Ice age - Knowledge

283:(1803–1867) was studying mosses which were growing on erratic boulders in the alpine upland of Bavaria. He began to wonder where such masses of stone had come from. During the summer of 1835 he made some excursions to the Bavarian Alps. Schimper came to the conclusion that ice must have been the means of transport for the boulders in the alpine upland. In the winter of 1835–36 he held some lectures in Munich. Schimper then assumed that there must have been global times of obliteration ("Verödungszeiten") with a cold climate and frozen water. Schimper spent the summer months of 1836 at Devens, near Bex, in the Swiss Alps with his former university friend 409: 1357:, and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as Earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Jose Antonio Rial. 276:, which threatened to cause a catastrophic flood when the dam broke. Perraudin attempted unsuccessfully to convert his companions to his theory, but when the dam finally broke, there were only minor erratics and no striations, and Venetz concluded that Perraudin was right and that only ice could have caused such major results. In 1821 he read a prize-winning paper on the theory to the Swiss Society, but it was not published until Charpentier, who had also become converted, published it with his own more widely read paper in 1834. 6001: 1900: 794: 777: 444: 1641:(6,962 m) have shown an unexpectedly extensive glacial glaciation of the type "ice stream network". The connected valley glaciers exceeding 100 km in length, flowed down on the East-side of this section of the Andes at 32–34°S and 69–71°W as far as a height of 2,060 m and on the western luff-side still clearly deeper. Where current glaciers scarcely reach 10 km in length, the snowline (ELA) runs at a height of 4,600 m and at that time was lowered to 3,200 m 565: 287:(1801–1873) and Jean de Charpentier. Schimper, Charpentier and possibly Venetz convinced Agassiz that there had been a time of glaciation. During the winter of 1836–37, Agassiz and Schimper developed the theory of a sequence of glaciations. They mainly drew upon the preceding works of Venetz, Charpentier and on their own fieldwork. Agassiz appears to have been already familiar with Bernhardi's paper at that time. At the beginning of 1837, Schimper coined the term "ice age" ( 1660: 1886: 6993: 1460: 339:. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence for earlier glaciations, making it difficult to interpret. Furthermore, this evidence was difficult to date exactly; early theories assumed that the glacials were short compared to the long interglacials. The advent of sediment and ice cores revealed the true situation: glacials are long, interglacials short. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. 1285: 291:) for the period of the glaciers. In July 1837 Agassiz presented their synthesis before the annual meeting of the Swiss Society for Natural Research at Neuchâtel. The audience was very critical, and some were opposed to the new theory because it contradicted the established opinions on climatic history. Most contemporary scientists thought that Earth had been gradually cooling down since its birth as a molten globe. 190: 1534: 759: 2489:

carving out valleys and fjords, in a cold climate caused by changes in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit. Esmark and his travel companion Otto Tank arrived at this insight by analogous reasoning: enigmatic landscape features they observed close to sea level along the Norwegian coast strongly resembled features they observed in the front of a retreating glacier during a mountain traverse in the summer of 1823.

41: 298:("Études sur les glaciers") in 1840. Charpentier was put out by this, as he had also been preparing a book about the glaciation of the Alps. Charpentier felt that Agassiz should have given him precedence as it was he who had introduced Agassiz to in-depth glacial research. As a result of personal quarrels, Agassiz had also omitted any mention of Schimper in his book. 1346:(tilt of the axis). The reasons for dominance of one frequency versus another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in Earth's climate system. Recent work suggests that the 100K year cycle dominates due to increased southern-pole sea-ice increasing total solar reflectivity. 913:. This low precipitation allows high-latitude snowfalls to melt during the summer. An ice-free Arctic Ocean absorbs solar radiation during the long summer days, and evaporates more water into the Arctic atmosphere. With higher precipitation, portions of this snow may not melt during the summer and so glacial ice can form at lower altitudes 1645:, i.e. about 1,400 m. From this follows that—beside of an annual depression of temperature about c. 8.4 °C— here was an increase in precipitation. Accordingly, at glacial times the humid climatic belt that today is situated several latitude degrees further to the S, was shifted much further to the N. 1754:

regions, as well as much of central North America at the end of the last glacial maximum, with the present-day coastlines only being achieved in the last few millennia of prehistory. Also, the effect of elevation on Scandinavia submerged a vast continental plain that had existed under much of what is

1305:

that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milanković orbital forcing periods is so close that orbital forcing is generally accepted. The combined effects of the changing distance to the Sun,

1275:

periods by the 100,000-year cycle of radiation changes due to variations in Earth's orbit. This comparatively insignificant warming, when combined with the lowering of the Nordic inland ice areas and Tibet due to the weight of the superimposed ice-load, has led to the repeated complete thawing of the

1193:

Another important contribution to ancient climate regimes is the variation of ocean currents, which are modified by continent position, sea levels and salinity, as well as other factors. They have the ability to cool (e.g. aiding the creation of Antarctic ice) and the ability to warm (e.g. giving the

1371:

who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000

976:

will defer the next glacial period. Researchers used data on Earth's orbit to find the historical warm interglacial period that looks most like the current one and from this have predicted that the next glacial period would usually begin within 1,500 years. They go on to predict that emissions have

917:

more southerly latitudes, reducing the temperatures over land by increased albedo as noted above. Furthermore, under this hypothesis the lack of oceanic pack ice allows increased exchange of waters between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans, warming the Arctic and cooling the North Atlantic.

377:

evidence consists of changes in the geographical distribution of fossils. During a glacial period, cold-adapted organisms spread into lower latitudes, and organisms that prefer warmer conditions become extinct or retreat into lower latitudes. This evidence is also difficult to interpret because it

1084:

levels fell at the start of ice ages and rose during the retreat of the ice sheets, but it is difficult to establish cause and effect (see the notes above on the role of weathering). Greenhouse gas levels may also have been affected by other factors which have been proposed as causes of ice ages,

950:

Ice sheets that form during glaciations erode the land beneath them. This can reduce the land area above sea level and thus diminish the amount of space on which ice sheets can form. This mitigates the albedo feedback, as does the rise in sea level that accompanies the reduced area of ice sheets,

153:

hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin (1767–1858) explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German

4508:

Kuhle, M. (1999). "Reconstruction of an approximately complete Quaternary Tibetan inland glaciation between the Mt. Everest- and Cho Oyu Massifs and the Aksai Chin. A new glaciogeomorphological SE–NW diagonal profile through Tibet and its consequences for the glacial isostasy and Ice Age cycle".

1329:

can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial–interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800,000 years, the dominant period of glacial–interglacial oscillation has been

1317:

varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m to 550 W/m). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too cool to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some believe that the strength of the orbital forcing is too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback

1214:

in the Atlantic, increasing heat transport into the Arctic, which melted the polar ice accumulation and reduced other continental ice sheets. The release of water raised sea levels again, restoring the ingress of colder water from the Pacific with an accompanying shift to northern hemisphere ice

177:

Meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport. The Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas (1712–1772) was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice was a

2488:

The discovery of Ice Ages is one of the most revolutionary advances made in the Earth sciences. In 1824 Danish-Norwegian geoscientist Jens Esmark published a paper stating that there was indisputable evidence that Norway and other parts of Europe had previously been covered by enormous glaciers

392:

Despite the difficulties, analysis of ice core and ocean sediment cores has provided a credible record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years. These also confirm the linkage between ice ages and continental crust phenomena such as glacial moraines, drumlins, and glacial

4347:

Starr, Aidan; Hall, Ian R.; Barker, Stephen; Rackow, Thomas; Zhang, Xu; Hemming, Sidney R.; Lubbe, H. J. L. van der; Knorr, Gregor; Berke, Melissa A.; Bigg, Grant R.; Cartagena-Sierra, Alejandra; Jiménez-Espejo, Francisco J.; Gong, Xun; Gruetzner, Jens; Lathika, Nambiyathodi; LeVay, Leah J.;

1640:

A specially interesting climatic change during glacial times has taken place in the semi-arid Andes. Beside the expected cooling down in comparison with the current climate, a significant precipitation change happened here. So, researches in the presently semiarid subtropic Aconcagua-massif

2822:

Putnam, Aaron E.; Denton, George H.; Schaefer, Joerg M.; Barrell, David J. A.; Andersen, Bjørn G.; Finkel, Robert C.; Schwartz, Roseanne; Doughty, Alice M.; Kaplan, Michael R.; Schlüchter, Christian (2010). "Glacier advance in southern middle-latitudes during the Antarctic Cold Reversal".

1172:

are a major factor in the current ice age, because these mountains have increased Earth's total rainfall and therefore the rate at which carbon dioxide is washed out of the atmosphere, decreasing the greenhouse effect. The Himalayas' formation started about 70 million years ago when the

1029:

Some of these factors influence each other. For example, changes in Earth's atmospheric composition (especially the concentrations of greenhouse gases) may alter the climate, while climate change itself can change the atmospheric composition (for example by changing the rate at which

209:(1762–1839) argued for a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations. He attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earth's orbit. Esmark discovered the similarity between moraines near 897:

One theory is that when glaciers form, two things happen: the ice grinds rocks into dust, and the land becomes dry and arid. This allows winds to transport iron rich dust into the open ocean, where it acts as a fertilizer that causes massive algal blooms that pulls large amounts of

1424:

Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to the inception and/or the end of ice age periods. At times during the paleoclimate, carbon dioxide levels were two or three times greater than today. Volcanoes and movements in continental plates contributed to high amounts of

1300:

There is strong evidence that the Milankovitch cycles affect the occurrence of glacial and interglacial periods within an ice age. The present ice age is the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by

856:

in 2004 argues that it might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Predicted changes in orbital forcing suggest that the next glacial period would begin at least 50,000 years from now. Moreover, anthropogenic forcing from increased

3930:

Another factor is the increased aridity occurring with glacial maxima, which reduces the precipitation available to maintain glaciation. The glacial retreat induced by this or any other process can be amplified by similar inverse positive feedbacks as for glacial

740:. The maximum extent of the ice is not maintained for the full interval. The scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior ice sheets almost completely, except in regions where the later sheet does not achieve full coverage. 998:(the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years); changes in Earth's orbit around the 1842:

A 2015 report by the Past Global Changes Project says simulations show that a new glaciation is unlikely to happen within the next approximately 50,000 years, before the next strong drop in Northern Hemisphere summer insolation occurs "if either atmospheric

240:(1992). Jameson's remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark. In Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi (1797–1849), a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker (since incorporated in the southern 1380:

forcing, while in the early Pleistocene the 41,000-year glacial cycles resulted from jumps between only two climate states. A dynamical model explaining this behavior was proposed by Peter Ditlevsen. This is in support of the suggestion that the late

5696: 3531:

Walker, M.; Johnsen, S.; Rasmussen, S. O.; Popp, T.; Steffensen, J.-P.; Gibbard, P.; Hoek, W.; Lowe, J.; Andrews, J.; Bjo; Cwynar, L. C.; Hughen, K.; Kershaw, P.; Kromer, B.; Litt, T.; Lowe, D. J.; Nakagawa, T.; Newnham, R.; Schwander, J. (2009).

1729:

During glaciation, water was taken from the oceans to form the ice at high latitudes, thus global sea level dropped by about 110 meters, exposing the continental shelves and forming land-bridges between land-masses for animals to migrate. During

954:

Another negative feedback mechanism is the increased aridity occurring with glacial maxima, which reduces the precipitation available to maintain glaciation. The glacial retreat induced by this or any other process can be amplified by similar

1310:, and the changing tilt of Earth's axis redistribute the sunlight received by Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of Earth's axis, which affect the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 1181:, and the Himalayas are still rising by about 5 mm per year because the Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm/year. The history of the Himalayas broadly fits the long-term decrease in Earth's average temperature since the 263:

to the idea, pointing to deep striations in the rocks and giant erratic boulders as evidence. Charpentier held the general view that these signs were caused by vast floods, and he rejected Perraudin's theory as absurd. In 1818 the engineer

832:

Glacials are characterized by cooler and drier climates over most of Earth and large land and sea ice masses extending outward from the poles. Mountain glaciers in otherwise unglaciated areas extend to lower elevations due to a lower

837:. Sea levels drop due to the removal of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps. There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. The glacials and interglacials coincide with changes in 5636: 393:

erratics. Hence the continental crust phenomena are accepted as good evidence of earlier ice ages when they are found in layers created much earlier than the time range for which ice cores and ocean sediment cores are available.

1342:. Yet this is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovitch. During the period 3.0–0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41,000-year period of changes in Earth's 938:) would have a cooling effect on northern Europe, which in turn would lead to increased low-latitude snow retention during the summer. It has also been suggested that during an extensive glacial, glaciers may move through the 1296:

are a set of cyclic variations in characteristics of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Each cycle has a different length, so at some times their effects reinforce each other and at other times they (partially) cancel each other.

985:

The causes of ice ages are not fully understood for either the large-scale ice age periods or the smaller ebb and flow of glacial–interglacial periods within an ice age. The consensus is that several factors are important:

2270:"Appendix: Martel, P. (1744) An account of the glacieres or ice alps in Savoy, in two letters, one from an English gentleman to his friend at Geneva; the other from Pierre Martel, engineer, to the said English gentleman" 1515:. The use of the Nebraskan, Afton, Kansan, and Yarmouthian stages to subdivide the ice age in North America has been discontinued by Quaternary geologists and geomorphologists. These stages have all been merged into the 1201:

Analyses suggest that ocean current fluctuations can adequately account for recent glacial oscillations. During the last glacial period the sea-level fluctuated 20–30 m as water was sequestered, primarily in the

1164:

Since today's Earth has a continent over the South Pole and an almost land-locked ocean over the North Pole, geologists believe that Earth will continue to experience glacial periods in the geologically near future.

893:

reduce its albedo. When the air temperature decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and they reduce forest cover. This continues until competition with a negative feedback mechanism forces the system to an equilibrium.

607:

retained a greenhouse climate over its timespan and was previously assumed to have been entirely glaciation-free, more recent studies suggest that brief periods of glaciation occurred in both hemispheres during the

1734:, the melted ice-water returned to the oceans, causing sea level to rise. This process can cause sudden shifts in coastlines and hydration systems resulting in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed 1267:

Ice Age. Because this highland is at a subtropical latitude, with four to five times the insolation of high-latitude areas, what would be Earth's strongest heating surface has turned into a cooling surface.

