialized feeding, since these are less likely to use alternative resources.
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King, David A. & Clark, Deborah A. (2011). "Allometry of
Emergent Tree Species from Saplings to Above-canopy Adults in a Costa Rican Rain Forest".
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Tropical rainforests exhibit a vast diversity in plant and animal species. The root for this remarkable speciation has been a query of scientists and
167:, which is sparse due to low light penetration. The soil is characteristically nutrient-poor and acidic. Tropical rainforests have a long history of
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Bailey, R.C., Head, G., Jenike, M., Owen, B., Rechtman, R., Zechenter, E. (1989). "Hunting and gathering in tropical rainforest: is it possible".
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Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica".
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Tropical rainforests have harboured human life for many millennia, with many Indigenous people in South and Central America, who belong to the
2004:
Bruijnzeel, L. A. & Veneklaas, E. J. (1998). "Climatic Conditions and Tropical Montane Forest Productivity: The Fog Has Not Lifted Yet".
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3456:(2020). Are tropical reptiles really declining? A six-year survey of snakes in a tropical coastal rainforest: role of prey and environment.
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Moritz, C.; Patton, J. L.; Schneider, C. J.; Smith, T. B. (2000). "DIVERSIFICATION OF RAINFOREST FAUNAS: An Integrated Molecular Approach".
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effect on wildlife preservation and protection efforts, notably in Africa but also in South America, Asia, Australia, and the South Pacific.
717:, reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall. Some examples of emergents include:
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Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large-scale fragmentation as a result of human activity.
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Tropical rainforests have existed on earth for hundreds of millions of years. Most tropical rainforests today are on fragments of the
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1343:. Half of the rainfall in the Amazon area is produced by the forests. The moisture from the forests is important to the rainfall in
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1523:, a West African nation, deforestation from decades of mining activity left about 12% of the country's original rainforest intact.
1622:(REDD) for companies and governments to outset their carbon emissions through financial investments into rainforest conservation.
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Oliveira, M.E., & Martins, M. (2001). When and where to find a pitviper: activity patterns and habitat use of the lancehead,
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and forest degradation. Despite these efforts, tropical rainforests continue to face significant threats from deforestation and
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receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. These forests usually fall under
2340:"Soil Fertility, Mineral Nitrogen, and Microbial Biomass in Upland Soils of the Central Amazon under Different Plant Covers"
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people of Central Africa. However, the term pygmy is considered pejorative so many tribes prefer not to be labeled as such.
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Tropical Rainforest: Our Most Valuable and Endangered Habitat With a Blueprint for Its Survival into the Third Millennium
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plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of
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Despite the negative effects of tourism in the tropical rainforests, there are also several important positive effects.
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1207:. The traditional agricultural system practiced by tribes in the Amazon is based on swidden cultivation (also known as
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alone contain 251 tree species with edible fruits, of which only 43 had been established as cultivated crops by 1985.
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is suspected to be one of the major causes of species extinction. Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavy
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In addition to extractive human uses, rain forests also have non-extractive uses that are frequently summarized as
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3295:"Diet, Dental Health, and Cultural Change among Recently Contacted South American Indian Hunter-Horticulturalists"
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forest in the tropics has continued its upward trend, with fire-related losses contributing an increasing portion.
901:. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the
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have been discovered within them. It is likely that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and
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2407:"Nutrient additions to a tropical rain forest drive substantial soil carbon dioxide losses to the atmosphere"
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Corlett, R. & Primack, R. (2006). "Tropical Rainforests and the Need for Cross-continental Comparisons".
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2513:"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land"
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throughout the 20th century, and the area covered by rainforests around the world is rapidly shrinking.
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Ecotourism can be an incentive for conservation, especially when it triggers positive economic change
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2471:"Buttress Trees Elevate Soil Heterogeneity and Regulate Seedling Diversity in a Tropical Rainforest"
2289:"Above- and below-ground net primary productivity across ten Amazonian forests on contrasting soils"
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Bourgeron, Patrick S. (1983). "Spatial Aspects of Vegetation Structure". In Frank B. Golley (ed.).
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is still derived from resistant wild stock. Tropical forests have supplied 250 cultivated kinds of
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for years. A number of theories have been developed for why and how the tropics can be so diverse.
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Location of tropical (dark green) and temperate/subtropical (light green) rainforests in the world.
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2768:"Ontology of the self and material culture: Arrow-making among the Awá hunter–gatherers (Brazil)"
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2070:(3). British Ecological Society : Journal of Ecology Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 551-570: 551–570.
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or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.
504:), as well as many species of reptiles, amphibians, and insects. The forest floor also contains
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Fotiou, S. (October 2001). Environmental Impacts of Tourism. Retrieved 30 November 2007, from
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909:). On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile.
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process gives the oxisols a bright red color and sometimes produces minable deposits (e.g.,
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Tropical rainforests exhibit high levels of biodiversity. Around 40% to 75% of all biotic
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Efforts to protect and conserve tropical rainforest habitats are diverse and widespread.
