47:
1582:
522:
659:
930:
5217:
1388:...if an organised body is not in the situation and circumstances best adapted to its sustenance and propagation, then, in conceiving an indefinite variety among the individuals of that species, we must be assured, that, on the one hand, those which depart most from the best adapted constitution, will be the most liable to perish, while, on the other hand, those organised bodies, which most approach to the best constitution for the present circumstances, will be best adapted to continue, in preserving themselves and multiplying the individuals of their race. –
1257:, with a history extending indefinitely into the distant past. His main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that processes still happening on the Earth in the present day had caused them. As these processes were very gradual, the Earth needed to be ancient, to allow time for the changes. Contemporary investigations had shown that the geologic record required vast time, but no good way of assigning actual years was found for over a century (Rudwick,
812:
1051:
1285:
938:
761:
323:
Langebrug, which corresponds to the current address
Langebrug 101 in Leiden. His supervisor was Professor Frederik Winter, who was not only a professor at Leiden University, but also court physician to the Stadholder. The Latin manuscript of Hutton's dissertation also contained 92 theses, two of which were successfully defended in public by James Hutton on 3 September 1749. On 12 September 1749, James Hutton obtained his doctorate in medicine from Leiden University with a physico-medical thesis entitled
710:
4578:
3283:
376:
1126:
beds showing strong ripple marks which gave Hutton "great satisfaction" as a confirmation of his supposition that these beds had been laid horizontally in water. He also found conglomerate at altitudes that demonstrated the extent of erosion of the strata, and said of this that "we never should have dreamed of meeting with what we now perceived".
253:, he developed the theory that geological features could not be static but underwent continuing transformation over indefinitely long periods of time. From this he argued, in agreement with many other early geologists, that the Earth could not be young. He was one of the earliest proponents of what in the 1830s became known as
1261:). Hutton's idea of infinite cycles with humans present throughout is quite different from modern geology, with a definite time of formation and directional change through time, but his supporting evidence for the long-term effects of geological processes was valuable in the development of historical geology.
1201:
and not logical, Hutton published a two volume version of his theory in 1795, consisting of the 1788 version of his theory (with slight additions) along with a lot of material drawn from shorter papers Hutton already had to hand on various subjects such as the origin of granite. It included a review
2401:
Hutton possessed an instinctive ability to reverse physical processes – to read landscapes backwards, as it were. Fingering the white quartz which seamed the grey granite boulders in a
Scottish glen, for instance, he understood the confrontation that had once occurred between the two types of rock,
1181:
memorably rephrased in the 1830s as "the present is the key to the past". Hutton's 1788 paper concludes; "The result, therefore, of our present enquiry is, that we find no vestige of a beginning,–no prospect of an end." His memorably phrased closing statement has long been celebrated. (It was quoted
431:
described Hutton as having noticed that "a vast proportion of the present rocks are composed of materials afforded by the destruction of bodies, animal, vegetable and mineral, of more ancient formation". His theoretical ideas began to come together in 1760. While his farming activities continued, in
2768:
It is ironic that Hutton, the man whose prose style is usually dismissed as unreadable, should have coined one of the most memorable, and indeed lyrical, sentences in all science: "(in geology) we find no vestige of a beginning,—no prospect of an end." In those simple words, Hutton framed a concept
1125:
found what Hutton called "a beautiful picture of this junction washed bare by the sea". Playfair later commented about the experience, "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time". Continuing along the coast, they made more discoveries including sections of the vertical
1401:
became "more necessary to the sustenance of the animal... the same principle change the qualities of the animal, and.. produce a race of well scented hounds, instead of those who catch their prey by swiftness". The same "principle of variation" would influence "every species of plant, whether
322:
After a two-year stay in Paris, James Hutton arrived in Leiden in 1749, where he enrolled at the
University of Leiden on 14 August 1749, at the home of the then rector magnificus Joachim Schwartz to obtain a doctorate in medicine. He stayed with the widow Van der Tas (née Judith Bouvat) at the
1396:
Hutton gave the example that where dogs survived through "swiftness of foot and quickness of sight... the most defective in respect of those necessary qualities, would be the most subject to perish, and that those who employed them in greatest perfection... would be those who would remain, to
1141:
then undersea again for further layers to be deposited. On the belief that this was due to the same geological forces operating in the past as the very slow geological forces seen operating at the present day, the thicknesses of exposed rock layers implied to him enormous stretches of time.