5688: 663:

when the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere began. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000- and 100,000-year time scales called

1367:

effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by

5727: 1259:?). According to Kuhle, the plate-tectonic uplift of Tibet past the snow-line has led to a surface of c. 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) changing from bare land to ice with a 70% greater 3516:

Heckel, P.H. (2008). "Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Midcontinent North America as far-field effects of waxing and waning of Gondwana ice sheets". In Fielding, C.R.; Frank, T.D.; Isbell, J.L. (eds.).

1714:, etc., are typical features left behind by the glaciers. The weight of the ice sheets was so great that they deformed Earth's crust and mantle. After the ice sheets melted, the ice-covered land 905:

In 1956, Ewing and Donn hypothesized that an ice-free Arctic Ocean leads to increased snowfall at high latitudes. When low-temperature ice covers the Arctic Ocean there is little evaporation or

825:

occurred in previous glaciations, including the Andean-Saharan and the late Paleozoic ice house. The glacial cycles of the late Paleozoic ice house are likely responsible for the deposition of

5322:"Ch 53: The High-Glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the Aconcagua Group and Adjacent Massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America) with a Closer Look at Further Empirical Evidence" 370:, its proportion decreases with warmer conditions. This allows a temperature record to be constructed. This evidence can be confounded, however, by other factors recorded by isotope ratios. 3451: 3680: 5591: 1595:

in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of

1198:

about 3 million years ago may have ushered in the present period of strong glaciation over North America by ending the exchange of water between the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

1127:

and thus reduce the absorption of solar radiation. With less radiation absorbed the atmosphere cools; the cooling allows the ice sheets to grow, which further increases reflectivity in a

259:, there was a long-held local belief that the valley had once been covered deep in ice, and in 1815 a local chamois hunter called Jean-Pierre Perraudin attempted to convert the geologist 1859:

and temperature reduction toward unperturbed values in the absence of active removal is very long , and only weak precessional forcing occurs in the next two precessional cycles." (A

2963:

Bornemann, André; Norris, Richard D.; Friedrich, Oliver; Beckmann, Britta; Schouten, Stefan; Damsté, Jaap S. Sinninghe; Vogel, Jennifer; Hofmann, Peter; Wagner, Thomas (2008-01-11).

301:

It took several decades before the ice age theory was fully accepted by scientists. This happened on an international scale in the second half of the 1870s, following the work of

5395: 2122: 3534:"Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records" 3884: 1742:

of lakes, new ice dams creating vast areas of freshwater, and a general alteration in regional weather patterns on a large but temporary scale. It can even cause temporary

1674:

Although the last glacial period ended more than 8,000 years ago, its effects can still be felt today. For example, the moving ice carved out the landscape in Canada (See

644:, otherwise the warmest period of the Phanerozoic, are disputed), ice sheets and associated sea ice appear to have briefly returned to Antarctica near the very end of the 956: 3481:

Ghienne, Jean-François (January 2003). "Late Ordovician sedimentary environments, glacial cycles, and post-glacial transgression in the Taoudeni Basin, West Africa".

1111:

provide the initial trigger for Earth to warm after an Ice Age, with secondary factors like increases in greenhouse gases accounting for the magnitude of the change.

1556:

were carved by ice deepening old valleys. Most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers and later filled with glacial meltwaters. The old

149:

to the glaciers, saying that they had once extended much farther. Later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and

1100:

levels in the atmosphere, mainly from volcanoes, and some supporters of Snowball Earth argue that it was caused in the first place by a reduction in atmospheric CO

3366:

Wang, Tianyang; He, Songlin; Zhang, Qinghai; Ding, Lin; Farnsworth, Alex; Cai, Fulong; Wang, Chao; Xie, Jing; Li, Guobiao; Sheng, Jiani; Yue, Yahui (2023-05-26).

1210:(the narrow strait between Siberia and Alaska is about 50 m deep today) was reduced, resulting in increased flow from the North Atlantic. This realigned the 248:), adopted Esmark's theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about the polar ice caps once reaching as far as the temperate zones of the globe. 6209: 5872: 1944: 5174: 3269:"Glacial dropstones in the western Tethys during the late Aptian–early Albian cold snap: Palaeoclimate and palaeogeographic implications for the mid-Cretaceous" 5932: 3220: 232:

During the following years, Esmark's ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish and German scientists. At the University of Edinburgh

5724: 5958: 5238:

Kuhle, Matthias (June 1987). "Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene".

2232: 5397:

The Ice Age World: an introduction to quaternary history and research with emphasis on North America and Northern Europe during the last 2.5 million years

3471:

University of Houston-Clear Lake - Disasters Class Notes - Chapter 12: Climate Change sce.uhcl.edu/Pitts/disastersclassnotes/chapter_12_Climate_Change.doc

1376:. Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles can be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The jumps are induced by the 1228:

of ice ages over the last 1.5 million years were associated with northward shifts of melting Antarctic icebergs which changed ocean circulation patterns,

3245: 2801: 7032: 4086:

Raymo, Maureen E.; Ruddiman, William F.; Froelich, Philip N. (1988-07-01). "Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles".

6333: 5074: 5019: 2096: 1429:

in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide from volcanoes probably contributed to periods with highest overall temperatures. One suggested explanation of the

1373: 495:, and correlation has been made with Paleoproterozoic glacial deposits from Western Australia. The Huronian ice age was caused by the elimination of 1726:, the flow of mantle rocks which controls the rebound process is very slow—at a rate of about 1 cm/year near the center of rebound area today. 366:, both from the ice itself and from atmospheric samples provided by included bubbles of air. Because water containing lighter isotopes has a lower 3415: 115:

period is an interglacial period of an ice age. The accumulation of anthropogenic greenhouse gases is projected to delay the next glacial period.

4993:

Guinan, E.F.; Ribas, I. (2002). "Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate".

3676: 3393: 3325:

Rodríguez-López, Juan Pedro; Liesa, Carlos L.; Luzón, Aránzazu; Muñoz, Arsenio; Mayayo, María J.; Murton, Julian B.; Soria, Ana R. (2023-10-10).

584:. Its former name, the Karoo glaciation, was named after the glacial tills found in the Karoo region of South Africa. There were extensive polar 210: 3304: 1847:

concentration remains above 300 ppm or cumulative carbon emissions exceed 1000 Pg C" (i.e. 1,000 gigatonnes carbon). "Only for an atmospheric CO

1568:, which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall, at the present 7022: 6779: 158:(1786–1855) in 1834. Comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in 4325: 2539: 2034: 1123:

which block or reduce the flow of warm water from the equator to the poles and thus allow ice sheets to form. The ice sheets increase Earth's

178:

cause of the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist,

5415: 1385:

glacial cycles are not due to the weak 100,000-year eccentricity cycle, but a non-linear response to mainly the 41,000-year obliquity cycle.

640:

during the Hauterivian and Aptian. Although ice sheets largely disappeared from Earth for the rest of the period (potential reports from the

440:. However, other studies dispute this, finding evidence of occasional glaciations at high latitudes even during apparent greenhouse periods. 5502:

Turpeinen, H.; Hampel, A.; Karow, T.; Maniatis, G. (2008). "Effect of ice sheet growth and melting on the slip evolution of thrust faults".

3655: 4592: 510:

The next well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last billion years, occurred from 720 to 630 million years ago (the

6773: 6202: 2294:

Discovering the Ice Ages. International Reception and Consequences for a Historical Understanding of Climate (German edition: Basel 2008)

1926: 2360:

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: Geologische Probleme und Versuch ihrer Auflösung, Mineralogie und Geologie in Goethes Werke, Weimar 1892,

2126: 4923: 4213: 145:. Two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of 5746: 1746:. This type of chaotic pattern of rapidly changing land, ice, saltwater and freshwater has been proposed as the likely model for the 649: 6000: 5181:, jpg version 844 KB. Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England 3952: 1010:

resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on Earth's surface, which affect wind and

385:

ancient organisms which survive for several million years without change and whose temperature preferences are easily diagnosed; and

4977: 4758: 3590:

Augustin, L; Barbante, C; Barnes, PRF; Barnola, JM; Bigler, M; Castellano, E; Cattani, O; Chappellaz, J; et al. (2004-06-10).

923: 5096:

Hallberg, G.R. (1986). "Pre-Wisconsin glacial stratigraphy of the Central Plains region in Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri".

4487:. Development in Quaternary Science: Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology Vol. 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 175–199. 4244: 3016: 1445:. There appears to be no geological evidence for such eruptions at the right time, but this does not prove they did not happen. 186:(1780–1851) published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon. 4411: 4024: 1475:, which began about 2.6 million years ago and extends into the present, is marked by warm and cold episodes, cold phases called 1349:

The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles.

889:, which is how much of the sun's energy is reflected rather than absorbed by Earth. Ice and snow increase Earth's albedo, while 182:(1726–1797), explained erratic boulders in the Alps by the action of glaciers. Two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist 6707: 6683: 6671: 6195: 5286:"The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glacier cover of the Aconcagua group and adjacent massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America)" 437: 69: 19:

This article is about glacial periods in general. For specific recent glacial periods often referred to as the "Ice Age", see

6326: 5445: 5409: 5335: 5299: 4563: 4492: 3923: 3894: 3777:

Bryden, H.L.; H.R. Longworth; S.A. Cunningham (2005). "Slowing of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 25° N".

2910: 2669: 2632: 2301: 2072: 2003: 1874:

Ice ages go through cycles of about 100,000 years, but the next one may well be avoided due to our carbon dioxide emissions.

712: 111:

is defined by the presence of extensive ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres. By this definition, the current

4433:

Kuhle, Matthias (December 1988). "The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages — An Autocycle Hypothesis".

3267:

Rodríguez-López, Juan Pedro; Liesa, Carlos L.; Pardo, Gonzalo; Meléndez, Nieves; Soria, Ana R.; Skilling, Ian (2016-06-15).

1851:

content below the preindustrial level may a glaciation occur within the next 10 ka. ... Given the continued anthropogenic CO

436:). Outside these ages, Earth was previously thought to have been ice-free even in high latitudes; such periods are known as 5045: 3566: 1430: 1138:

There are three main contributors from the layout of the continents that obstruct the movement of warm water to the poles:

927: 6713: 5504: 4686: 1288:

Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65 N latitude

861:

is estimated to potentially outweigh the orbital forcing of the Milankovitch cycles for hundreds of thousands of years.

5783: 5713: 568:

Sediment records showing the fluctuating sequences of glacials and interglacials during the last several million years

382:

sequences of sediments covering a long period of time, over a wide range of latitudes and which are easily correlated;

6953: 5169: 5002: 4243:; Waelbroeck, Claire; Weiqing Han; Loutre, Marie-France; Lambeck, Kurt; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Rosenbloom, Nan (2010). 3761: 2937: 2614: 2365: 124: 4879:

Paillard, D. (22 January 1998). "The timing of Pleistocene glaciations from a simple multiple-state climate model".

6943: 6646: 6319: 2861: 1397:

In the very long term, astrophysicists believe that the Sun's output increases by about 7% every one billion years.

809:

Within the current glaciation, more temperate and more severe periods have occurred. The colder periods are called

5436:

Johnston, A. (1989). "The effect of large ice sheets on earthquake genesis". In Gregersen, S.; Basham, P. (eds.).

3173: 1463:

Northern hemisphere glaciation during the last ice ages. The setup of 3 to 4 kilometer thick ice sheets caused a

5539:

Hunt, A. G.; Malin, P. E. (May 1998). "Possible triggering of Heinrich events by ice-load-induced earthquakes".

4107: 2201: 6640: 5725:

Eduard Y. Osipov, Oleg M. Khlystov. Glaciers and meltwater flux to Lake Baikal during the Last Glacial Maximum.

5676: 5134:

Richmond, G.M.; Fullerton, D.S. (1986). "Summation of Quaternary glaciations in the United States of America".

4736: 4475:

2c (Quaternary Glaciation — Extent and Chronology, Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica

4225:—formation of Isthmus of Panama may have started a series of climatic changes that led to evolution of hominids 4192: 3111:"The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis" 906: 475:

are exposed 10 to 100 kilometers (6 to 62 mi) north of the north shore of Lake Huron, extending from near

273: 3253: 909:

and the polar regions are quite dry in terms of precipitation, comparable to the amount found in mid-latitude

6218: 6135: 2793: 236:(1774–1854) seemed to be relatively open to Esmark's ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology 2510: 1860: 526:

produced by volcanoes. "The presence of ice on the continents and pack ice on the oceans would inhibit both

6374: 1758:

The redistribution of ice-water on the surface of Earth and the flow of mantle rocks causes changes in the

1630: 1569: 527: 5082: 5023: 4133:; Mitrovica, Jerry X.; Hostetler, Steven W. & McCabe, A. Marshall (2009). "The Last Glacial Maximum". 2092: 762:

Shows the pattern of temperature and ice volume changes associated with recent glacials and interglacials.

7037: 6737: 1914: 1675: 1491:

ended about 10,000 years ago. Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the

5463:"Induced stresses and fault potential in eastern Canada due to a realistic load: a preliminary analysis" 2927: 1251:'s geological theory of Ice Age development was suggested by the existence of an ice sheet covering the 6883: 6610: 5832: 159: 3367: 3268: 1855:

emissions, glacial inception is very unlikely to occur in the next 50 ka, because the timescale for CO

6948: 6604: 6379: 6017: 476: 5910: 5191:

Kuhle, M. (1984). "Spuren hocheiszeitlicher Gletscherbedeckung in der Aconcagua-Gruppe (32–33° S)".

4544:

Kuhle, M. (2011). "Ice Age Development Theory". In Singh, V.P.; Singh, P.; Haritashya, U.K. (eds.).

4272: 6903: 6695: 6634: 4317: 2531: 2023: 1584: 1372:

and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by

1331: 1211: 931: 538:

at present." It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent

294:

In order to persuade the skeptics, Agassiz embarked on geological fieldwork. He published his book

32: 1607:

continues to reshape the Great Lakes and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets.