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Oxisols, infertile, deeply weathered and severely leached, have developed on the ancient
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The structure of a tropical rainforest is stratified into layers, each hosting unique
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Tang, Yong; Yang, Xiaofei; Cao, Min; Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. (2010).
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as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes. The province of
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2038:. Ecosystems of the World (14A ed.). Elsevier Scientific. pp. 29–47.
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1208:
1196:
1057:
829:
743:
198:
57:
2783:
2489:
2177:
2062:(1 October 1959). "A Physiognomic Classification of Australian Rain Forests".
1881:
155:. These include the emergent layer with towering trees, the densely populated
4102:
3851:
3801:
3764:
3648:
3180:
2952:
Ewel, J J (1986). "Designing Agricultural Ecosystems for the Humid Tropics".
1652:
1516:
1355:
1072:
959:
954:
818:
754:
640:
632:
505:
276:
257:
225:
194:
112:
34:
2431:
2107:"Tropical forests: Their richness in Coleoptera and other arthropod species"
939:
3959:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3164:
3104:
3086:
2603:
2546:
2528:
2450:
2313:
2288:
2268:
2250:
1990:
1878:. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com (25 February 2013). Retrieved on 24 June 2016.
1818:
1476:
1204:
1149:
1118:
1080:
1076:
992:
762:
592:
464:
412:
340:
213:
164:
128:
49:
38:
1701:. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov (5 December 2005). Retrieved on 28 March 2013.
209:
3816:
1589:
1500:
1340:
1036:
616:
390:
84:
2792:
2510:
1459:
332:
4045:
3821:
2973:
2938:
2896:
2856:
Forest peoples in the central African rain forest: focus on the pygmies
2766:
González-Ruibal, Alfredo; Hernando, Almudena; Politis, Gustavo (2011).
2323:
2125:
2091:
1398:
1387:
1306:
1143:
1139:
1061:
1000:
927:
521:
468:
467:, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants
411:
These are found in cooler-climate mountainous areas, becoming known as
160:
108:
69:
1052:
72:
with high rainfall typically found between 10° north and south of the
4035:
4030:
3846:
3424:
3399:
3169:"Tropical forests losing their ability to absorb carbon, study finds"
3120:"The Amazon effect: how deforestation is starving São Paulo of water"
1914:
1535:, humans were able to clear sections of rainforest to produce crops,
1352:
1285:
1277:
1261:
988:
798:
596:
595:
are found in the forest canopy, as it often supports a rich flora of
398:
386:
152:
115:
of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). Seasonal tropical forests with
2888:
2083:
1379:
917:
455:
3867:
3811:
3774:
3311:
Tomich, P. T., Noordwijk, V. M., Vosti, A. S., Witcover, J (1998).
3279:, Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives Monitor, Ontario, Canada.
2767:
2404:
1722:
1638:
List of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregions
1544:
1348:
1192:
1164:
983:
902:
895:
880:
670:
662:
443:
unique to tropical rainforests, while the others are also found in
308:
304:
253:
3494:
Terborgh, J., & Winter, B. (1980). Some causes of extinction.
3400:"A GCM study of climate change induced by deforestation in Africa"
2734:'They're killing us': world's most endangered tribe cries for help
1866:. Animalcorner.co.uk (1 January 2004). Retrieved on 28 March 2013.
1075:
in Central Africa, and several tribes in Southeast Asia, like the
824:
3769:
2003:
1725:"Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth"
1713:. ScienceDaily.com (5 December 2005). Retrieved on 28 March 2013.
1371:
typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.
1363:
1336:
1281:
1237:
1130:
reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different
906:
884:
803:
527:
326:
272:
240:
176:
137:
73:
3362:
3277:
Canadian mining companies set to destroy Ghana's forest reserves
1220:
in the deeply weathered and leached soils common in the Amazon.
3743:
3633:
2650:
2163:
1942:
Brazil: Deforestation rises sharply as farmers push into Amazon
1504:
1492:
1488:
1367:
1344:
1273:
1265:
1257:
1232:
1200:
1135:
1114:
1088:
1084:
559:
509:
132:
30:
3293:
Walker, Philip L.; Sugiyama, Larry and Chacon, Richard (1998)
2765:
953:
A common feature of many tropical rainforests is the distinct
565:
3638:
3609:
2337:
2232:
1520:
1471:
1298:
1269:
1228:
1224:
1223:
There is a diversity of forest people in Asia, including the
1181:
706:
699:
481:
473:
80:
42:
2809:. Reuters.com (17 January 2007). Retrieved on 28 March 2013.
1620:
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
1160:
3796:
3143:"The science is clear: Forest loss behind Brazil's drought"
2574:
Haffer, J. (1969). "Speciation in Amazonian Forest Birds".
2387:
2018:
10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[0003:CCATMF]2.0.CO;2
1742:
10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2
1484:
229:
217:
123:
climates are sometimes included in the broader definition.