426:
and geology. In a 1753 letter he wrote that he had "become very fond of studying the surface of the earth, and was looking with anxious curiosity into every pit or ditch or bed of a river that fell in his way". Clearing and draining his farm provided ample opportunities. The mathematician
889:
at the time. This was Hutton's first geological field trip and he was invited by the Duke of Atholl to his hunting lodge, Forest Lodge. The exposures at the Dail-an-eas Bridge demonstrated to him that granite formed from the cooling of molten rock rather than it
592:
Hutton did not marry and had no legitimate children. Around 1747, he had a son by a Miss
Edington, and though he gave his child, James Smeaton Hutton, financial assistance, he had little to do with the boy, who went on to become a post-office clerk in London.
1217:
when the third volume was completed in 1794. Its 2,138 pages prompted
Playfair to remark that "The great size of the book, and the obscurity which may justly be objected to many parts of it, have probably prevented it from being received as it deserves."
605:
he saw around him, but according to
Playfair he "was in no haste to publish his theory; for he was one of those who are much more delighted with the contemplation of truth, than with the praise of having discovered it". After some 25 years of work, his
642:
Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been
498:, making full use of his geological knowledge, both as a shareholder and as a member of the committee of management, and attended meetings including extended site inspections of all the works. At this time he is listed as living on Bernard Street in
1327:
increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and
338:
led to their partnership in a profitable chemical works, manufacturing the crystalline salt which was used for dyeing, metalworking and as smelling salts and had been available only from natural sources and had to be imported from
580:
and gave up field work to concentrate on finishing his books. A dangerous and painful operation failed to resolve his illness. He died in
Edinburgh and was buried in the vault of Andrew Balfour, opposite the vault of his friend
1169:, vol. I, Part II, pp. 209–304, plates I and II, published 1788. He put forward the view that "from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter." This restated the
1043:. He later wrote of how he "rejoiced at my good fortune in stumbling upon an object so interesting in the natural history of the earth, and which I had been long looking for in vain." That year, he found the same sequence in
1468:
2084:
367:
and set about making improvements, introducing farming practices from other parts of
Britain and experimenting with plant and animal husbandry. He recorded his ideas and innovations in an unpublished treatise on
894:
out of water as others at the time believed, and therefore the granite must be younger than the schists. Hutton presented his theory of the earth on 4 March and 7 April 1785, at the Royal
Society of Edinburgh.
629:
The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find reason to conclude:
639:
Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at
635:
2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And,
1020:, but the limited view meant that the condition of the underlying strata was not clear enough for him, and he incorrectly thought that the strata were conformable at a depth below the exposed outcrop.
319:
when he was 17, but took more interest in chemical experiments than legal work. At the age of 18, he became a physician's assistant, and attended lectures in medicine at the
University of Edinburgh.
2979:
1471:
Abstract of a dissertation read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the seventh of March, and fourth of April, MDCCLXXXV, Concerning the System of the Earth, Its Duration, and Stability
1425:
Though he saw his "principle of variation" as explaining the development of varieties, Hutton rejected the idea that evolution might originate species as a "romantic fantasy", according to
649:
2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean.
3332:
2617:
Whilst visiting Allar's Mill on the Jed Water, Hutton was delighted to see horizontal bands of red sandstone lying 'unconformably' on top of near vertical and folded bands of rock.
444:
In 1768, Hutton returned to Edinburgh, letting his farms to tenants but continuing to take an interest in farm improvements and research which included experiments carried out at
1238:
was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the
292:
on 3 June O.S. 1726, as one of five children of Sarah Balfour and William Hutton, a merchant who was Edinburgh City Treasurer. Hutton's father died in 1729, when he was three.
2743:
4262:
5327:
330:
After his degree Hutton went to London, then in mid-1750 returned to Edinburgh and resumed chemical experiments with close friend, John Davie. Their work on production of
1829:, which included the remarkable statement that "with respect to human observation, this world has neither a beginning nor an end." The book that he eventually published,
1281:
in the 1830s popularised the concept of an infinitely repeating cycle, though Lyell tended to dismiss Hutton's views as giving too much credence to catastrophic changes.