166:. Such explanations could also be found in other parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist 6652: 6023: 3647: 3169: 596:

periods. Correlatives are known from Argentina, also in the center of the ancient supercontinent

581: 504: 429: 280: 612:. Geologic and palaeoclimatological records suggest the existence of glacial periods during the 408: 317:

There are three main types of evidence for ice ages: geological, chemical, and paleontological.

6785: 6689: 6628: 6616: 6414: 6272: 6177: 6048: 5864: 5776: 4584: 4267: 1961: 1454: 1354: 939: 902:

out of the atmosphere. This in turn makes it even colder and causes the glaciers to grow more.

402: 5321: 4478: 2900: 2269: 1941: – Circa 24,000–16,000 BCE; most recent era when ice sheets were at their greatest extent 6928: 6863: 6761: 6539: 6493: 6354: 6140: 5985: 5888: 5805: 5800: 5285: 4245:"Influence of Bering Strait flow and North Atlantic circulation on glacial sea-level changes" 1810: 1480: 1174: 716: 656: 518:

in which glacial ice sheets reached the equator, possibly being ended by the accumulation of

433: 73: 28: 5517: 6938: 6893: 6731: 6409: 6364: 6359: 5868: 5860: 5841: 5606: 5548: 5513: 5474: 5401: 5360: 5143: 5105: 4961: 4945: 4888: 4819: 4720: 4627: 4361: 4259: 4205: 4142: 4095: 4057: 3990: 3841: 3786: 3710: 3603: 3548: 3490: 3427: 3280: 3188: 3122: 3055: 2976: 2834: 2575: 2451: 2216: 2164: 1955: 1938: 1715: 1635: 1604: 1523: 1512: 1335: 1256: 1229: 672:

periods, interglacials or glacial retreats. Earth is currently in an interglacial, and the

72:

during which there are no glaciers on the planet. Earth is currently in the ice age called

60:'s surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar 5738: 3976:"High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present" 3944: 926:.) Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also 237: 8: 7027: 6888: 6677: 6588: 6160: 6094: 6075: 6071: 6042: 5950: 5876: 5837: 5827: 4240: 1905: 1837: 1527: 1488: 1311: 1293: 1203: 1003: 987: 842: 800: 783: 704: 685: 681: 633: 496: 492: 472: 367: 260: 155: 20: 5611: 5552: 5478: 5364: 5147: 5109: 4974: 4949: 4924:"Bifurcation structure and noise-assisted transitions in the Pleistocene glacial cycles" 4892: 4823: 4789: 4724: 4631: 4365: 4263: 4146: 4099: 4061: 3994: 3845: 3790: 3714: 3607: 3552: 3494: 3431: 3284: 3192: 3126: 3059: 2980: 2838: 2579: 2455: 2220: 2168: 1206:

ice sheets. When ice collected and the sea level dropped sufficiently, flow through the

1131:

loop. The ice age continues until the reduction in weathering causes an increase in the

183: 6968: 6963: 6898: 6113: 5572: 5487: 5462: 5376: 5263: 5255: 5171:

Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years v. 2007b.

4935: 4904: 4861: 4526: 4458: 4450: 4403: 4293: 4166: 4129:

Clark, Peter U.; Dyke, Arthur S.; Shakun, Jeremy D.; Carlson, Anders E.; Clark, Jorie;

4016: 3912: 3865: 3810: 3629: 3443: 3212: 3145: 3110: 3086: 3043: 3008: 2881: 2603: 2587: 2182: 2061: 1825: 1786: 1573: 1548:

This Wisconsin glaciation left widespread impacts on the North American landscape. The

845:, which are periodic changes in Earth's orbit and the tilt of Earth's rotational axis. 543: 456: 6452: 5856: 4069: 3502: 2964: 732: 323:

evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching,

7017: 6996: 6973: 6868: 6554: 6442: 6231: 5924: 5916: 5898: 5884: 5880: 5769: 5564: 5441: 5405: 5380: 5331: 5295: 5267: 5220: 5196: 5155: 5117: 4998: 4853: 4845: 4807: 4781: 4663: 4658: 4645: 4615: 4530: 4488: 4462: 4407: 4395: 4387: 4349: 4188: 4158: 4130: 4111: 4008: 3975: 3919: 3890: 3857: 3829: 3802: 3757: 3734: 3726: 3621: 3447: 3385: 3348: 3296: 3204: 3150: 3091: 3073: 3044:"Palaeogeographic regulation of glacial events during the Cretaceous supergreenhouse" 3012: 3000: 2992: 2933: 2906: 2825: 2665: 2628: 2610: 2479: 2440:"Jens Esmark's mountain glacier traverse 1823 − the key to his discovery of Ice Ages" 2361: 2307: 2297: 2068: 1999: 1932: 1763: 1723: 1504: 1442: 1350: 1240:

will become too warm for the icebergs to travel far enough to trigger these changes.

1195: 1132: 1128: 1120: 1119:

The geological record appears to show that ice ages start when the continents are in

964: 874: 870: 637: 3869: 3174:"Neoproterozoic 'snowball Earth' simulations with a coupled climate/ice-sheet model" 2186: 1813:

are induced and this positive feedback may explain the fast collapse of ice sheets.

1064:

from the global atmosphere to be a significant causal factor of the 40 million year

6503: 6240: 6086: 5954: 5906: 5902: 5626: 5616: 5576: 5556: 5521: 5482: 5438:

Earthquakes at North-Atlantic passive margins: Neotectonics and postglacial rebound

5368: 5247: 5151: 5113: 4953: 4908: 4896: 4865: 4835: 4827: 4773: 4728: 4653: 4635: 4518: 4442: 4377: 4369: 4285: 4277: 4170: 4150: 4103: 4065: 4020: 3998: 3849: 3814: 3794: 3718: 3633: 3611: 3556: 3498: 3435: 3375: 3338: 3288: 3216: 3196: 3140: 3130: 3081: 3063: 2984: 2873: 2864:(November 1979). "The Antarctic Ice-Sheet: Regulator of Global Climates?: Review". 2842: 2583: 2566: 2469: 2459: 2224: 2172: 1991: 1771: 1767: 1759: 1654: 1360: 1326: 1307: 1263:. The reflection of energy into space resulted in a global cooling, triggering the 1220: 1053: 1045: 609: 479:

to Sudbury, northeast of Lake Huron, with giant layers of now-lithified till beds,

452: 447:

Ice age map of northern Germany and its northern neighbours. Red: maximum limit of

351: 163: 4559: 3722: 1995: 170:(1806–1878) visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, the natives attributed fossil 6842: 6811: 6743: 6725: 6483: 6462: 6384: 6369: 5946: 5938: 5894: 5731: 5680: 5325: 5289: 5215:

Kuhle, M. (1986). "Die Vergletscherung Tibets und die Entstehung von Eiszeiten".

5178: 4981: 4777: 4759:"Pacemaking the ice ages by frequency modulation of Earth's orbital eccentricity" 4732: 4482: 3292: 2737: 1806: 1790: 1735: 1679: 1642: 1592: 1538: 1405: 1252: 1049: 1015: 1007: 838: 576:

period caused a long term increase in planetary oxygen levels and reduction of CO

554: 491:, and scoured basement rocks. Correlative Huronian deposits have been found near 488: 363: 336: 324: 269: 222: 167: 146: 6187: 5053: 3533: 2739:Études sur les glaciers. Ouvrage accompagné d'un atlas de 32 planches, Neuchâtel 2125:. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany. 2016. Archived from 1789:

within Earth. The presence of the glaciers generally suppressed the movement of

1564:

drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as

1522:

During the most recent North American glaciation, during the latter part of the

1018:; the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system; the impact of relatively large 6978: 6847: 6806: 6295: 6261: 6249: 6150: 6145: 6130: 6063: 5525: 4620:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4373: 3380: 3327:"Ice-rafted dropstones at midlatitudes in the Cretaceous of continental Iberia" 2228: 1949: 1920: 1891: 1614:, a portion of western and southwestern Wisconsin along with parts of adjacent 1611: 1600: 1476: 1464: 1409: 1248: 1237: 1225: 1178: 1089: 1081: 991: 969: 942:, extending into the North Atlantic Ocean far enough to block the Gulf Stream. 919: 858: 793: 776: 749: 727: 700: 665: 550: 531: 519: 515: 500: 425: 355: 233: 218: 78: 4682: 4522: 1236:. The authors suggest that this process may be disrupted in the future as the 1194:

British Isles a temperate as opposed to a boreal climate). The closing of the

443: 16:

Period of long-term reduction in temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere

7011: 6958: 6923: 6755: 6749: 6719: 6701: 6622: 6564: 6513: 6498: 6457: 5942: 5928: 5920: 5849: 5568: 5224: 5200: 4849: 4649: 4391: 4350:"Antarctic icebergs reorganize ocean circulation during Pleistocene glacials" 4115: 3730: 3389: 3352: 3300: 3077: 2996: 2733: 2483: 2311: 1952: – Climatic cooling after the Medieval Warm Period (16th–19th centuries) 1868: 1747: 1565: 1516: 1368: 1207: 1041: 1011: 890: 722:

Ice ages can be further divided by location and time; for example, the names

689: 673: 645: 589: 284: 265: 252: 226: 5717: 5291:

Quaternary Glaciations: South America, Asia, Africa, Australasia, Antarctica

4640: 4484:

Quaternary Glaciations: South America, Asia, Africa, Australasia, Antarctica

4479:"The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) ice cover in High and Central Asia" 4154: 4048:

Ruddiman, W.F.; Kutzbach, J.E. (1991). "Plateau Uplift and Climate Change".

3853: 3135: 2988: 799:

Minimum (interglacial, black) and maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the

782:

Minimum (interglacial, black) and maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the

6908: 6873: 6394: 6389: 6286: 6281: 6155: 4857: 4785: 4667: 4399: 4236: 4162: 4012: 3861: 3806: 3738: 3625: 3414:

Bowman, Vanessa C.; Francis, Jane E.; Riding, James B. (December 1, 2013).

3208: 3154: 3095: 3004: 1794: 1766:

of Earth. These changes to the moment of inertia result in a change in the

1743: 1731: 1711: 1553: 1484: 1284: 1272: 1065: 1023: 753: 669: 597: 309:

in 1875, which provided a credible explanation for the causes of ice ages.

179: 92: 6311: 5330:. Development in Quaternary Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 735–8. 5294:. Development in Quaternary Science. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 75–81. 4616:"Spectrum of 100-kyr glacial cycle: orbital inclination, not eccentricity" 1416:

The long-term increase in the Sun's output cannot be a cause of ice ages.

588:

at intervals from 360 to 260 million years ago in South Africa during the

564: 467:, have been dated to around 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago during the early 6933: 6918: 6913: 6767: 6559: 6447: 6404: 6105: 5845: 5631: 5621: 4957: 3776: 2561: 2177: 2148: 1802: 1778: 1751: 1699: 1663: 1659: 1580: 1557: 1549: 1542: 1503:

The major glacial stages of the current ice age in North America are the

1382: 1339: 1264: 1093: 1068:

trend. They further claim that approximately half of their uplift (and CO

935: 625: 617: 613: 468: 448: 302: 206: 194: 129:

In 1742, Pierre Martel (1706–1767), an engineer and geographer living in

45: 24: 5259: 4831: 4454: 4382: 4003: 3798: 3616: 3591: 3068: 2965:"Isotopic Evidence for Glaciation During the Cretaceous Supergreenhouse" 2757:

Essais sur les glaciers et sur le terrain erratique du bassin du Rhône,

1636:

Last Glacial Period in the semiarid Andes around Aconcagua and Tupungato

6837: 6816: 6549: 6508: 6399: 6059: 5822: 5814: 5372: 5251: 4446: 2474: 1864: 1821: 1798: 1755:

now the North Sea, connecting the British Isles to Continental Europe.

1561: 1472: 1459: 1364: 1157: 1143: 1108: 1031: 826: 696: 660: 593: 511: 421: 256: 104: 4289: 2885: 2464: 2439: 1885: 1393:

There are at least two types of variation in the Sun's energy output:

758: 6034: 6009: 5977: 5673: 3832:(2005). "Dilution of the northern North Atlantic in recent decades". 3561: 3439: 3343: 3326: 3200: 1923: – Discredited 1970s hypothesis of imminent cooling of the Earth 1719: 1615: 1438: 1343: 1169: 1019: 834: 677: 629: 539: 480: 416:

There have been at least five major ice ages in Earth's history (the

245: 241: 61: 4840: 4708: 4281: 2846: 1560:

drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the

6821: 6529: 5969: 5742: 5589: 2877: 1817: 1801:. Earthquakes triggered near the ice margin may in turn accelerate 1739: 1666:

exhibits some of the typical effects of ice age glaciation such as

1623: 1492: 1325:

While Milankovitch forcing predicts that cyclic changes in Earth's

1314: 1302: 849: 708: 641: 604: 573: 558: 464: 417: 359: 214: 134: 112: 5560: 5351:

Brüggen, J. (1929). "Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen Anden".

4940: 4900: 1530:. These sheets were 3 to 4 kilometres (1.9 to 2.5 mi) thick. 1363:

has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the

676:

ended about 11,700 years ago. All that remains of the continental

6878: 6488: 6478: 6290: 6165: 5973: 4318:"Melting icebergs key to sequence of an ice age, scientists find" 3677:"The Complicated Role of Iron in Ocean Health and Climate Change" 3266: 2502: 1986:

Ehlers, Jürgen; Gibbard, Philip (2011). "Quaternary Glaciation".

1782: 1703: 1687: 1434: 1401: 1153: 995: 736:(70,000–10,000 years bp) refer specifically to glaciation in the 585: 347: 328: 221:. Esmark's discovery were later attributed to or appropriated by 198: 171: 150: 76:. Individual pulses of cold climate within an ice age are termed 65: 5168:

Gibbard, P.L., S. Boreham, K.M. Cohen and A. Moscariello, 2007,

2962: 2605:

The Earth in Decay. A History of British Geomorphology 1578–1878

2202:"Mais comment s'écoule donc un glacier ? Aperçu historique" 1533: 1149:

A polar sea is almost land-locked, as the Arctic Ocean is today.