2616:
248:
higher plants. Tropical rainforests have been called the "
2986:
2338:
Moreira, A.; Fageria, N. K.; Garcia y Garcia, A. (2011).
1496:
1173:
705:
The emergent layer contains a small number of very large
3289:
3287:
3285:
1964:
1962:
1362:
region was one of the main reason that cause the severe
3452:
Barquero-González, J.P., Stice, T.L., Gómez, G., &
3397:
3200:
3048:
10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[25:ARFDAL]2.0.CO;2
2036:
Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems. Structure and Function
430:, or "flooded forests", are found in Amazon basin (the
3549:
3061:
E. Lovejoy, Thomas; Nobre, Carlos (21 February 2018).
1968:
1580:
The tropics take a major role in reducing atmospheric
3301:. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers, No. 54
3282:
2228:
2226:
2201:"Tropical Rainforest Gaps and Tree Species Diversity"
1959:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1327:. Rain forests play an important role in maintaining
856:
ratio (PET) value of <0.25. However, most lowland
127:
These rainforests are renowned for their significant
83:
that occurs roughly within the 28° latitudes (in the
3203:"Community views of ecotourism: Redefining benefits"
3145:. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
1757:
Tropical broadleaf Evergreen Forest: The rainforest.
512:
growing here help decay the animal and plant waste.
3516:"An Overview of REDD, REDD Plus and REDD Readiness"
3299:
Human Dental Development, Morphology, and Pathology
2405:Cleveland, Cory C. & Townsend, Alan R. (2006).
2286:
1216:, which is a critical factor in the maintenance of
1134:in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition,
1113:Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in the
325:Several biomes may appear similar-to, or merge via
3600:
3032:
2223:
1769:
1526:
16:Forest in areas with heavy rainfall in the tropics
3255:"Forest Pulse: The Latest on the World's Forests"
2870:"Use of tropical rainforest by native Amazonians"
2807:Brazil sees traces of more isolated Amazon tribes
2511:Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. and Ferry, P.A. (2010).
2468:
2347:Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis
314:
4119:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
4100:
2400:
2398:
2396:
1663:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
224:3,000 mm (120 in). This high level of
3060:
3016:, W. W. Norton and Co., New York, pp. 189–193,
1711:Why The Amazon Rainforest Is So Rich In Species
1692:Why the Amazon Rainforest is So Rich in Species
1248:
978:
591:are the dominant plants. The densest areas of
3586:
2867:
2393:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2233:Malhi, Yadvinder & Wright, James (2004).
3438:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3247:
2719:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2559:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2464:
2462:
2460:
1927:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1006:
260:still undiscovered in tropical rainforests.
3734:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
3348:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3344:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
2821:survivalinternational.org (25 January 2007)
2740:(22 April 2012). Retrieved on 24 June 2016.
2390:. mongabay.com. Retrieved on 28 March 2013.
2104:
1954:China is black hole of Asia's deforestation
839:Artificial tropical rainforest in Barcelona
3593:
3579:
2573:
2275:
1997:
1633:International Tropical Timber Organization
1386:for seeing the diverse tropical forest in
3423:
3094:
2987:Jessup, T. C. & Vayda, A. P. (1988).
2791:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2536:
2457:
2440:
2430:
2322:
2312:
2258:
2033:
2029:
2027:
1740:
1293:used in evading the damage caused by new
1289:worth US$ 3 billion in 1970. Much of the
3555:Rain Forest Info from Blue Planet Biomes
3513:
3261:. World Resources Institute. June 2023.
3036:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
2954:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2819:BBC: First contact with isolated tribes?
2205:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1807:
1599:
1576:Effects of climate change on the tropics
1470:
1450:
1422:
1378:
1159:
1148:
1108:
1051:
982:
938:
916:
834:
823:
809:
797:
684:
564:
454:
352:
331:
286:
208:
56:
48:
20:
3391:
3201:Stronza, A. & Gordillo, J. (2008).
3194:
3140:
2989:"Dayaks and forests of interior Borneo"
2918:
2331:
2198:
2192:
921:Fungi play a part in nutrient recycling
252:", because over one quarter of natural
140:and agricultural expansion, leading to
61:Tropical rainforest climate zones (Af).
4101:
3304:
3163:
2980:
2933:(2/3, MAB: A Special Issue): 109–114.
2861:
2772:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
2679:
2610:
2567:
2024:
1815:"Rainforests.net – Variables and Math"
1786:
1466:
1456:Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest
1018:
95:). Tropical rainforests are a type of
3574:
3117:
3026:
2849:
2751:Brazil's Indigenous Awa Tribe At Risk
2098:
1312:
1098:
912:
3718:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
3680:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
3356:
3118:Watts, Jonathan (28 November 2017).
2951:
2945:
2157:
2058:
1716:
1033:Speciation of Amazonian Forest Birds
966:
639:) as well as other animals like the
236:of soluble nutrients in the ground.