1008:
as "primary formations". Hutton wanted to examine such formations himself to see "particular marks" of the relationship between the rock layers. On the 1787 trip to the
1451:, but it has been speculated that he had some half-forgotten memory from his time as a student in Edinburgh of ideas of selection in nature as set out by Hutton, and by
5347:
5332:
1485:
1273:
was so obscure that it also impeded the acceptance of Hutton's geological theories. Restatements of his geological ideas (though not his thoughts on evolution) by
666:
exposure at collapsed Dail-an-eas Bridge upstream from Forest Lodge, drawn by John Clerk of Eldin in 1785. The bridge collapsed in approximately 1973. Location:
1708:
822:
2229:
2444:
1061:
952:
2655:
1888:
5317:
5402:
2371:
46:
633:
1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been formed by the operation of second causes.
327:
The thesis was printed by Wilhelmus Boot, book printer in Leiden. It is believed that James Hutton returned to Britain shortly after his promotion.
2461:
1158:
on 4 July 1785; the full account of his theory as read at 7 March 1785 and 4 April 1785 meetings did not appear in print until 1788. It was titled
669:
771:
4924:
3210:
1499:
720:
3235:
5367:
5287:
3642:
3380:
2716:
2273:
3753:
5382:
2934:
536:
382:
5146:
1760:
269:
mechanism designed to keep the world eternally suitable for humans, an early attempt to formulate what today might be called one kind of
2685:
2146:
1901:"The result, therefore, of this physical enquiry", Hutton concluded, "is that we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end".
1681:
1581:
2040:
1488:
Theory of the Earth; or an investigation of the laws observable in the composition, dissolution, and restoration of land upon the Globe
4615:
1360:
and that its proper study should be physiology. Lovelock writes that Hutton's view of the Earth was rejected because of the intense
5407:
5392:
4395:
3220:
180:
36:
5216:
2604:
2066:
1433:, Hutton thought the mechanism allowed species to form varieties better adapted to particular conditions and provided evidence of
5292:
3415:
3303:
3215:
2925:
Capra, Fritjof (1996). The web of life: a new scientific understanding of living systems. Garden City, N.Y: Anchor Books. p. 23.
2349:
2200:
2448:
1253:
for scientific purposes. Rather than accepting that the earth was no more than a few thousand years old, he maintained that the
241:
can be inferred from evidence in present-day rocks. Through his study of features in the landscape and coastlines of his native
5377:
5312:
4902:
4668:
3833:
3505:
2402:
and he perceived how, under fantastic pressure, the molten quartz had forced its way into the weaknesses in the mother granite.
1207:
277:
167:
2291:
276:
Some reflections similar to those of Hutton can be found in publications of his contemporaries, such as the French naturalist
2962:
1861:
1725:
1691:
625:
to Society meeting on 4 July 1785, which he had printed and circulated privately. In it, he outlined his theory as follows;
2120:
5362:
5024:
3578:
2629:
2568:
2317:
234:. Often referred to as the "Father of Modern Geology," he played a key role in establishing geology as a modern science.
3873:
1970:
5397:
5322:
5251:
3373:
3021:
2248:
2242:
1884:
1731:
5387:
5307:
4767:
4400:
3177:
3169:
3133:
3118:
3100:
3083:
3067:
2930:
2769:
that no one had contemplated, that the rocks making up the earth today have not, after all, been here since Creation.
2392:
2004:
1947:
621:
on 7 March 1785, and the second by himself on 4 April 1785. Hutton subsequently read an abstract of his dissertation
1163:; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe
611:; or an Investigation of the Laws observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe
5357:
5342:
5093:
4914:
3929:
1655:
1532:
An investigation of the principles of knowledge and of the progress of reason, from sense to science and philosophy
1215:
An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge and of the Progress of Reason, from Sense to Science and Philosophy
1001:
521:
5256:
5235:
4473:
3798:
2790:
2659:
1896:
1459:
who had both been associated with the city before publishing their ideas on the topic early in the 19th century.