189: 4808:"Obliquity pacing of the late Pleistocene glacial terminations" 2664:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 160–167. 1707: 1508: 1260: 1182: 1124: 910: 886: 818: 621: 130: 5689:"Scientists unveil 'best-preserved Ice Age animal ever found'" 4560:"Earth's orbital variations and sea ice synch glacial periods" 4234: 3324: 2609:. London: New York, American Elsevier Pub. Co. pp. 267f. 877:

which mitigates and (in all cases so far) eventually ends it.

90:), and intermittent warm periods within an ice age are called 40: 6534: 6437: 5327:

Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology: A Closer Look

5133: 3701:

Ewing, M.; Donn, W. L. (1956-06-15). "A Theory of Ice Ages".

3589: 2859: 1695: 1691: 1667: 1596: 1377: 1107:

In 2009, further evidence was provided that changes in solar

1072:"scrubbing" capacity) occurred in the past 10 million years. 659:

started about 2.58 million years ago at the beginning of the

484: 463:

Rocks from the earliest well-established ice age, called the

142: 57: 5642:

from the original on Jul 18, 2018 – via UCL Discovery.

5501: 5205:

Verhandlungsblatt des Südamerika-Symposiums 1984 in Bamberg.

4995:

The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments

6544: 5761: 5658: 4108:

10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0649:IOLCMB>2.3.CO;2

2821: 1990:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. pp. 873–882. 1683: 1619: 1588: 1526:(26,000 to 13,300 years ago), ice sheets extended to about 737: 332: 138: 3530: 1487:

lasting 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the

1092:

hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late

272:

above the valley created by an ice dam as a result of the

5590:

Interglacial Working Group Of PAGES (November 20, 2015).

1448: 999: 3368:"Ice Sheet Expansion in the Cretaceous Greenhouse World" 3042:

Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Donnadieu, Yannick (2016-09-21).

2794:"How are past temperatures determined from an ice core?" 2022:

Cohen, K .M.; Finney, S. C.; Gibbard, P. L.; Fan, J.-X.

1777:

The weight of the redistributed surface mass loaded the

1541:

development in the region of the current North American

1388: 346:

evidence mainly consists of variations in the ratios of

2123:"Human-made climate change suppresses the next ice age" 2058: 1945:

List of Ice Age species preserved as permafrost mummies

1824:, which before the Ice Age was all land drained by the 1104:. The hypothesis also warns of future Snowball Earths. 553:

occurred from 460 to 420 million years ago, during the

205:

Only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist

84:

glacials, glaciations, glacial stages, stadials, stades

4348:

Robinson, Rebecca S.; Ziegler, Martin (January 2021).

4128: 3648:"Next Ice Age Delayed By Rising Carbon Dioxide Levels" 3524: 3518:

Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space

3167: 1483:) lasting about 100,000 years, and warm phases called 848:

Earth has been in an interglacial period known as the

699:

as beginning 2.58 Ma is based on the formation of the

5324:. In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D. (eds.). 4346: 4085: 3827: 1981: 1979: 1964: – Chronology of the major ice ages of the Earth 1917: – Very long term changes in Earth's temperature 885:

An important form of feedback is provided by Earth's

193:

Haukalivatnet lake (50 meters above sea level) where

4187:, 2nd ed. (Amsterdam: Academic Press, 2014), 23-28. 3910:

Bennett, Matthew M.; Glasser, Neil F. (2010-03-29).

2622: 1881: 1797:, the faults experience accelerated slip triggering 56:

is a long period of reduction in the temperature of

5193:

Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil I

4997:. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p. 85. 3413: 1935: – Huge glacier during the Pleistocene Ice Age 1809:. As more ice is removed near the ice margin, more 1678:), Greenland, northern Eurasia and Antarctica. The 934:. Such a reduction (by reducing the effects of the 636:, ice sheets may have extended as far south as the 68:. Earth's climate alternates between ice ages, and 3911: 2627:. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. p. 15. 2602: 2060: 1976: 1863:is around 21,000 years, the time it takes for the 1498: 1441:and thus caused a large and rapid increase in the 1085:such as the movement of continents and volcanism. 707:began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid- 6217: 5394:Andersen, Bjørn G.; Borns, Harold W. Jr. (1997). 5162: 5129: 5127: 3592:"Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic ice core" 3483:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3273:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2902:Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons 2732: 2625:James David Forbes. Pioneer Scottish Glaciologist 2600: 2086: 2084: 1188: 572:The evolution of land plants at the onset of the 546:, though this model is recent and controversial. 7009: 5461:Wu, Patrick; Hasegawa, Henry S. (October 1996). 4081: 4079: 4047: 2146: 1958: – Rise of land masses after glacial period 1408:, which occurred during the coldest part of the 1243: 1152:A supercontinent covers most of the equator, as 1075: 6266:Earth's surface entirely or nearly frozen over 5686: 5237: 4921: 4613: 4432: 3756:(7th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 582. 3416:"Late Cretaceous winter sea ice in Antarctica?" 3365: 3041: 1060:"scrubbers" with a capacity to remove enough CO 951:since open ocean has a lower albedo than land. 307:Climate and Time, in Their Geological Relations 6780:Withrow Moraine and Jameson Lake Drumlin Field 5714:"Overview of the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis" 5659:"Development of the glacial theory, 1800–1870" 5124: 5095: 4614:Muller, R. A.; MacDonald, G. J. (1997-08-05). 3909: 2267: 2147:Archer, David; Ganopolski, Andrey (May 2005). 2081: 2024:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart 2013" 2017: 2015: 1762:as well as changes to the distribution of the 1279: 268:joined Perraudin and Charpentier to examine a 6327: 6203: 5777: 5393: 4805: 4680: 4203: 4076: 3754:Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science 1985: 1114: 743: 5435: 4878: 3886:Earth Environments: Past, Present and Future 3883:Huddart, David; Stott, Tim A. (2013-04-16). 3882: 3243: 2932:(Fourth ed.). Oxford University Press. 2662:Tambora, the Eruption that Changed the World 2093:"Global Warming Good News: No More Ice Ages" 924:a brief ice-free Arctic Ocean period by 2050 358:cores. For the most recent glacial periods, 201:near existing glaciers in the high mountains 6774:Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area 6341: 5350: 4992: 4806:Huybers, Peter; Wunsch, Carl (2005-03-24). 2012: 1927:International Union for Quaternary Research 852:for around 11,700 years, and an article in 471:Eon. Several hundreds of kilometers of the 44:An artist's impression of ice age Earth at 6334: 6320: 6210: 6196: 5784: 5770: 5656: 5460: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5279: 5277: 4756: 2929:A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences 2562:"Jens Esmark—a pioneer in glacial geology" 2296:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 47. 2279: 2256: 2199: 1929: – International science organisation 657:Quaternary Glaciation / Quaternary Ice Age 455:glacial at maximum (Drenthe stage); blue: 7033:History of climate variability and change 5736: 5711: 5630: 5620: 5610: 5592:"Interglacials Of The Last 800,000 years" 5538: 5486: 5319: 5283: 5214: 5190: 5089: 4939: 4839: 4709:"Glacial Cycles and Astronomical Forcing" 4657: 4639: 4543: 4507: 4476: 4381: 4271: 4002: 3974:Luthi, Dieter; et al. (2008-03-17). 3914:Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms 3700: 3615: 3560: 3379: 3342: 3144: 3134: 3085: 3067: 2473: 2463: 2176: 2117: 2115: 2113: 3751: 3246:""Snowball" Scenarios of the Cryogenian" 2755:, pp. 223–4. Charpentier, Jean de: 2559: 2437: 1820:sinking from the weight of ice made the 1658: 1648: 1532: 1458: 1283: 757: 563: 442: 407: 331:, valley cutting, and the deposition of 188: 39: 5739:"Carbon emissions 'will defer Ice Age'" 5440:. Dordrecht: Kluwer. pp. 581–599. 5308: 5288:. In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L. (eds.). 5274: 4481:. In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L. (eds.). 3945:"Carbon emissions 'will defer Ice Age'" 3480: 2090: 7010: 6708:Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail 6672:Chippewa Moraine State Recreation Area 6245:Tropical temperatures may reach poles 6236:Hypothetical runaway greenhouse state 4706: 4546:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers 4228: 3515: 2925: 2898: 2780: 2768: 2752: 2720: 2708: 2696: 2684: 2647: 2425: 2413: 2401: 2389: 2377: 2348: 2336: 2324: 2291: 2110: 1988:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers 1449:Recent glacial and interglacial phases 1142:A continent sits on top of a pole, as 534:, which are the two major sinks for CO 412:Timeline of glaciations, shown in blue 118: 7023:Geological history of the Great Lakes 6315: 6191: 5765: 3973: 3942: 3037: 3035: 3033: 2958: 2956: 2153:and the onset of the next glaciation" 2067:. Short Hills NJ: Enslow Publishers. 1389:Variations in the Sun's energy output 1022:and volcanism including eruptions of 864: 719:is used to include this early phase. 650:Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event 279:In the meantime, the German botanist 5749:from the original on 23 October 2018 4595:from the original on 2 February 2017 4414:from the original on 4 February 2021 4328:from the original on 27 January 2021 3465: 3108: 2659: 2500: 2157:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 1433:is that undersea volcanoes released 1330:100,000 years, which corresponds to 668:, glacials or glacial advances, and 388:the finding of the relevant fossils. 350:in fossils present in sediments and 6714:Ice Age National Scientific Reserve 5505:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3955:from the original on 18 August 2012 2529: 2368:, book 73 (WA II, 9), pp. 253, 254. 1591:, and the plethora of lakes on the 1471:The current geological period, the 962:According to research published in 918:(Current projected consequences of 197:in 1823 discovered similarities to 13: 5699:from the original on 9 August 2021 5488:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb01546.x 3030: 2953: 2588:10.1111/j.1502-3885.1992.tb00016.x 2149:"A movable trigger: Fossil fuel CO 2059:Imbrie, J.; Imbrie, K. P. (1979). 1831: 1774:, and wobble of Earth's rotation. 1404:, and longer episodes such as the 1234:being pulled out of the atmosphere 1218:According to a study published in 869:Each glacial period is subject to 174:to the former action of glaciers. 14: 7049: 6702:Horicon Marsh State Wildlife Area 5667: 5467:Geophysical Journal International 5046:"PETM: Global Warming, Naturally" 5017: 4585:"Ice-Age Explanation - Sciforums" 4070:10.1038/scientificamerican0391-66 3943:Black, Richard (9 January 2012). 2040:from the original on 17 July 2013 1599:many dozens of feet thick in the 1168:Some scientists believe that the 821:. There is evidence that similar 396: 125:History of climate change science 6992: 6991: 6647:Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine 5999: 5583: 5532: 5495: 5454: 4683:"A New Theory of Glacial Cycles" 2926:Allaby, Michael (January 2013). 1898: 1884: 1431:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 1400:Shorter-term variations such as 990:, such as the concentrations of 873:which makes it more severe, and 792: 775: 688:and smaller glaciers such as on 624:stages of the Early Cretaceous. 514:period) and may have produced a 5429: 5387: 5344: 5231: 5208: 5184: 5067: 5038: 5011: 4986: 4915: 4872: 4799: 4750: 4739:from the original on 2020-08-01 4700: 4689:from the original on 2013-04-29 4674: 4607: 4577: 4566:from the original on 2019-02-17 4552: 4537: 4501: 4469: 4426: 4340: 4310: 4216:from the original on 2014-02-03 4197: 4177: 4122: 4041: 4030:from the original on 2019-08-28 3967: 3936: 3903: 3876: 3821: 3770: 3745: 3694: 3683:from the original on 2022-08-02 3669: 3658:from the original on 2008-03-02 3640: 3583: 3572:from the original on 2013-11-04 3509: 3474: 3454:from the original on 2023-10-26 3407: 3396:from the original on 2023-10-26 3359: 3318: 3307:from the original on 2017-09-26 3260: 3237: 3226:from the original on 2013-07-01 3161: 3102: 3019:from the original on 2023-11-25 2919: 2892: 2853: 2815: 2804:from the original on 2013-05-20 2786: 2774: 2762: 2746: 2726: 2714: 2702: 2690: 2678: 2653: 2641: 2594: 2553: 2542:from the original on 2021-04-17 2523: 2513:from the original on 2021-03-07 2501:Berg, Bjørn Ivar (2020-02-25), 2494: 2431: 2419: 2407: 2395: 2383: 2371: 2354: 2342: 2330: 2318: 2285: 2238:from the original on 2012-04-26 2099:from the original on 2020-11-12 1867:to move all the way around the 1816:In Europe, glacial erosion and 1626:, was not covered by glaciers. 1499:Glacial stages in North America 977:been so high that it will not. 401:For a chronological guide, see 305:, including the publication of 6710:, Idaho, Oregon and Washington 5687:Rina Torchinsky (9 Aug 2021). 5650: 3250:Paleos: Life through deep time 3168:Hyde WT, Crowley TJ, Baum SK, 2261: 2250: 2193: 2140: 2052: 1189:Fluctuations in ocean currents 1096:was ended by an increase in CO 932:global ocean water circulation 769:Minimum and maximum glaciation 580:levels, which resulted in the 274:1815 eruption of Mount Tambora 1: 6954:Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal 6219:Greenhouse and Icehouse Earth 6136:Greenhouse and icehouse Earth 4548:. Springer. pp. 576–581. 3723:10.1126/science.123.3207.1061 3503:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00635-1 3109:Kopp, Robert (14 June 2005). 2736:; Bettannier, Joseph (1840). 2623:Cunningham, Frank F. (1990). 2276:. London: Unwin. p. 327. 2063:Ice ages: solving the mystery 1996:10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_423 1969: 1244:Uplift of the Tibetan plateau 1076:Changes in Earth's atmosphere 6375:Glacial history of Minnesota 5791: 5737:Black, R. (9 January 2012). 5156:10.1016/0277-3791(86)90184-8 5118:10.1016/0277-3791(86)90169-1 5081:. 2017-01-06. Archived from 4778:10.1126/science.285.5427.564 4733:10.1126/science.277.5323.215 4707:Muller, R. A. (1997-07-11). 4204:Svitil, K. A. (April 1996). 3293:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.04.004 2660:Wood, Gillen D’Arcy (2014). 2021: 1631:Glacial history of Minnesota 1570:Clark Reservation State Park 1419: 1048:and others propose that the 217:and moraines at branches of 7: 6738:Kettle Moraine State Forest 6641:Lion's Head Provincial Park 5741:. Science and Environment. 2905:. Birkhäuser. p. 289. 2560:Andersen, Bjørn G. (1992). 1915:Geologic temperature record 1877: 1676:Canadian Arctic Archipelago 1322:may explain this mismatch. 1280:Variations in Earth's orbit 945: 880: 459:glacial maximum glaciation. 312: 10: 7054: 6884:Penultimate Glacial Period 6611:Big Rock (glacial erratic) 5833:Penultimate Glacial Period 5657:Montgomery, Keith (2010). 5526:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.02.017 5136:Quaternary Science Reviews 5098:Quaternary Science Reviews 4374:10.1038/s41586-020-03094-7 3381:10.1016/j.fmre.2023.05.005 2862:Zinderen-Bakker, E. M. van 2601:Davies, Gordon L. (1969). 2272:. In Mathews, C.E. (ed.). 2229:10.1016/j.crte.2006.02.004 1835: 1652: 1628: 1452: 1306:the precession of Earth's 1115:Position of the continents 957:inverse positive feedbacks 747: 744:Glacials and interglacials 400: 122: 18: 6987: 6949:Late Glacial Interstadial 6856: 6830: 6799: 6728:, Minnesota and Wisconsin 6662: 6605:Arrowhead Provincial Park 6597: 6581: 6522: 6471: 6430: 6423: 6380:List of prehistoric lakes 6347: 6260: 6254:Global climate during an 6248: 6239: 6230: 6225: 6174: 6123: 6104: 6085: 6058: 6033: 6008: 5997: 5968: 5813: 5799: 5217:Spektrum der Wissenschaft 3889:. John Wiley & Sons. 2507:Norsk biografisk leksikon 2282:) for a full bibliography 2209:Comptes Rendus Geoscience 2200:Rémy F, Testut L (2006). 980: 959:as for glacial advances. 713:Eocene-Oligocene Boundary 6904:Holocene glacial retreat 6696:Glacial Lakes State Park 6635:Foothills Erratics Train 4922:Ditlevsen, P.D. (2009). 4757:Rial, J.A. (July 1999). 4206:"We are all Panamanians" 2899:Warren, John K. (2006). 2866:The Geographical Journal 2274:The annals of Mont Blanc 2091:Thomson, Andrea (2007). 1805:and may account for the 1587:was formed from glacial 1585:Nantucket, Massachusetts 1212:thermohaline circulation 1185:, 40 million years ago. 133:, visited the valley of 33:Ice age (disambiguation) 6944:Bølling–Allerød warming 6684:Devil's Lake State Park 6653:Ovayok Territorial Park 6342:Continental glaciations 6024:Late Paleozoic icehouse 5712:Raymo, M. (July 2011). 5518:2008E&PSL.269..230T 4641:10.1073/pnas.94.16.8329 4523:10.1023/A:1007039510460 4241:Otto-Bliesner, Bette L. 4155:10.1126/science.1172873 3854:10.1126/science.1109477 3136:10.1073/pnas.0504878102 2989:10.1126/science.1148777 2509:(in Norwegian Bokmål), 2438:Hestmark, Geir (2018). 2292:Krüger, Tobias (2013). 2268:Martel, Pierre (1898). 1080:There is evidence that 988:atmospheric composition 726:(180,000–130,000 years 582:late Paleozoic icehouse 505:Great Oxygenation Event 281:Karl Friedrich Schimper 213:lake near sea level in 6786:Yosemite National Park 6690:Glacial Lake Wisconsin 6629:Eskers Provincial Park 6617:Cypress Hills (Canada) 6415:Timeline of glaciation 6178:Timeline of glaciation 6045:(579.88 to 579.63 Mya) 4185:Climate Change Biology 3752:Garrison, Tom (2009). 1962:Timeline of glaciation 1811:intraplate earthquakes 1671: 1545: 1468: 1455:Timeline of glaciation 1355:Gordon J. F. MacDonald 1289: 940:Gulf of Saint Lawrence 763: 695:The definition of the 569: 460: 413: 403:Timeline of glaciation 202: 49: 31:. For other uses, see 6929:Quaternary glaciation 6864:Quaternary glaciation 6762:Mill Bluff State Park 6726:Interstate State Park 6540:Giant current ripples 6355:Cordilleran ice sheet 6141:Great Oxidation Event 5663:Historical Simulation 5599:Reviews of Geophysics 3244:Chris Clowes (2003). 