103:. True rainforests usually occur in
2966:10.1146/annurev.es.17.110186.001333
2217:10.1146/annurev.es.18.110187.002243
1227:peoples of the Philippines and the
1156:hunter-gatherers in the Congo Basin
1042:
515:
437:
111:occurs; all months have an average
99:, that includes the more extensive
13:
3265:from the original on 27 June 2023.
3141:VERCHOT, LOUIS (29 January 2015).
2388:Environmental news and information
1189:indigenous peoples of the Americas
1069:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
571:Forest Research Institute Malaysia
14:
4140:
3644:Montane grasslands and shrublands
3560:Passport to Knowledge Rainforests
3543:
3477:Herpetological Natural History, 8
1971:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1833:
1563:
934:
680:
647:sp.), African giant swallowtail (
3398:Semazzi, F. H., Song, Y (2001).
2832:"People of the Congo Rainforest"
2631:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.533
1944:, The Guardian, 1 September 2008
1615:Tropical rainforest conservation
1584:. The tropics (most notably the
1479:in southwestern Papua New Guinea
1440:
1231:and Dayak people of Borneo. The
1138:has now overtaken the island of
163:layer rich in wildlife, and the
3760:Flooded grasslands and savannas
3507:
3488:
3475:, in central Amazonia, Brazil.
3465:
3446:
3269:
3228:
3157:
3134:
3111:
3054:
3006:
2824:
2812:
2800:
2759:
2743:
2727:
2504:
2381:
2132:
2052:
1947:
1935:
1527:Conversion to agricultural land
1447:Rainforest § Deforestation
1418:
1333:sequestering and storing carbon
713:, which grow above the general
601:yellow-casqued wattled hornbill
576:
450:
97:tropical moist broadleaf forest
4073:Ecological land classification
3602:Biogeographic regionalisations
3514:Varghese, Paul (August 2009).
1869:
1850:
1749:
1704:
1685:
1537:converting it to open farmland
1191:, or Amerindians, include the
347:Moist seasonal tropical forest
315:Other types of tropical forest
33:. The tropical rainforests of
1:
3567:, Project Regeneration, 2021.
3385:10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00687-3
3365:Forest Ecology and Management
3332:10.1016/S0169-5150(98)00032-2
2707:10.1525/aa.1989.91.1.02a00040
1679:
1608:
1511:can require large amounts of
1483:Deposits of precious metals (
1335:, global climate regulation,
1047:
1025:theory of Pleistocene refugia
869:
295:tree group has dominated the
3739:Deserts and xeric shrublands
3459:Revista de Biología Tropical
3222:10.1016/j.annals.2008.01.002
2749:Sibaja, Marco (6 June 2012)
2673:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.07.044
2596:10.1126/science.165.3889.131
2367:10.1080/00103624.2011.550376
2287:Aragao, L. E. O. C. (2009).
1243:
854:potential evapotranspiration
337:Hawaiian tropical rainforest
105:tropical rainforest climates
7:
3980:Temperate Northern Atlantic
3670:Broadleaf and mixed forests
3275:Ismi, A. (1 October 2003),
2166:Journal of Tropical Ecology
2144:Eastern Native Tree Society
1847:Retrieved on 14 March 2008.
1766:Retrieved on 14 March 2009.
1668:Tropical rainforest climate
1625:
1249:Cultivated foods and spices
979:Biodiversity and speciation
793:
738:Hymenolobium mesoamericanum
329:with, tropical rainforest:
297:Borneo lowland rain forests
204:
76:. They are a subset of the
10:
4145:
4083:Vegetation classifications
3985:Temperate Northern Pacific
3210:Annals of Tourism Research
2114:The Coleopterists Bulletin
1983:10.1016/j.tree.2005.12.002
1956:, Asia News, 24 March 2008
1573:
1567:
1444:
1435:
1374:
1316:
1301:, compared to only 20 for
1102:
850:Holdridge's classification
788:
580:
519:
318:
282:
4060:
4018:
3995:Temperate Southern Africa
3947:
3891:
3880:
3860:
3787:
3752:
3726:
3688:
3657:
3626:
3617:
3608:
3550:Rainforest Action Network
2784:10.1016/j.jaa.2010.10.001
2490:10.1007/s11104-010-0546-4
2178:10.1017/S0266467411000319
1845:The Tropical Rain Forest.
1793:(2 ed.). Checkmark.
1031:in 1969 with his article
1012:Interspecific competition
1007:Interspecific competition
695:Gilbertiodendron dewevrei
370:seasonal tropical forests
101:seasonal tropical forests
4005:Tropical Eastern Pacific
3955:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
3241:28 December 2007 at the
2653:Quaternary International
1762:25 February 2008 at the
1697:25 February 2011 at the
1533:invention of agriculture
1056:Tree house built by the
864:
494:Dicerorhinus sumatrensis
428:freshwater swamp forests
362:seasonal tropical forest
250:world's largest pharmacy
193:) programs, aim to curb
4026:Biogeographic provinces
3990:Temperate South America
3708:Moist broadleaf forests
3496:Conservation Biology, 2
3334:(inactive 10 May 2024).