1183:
1177:
had put in 1777 as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past", and
4231:
1763:. Hutton's Millennial Plaque, which reads, "In honour of James Hutton 1726–1797 Geologist, chemist, naturalist,
5158:
4346:
3588:
1717:
479:. Hutton held no position in the University of Edinburgh and communicated his scientific findings through the
3778:
2487:
5337:
4895:
4608:
4581:
4010:
3657:
3366:
432:
1764 he went on a geological tour of the north of Scotland with George Maxwell-Clerk, ancestor of the famous
296:
211:
20:
3919:
2980:"The original theory of evolution... were it not for the farmer who came up with it, 60 years before Darwin"
2366:
5372:
5352:
4448:
4405:
2177:
1309:
It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the
3348:
3340:
3322:
2763:
2514:"Hutton's Unconformity – Lochranza, Isle of Arran, UK – Places of Geologic Significance on Waymarking.com"
2414:
1058:
showing sloping red sandstone above vertical greywacke was sketched by Sir James Hall in 1788. Location:
4966:
4779:
3975:
3823:
1114:
2465:
1529:
5245:
4936:
4410:
4020:
3945:
3883:
3748:
2695:
2691:
1826:
1609:
quoted James Hutton with "no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end" in their song "No Control".
1155:
614:
510:
480:
3858:
3808:
3298:
3039:
Keith Stewart Thomson (May–June 2001). "Vestiges of James Hutton". American Scientist V. 89 #3 p. 212.
1035:
in the lower layers of the cliff face are tilted almost vertically, and above an intervening layer of
658:
4990:
4971:
4880:
3965:
3672:
3593:
3259:
1612:
891:
1332:
in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is regulated by the
929:
5000:
4601:
4005:
3970:
3539:
3308:
3157:
3075:
2720:
2701:
1447:
1419:
1013:
343:. Hutton owned and rented out properties in Edinburgh, employing a factor to manage this business.
2909:
1794:
5302:
5297:
5141:
4833:
4690:
4226:
4203:
4168:
3950:
3914:
3838:
3773:
3051:
2103:
1939:
1925:
1756:
1288:
1254:
1023:
Later in 1787 Hutton noted what is now known as the Hutton or "Great" Unconformity at Inchbonny,
765:
308:
94:
2542:
2150:
5231:
5083:
5031:
4948:
4518:
4420:
4377:
4236:
4117:
3524:
3469:
2044:
1634:
1231:
1170:
1109:
coast and found more examples of this sequence in the valleys of the Tour and Pease Burns near
1036:
464:
3013:
1776:
1249:
As well as combating the Neptunists, he also accepted the growing consensus on the concept of
5108:
5012:
5007:
4943:
4870:
4303:
4089:
4028:
3924:
3435:
2172:
1851:
1452:
1310:
1235:
1130:
495:
460:
459:. This later became the Balfour family home and, in 1840, the birthplace of the psychiatrist
4216:
4211:
5282:
5277:
5088:
5041:
4808:
4697:
4568:
4428:
4390:
4341:
3985:
3955:
3783:
3498:
3389:
2866:
1616:
1595:
1324:
1234:, that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. Hutton proposed that the
316:
219:
4362:
4241:
2785:
2070:
8:
5136:
4641:
4311:
3995:
3763:
3732:
3294:
3161:
2204:
1831:
1772:
1644:
1639:
1415:
1315:
1160:
946:
608:
586:
526:
433:
270:
262:
99:
3868:
3843:
3141:
2903:
2870:
2097:
1562:
1113:. They then took a boat trip from Dunglass Burn east along the coast with the geologist
645:
1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials;
5165:
5073:
5036:
5019:
4907:
4656:
4321:
4183:
4173:
4158:
4148:
4102:
3990:
3813:
3534:
3315:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
2951:
2884:
2612:
1999:(1st ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Leidse Geologische Vereniging. pp. 1–86.
1929:
1915:
1825:
had lifted the mass from some depth in the sea. In 1785, he delivered a lecture to the
1434:
1402:
growing in a forest or a meadow". He came to his ideas as the result of experiments in
871:
265:. Hutton also put forward a thesis for a 'system of the habitable Earth' proposed as a
4983:
4293:
3462:
2295:
918:– this area of the Crags is now known as Hutton's Section. He found other examples in
811:
467:, and fell in with numerous first-class minds in the sciences including mathematician
5241:
4828:
4722:
4702:
4675:
4526:
4331:
4326:
4288:
4278:
4127:
4043:
4038:
3980:
3828:
3818:
3583:
3440:
3278:
3231:
3173:
3165:
3129:
3114:
3096:
3090:
3079:
3063:
3017:
3006:
2958:
2926:
2888:
2833:
2814:
2238:
2124:
2000:
1943:
1857:
1721:
1687:
1660:
1585:
Street sign in the Kings Buildings complex in Edinburgh to the memory of James Hutton
1442:
1426:
1403:
1381:
1040:
331:
254:
242:
119:
4367:
3788:
2633:
2321:
1542:
1150:
Though Hutton circulated privately a printed version of the abstract of his Theory (
1050:
506:
which successfully helped to obtain relief from excise duty on carrying small coal.