3048:Nature Communications 1662: 1649:Effects of glaciation 1536: 1462: 1287: 1255:during the Ice Ages ( 1175:Indo-Australian Plate 968:, human emissions of 813:, the warmer periods 761: 717:Late Cenozoic Ice Age 632:indicate that in the 567: 446: 411: 192: 74:Quaternary glaciation 43: 29:Quaternary glaciation 6939:Wisconsin glaciation 6894:Last Glacial Maximum 6410:Post-glacial rebound 6365:Last Glacial Maximum 6360:Laurentide ice sheet 6026:(360 Mya to 260 Mya) 6020:(460 Mya to 430 Mya) 5842:Last Glacial Maximum 5674:Cracking the Ice Age 5622:10.1002/2015RG000482 5402:Universitetsforlaget 4958:10.1029/2008PA001673 3372:Fundamental Research 2178:10.1029/2004GC000891 1956:Post-glacial rebound 1939:Last Glacial Maximum 1605:Post-glacial rebound 1524:Last Glacial Maximum 1513:Wisconsin glaciation 1467:of about 120 m. 1336:orbital eccentricity 1257:Last Glacial Maximum 686:Antarctic ice sheets 6924:Pre-Illinoian Stage 6889:Last Glacial Period 6678:Coteau des Prairies 6589:Greenland ice sheet 6161:Milankovitch cycles 5838:Last Glacial Period 5612:2016RvGeo..54..162P 5553:1998Natur.393..155H 5479:1996GeoJI.127..215W 5365:1929GeoRu..20....1B 5148:1986QSRv....5..183R 5110:1986QSRv....5...11H 5079:National Geographic 5075:"Quaternary Period" 5050:Weather Underground 5020:"Long Term Climate" 4950:2009PalOc..24.3204D 4893:1998Natur.391..378P 4832:10.1038/nature03401 4824:2005Natur.434..491H 4725:1997Sci...277..215M 4681:Richard A. Muller. 4632:1997PNAS...94.8329M 4591:. 28 January 2017. 4366:2021Natur.589..236S 4264:2010NatGe...3..118H 4147:2009Sci...325..710C 4100:1988Geo....16..649R 4062:1991SciAm.264c..66R 4050:Scientific American 4004:10.1038/nature06949 3995:2008Natur.453..379L 3846:2005Sci...308.1772C 3840:(5729): 1772–1774. 3799:10.1038/nature04385 3791:2005Natur.438..655B 3715:1956Sci...123.1061E 3709:(3207): 1061–1066. 3617:10.1038/nature02599 3608:2004Natur.429..623A 3553:2009JQS....24....3W 3520:. pp. 275–290. 3495:2003PPP...189..117G 3432:2013Geo....41.1227B 3285:2016PPP...452...11R 3193:2000Natur.405..425H 3127:2005PNAS..10211131K 3069:10.1038/ncomms12771 3060:2016NatCo...712771L 2981:2008Sci...319..189B 2839:2010NatGe...3..700P 2798:Scientific American 2580:1992Borea..21...97A 2530:Hverven, Tom Egil. 2456:2018Borea..47....1H 2221:2006CRGeo.338..368R 2169:2005GGG.....6.5003A 1906:Paleontology portal 1838:Next glacial period 1760:gravitational field 1528:45th parallel north 1489:Last Glacial Period 1294:Milankovitch cycles 1271:Kuhle explains the 1204:Northern Hemisphere 1004:Milankovitch cycles 843:Milankovitch cycles 801:southern hemisphere 784:northern hemisphere 705:Antarctic ice sheet 674:last glacial period 634:Northern Hemisphere 528:silicate weathering 497:atmospheric methane 493:Marquette, Michigan 473:Huronian Supergroup 368:heat of evaporation 261:Jean de Charpentier 156:Jean de Charpentier 119:History of research 86:, or colloquially, 21:Last Glacial Period 7038:History of science 6969:4.2 kiloyear event 6964:8.2 kiloyear event 6899:Mousterian Pluvial 6631:, British Columbia 6074:(717 to 660 Mya); 6051:(547 to 541.5 Mya) 5730:2016-03-12 at the 5679:2017-09-04 at the 5373:10.1007/BF01805072 5320:Kuhle, M. (2011). 5284:Kuhle, M. (2004). 5252:10.1007/BF02602717 5195:. 11/12: 1635–46. 5177:2008-09-10 at the 5085:on March 20, 2017. 4980:2011-09-27 at the 4685:. Muller.lbl.gov. 4477:Kuhle, M. (2004). 4447:10.1007/BF00209444 4131:Wohlfarth, Barbara 2351:, pp. 83, 151 1861:precessional cycle 1718:. Due to the high 1672: 1574:Syracuse, New York 1546: 1481:Quaternary ice age 1469: 1465:sea level lowering 1318:mechanisms like CO 1290: 1276:inland ice areas. 1230:leading to more CO 1177:collided with the 970:carbon dioxide (CO 865:Feedback processes 841:of climate due to 764: 648:just prior to the 570: 544:Cambrian explosion 461: 438:greenhouse periods 434:Quaternary Ice Age 414: 255:, a valley in the 203: 70:greenhouse periods 50: 7005: 7004: 6974:Piora Oscillation 6934:Sangamonian Stage 6795: 6794: 6577: 6576: 6573: 6572: 6309: 6308: 6304: 6303: 6185: 6184: 6116:(2.9 to 2.78 Gya) 5995: 5994: 5547:(6681): 155–158. 5447:978-0-7923-0150-9 5411:978-82-00-37683-5 5337:978-0-444-53447-7 5301:978-0-444-51593-3 4887:(6665): 378–381. 4818:(7032): 491–494. 4719:(5323): 215–218. 4626:(16): 8329–8334. 4589:www.sciforums.com 4494:978-0-444-51593-3 4360:(7841): 236–241. 4252:Nature Geoscience 4141:(5941): 710–714. 3989:(7193): 379–382. 3925:978-0-470-51690-4 3896:978-1-118-68812-0 3785:(7068): 655–657. 3541:J. Quaternary Sci 3426:(12): 1227–1230. 2975:(5860): 189–192. 2912:978-3-540-26011-0 2826:Nature Geoscience 2783:, pp. 458–60 2771:, pp. 181–84 2723:, pp. 177–78 2699:, pp. 167–70 2687:, pp. 155–59 2671:978-0-691-16862-3 2650:, pp. 142–47 2634:978-0-7073-0320-8 2465:10.1111/bor.12260 2303:978-90-04-24169-5 2074:978-0-89490-015-0 2005:978-90-481-2641-5 1933:Irish Sea Glacier 1785:and also induced 1764:moment of inertia 1443:greenhouse effect 1351:Richard A. Muller 1196:Isthmus of Panama 1133:greenhouse effect 1129:positive feedback 1054:Colorado Plateaus 965:Nature Geoscience 875:negative feedback 871:positive feedback 661:Quaternary Period 638:Iberian Peninsula 451:glacial; yellow: 432:, and the latest 352:sedimentary rocks 296:Study on Glaciers 238:Bjørn G. Andersen 7045: 6995: 6994: 6595: 6594: 6520: 6519: 6504:Terminal moraine 6428: 6427: 6336: 6329: 6322: 6313: 6312: 6241:Greenhouse Earth 6228: 6227: 6212: 6205: 6198: 6189: 6188: 6097:(2.4 to 2.1 Gya) 6087:Paleoproterozoic 6078:(650 to 635 Mya) 6003: 5811: 5810: 5786: 5779: 5772: 5763: 5762: 5758: 5756: 5754: 5721: 5716:. Archived from 5708: 5706: 5704: 5662: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5634: 5624: 5614: 5596: 5587: 5581: 5580: 5536: 5530: 5529: 5512:(1–2): 230–241. 5499: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5433: 5427: 5426: 5424: 5423: 5414:. Archived from 5391: 5385: 5384: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5317: 5306: 5305: 5281: 5272: 5271: 5235: 5229: 5228: 5212: 5206: 5204: 5188: 5182: 5166: 5160: 5159: 5131: 5122: 5121: 5093: 5087: 5086: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5052:. Archived from 5042: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5031: 5022:. Archived from 5015: 5009: 5008: 4990: 4984: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4960:. Archived from 4943: 4928:Paleoceanography 4919: 4913: 4912: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4843: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4788:. Archived from 4763: 4754: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4744: 4704: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4694: 4678: 4672: 4671: 4661: 4643: 4611: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4572: 4571: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4541: 4535: 4534: 4505: 4499: 4498: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4385: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4304: 4298: 4292:. Archived from 4275: 4249: 4237:Meehl, Gerald A. 4232: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4221: 4201: 4195: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4126: 4120: 4119: 4083: 4074: 4073: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4035: 4029: 4006: 3980: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3940: 3934: 3933: 3917: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3749: 3743: 3742: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3688: 3673: 3667: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3619: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3578: 3577: 3571: 3564: 3562:10.1002/jqs.1227 3538: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3489:(3–4): 117–145. 3478: 3472: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3459: 3440:10.1130/g34891.1 3411: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3401: 3383: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3346: 3344:10.1130/g51725.1 3322: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3312: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3256:on 15 June 2009. 3252:. Archived from 3241: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3231: 3225: 3201:10.1038/35013005 3178: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3148: 3138: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3089: 3071: 3039: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3024: 2960: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2923: 2917: 2916: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2860:Lockwood, J.G.; 2857: 2851: 2850: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2810: 2809: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2766: 2760: 2750: 2744: 2743: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2657: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2638: 2620: 2608: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2548: 2547: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2519: 2518: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2477: 2467: 2435: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2416:, pp. 88–90 2411: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2358: 2352: 2346: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2327:, pp. 78–83 2322: 2316: 2315: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2265: 2259: 2254: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2243: 2237: 2206: 2197: 2191: 2190: 2180: 2144: 2138: 2137: 2135: 2134: 2119: 2108: 2107: 2105: 2104: 2088: 2079: 2078: 2066: 2056: 2050: 2049: 2047: 2045: 2039: 2031:stratigraphy.org 2028: 2019: 2010: 2009: 1983: 1908: 1903: 1902: 1901: 1894: 1889: 1888: 1768:angular velocity 1680:erratic boulders 1655:Glacial landform 1361:William Ruddiman 1327:orbital elements 1312:65 degrees north 1066:Cenozoic Cooling 1046:William Ruddiman 1014:; variations in 1006:; the motion of 859:greenhouse gases 796: 779: 610:Early Cretaceous 520:greenhouse gases 477:Sault Ste. Marie 362:provide climate 337:glacial erratics 335:or tillites and 325:glacial moraines 184:Göran Wahlenberg 147:erratic boulders 7053: 7052: 7048: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7043: 7042: 7008: 7007: 7006: 7001: 6983: 6869:Illinoian Stage 6852: 6843:Lambert Glacier 6826: 6812:Killary Harbour 6791: 6744:Lake Bonneville 6664: 6658: 6593: 6569: 6518: 6467: 6463:U-shaped valley 6453:Roche moutonnée 6419: 6385:Proglacial lake 6370:Canadian Shield 6343: 6340: 6310: 6305: 6264: 6252: 6243: 6234: 6221: 6216: 6186: 6181: 6170: 6119: 6100: 6081: 6054: 6029: 6004: 5991: 5988:(34 to 2.5 Mya) 5976: 5972: 5964: 5804: 5795: 5790: 5752: 5750: 5732:Wayback Machine 5702: 5700: 5681:Wayback Machine 5670: 5653: 5648: 5647: 5639: 5594: 5588: 5584: 5537: 5533: 5500: 5496: 5459: 5455: 5448: 5434: 5430: 5421: 5419: 5412: 5392: 5388: 5349: 5345: 5338: 5318: 5309: 5302: 5282: 5275: 5236: 5232: 5219:(9/86): 42–54. 5213: 5209: 5189: 5185: 5179:Wayback Machine 5167: 5163: 5132: 5125: 5094: 5090: 5073: 5072: 5068: 5059: 5057: 5044: 5043: 5039: 5029: 5027: 5018:Rieke, George. 5016: 5012: 5005: 4991: 4987: 4982:Wayback Machine 4967: 4965: 4920: 4916: 4877: 4873: 4804: 4800: 4792: 4772:(5427): 564–8. 4761: 4755: 4751: 4742: 4740: 4705: 4701: 4692: 4690: 4679: 4675: 4612: 4608: 4598: 4596: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4569: 4567: 4558: 4557: 4553: 4542: 4538: 4506: 4502: 4495: 4474: 4470: 4431: 4427: 4417: 4415: 4345: 4341: 4331: 4329: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4282:10.1038/ngeo729 4273:10.1.1.391.8727 4247: 4233: 4229: 4219: 4217: 4202: 4198: 4182: 4178: 4127: 4123: 4084: 4077: 4046: 4042: 4033: 4031: 4027: 3978: 3972: 3968: 3958: 3956: 3941: 3937: 3926: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3881: 3877: 3826: 3822: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3750: 3746: 3699: 3695: 3686: 3684: 3675: 3674: 3670: 3661: 3659: 3646: 3645: 3641: 3602:(6992): 623–8. 3588: 3584: 3575: 3573: 3569: 3536: 3529: 3525: 3514: 3510: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3466: 3457: 3455: 3412: 3408: 3399: 3397: 3364: 3360: 3323: 3319: 3310: 3308: 3265: 3261: 3242: 3238: 3229: 3227: 3223: 3187:(6785): 425–9. 3176: 3166: 3162: 3121:(32): 11131–6. 3107: 3103: 3040: 3031: 3022: 3020: 2961: 2954: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2897: 2893: 2858: 2854: 2847:10.1038/ngeo962 2833:(10): 700–704. 2820: 2816: 2807: 2805: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2779: 2775: 2767: 2763: 2751: 2747: 2731: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2707: 2703: 2695: 2691: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2658: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2635: 2621: 2617: 2599: 2595: 2558: 2554: 2545: 2543: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2514: 2499: 2495: 2436: 2432: 2428:, pp. 91–6 2424: 2420: 2412: 2408: 2404:, pp. 61–2 2400: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2359: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2335: 2331: 2323: 2319: 2304: 2290: 2286: 2280:Montgomery 2010 2266: 2262: 2257:Montgomery 2010 2255: 2251: 2241: 2239: 2235: 2204: 2198: 2194: 2152: 2145: 2141: 2132: 2130: 2121: 2120: 2111: 2102: 2100: 2095:. LiveScience. 2089: 2082: 2075: 2057: 2053: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2026: 2020: 2013: 2006: 1984: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1904: 1899: 1897: 1890: 1883: 1880: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1834: 1832:Future ice ages 1807:Heinrich events 1781:, caused it to 1657: 1651: 1638: 1633: 1601:Missouri Valley 1593:Canadian Shield 1539:proglacial lake 1501: 1457: 1451: 1428: 1422: 1406:Maunder Minimum 1391: 1374:Didier Paillard 1321: 1282: 1253:Tibetan Plateau 1246: 1233: 1226:glacial periods 1191: 1156:did during the 1117: 1103: 1099: 1078: 1071: 1063: 1059: 1037: 1008:tectonic plates 983: 973: 948: 901: 883: 867: 839:orbital forcing 811:glacial periods 807: 806: 805: 804: 803: 797: 788: 787: 786: 780: 771: 770: 756: 746: 666:glacial periods 579: 555:Late Ordovician 537: 525: 406: 399: 375:paleontological 315: 270:proglacial lake 223:Theodor Kjerulf 168:Ernst von Bibra 164:scientific work 127: 121: 79:glacial periods 48:glacial maximum 36: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7051: 7041: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7003: 7002: 7000: 6999: 6988: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6979:Little Ice Age 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6860: 6858: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6848:Ross Ice Shelf 6845: 6840: 6834: 6832: 6828: 6827: 6825: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6807:Hardangerfjord 6803: 6801: 6797: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6790: 6789: 6783: 6777: 6771: 6765: 6759: 6753: 6747: 6741: 6735: 6732:Kelleys Island 6729: 6723: 6717: 6711: 6705: 6699: 6693: 6687: 6681: 6680:, South Dakota 6675: 6668: 6666: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6656: 6650: 6644: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6620: 6619:, Saskatchewan 6614: 6608: 6601: 6599: 6592: 6591: 6585: 6583: 6579: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6571: 6570: 6568: 6567: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6526: 6524: 6517: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6468: 6466: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6443:Glacial striae 6440: 6434: 6432: 6425: 6421: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6351: 6349: 6345: 6344: 6339: 6338: 6331: 6324: 6316: 6307: 6306: 6302: 6301: 6298: 6293: 6284: 6279: 6276: 6269: 6268: 6262:Snowball Earth 6259: 6250:Icehouse Earth 6247: 6238: 6232:Hothouse Earth 6226: 6223: 6222: 6215: 6214: 6207: 6200: 6192: 6183: 6182: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6151:Snowball Earth 6148: 6146:Little Ice Age 6143: 6138: 6133: 6131:Glacial period 6127: 6125: 6124:Related topics 6121: 6120: 6118: 6117: 6110: 6108: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6098: 6091: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6080: 6079: 6068: 6066: 6064:Snowball Earth 6056: 6055: 6053: 6052: 6046: 6039: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6027: 6021: 6018:Andean-Saharan 6014: 6012: 6006: 6005: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5992: 5990: 5989: 5982: 5980: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5961:(2.5 to 0 Mya) 5935: 5913: 5891: 5853: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5819: 5817: 5808: 5797: 5796: 5789: 5788: 5781: 5774: 5766: 5760: 5759: 5734: 5722: 5720:on 2008-10-22. 