2695:American Anthropologist
2432:10.1073/pnas.0600989103
1787:Newman, Arnold (2002).
828:Road on Swains Island,
759:Stephanoaetus coronatus
732:Hieronyma alchorneoides
558:), and many species of
498:western lowland gorilla
459:Western lowland gorilla
3320:Agricultural Economics
3087:10.1126/sciadv.aat2340
3063:"Amazon Tipping Point"
2868:Dufour, D. R. (1990).
2529:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024
2314:10.5194/bg-6-2759-2009
2251:10.1098/rstb.2003.1433
1841:University of Michigan
1594:global energy trapping
1480:
1463:
1432:
1390:
1168:
1157:
1122:
1064:
996:
950:
922:
840:
832:
821:
807:
702:
573:
460:
365:
343:
300:
277:agricultural clearance
228:often results in poor
220:
62:
54:
46:
4088:Zoogeographic regions
4046:Global 200 ecoregions
3975:Temperate Australasia
3713:Dry broadleaf forests
2619:Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst
2199:Denslow, J S (1987).
1600:Declining populations
1474:
1454:
1445:Further information:
1426:
1382:
1163:
1152:
1112:
1055:
986:
958:because of the rapid
942:
920:
838:
827:
815:Guiana Amazonian Park
813:
801:
688:
675:Tamandua tetradactyla
629:Ramphastos sulfuratus
568:
496:), and apes like the
458:
445:temperate rainforests
397:, and across much of
356:
335:
299:for millions of years
290:
265:Habitat fragmentation
212:
169:ecological succession
142:habitat fragmentation
60:
52:
24:
4109:Tropical rainforests
4068:Altitudinal zonation
4010:Western Indo-Pacific
3970:Eastern Indo-Pacific
3965:Central Indo-Pacific
2105:Erwin, T.L. (1982).
1495:) and fossil fuels (
1429:primary (old-growth)
1329:biological diversity
690:Congolian rainforest
659:Bradypus tridactylus
173:carbon sequestration
66:Tropical rainforests
37:contain the largest
4041:Lists of ecoregions
3698:Tropical rainforest
3416:2001ClRes..17..169S
3377:2001ForEM.150..135D
3079:2018SciA....4.2340L
2906:on 18 November 2017
2665:2012QuInt.249....1B
2588:1969Sci...165..131H
2423:2006PNAS..10310316C
2417:(27): 10316–10321.
2359:2011CSSPA..42..694M
2305:2009BGeo....6.2759A
2076:1959JEcol..47..551W
1907:2010Geo....38.1079S
1876:The bite that heals
1862:8 July 2012 at the
1839:The Regents of the
1673:Tropical vegetation
1515:, directly causing
1467:Mining and drilling
1214:soil organic matter
1019:Pleistocene refugia
726:Dipteryx panamensis
720:Hydrochorea elegans
613:Anthreptes collaris
490:Sumatran rhinoceros
420:Flooded rainforests
405:Montane rainforests
395:Indian subcontinent
360:in Queensland is a
358:Daintree rainforest
269:habitat destruction
93:Tropic of Capricorn
68:are dense and warm
4078:Floristic kingdoms
3842:Hydrothermal vents
3703:Coniferous forests
3665:Coniferous forests
3014:The primary source
3012:Myers, N. (1985).
2064:Journal of Ecology
1821:on 5 December 2008
1481:
1464:
1433:
1391:
1325:ecosystem services
1319:ecosystem services
1313:Ecosystem services
1169:
1167:hunters in Ecuador
1158:
1132:uncontacted tribes
1123:
1105:Indigenous peoples
1099:Indigenous peoples
1065:
997:
951:
949:in eastern Ecuador
923:
913:Nutrient recycling
841:
833:
822:
808:
750:Terminalia oblonga
703:
650:Papilio antimachus
625:keel-billed toucan
621:Psitacus erithacus
574:
569:The canopy at the
461:
366:
344:
307:supercontinent of
301:
221:
181:indigenous peoples
63:
55:
47:
4096:
4095:
4056:
4055:
4000:Tropical Atlantic
3876:
3875:
3783:
3782:
3675:Deciduous forests
3462:, 68(1), 336-343.
3454:Monge- Nájera, J.
2299:(12): 2759–2778.
2245:(1443): 311–329.
1901:(12): 1079–1082.
1755:Woodward, Susan.
1586:Amazon rainforest
1360:Amazon rainforest
1303:temperate forests
1291:genetic variation
1027:was developed by
967:Forest succession
775:Pteropus vampyrus
767:Colobus polykomos
605:Ceratogymna elata
544:ring-tailed coati
536:poison dart frogs
434:) and elsewhere.