5115:
5063:
5048:
4853:
4747:
4531:
4163:
4143:
4112:
3803:
3768:
3712:
3287:
3204:
2874:
2755:
1570:
1493:
1490:. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 209–304.
1028:
915:
903:
879:
238:
187:
4246:
1284:
1121:. They found the sequence in the cliff below St. Helens, then just to the east at
5187:
4863:
4774:
4752:
4742:
4685:
4624:
4336:
4221:
4097:
4059:
3878:
3722:
3717:
3519:
3425:
3224:
2375:
1810:
1591:
1482:. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 1, Part 2, pp. 41–86.
1456:
1407:
1353:
911:
816:
602:
456:
258:
246:
227:
131:
4385:
3154:
The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity.
2231:
Biographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002
2173:"Williamson's directory for the City of Edinburgh, Canongate, Leith and suburbs"
937:
760:
494:
Between 1767 and 1774 Hutton had close involvement with the construction of the
5197:
4995:
4978:
4848:
4838:
4762:
4757:
4727:
4508:
4458:
4316:
4193:
4188:
4178:
4074:
4000:
3909:
3904:
3727:
3702:
3682:
3667:
3652:
3637:
3274:
1799:
1683:
From the Erzgebirge to Potosi: A History of Geology and Mining Since the 1500's
1567:, Edited by Sir Archibald Geikie. Geological Society, Burlington House, London.
1438:
1398:
1372:
Hutton also advocated uniformitarianism for living creatures –
1349:
1194:
359:, a lowland farm which had been in the family since 1713, and the hill farm of
1710:
Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index
5271:
5180:
5175:
5103:
5068:
5053:
4931:
4919:
4858:
4737:
4536:
4493:
4463:
4443:
4107:
4033:
3960:
3863:
3793:
3707:
3662:
3647:
3544:
3493:
2681:
2491:
2396:
1357:
1278:
1274:
1203:
1178:
1129:
Hutton reasoned that there must have been innumerable cycles, each involving
1110:
1102:
1077:
1063:
1009:
997:
968:
954:
923:
899:
838:
824:
787:
773:
736:
722:
685:
671:
577:
552:
538:
468:
428:
398:
384:
52:
2513:
1795:"Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh"
709:
5153:
4875:
4821:
4816:
4663:
4546:
4541:
4488:
4453:
4433:
4153:
4122:
4069:
4064:
3848:
3758:
3697:
3677:
3564:
3488:
2781:
1806:
1629:
1606:
1377:
1361:
1187:
1122:
1106:
1055:
993:
618:
582:
484:
352:
250:
123:
2579:
1516:
5058:
4843:
4793:
4714:
4498:
4283:
4079:
3853:
3692:
3571:
3554:
3549:
1935:
1537:
1513:. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 3, pp. 77–81.
1337:
423:
300:
280:, but it is chiefly Hutton's pioneering work that established the field.
3513:
1348:
Hutton taught that biological and geological processes are interlinked.
4503:
4483:
4468:
4438:
3687:
3598:
3455:
3430:
3420:
3358:
2796:
there's no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end (Hutton, 1795)
2759:
1323:. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in
1174:
1044:
867:
504:
Considerations on the Nature, Quality and Distinctions of Coal and Culm
476:
472:
455:
He had a house built in 1770 at St John's Hill, Edinburgh, overlooking
1441:'s notebooks have shown that Darwin arrived separately at the idea of
4651:
3529:
3450:
3072:
Revolutions in the Earth: James Hutton and the True Age of the World.