5709: 5684: 5669: 5668:External links 5666: 5665: 5664: 5652: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5605:(1): 162–219. 5582: 5531: 5494: 5473:(1): 215–229. 5453: 5446: 5428: 5410: 5386: 5343: 5336: 5307: 5300: 5273: 5246:(4): 393–421. 5230: 5207: 5183: 5161: 5123: 5088: 5066: 5037: 5026:on 2 June 2015 5010: 5003: 4985: 4914: 4871: 4798: 4795:on 2008-10-15. 4749: 4699: 4673: 4606: 4576: 4551: 4536: 4517:(1–2): 3–276. 4500: 4493: 4468: 4441:(4): 581–595. 4425: 4339: 4309: 4258:(2): 118–121. 4227: 4196: 4176: 4121: 4094:(7): 649–653. 4075: 4040: 3966: 3935: 3924: 3902: 3895: 3875: 3820: 3769: 3762: 3744: 3693: 3668: 3639: 3582: 3523: 3508: 3473: 3464: 3406: 3358: 3317: 3259: 3236: 3160: 3101: 3029: 2952: 2938: 2918: 2911: 2891: 2878:10.2307/633219 2872:(3): 469–471. 2852: 2814: 2800:. 2004-09-20. 2785: 2773: 2761: 2759:Lausanne 1841. 2745: 2734:Agassiz, Louis 2725: 2713: 2701: 2689: 2677: 2670: 2652: 2640: 2633: 2615: 2593: 2552: 2522: 2493: 2430: 2418: 2406: 2394: 2382: 2370: 2353: 2341: 2329: 2317: 2302: 2284: 2260: 2249: 2215:(5): 368–385. 2192: 2150: 2139: 2109: 2080: 2073: 2051: 2011: 2004: 1974: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1950:Little Ice Age 1947: 1942: 1936: 1930: 1924: 1921:Global cooling 1918: 1911: 1910: 1909: 1895: 1892:Geology portal 1879: 1876: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1836:Main article: 1833: 1830: 1826:Eridanos River 1793:below. During 1724:Earth's mantle 1650: 1647: 1637: 1634: 1612:Driftless Area 1579:The area from 1576:, is now dry. 1519:in the 1980s. 1500: 1497: 1453:Main article: 1450: 1447: 1426: 1421: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1410:Little Ice Age 1402:sunspot cycles 1398: 1390: 1387: 1319: 1281: 1278: 1249:Matthias Kuhle 1245: 1242: 1238:Southern Ocean 1231: 1215:accumulation. 1190: 1187: 1179:Eurasian Plate 1162: 1161: 1150: 1147: 1116: 1113: 1101: 1097: 1090:Snowball Earth 1082:greenhouse gas 1077: 1074: 1069: 1061: 1057: 1056:are immense CO 1035: 1024:supervolcanoes 1012:ocean currents 992:carbon dioxide 982: 979: 971: 947: 944: 920:global warming 899: 882: 879: 866: 863: 823:glacial cycles 817:, such as the 798: 791: 790: 789: 781: 774: 773: 772: 768: 767: 766: 765: 750:Glacial period 745: 742: 701:Arctic ice cap 577: 551:Andean-Saharan 535: 532:photosynthesis 523: 516:Snowball Earth 501:greenhouse gas 430:late Paleozoic 426:Andean-Saharan 398: 397:Major ice ages 395: 390: 389: 386: 383: 356:ocean sediment 314: 311: 234:Robert Jameson 219:Jostedalsbreen 120: 117: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7050: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7015: 7013: 6998: 6990: 6989: 6986: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6959:Younger Dryas 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6855: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6829: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6804: 6802: 6798: 6787: 6784: 6781: 6778: 6775: 6772: 6769: 6766: 6763: 6760: 6757: 6756:Lake Missoula 6754: 6751: 6750:Lake Lahontan 6748: 6745: 6742: 6739: 6736: 6733: 6730: 6727: 6724: 6721: 6720:Ice Age Trail 6718: 6715: 6712: 6709: 6706: 6703: 6700: 6697: 6694: 6691: 6688: 6685: 6682: 6679: 6676: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6667: 6661: 6654: 6651: 6648: 6645: 6642: 6639: 6636: 6633: 6630: 6627: 6624: 6623:Eramosa River 6621: 6618: 6615: 6612: 6609: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6582:North America 6580: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6527: 6525: 6521: 6515: 6514:Veiki moraine 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6499:Rogen moraine 6497: 6495: 6494:Pulju moraine 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6484:Erratic block 6482: 6480: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6470: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6458:Tunnel valley 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6433: 6429: 6426: 6422: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6350: 6346: 6337: 6332: 6330: 6325: 6323: 6318: 6317: 6314: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6288: 6287:Interstadials 6285: 6283: 6282:Interglacials 6280: 6277: 6274: 6273:Uninhabitably 6271: 6270: 6267: 6263: 6258: 6257: 6251: 6246: 6242: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6224: 6220: 6213: 6208: 6206: 6201: 6199: 6194: 6193: 6190: 6180: 6179: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6128: 6126: 6122: 6115: 6112: 6111: 6109: 6107: 6103: 6096: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6088: 6084: 6077: 6073: 6070: 6069: 6067: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6050: 6047: 6044: 6041: 6040: 6038: 6036: 6032: 6025: 6022: 6019: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6011: 6007: 6002: 5987: 5984: 5983: 5981: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5943:Pre-Illinoian 5940: 5936: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5921:Pre-Illinoian 5918: 5914: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5851: 5850:Younger Dryas 5847: 5843: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5816: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5806:Late Cenozoic 5802: 5798: 5794: 5787: 5782: 5780: 5775: 5773: 5768: 5767: 5764: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5735: 5733: 5729: 5726: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5710: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5685: 5682: 5678: 5675: 5672: 5671: 5660: 5655: 5654: 5638: 5633: 5632:2078.1/175429 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5593: 5586: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5561:10.1038/30218 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5535: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5506: 5498: 5489: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5457: 5449: 5443: 5439: 5432: 5418:on 2013-01-12 5417: 5413: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5398: 5390: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5353:Geol. Rundsch 5347: 5339: 5333: 5329: 5328: 5323: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5303: 5297: 5293: 5292: 5287: 5280: 5278: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5234: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5211: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5180: 5176: 5173: 5172: 5165: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5130: 5128: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5092: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5070: 5056:on 2016-12-02 5055: 5051: 5047: 5041: 5025: 5021: 5014: 5006: 5004:1-58381-109-5 5000: 4996: 4989: 4983: 4979: 4976: 4964:on 2012-11-01 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4934:(3): PA3204. 4933: 4929: 4925: 4918: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4901:10.1038/34891 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4802: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4753: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4703: 4688: 4684: 4677: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4610: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4565: 4561: 4555: 4547: 4540: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4504: 4496: 4490: 4486: 4485: 4480: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4429: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4343: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4299:on 2017-08-11 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4200: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4180: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4125: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4082: 4080: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3970: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3939: 3932: 3927: 3921: 3916: 3915: 3906: 3898: 3892: 3888: 3887: 3879: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3824: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3765: 3763:9780495391937 3759: 3755: 3748: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3586: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3527: 3519: 3512: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3468: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3321: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3263: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3171: 3164: 3156: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2959: 2957: 2941: 2939:9780199653065 2935: 2931: 2930: 2922: 2914: 2908: 2904: 2903: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2827: 2818: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2789: 2782: 2777: 2770: 2765: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2742:. H. Nicolet. 2741: 2740: 2735: 2729: 2722: 2717: 2711:, p. 173 2710: 2705: 2698: 2693: 2686: 2681: 2673: 2667: 2663: 2656: 2649: 2644: 2636: 2630: 2626: 2618: 2616:9780444197016 2612: 2607: 2606: 2597: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2574:(1): 97–102. 2573: 2569: 2568: 2563: 2556: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2503:"Jens Esmark" 2497: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2434: 2427: 2422: 2415: 2410: 2403: 2398: 2391: 2386: 2379: 2374: 2367: 2366:3-423-05946-X 2363: 2357: 2350: 2345: 2339:, p. 150 2338: 2333: 2326: 2321: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2281: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2258: 2253: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2211:(in French). 2210: 2203: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2143: 2129:on 2020-08-18 2128: 2124: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2098: 2094: 2087: 2085: 2076: 2070: 2065: 2064: 2055: 2036: 2032: 2025: 2018: 2016: 2007: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1982: 1980: 1975: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1907: 1896: 1893: 1887: 1882: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1869:tropical year 1866: 1862: 1839: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1814: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1775: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1738:resulting in 1737: 1733: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1646: 1644: 1632: 1627: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1566:Niagara Falls 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1544: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1517:Pre-Illinoian 1514: 1510: 1506: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1485:interglacials 1482: 1478: 1474: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1417: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1396: 1395: 1394: 1386: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1370: 1369:Peter Huybers 1366: 1362: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1316: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1298: 1295: 1286: 1277: 1274: 1269: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1227: 1224:in 2021, all 1223: 1222: 1216: 1213: 1209: 1208:Bering Strait 1205: 1199: 1197: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1141: 1140: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1112: 1110: 1105: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1083: 1073: 1067: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1042:Maureen Raymo 1039: 1033: 1027: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 978: 975: 967: 966: 960: 958: 952: 943: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 916: 912: 908: 903: 895: 892: 888: 878: 876: 872: 862: 860: 855: 851: 846: 844: 840: 836: 830: 828: 824: 820: 816: 815:interglacials 812: 802: 795: 785: 778: 760: 755: 751: 741: 739: 738:Alpine region 735: 734: 729: 725: 720: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 691: 690:Baffin Island 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 662: 658: 653: 651: 647: 646:Maastrichtian 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 606: 603:Although the 601: 599: 595: 594:early Permian 591: 590:Carboniferous 587: 583: 575: 566: 562: 560: 556: 552: 547: 545: 541: 533: 529: 521: 517: 513: 508: 506: 503:, during the 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 458: 454: 450: 445: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 410: 404: 394: 387: 384: 381: 380: 379: 376: 371: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 340: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 310: 308: 304: 299: 297: 292: 290: 286: 285:Louis Agassiz 282: 277: 275: 271: 267: 266:Ignatz Venetz 262: 258: 254: 253:Val de Bagnes 249: 247: 243: 239: 235: 230: 228: 227:Louis Agassiz 224: 220: 216: 212: 211:Haukalivatnet 208: 200: 196: 191: 187: 185: 181: 175: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 126: 116: 114: 110: 106: 101: 99: 98:interstadials 95: 94: 93:interglacials 89: 85: 81: 80: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 47: 42: 38: 34: 30: 26: 22: 6909:Oldest Dryas 6879:Interstadial 6874:Interglacial 6857:Time periods 6788:, California 6782:, Washington 6523:Glacifluvial 6472:Depositional 6395:Lake Chicago 6390:Lake Agassiz 6300:Cold period 6278:Warm period 6265: 6255: 6253: 6244: 6235: 6176: 6156:Interglacial 5792: 5751:. Retrieved 5718:the original 5701:. Retrieved 5692: 5602: 5598: 5585: 5544: 5540: 5534: 5509: 5503: 5497: 5470: 5466: 5456: 5437: 5431: 5420:. Retrieved 5416:the original 5396: 5389: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5326: 5290: 5243: 5239: 5233: 5216: 5210: 5192: 5186: 5170: 5164: 5139: 5135: 5101: 5097: 5091: 5083:the original 5078: 5069: 5058:. Retrieved 5054:the original 5049: 5040: 5028:. Retrieved 5024:the original 5013: 4994: 4988: 4966:. Retrieved 4962:the original 4931: 4927: 4917: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4815: 4811: 4801: 4790:the original 4769: 4765: 4752: 4741:. Retrieved 4716: 4712: 4702: 4691:. Retrieved 4676: 4623: 4619: 4609: 4597:. Retrieved 4588: 4579: 4568:. Retrieved 4554: 4545: 4539: 4514: 4510: 4503: 4483: 4471: 4438: 4434: 4428: 4416:. Retrieved 4383:10261/258181 4357: 4353: 4342: 4330:. Retrieved 4321: 4312: 4301:. Retrieved 4294:the original 4255: 4251: 4230: 4218:. Retrieved 4209: 4199: 4184: 4183:Lee Hannah, 4179: 4138: 4134: 4124: 4091: 4087: 4056:(3): 66–74. 