179:regulation. Many
27:Amazon rainforest
4136:
3889:
3888:
3624:
3623:
3615:
3614:
3595:
3588:
3581:
3572:
3571:
3565:Tropical Forests
3538:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3527:
3521:. Archived from
3520:
3511:
3505:
3492:
3486:
3469:
3463:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3437:
3429:
3427:
3425:10.3354/cr017169
3404:Climate Research
3395:
3389:
3388:
3371:(1–2): 135–146.
3360:
3354:
3353:
3343:
3335:
3326:(1–2): 159–174.
3317:
3308:
3302:
3291:
3280:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3251:
3245:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3207:
3198:
3192:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3167:(4 March 2020).
3161:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3098:
3067:Science Advances
3058:
3052:
3051:
3030:
3024:
3010:
3004:
3003:
2993:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2905:
2899:. Archived from
2874:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2828:
2822:
2816:
2810:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2763:
2757:
2747:
2741:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2718:
2710:
2690:
2677:
2676:
2648:
2635:
2634:
2614:
2608:
2607:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2558:
2550:
2540:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2484:(1–2): 301–309.
2475:
2466:
2455:
2454:
2444:
2434:
2402:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2344:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2316:
2284:
2273:
2272:
2262:
2230:
2221:
2220:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2031:
2022:
2021:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1926:
1918:
1915:10.1130/G31182.1
1890:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1854:
1848:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1817:. Archived from
1811:
1805:
1804:
1784:
1767:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1689:
1513:land development
1397:In recent years
1366:of 2014–2015 in
1043:Human dimensions
858:tropical forests
771:large flying fox
655:three-toed sloth
609:collared sunbird
583:Canopy (ecology)
516:Understory layer
478:Okapia johnstoni
438:Forest structure
378:tropical savanna
374:tropical monsoon
117:tropical monsoon
89:Tropic of Cancer
4144:
4143:
4139:
4138:
4137:
4135:
4134:
4133:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4092:
4052:
4014:
3943:
3883:
3872:
3868:Endolithic zone
3856:
3789:
3779:
3748:
3722:
3690:
3684:
3653:
3619:
3604:
3599:
3546:
3541:
3531:
3529:
3528:on 14 July 2010
3525:
3518:
3512:
3508:
3493:
3489:
3470:
3466:
3451:
3447:
3431:
3430:
3396:
3392:
3361:
3357:
3337:
3336:
3315:
3309:
3305:
3292:
3283:
3274:
3270:
3253:
3252:
3248:
3243:Wayback Machine
3233:
3229:
3205:
3199:
3195:
3185:
3183:
3162:
3158:
3148:
3146:
3139:
3135:
3125:
3123:
3116:
3112:
3073:(2): eaat2340.
3059:
3055:
3031:
3027:
3011:
3007:
2991:
2985:
2981:
2950:
2946:
2923:
2919:
2909:
2907:
2903:
2889:10.2307/1311432
2872:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2838:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2817:
2813:
2805:
2801:
2764:
2760:
2755:Huffington Post
2748:
2744:
2732:
2728:
2712:
2711:
2691:
2680:
2649:
2638:
2615:
2611:
2572:
2568:
2552:
2551:
2517:Biology Letters
2509:
2505:
2473:
2467:
2458:
2403:
2394:
2386:
2382:
2342:
2336:
2332:
2285:
2276:
2231:
2224:
2197:
2193:
2162:
2158:
2148:
2146:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2109:
2103:
2099:
2084:10.2307/2257290
2057:
2053:
2046:
2032:
2025:
2002:
1998:
1967:
1960:
1952:
1948:
1940:
1936:
1920:
1919:
1891:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1864:Wayback Machine
1855:
1851:
1838:
1834:
1824:
1822:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1801:
1785:
1770:
1764:Wayback Machine
1754:
1750:
1735:(11): 933–938.
1721:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1699:Wayback Machine
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1658:Tropical forest
1648:Tropical Africa
1643:Palaeogeography
1628:
1611:
1602:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1556:farmed plants.
1529:
1469:
1449:
1443:
1438:
1421:
1377:
1321:
1315:
1251:
1246:
1107:
1101:
1050:
1045:
1021:
1009:
981:
969:
946:Ceiba pentandra
937:
915:
872:
867:
796:
791:
683:
589:evergreen trees
585:
579:
556:Boa constrictor
552:boa constrictor
532:Panthera pardus
524:
518:
502:Gorilla gorilla
453:
440:
393:, parts of the
385:and around the
383:Central America
323:
321:Tropical forest
317:
285:
216:rain forest in
207:
78:tropical forest
25:An area of the
17:
12:
11:
5:
4142:
4132:
4131:
4126:
4124:Tropical flora
4121:
4116:
4111:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4064:
4062:
4058:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4033:
4028:
4022:
4020:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3951:
3949:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3895:
3893:
3886:
3882:Biogeographic
3878:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3864:
3862:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3793:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3730:
3728:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3694:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3661:
3659:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3628:
3621:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3598:
3597:
3590:
3583:
3575:
3569:
3568:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3545:
3544:External links
3542:
3540:
3539:
3506:
3487:
3473:Bothrops atrox
3464:
3445:
3390:
3355:
3303:
3281:
3268:
3246:
3227:
3193:
3156:
3133:
3122:. The Guardian
3110:
3053:
3025:
3005:
2979:
2944:
2917:
2883:(9): 652–659.