3059:
2828:
2809:
1814:
1764:
1602:
1397:
preserve themselves, and to continue the race". Equally, if an acute
1373:
1250:
1243:
1227:
1032:
1017:
1005:
907:
863:
768:
at Dalnacardoch described by Hutton and drawn by Clerk. Location:
714:
663:
530:
304:
289:
231:
215:
127:
115:
67:
2879:
2854:
1242:
into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory was dubbed "
5078:
4890:
3888:
3483:
3476:
1649:
1333:
1239:
1118:
1024:
942:
919:
312:
4593:
1883:
1226:
His new theories placed him into opposition with the then-popular
1822:
1809:
works, began poking into the peculiar shapes and textures of the
1805:
In 1770, James Hutton, an experimental farmer and the owner of a
1768:
1329:
1198:
1138:
875:
223:
3190:
3559:
2095:
1818:
1292:
1152:
Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration, and Stability
1134:
886:
882:
1853:
Earth's Deep History: How It Was Discovered and Why It Matters
1821:
fish remains embedded in the rock. The remains suggested that
1422:
caused by environmental differences such as soil and climate.
1410:, some of which he outlined in an unpublished manuscript, the
623:
Concerning the System of the Earth, its Duration and Stability
375:
202:
3445:
3350:
Explication de Playfair sur la théorie de la terre par Hutton
2717:"The Present is the Key to the Past is the Key to the Future"
1430:
499:
463:. Hutton was one of the most influential participants in the
449:
340:
266:
261:
as the outcome of continuing natural processes over the long
2435:
Stephen J. Gould, page 70, Time's Arrow, Time's Circle, 1987
1519:
A dissertation upon the philosophy of light, heat, and fire.
3334:
Theory of the earth, with proofs and illustrations, 3 vols.
3056:
Ages in Chaos: James Hutton and the Discovery of Deep Time.
2714:
1771:
of the University," is located at the main entrance of the
1565:
Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations, vol III
335:
2820:
2801:
1918:
Ages in Chaos: James Hutton and the Discovery of Deep Time
1706:
1502:
Dissertations on different subjects in natural philosophy.
1356:
in the 1970s, cites Hutton as saying that the Earth was a
483:. He was particularly friendly with physician and chemist
3211:
James Hutton's memorial in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh
589:
in Edinburgh, commonly known as the Covenanter's Prison.
379:
Front entrance to Hutton's farm Slighhouses. Location:
196:
2147:"Hutton's Contemporaries and The Scottish Enlightenment"
1550:
1524:
1031:. As shown in the illustrations to the right, layers of
2576:
Historical Geology: The Present is the Key to the Past
2445:
Scottish Geology – Hutton's Section at Salisbury Crags
3142:"Biographical Account of the late James Hutton, M.D."
2597:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
885:, in a way which indicated that the granite had been
1336:
of the air on the one hand, and mixing of different
1264:
448:. He developed a red dye made from the roots of the
199:
5328:
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
2719:. The Geological Society of America. Archived from
2449:
Scottish Geology – Hutton's Rock at Salisbury Crags
1755:
1707:Waterston, Charles D; Macmillan Shearer, A (2006).
1193:Following criticism, especially the arguments from
601:Hutton developed several hypotheses to explain the
315:. He was apprenticed to the lawyer George Chalmers
237:Hutton advanced the idea that the physical world's
193:
190:
3342:Illustrations of the Huttonian theory of the Earth
3005:
2950:
2543:"Siccar Point and Teaching the History of Geology"
1914:
1870:
1545:Theory of the Earth; with proofs and illustrations
5348:Members of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh
5333:Founder fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
3292:
3221:Accessible Historical Perspective on James Hutton
2901:
2390:
1912:
1906:
1594:complex (a series of science buildings linked to
5269:
2540:
1849:
717:near Stobhall described by Hutton. Location:
487:, and together with Adam Smith they founded the
3003:
2948:
2944:
2942:
2708:
1856:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 68–70.
1749:
439:
3325:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
3139:
2957:. Oxford University Press. pp. viii, 10.
1680:Daly, Sean; Agricola, Georgius (10 May 2018).
1167:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
4609:
3374:
2977:
2680:
2386:
2384:
2237:. The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006.
1889:"James Hutton: The Founder of Modern Geology"
1504:Edinburgh & London: Strahan & Cadell.
525:The memorial to James Hutton at his grave in
257:, the science which explains features of the
3503:
3474:
3460:
3111:James Hutton: The Founder of Modern Geology.
2939:
2780:
2674:
1813:, the looming, irregular rock formations in
1679:
1390:Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge
1246:" in contrast to the flood-oriented theory.