4053: 4049: 4043: 4032:. Retrieved 3986: 3982: 3969: 3957:. Retrieved 3948: 3938: 3929: 3913: 3905: 3885: 3878: 3837: 3833: 3830:C. Mauritzen 3823: 3782: 3778: 3772: 3753: 3747: 3706: 3702: 3696: 3685:. Retrieved 3671: 3660:. Retrieved 3652:ScienceDaily 3651: 3642: 3599: 3595: 3585: 3574:. Retrieved 3544: 3540: 3526: 3517: 3511: 3486: 3482: 3476: 3467: 3456:. Retrieved 3423: 3419: 3409: 3398:. Retrieved 3371: 3361: 3334: 3330: 3320: 3309:. Retrieved 3276: 3272: 3262: 3254:the original 3249: 3239: 3228:. Retrieved 3184: 3180: 3172:(May 2000). 3163: 3118: 3114: 3104: 3054:(1): 12771. 3051: 3047: 3021:. Retrieved 2972: 2968: 2943:. Retrieved 2928: 2921: 2901: 2894: 2869: 2865: 2855: 2830: 2824: 2817: 2806:. Retrieved 2797: 2788: 2776: 2764: 2756: 2748: 2738: 2728: 2716: 2704: 2692: 2680: 2661: 2655: 2643: 2624: 2604: 2596: 2571: 2565: 2555: 2544:. Retrieved 2536:Klassekampen 2535: 2532:"Isens spor" 2525: 2515:, retrieved 2506: 2496: 2487: 2447: 2443: 2433: 2421: 2409: 2397: 2392:, p. 38 2385: 2380:, p. 83 2373: 2356: 2344: 2332: 2320: 2293: 2287: 2273: 2263: 2252: 2247:Note: p. 374 2240:. Retrieved 2212: 2208: 2195: 2160: 2156: 2142: 2131:. Retrieved 2127:the original 2101:. Retrieved 2062: 2054: 2042:. Retrieved 2030: 1987: 1873: 1841: 1815: 1795:deglaciation 1776: 1757: 1752:Scandinavian 1744:reglaciation 1732:deglaciation 1728: 1700:kettle lakes 1673: 1639: 1609: 1578: 1554:Finger Lakes 1547: 1521: 1502: 1470: 1423: 1415: 1392: 1359: 1348: 1338:and orbital 1324: 1299: 1291: 1273:interglacial 1270: 1247: 1219: 1217: 1200: 1192: 1167: 1163: 1137: 1125:reflectivity 1118: 1106: 1087: 1079: 1040: 1028: 1016:solar output 984: 963: 961: 953: 949: 914: 904: 896: 884: 868: 853: 847: 831: 822: 819:Eemian Stage 814: 810: 808: 754:Interglacial 731: 723: 721: 715:). The term 694: 670:interglacial 654: 605:Mesozoic Era 602: 598:Gondwanaland 571: 548: 509: 462: 415: 391: 374: 372: 343: 341: 320: 319: 316: 306: 300: 295: 293: 288: 278: 250: 231: 204: 180:James Hutton 176: 128: 108: 102: 97: 91: 87: 83: 77: 53: 51: 37: 6919:Pleistocene 6914:Older Dryas 6776:, Wisconsin 6768:Oneida Lake 6764:, Wisconsin 6740:, Wisconsin 6722:, Wisconsin 6716:, Wisconsin 6704:, Wisconsin 6698:, Minnesota 6692:, Wisconsin 6686:, Wisconsin 6674:, Wisconsin 6560:Outwash fan 6555:Kettle hole 6448:Ribbon lake 6405:Teays River 6106:Mesoarchean 6049:Baykonurian 5911:Santa María 5865:Weichselian 5693:AccuWeather 5651:Works cited 5359:(1): 1–35. 5142:: 183–196. 4418:12 February 4332:12 February 4235:Hu, Aixue; 3828:Curry, R.; 3547:(1): 3–17. 2781:Krüger 2013 2769:Krüger 2013 2753:Krüger 2013 2721:Krüger 2013 2709:Krüger 2013 2697:Krüger 2013 2685:Krüger 2013 2648:Krüger 2013 2475:10852/67376 2450:(1): 1–10. 2426:Krüger 2013 2414:Krüger 2013 2402:Krüger 2013 2390:Krüger 2013 2378:Krüger 2013 2349:Krüger 2013 2337:Krüger 2013 2325:Krüger 2013 1803:ice calving 1799:earthquakes 1779:lithosphere 1664:Scandinavia 1581:Long Island 1558:Teays River 1550:Great Lakes 1543:Great Lakes 1383:Pleistocene 1340:inclination 1334:in Earth's 1265:Pleistocene 1146:does today. 1094:Proterozoic 936:Gulf Stream 907:sublimation 618:Hauterivian 614:Valanginian 469:Proterozoic 449:Weichselian 303:James Croll 207:Jens Esmark 195:Jens Esmark 107:, the term 64:and alpine 46:Pleistocene 25:Pleistocene 7028:Glaciology 7012:Categories 6838:Antarctica 6831:Antarctica 6817:Monte Rosa 6770:, New York 6550:Kame delta 6509:Till plain 6400:Lake Tight 6060:Cryogenian 5955:Beestonian 5907:Wolstonian 5889:Llanquihue 5873:Midlandian 5823:Antarctica 5815:Quaternary 5801:Quaternary 5422:2013-10-14 5240:GeoJournal 5060:2016-12-02 4968:2012-06-09 4743:2020-05-03 4693:2012-08-07 4599:29 January 4570:2017-01-29 4511:GeoJournal 4435:GeoJournal 4303:2017-10-24 4290:1885/30691 4220:2012-04-23 4193:012799923X 4034:2019-08-16 3687:2022-08-02 3662:2008-02-28 3576:2017-07-26 3458:2023-10-26 3400:2023-10-26 3311:2023-10-26 3230:2012-06-16 3170:Peltier WR 3023:2023-10-26 2808:2011-04-04 2546:2021-02-28 2517:2021-02-28 2242:2009-06-23 2133:2019-01-07 2103:2019-01-07 1970:References 1865:perihelion 1822:Baltic Sea 1740:salination 1670:and lakes. 1653:See also: 1629:See also: 1562:Ohio River 1537:Stages of 1473:Quaternary 1439:clathrates 1365:modulating 1183:mid-Eocene 1158:Cryogenian 1144:Antarctica 1109:insolation 1034:removes CO 1032:weathering 1020:meteorites 827:cyclothems 748:See also: 697:Quaternary 678:ice sheets 630:dropstones 626:Ice-rafted 522:such as CO 512:Cryogenian 481:dropstones 422:Cryogenian 378:requires: 321:Geological 257:Swiss Alps 242:Thuringian 154:geologist 123:See also: 105:glaciology 62:ice sheets 6758:, Montana 6655:, Nunavut 6649:, Ontario 6643:, Ontario 6637:, Alberta 6625:, Ontario 6613:, Alberta 6607:, Ontario 6431:Erosional 6424:Landforms 6035:Ediacaran 6010:Paleozoic 5986:Antarctic 5978:Oligocene 5937:7th–8th: 5933:Rio Llico 5915:3rd–6th: 5899:Illinoian 5869:Devensian 5861:Wisconsin 5828:Greenland 5569:0028-0836 5381:128436981 5268:129366521 5225:0170-2971 5201:0340-5109 5104:: 11–15. 4941:0902.1641 4850:1476-4687 4650:0027-8424 4531:128089823 4463:189891305 4408:231598435 4392:1476-4687 4268:CiteSeerX 4116:0091-7613 3959:10 August 3931:advances. 3918:. Wiley. 3731:0036-8075 3448:128885087 3390:2667-3258 3353:0091-7613 3337:: 33–38. 3301:0031-0182 3279:: 11–27. 3078:2041-1723 3013:206509273 2997:0036-8075 2484:1502-3885 2312:968318929 2044:7 January 1818:isostatic 1720:viscosity 1716:rebounded 1616:Minnesota 1505:Illinoian 1420:Volcanism 1344:obliquity 1303:ice cores 1170:Himalayas 1121:positions 1002:known as 835:snow line 682:Greenland 540:Ediacaran 360:ice cores 289:"Eiszeit" 246:Meiningen 7018:Ice ages 6997:Category 6822:Svalbard 6752:, Nevada 6530:Diluvium 6296:Glacials 6291:Stadials 6095:Huronian 6076:Marinoan 6072:Sturtian 6043:Gaskiers 5970:Pliocene 5951:Menapian 5877:Pinedale 5793:Ice ages 5747:Archived 5743:BBC News 5728:Archived 5703:9 August 5697:Archived 5683:from PBS 5677:Archived 5637:Archived 5400:. Oslo: 5260:41144132 5175:Archived 5030:25 April 4978:Archived 4858:15791252 4841:1912/555 4786:10417382 4737:Archived 4687:Archived 4668:11607741 4593:Archived 4564:Archived 4455:41144345 4412:Archived 4400:33442043 4326:Archived 4322:phys.org 4214:Archived 4210:Discover 4163:19661421 4025:Archived 4013:18480821 3953:Archived 3949:BBC News 3870:36017668 3862:15961666 3807:16319889 3739:17748617 3681:Archived 3656:Archived 3654:. 2007. 3626:15190344 3567:Archived 3452:Archived 3394:Archived 3305:Archived 3221:Archived 3209:10839531 3155:16061801 3096:27650167 3017:Archived 3005:18187651 2802:Archived 2540:Archived 2511:archived 2233:Archived 2187:18549459 2097:Archived 2035:Archived 1878:See also 1736:ice dams 1704:moraines 1688:drumlins 1624:Illinois 1552:and the 1493:Holocene 1477:glacials 1315:latitude 946:Negative 922:include 881:Positive 850:Holocene 709:Cenozoic 680:are the 642:Turonian 628:glacial 586:ice caps 574:Devonian 561:period. 559:Silurian 557:and the 465:Huronian 418:Huronian 348:isotopes 344:chemical 329:drumlins 313:Evidence 244:city of 215:Rogaland 199:moraines 172:moraines 135:Chamonix 113:Holocene 88:ice ages 66:glaciers 6800:Eurasia 6489:Moraine 6479:Drumlin 6348:General 6256:ice age 6166:Stadial 6114:Pongola 5974:Miocene 5959:Caracol 5929:Anglian 5753:20 June 5607:Bibcode 5577:4393858 5549:Bibcode 5514:Bibcode 5475:Bibcode 5361:Bibcode 5144:Bibcode 5106:Bibcode 4946:Bibcode 4909:4409193 4889:Bibcode 4866:2729178 4820:Bibcode 4766:Science 4721:Bibcode 4713:Science 4628:Bibcode 4362:Bibcode 4260:Bibcode 4171:1324559 4143:Bibcode 4135:Science 4096:Bibcode 4088:Geology 4058:Bibcode 4021:1382081 3991:Bibcode 3842:Bibcode 3834:Science 3815:4429828 3787:Bibcode 3711:Bibcode 3703:Science 3634:4342139 3604:Bibcode 3549:Bibcode 3491:Bibcode 3428:Bibcode 3420:Geology 3331:Geology 3281:Bibcode 3217:1672712 3189:Bibcode 3146:1183582 3123:Bibcode 3087:5036002 3056:Bibcode 2977:Bibcode 2969:Science 2835:Bibcode 2576:Bibcode 2452:Bibcode 2217:Bibcode 2165:Bibcode 2033:. ICS. 1708:cirques 1435:methane 1378:orbital 1332:changes 1160:period. 1154:Rodinia 1050:Tibetan 996:methane 911:deserts 891:forests 489:outwash 364:proxies 151:chamois 137:in the 109:ice age 54:ice age 6746:, Utah 6734:, Ohio 6665:States 6663:United 6598:Canada 6565:Sandur 5925:Elster 5917:Mindel 5885:Merida 5881:Fraser 5575: 5567: 5541:Nature 5444: 5408: 5379: 5334: 5298: 5266: 5258: 5223: 5199: 5001: 4907: 4881:Nature 4864: 4856: 4848: 4812:Nature 4784: 4666: 4656: 4648: 4529: 4491: 4461: 4453: 4406: 4398: 4390: 4354:Nature 4270: 4191: 4169: 4161: 4114: 4019: 4011: 3983:Nature 3922: 3893: 3868: 3860: 3813: 3805: 3779:Nature 3760: 3737: 3729: 3632: 3624: 3596:Nature 3446: 3388: 3351: 3299: 3215: 3207: 3181:Nature 3153: 3143: 3094: 3084: 3076: 3011: 3003: 2995: 2945:17 Sep 2936: 2909: 2886:633219 2884: 2668: 2631: 2613: 2567:Boreas 2482: 2444:Boreas 2364: 2310: 2300: 2185: 2071: 2002: 1791:faults 1787:stress 1748:Baltic 1696:fjords 1692:eskers 1668:fjords 1622:, and 1511:, and 1509:Eemian 1261:albedo 1221:Nature 981:Causes 928:reduce 887:albedo 854:Nature 730:) and 703:. The 622:Aptian 620:, and 485:varves 457:Elster 160:Goethe 131:Geneva 27:, and 6535:Esker 6438:Fjord 5903:Saale 5893:2nd: 5855:1st: 5846:Older 5640:(PDF) 5595:(PDF) 5573:S2CID 5377:S2CID 5264:S2CID 5256:JSTOR 4936:arXiv 4905:S2CID 4862:S2CID 4793:(PDF) 4762:(PDF) 4659:33747 4527:S2CID 4459:S2CID 4451:JSTOR 4404:S2CID 4297:(PDF) 4248:(PDF) 4167:S2CID 4028:(PDF) 4017:S2CID 3979:(PDF) 3866:S2CID 3811:S2CID 3630:S2CID 3570:(PDF) 3537:(PDF) 3444:S2CID 3224:(PDF) 3213:S2CID 3177:(PDF) 3009:S2CID 2882:JSTOR 2278:See ( 2236:(PDF) 2205:(PDF) 2183:S2CID 2163:(5). 2038:(PDF) 2027:(PDF) 1712:horns 1597:loess 1572:near 1437:from 453:Saale 143:Savoy 58:Earth 6545:Kame 6289:and 6275:hot 5947:Elbe 5939:Günz 5895:Riss 5857:Würm 5848:and 5755:2018 5705:2021 5565:ISSN 5442:ISBN 5406:ISBN 5332:ISBN 5296:ISBN 5221:ISSN 5197:ISSN 5032:2013 4999:ISBN 4854:PMID 4846:ISSN 4782:PMID 4664:PMID 4646:ISSN 4601:2017 4489:ISBN 4420:2021 4396:PMID 4388:ISSN 4334:2021 4189:ISBN 4159:PMID 4112:ISSN 4009:PMID 3961:2012 3920:ISBN 3891:ISBN 3858:PMID 3803:PMID 3758:ISBN 3735:PMID 3727:ISSN 3622:PMID 3386:ISSN 3349:ISSN 3297:ISSN 3205:PMID 3151:PMID 3115:PNAS 3092:PMID 3074:ISSN 3001:PMID 2993:ISSN 2947:2019 2934:ISBN 2907:ISBN 2666:ISBN 2629:ISBN 2611:ISBN 2480:ISSN 2362:ISBN 2308:OCLC 2298:ISBN 2069:ISBN 2046:2019 2000:ISBN 1783:flex 1772:axis 1750:and 1684:till 1620:Iowa 1610:The 1589:till 1308:axis 1292:The 1088:The 1052:and 994:and 930:the 752:and 733:Würm 724:Riss 684:and 655:The 592:and 549:The 542:and 530:and 499:, a 373:The 354:and 342:The 333:till 225:and 139:Alps 5949:or 5627:hdl 5617:doi 5557:doi 5545:393 5522:doi 5510:269 5483:doi 5471:127 5369:doi 5248:doi 5152:doi 5114:doi 4975:PDF 4973:as 4954:doi 4897:doi 4885:391 4836:hdl 4828:doi 4816:434 4774:doi 4770:285 4729:doi 4717:277 4654:PMC 4636:doi 4519:doi 4443:doi 4378:hdl 4370:doi 4358:589 4286:hdl 4278:doi 4151:doi 4139:325 4104:doi 4066:doi 4054:264 3999:doi 3987:453 3850:doi 3838:308 3795:doi 3783:438 3719:doi 3707:123 3612:doi 3600:429 3557:doi 3499:doi 3487:189 3436:doi 3376:doi 3339:doi 3289:doi 3277:452 3197:doi 3185:405 3141:PMC 3131:doi 3119:102 3082:PMC 3064:doi 2985:doi 2973:319 2874:doi 2870:145 2843:doi 2584:doi 2470:hdl 2460:doi 2225:doi 2213:338 2173:doi 1992:doi 1871:.) 1722:of 1643:asl 1583:to 1038:). 1000:Sun 915:and 251:In 162:'s 141:of 103:In 96:or 52:An 7014:: 5957:, 5953:, 5945:, 5941:, 5931:, 5927:, 5923:, 5919:, 5909:, 5905:, 5901:, 5897:, 5887:, 5883:, 5875:, 5867:, 5863:, 5859:, 5844:, 5803:/ 5745:. 5695:. 5691:. 5635:. 5625:. 5615:. 5603:54 5601:. 5597:. 5571:. 5563:. 5555:. 5543:. 5520:. 5508:. 5481:. 5469:. 5465:. 5404:. 5375:. 5367:. 5357:20 5355:. 5310:^ 5276:^ 5262:. 5254:. 5244:14 5242:. 5150:. 5138:. 5126:^ 5112:. 5100:. 5077:. 5048:. 4952:. 4944:. 4932:24 4930:. 4926:. 4903:. 4895:. 4883:. 4860:. 4852:. 4844:. 4834:. 4826:. 4814:. 4810:. 4780:. 4768:. 4764:. 4735:. 4727:. 4715:. 4711:. 4662:. 4652:. 4644:. 4634:. 4624:94 4622:. 4618:. 4587:. 4562:. 4525:. 4515:47 4513:. 4457:. 4449:. 4439:17 4437:. 4410:. 4402:. 4394:. 4386:. 4376:. 4368:. 4356:. 4352:. 4324:. 4320:. 4284:. 4276:. 4266:. 4254:. 4250:. 4239:; 4212:. 4208:. 4165:. 4157:. 4149:. 4137:. 4110:. 4102:. 4092:16 4090:. 4078:^ 4064:. 4052:. 4023:. 4015:. 4007:. 3997:. 3985:. 3981:. 3951:. 3947:. 3928:. 3864:. 3856:. 3848:. 3836:. 3809:. 3801:. 3793:. 3781:. 3733:. 3725:. 3717:. 3705:. 3679:. 3650:. 3628:. 3620:. 3610:. 3598:. 3594:. 3565:. 3555:. 3545:24 3543:. 3539:. 3497:. 3485:. 3450:. 3442:. 3434:. 3424:41 3422:. 3418:. 3392:. 3384:. 3374:. 3370:. 3347:. 3335:52 3333:. 3329:. 3303:. 3295:. 3287:. 3275:. 3271:. 3248:. 3219:. 3211:. 3203:. 3195:. 3183:. 3179:. 3149:. 3139:. 3129:. 3117:. 3113:. 3090:. 3080:. 3072:. 3062:. 3050:. 3046:. 3032:^ 3015:. 3007:. 2999:. 2991:. 2983:. 2971:. 2967:. 2955:^ 2880:. 2868:. 2841:. 2829:. 2796:. 2582:. 2572:21 2570:. 2564:. 2538:. 2534:. 2505:, 2486:. 2478:. 2468:. 2458:. 2448:47 2446:. 2442:. 2306:. 2231:. 2223:. 2207:. 2181:. 2171:. 2159:. 2155:. 2112:^ 2083:^ 2029:. 2014:^ 1998:. 1978:^ 1843:CO 1828:. 1770:, 1710:, 1706:, 1702:, 1698:, 1694:, 1690:, 1686:, 1682:, 1618:, 1603:. 1507:, 1495:. 1425:CO 1353:, 1135:. 1044:, 1026:. 898:CO 829:. 728:bp 692:. 652:. 616:, 600:. 507:. 487:, 483:, 428:, 424:, 420:, 327:, 229:. 100:. 23:, 6335:e 6328:t 6321:v 6211:e 6204:t 6197:v 6062:- 5879:/ 5871:/ 5852:) 5840:( 5785:e 5778:t 5771:v 5757:. 5707:. 5661:. 5629:: 5619:: 5609:: 5579:. 5559:: 5551:: 5528:. 5524:: 5516:: 5491:. 5485:: 5477:: 5450:. 5425:. 5383:. 5371:: 5363:: 5340:. 5304:. 5270:. 5250:: 5227:. 5203:. 5158:. 5154:: 5146:: 5140:5 5120:. 5116:: 5108:: 5102:5 5063:. 5034:. 5007:. 4971:. 4956:: 4948:: 4938:: 4911:. 4899:: 4891:: 4868:. 4838:: 4830:: 4822:: 4776:: 4746:. 4731:: 4723:: 4696:. 4670:. 4638:: 4630:: 4603:. 4573:. 4533:. 4521:: 4497:. 4465:. 4445:: 4422:. 4380:: 4372:: 4364:: 4336:. 4306:. 4288:: 4280:: 4262:: 4256:3 4223:. 4173:. 4153:: 4145:: 4118:. 4106:: 4098:: 4072:. 4068:: 4060:: 4037:. 4001:: 3993:: 3963:. 3899:. 3872:. 3852:: 3844:: 3817:. 3797:: 3789:: 3766:. 3741:. 3721:: 3713:: 3690:. 3665:. 3636:. 3614:: 3606:: 3579:. 3559:: 3551:: 3505:. 3501:: 3493:: 3461:. 3438:: 3430:: 3403:. 3378:: 3355:. 3341:: 3314:. 3291:: 3283:: 3233:. 3199:: 3191:: 3157:. 3133:: 3125:: 3098:. 3066:: 3058:: 3052:7 3026:. 2987:: 2979:: 2949:. 2915:. 2888:. 2876:: 2849:. 2845:: 2837:: 2831:3 2811:. 2674:. 2637:. 2619:. 2590:. 2586:: 2578:: 2549:. 2472:: 2462:: 2454:: 2314:. 2245:. 2227:: 2219:: 2189:. 2175:: 2167:: 2161:6 2151:2 2136:. 2106:. 2077:. 2048:. 2008:. 1994:: 1857:2 1853:2 1849:2 1845:2 1479:( 1427:2 1412:. 1320:2 1232:2 1102:2 1098:2 1070:2 1062:2 1058:2 1036:2 974:) 972:2 900:2 711:( 578:2 536:2 524:2 405:. 82:( 35:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index