2860:
2848:
2823:
2811:
2799:
2758:
2742:
2726:
2678:
2636:
2609:
2582:(131): 131–7.
2566:
2523:(4): 544–547.
2503:
2478:Plant and Soil
2456:
2392:
2380:
2353:(6): 694–705.
2330:
2293:Biogeosciences
2274:
2222:
2191:
2156:
2131:
2097:
2051:
2044:
2023:
1996:
1977:(2): 104–110.
1958:
1946:
1934:
1880:
1868:
1849:
1832:
1806:
1799:
1768:
1748:
1715:
1703:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1610:
1607:
1601:
1598:
1582:carbon dioxide
1570:Climate change
1568:Main article:
1565:
1564:Climate change
1562:
1553:slash-and-burn
1528:
1525:
1468:
1465:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1384:Canopy walkway
1376:
1373:
1317:Main article:
1314:
1311:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1218:soil fertility
1209:slash-and-burn
1203:people of the
1103:Main article:
1100:
1097:
1058:Korowai people
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1020:
1017:
1008:
1005:
980:
977:
968:
965:
955:buttress roots
936:
935:Buttress roots
933:
914:
911:
871:
868:
866:
863:
830:American Samoa
802:Rainforest in
795:
792:
790:
787:
782:stratification
744:Lecythis ampla
682:
681:Emergent layer
679:
581:Main article:
578:
575:
520:Main article:
517:
514:
452:
449:
439:
436:
424:
423:
421:
409:
408:
406:
351:
350:
348:
339:seen from the
319:Main article:
316:
313:
284:
281:
258:microorganisms
206:
203:
199:climate change
191:REDD and REDD+
41:of species on
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4141:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4038:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4021:
4017:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3952:
3950:
3946:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3879:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3859:
3853:
3852:Demersal zone
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3786:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3725:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3687:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3649:Alpine tundra
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:Polar/montane
3625:
3622:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3591:
3589:
3584:
3582:
3577:
3576:
3573:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3524:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3491:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3468:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3449:
3441:
3435:
3426:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3314:
3307:
3300:
3296:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3278:
3272:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3240:
3237:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3197:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3165:Harvey, Fiona
3160:
3144:
3137:
3121:
3114:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3057:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3029:
3023:
3022:0-393-30262-8
3019:
3015:
3009:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2948:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2852:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2820:
2815:
2808:
2803:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2762:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2722:
2716:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2562:
2556:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2472:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2389:
2384:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2334:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2227:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2172:(6): 573–79.
2171:
2167:
2160:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2055:
2047:
2045:0-444-41986-1
2041:
2037:
2030:
2028:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1963:
1955:
1950:
1943:
1938:
1930:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1877:
1872:
1865:
1861:
1858:
1853:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1820:
1816:
1810:
1802:
1796:
1792:
1791:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1752:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1653:Tropical Asia
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1623:
1621:
1616:
1606:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1588:) are called
1587:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1517:deforestation
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1473:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1448:
1441:Deforestation
1430:
1425:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1356:Deforestation
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1339:control, and
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1320:
1310:
1308:
1305:. Forests in
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1241:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1187:Some notable
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1073:Congo Pygmies
1070:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1029:Jürgen Haffer
1026:
1016:
1013:
1004:
1002:
994:
990:
985:
976:
973:
964:
961:
960:turnover time
956:
948:
947:
941:
932:
929:
919:
910:
908:
904:
900:
897:
892:
888:
886:
882:
878:
862:
859:
855:
851:
847:
837:
831:
826:
820:
819:French Guiana
816:
812:
805:
800:
786:
783:
778:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
755:crowned eagle
752:
751:
746:
745:
740:
739:
734:
733:
728:
727:
722:
721:
716:
712:
708:
701:
697:
696:
692:dominated by
691:
687:
678:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
651:
646:
642:
641:spider monkey
638:
634:
633:scarlet macaw
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
584:
572:
567:
563:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
523:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
470:
466:
457:
448:
446:
435:
433:
429:
422:
419:
418:
417:
414:
413:cloud forests
407:
404:
403:
402:
400:
396:
392:
389:, in coastal
388:
384:
379:
375:
371:
363:
359:
355:
349:
346:
345:
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227:
226:precipitation
219:
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195:deforestation
192:
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4019:Subdivisions
3909:Australasian
3899:Afrotropical
3861:Other biomes
3837:Benthic zone
3832:Pelagic zone
3827:Neritic zone
3817:Kelp forests
3697:
3689:Tropical and
3530:. Retrieved
3523:the original
3509:
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2901:the original
2880:
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2836:Mongabay.com
2835:
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2793:10261/137811
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2737:
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2715:cite journal
2701:(1): 59–82.