898:He went on to find a similar penetration of
596:
576:From 1791 Hutton suffered extreme pain from
5318:People associated with the Scottish Borders
5147:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
3569:
2715:Elizabeth Lincoln Mathieson (13 May 2002).
2362:
2360:
1845:
1843:
1792:
1343:
4616:
4602:
3381:
3367:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2735:
2566:
2506:
2459:
2381:
2096:Campbell, Lewis; Garnett, William (1882).
1994:
1202:of alternative theories, such as those of
585:, in the now sealed south-west section of
45:
5403:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
2908:. London: Macmillan and Company. p.
2878:
2480:
2102:. London: Macmillan and Company. p.
311:as a "student of humanity", studying the
19:For other people named James Hutton, see
4798:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
3388:
3216:First Publication of Theory of the Earth
2536:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2357:
1840:
1700:
1580:
1384:as a possible mechanism affecting them:
1291:caricature of James Hutton studying the
1283:
1049:
936:
928:
810:
759:
708:
657:
520:
374:
299:where he was particularly interested in
283:
3304:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
3113:Edinburgh: National Museums Scotland.
3092:James Hutton and the history of geology
3008:James Hutton and the History of Geology
2852:
2839:
2741:
2630:"Hutton's Journeys to Prove his Theory"
2391:Robert Macfarlane (13 September 2003).
2059:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
1817:. Hutton noticed something astonishing—
1788:
1786:
1590:A street was named after Hutton in the
1538:(VIRGO) University of Virginia Library)
1340:in the higher atmosphere on the other.
516:
509:In 1783, he was a joint founder of the
5270:
2774:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2274:"James Hutton | Encyclopedia.com"
1299:
1269:It has been claimed that the prose of
1208:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
1101:In the Spring of 1788 he set off with
653:
617:in two parts, the first by his friend
346:
307:, then when he was 14 he attended the
168:Royal Society of Agriculture of France
5368:18th-century Scottish medical doctors
5288:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
4597:
3619:
3400:
3362:
3240:B16: The History of Life: Source Book
3195:James Hutton – The Man
3148:. Vol. IV. Edinburgh: Constable.
3012:. Cornell University Press. pp.
2632:. James-hutton.org.uk. Archived from
2560:
2527:
2320:. James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from
2294:. James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from
2224:
2222:
2203:. James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from
2149:. James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from
2123:. James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from
2069:. James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from
2043:. James Hutton.org.uk. Archived from
1835:, helped to establish modern geology.
1380: – and even suggested
502:. In 1777 he published a pamphlet on
351:Hutton inherited from his father the
214:1726 – 26 March 1797) was a Scottish
5383:People of the Scottish Enlightenment
3095:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
3088:
2407:
2310:
2284:
2193:
2139:
2033:
2028:
2013:
1997:James Hutton's stay in Leiden (1749)
1913:Kenneth L. Taylor (September 2006).
1850:M. J. S. Rudwick (15 October 2014).
1783:
1221:
1154:) which he read at a meeting of the
325:Sanguine et Circulatione Microcosmi.
5025:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
4623:
3236:"Justice Scalia's Misunderstanding"
2694:, vol. V, pt. III, 1805, quoted in
2336:
2113:
1004:, who interpreted them in terms of
1000:and by French geologists including
850:Hutton's Section at Salisbury Crags
13:
3205:James Hutton and Uniformitarianism
3109:McKirdy, Alan (revised ed. 2022).
3045:
2953:GAIA – A new look at life on Earth
2462:"Hutton's Section at Hoyrood Park"
2368:Concerning the System of the Earth
2219:
2067:"Farming and Hutton the Geologist"
1885:American Museum of Natural History
1761:"Millennial Plaques: James Hutton"
1534:. Edinburgh: Strahan & Cadell.
1521:Edinburgh: Cadell, Junior, Davies.
1445:which he set out in his 1859 book
1016:to the north of Newton Point near
14:
5419:
3230:
3184:
3126:James Hutton: The Genius of Time.
2978:Connor, Steve (16 October 2003).
2853:Pearson, Paul N. (October 2003).