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1819:the original
1809:
1789:
1751:
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1718:
1706:
1687:
1612:
1603:
1590:carbon sinks
1579:
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1477:Ok Tedi Mine
1458:in Brazil's
1419:Conservation
1403:
1392:
1322:
1252:
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1186:
1170:
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1092:environments
1081:Penan people
1077:Dayak people
1066:
1032:
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993:Bukit Lawang
970:
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903:laterization
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667:Potos flavus
666:
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593:biodiversity
586:
577:Canopy layer
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465:forest floor
462:
451:Forest floor
441:
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341:Hana Highway
324:
305:Mesozoic era
302:
262:
238:
222:
214:Amazon River
187:Conservation
185:
165:forest floor
150:
129:biodiversity
125:
87:between the
65:
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4114:Rainforests
3929:Neotropical
3919:Indomalayan
3892:Terrestrial
3822:Coral reefs
3691:subtropical
3618:Terrestrial
3532:23 November
3410:: 169–182.
3236:Uneptie.org
2960:: 245–271.
2324:10871/11001
2149:14 November
1857:Rainforests
1501:natural gas
1462:state, 2016
1341:pollination
1037:Pleistocene
928:decomposers
769:), and the
617:grey parrot
548:Nasua nasua
540:Dendrobates
391:West Africa
293:dipterocarp
159:layer, the
85:torrid zone
70:rainforests
4129:Ecosystems
4103:Categories
4036:Ecoregions
4031:Bioregions
3939:Palearctic
3847:Cold seeps
3807:Intertidal
3216:(2): 448.
3149:8 November
3126:8 November
3002:(1): 5–17.
2996:Expedition
2877:BioScience
1800:0816039739
1729:BioScience
1680:References
1609:Protection
1574:See also:
1551:, utilize
1399:ecotourism
1388:Costa Rica
1307:New Guinea
1144:Irian Jaya
1140:New Guinea
1062:New Guinea
1048:Habitation
1001:ecologists
972:Succession
870:Soil types
846:classified
560:Coleoptera
522:Understory
245:indigenous
161:understory
153:ecosystems
109:dry season
3914:Holarctic
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3181:0261-3077
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2841:11 August
2060:Webb, Len
1825:4 January
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1353:Argentina
1286:sugarcane
1278:macadamia
1262:chocolate
1244:Resources
1197:Ya̧nomamö
1117:state of
1115:Brazilian
995:, Sumatra
989:orangutan
896:Gondwanan
780:However,
711:emergents
709:, called
637:Ara macao
597:epiphytes
426:Tropical
399:Indochina
387:Caribbean
254:medicines
107:where no
39:diversity
4061:See also
3934:Oceanian
3924:Nearctic
3802:Littoral
3775:Mangrove
3765:Riparian
3479:(2), 101
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3239:Archived
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2910:28 March
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1695:Archived
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1427:Loss of
1349:Paraguay
1193:Huaorani
1165:Huaorani
1079:and the
943:Base of
881:ultisols
877:leaching
806:, Mexico
794:Climates
671:tamandua
663:kinkajou
506:decaying
327:ecotones
309:Gondwana
234:leaching
205:Overview
3788:Aquatic
3770:Wetland
3412:Bibcode
3373:Bibcode
3259:WRI.org
3186:5 March
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3075:Bibcode
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2186:8799184
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2072:Bibcode
2006:Ecology
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1895:Geology
1547:of the
1436:Threats
1375:Tourism
1364:Drought
1358:in the
1337:disease
1282:avocado
1238:Negrito
1121:in 2009
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899:shields
885:oxisols
804:Chiapas
789:Ecology
761:), the
698:, near
669:), and
528:leopard
486:Tapirus
469:adapted
283:History
273:logging
241:species
232:due to
177:climate
138:logging
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1274:papaya
1266:banana
1258:coffee
1233:Dayaks
1205:Amazon
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1199:, and
1180:, and
1136:Brazil
1089:forest
1085:Borneo
1071:, the
987:Young
715:canopy
645:Ateles
542:sp.),
488:sp.),
432:Várzea
368:Moist
157:canopy
133:insect
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1299:fruit
1295:pests
1270:mango
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707:trees
700:Isiro
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482:tapir
474:okapi
230:soils
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3797:Pond
3534:2009
3504:133.
3440:link
3350:link
3346:link
3188:2020
3177:ISSN
3151:2018
3128:2018
3101:PMID
3018:ISBN
2912:2013
2843:2017
2721:link
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2447:PMID
2411:PNAS
2265:PMID
2151:2007
2040:ISBN
1987:PMID
1929:link
1827:2009
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1119:Acre
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