2605:"Jedburgh: Hutton's Unconformity"
2393:"Glimpses into the abyss of time"
1265:Acceptance of geological theories
1230:theories of the German geologist
949:illustration (1787). Location:
363:. In the early 1750s he moved to
5215:
4577:
4576:
2041:"Business and Related Interests"
1197:who thought Hutton's ideas were
815:Hutton's Section on Edinburgh's
186:
5408:18th-century British geologists
5393:18th-century British scientists
5257:List of natural history dealers
4925:The Natural History of Selborne
3146:The Works of John Playfair, Esq
3033:
2997:
2971:
2919:
2895:
2648:
2622:
2464:. Geos.ed.ac.uk. Archived from
2460:Cliff Ford (1 September 2003).
2453:
2438:
2429:
2266:
2165:
2099:The Life of James Clerk Maxwell
2089:
1793:David Denby (11 October 2004).
1418:as the result of breeding, and
1364:among 19th-century scientists.
1313:. The same volume in which his
422:This developed his interest in
278:Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon
5293:Burials at Greyfriars Kirkyard
5159:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
3284:Works by or about James Hutton
3028:James Hutton deist -wikipedia.
1988:
1963:
1718:The Royal Society of Edinburgh
1673:
1576:
1304:
1186:" by songwriter and professor
1145:
1089:Hutton Unconformity , Jedburgh
1012:he found his first example of
980:Hutton Unconformity , Jedburgh
933:Hutton's Unconformity on Arran
764:Geological dike eroded by the
16:Scottish geologist (1726–1797)
1:
5378:18th-century Scottish farmers
5313:Proto-evolutionary biologists
2829:Theory of the Earth, Volume 2
2810:Theory of the Earth, Volume 1
1667:
1663:that reassesses Hutton's work
713:Intrusive dike eroded by the
21:James Hutton (disambiguation)
3620:
3506:Liberté, égalité, fraternité
2658:. Snh.org.uk. Archived from
2178:National Library of Scotland
2108:hutton George Clerk Maxwell.
1975:Edinburgh Geological Society
1617:Sierra Nevada Mountain Range
1598:) in the early 21st century.
1547:. Edinburgh: Creech. 3 vols.
1429:Paul Pearson. Influenced by
1367:
613:was read to meetings of the
440:Edinburgh and canal building
7:
4915:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
3475:
3070:. Published in the UK as
2578:. QCC Press. Archived from
2201:"The Forth and Clyde Canal"
1623:
1414:. He distinguished between
1259:Bursting the Limits of Time
1002:Horace-Bénédict de Saussure
945:. Photograph (2003) below
370:The Elements of Agriculture
10:
5424:
5363:University of Paris alumni
4937:A History of British Birds
3401:
3227: (archived 8 May 2006)
2902:Geikie, Archibald (1897).
2744:"Vestiges of James Hutton"
2692:Royal Society of Edinburgh
1971:"James Hutton (1726-1797)"
1827:Royal Society of Edinburgh
1716:. Vol. I. Edinburgh:
1656:Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
1475:at Oxford Digital Library.
1319:appeared contained also a
1156:Royal Society of Edinburgh
1137:, uplift with tilting and
615:Royal Society of Edinburgh
511:Royal Society of Edinburgh
481:Royal Society of Edinburgh
18:
5398:Scottish agriculturalists
5323:Scientists from Edinburgh
5252:Natural History Societies
5224:
5213:
5129:
5120:The Royal Natural History
4972:Ornithological Dictionary
4959:
4881:Johan Christian Fabricius
4807:
4713:
4640:
4631:
4563:
4517:
4419:
4376:
4355:
4302:
4271:
4255:
4202:
4136:
4088:
4052:
4019:
3938:
3897:
3741:
3630:
3626:
3615:
3520:Methodological skepticism
3411:
3407:
3396:
3314:Digitized volumes at the
3076:Weidenfeld & Nicolson
2569:"Hutton's unconformities"
2548:. University of Wisconsin
2541:Keith Montgomery (2003).
1995:Schuchmann, J.B. (2023).
1559:. Unpublished manuscript.
1039:lie horizontal layers of
862:In the summer of 1785 at
597:Theory of rock formations
164:
159:
155:
147:
140:
108:
87:
75:
60:
44:
30:
5388:Enlightenment scientists
5308:Leiden University alumni
5098:The Naturalist's Library
5001:On the Origin of Species
3309:University of St Andrews
3158:Cambridge, Massachusetts
3089:Dean, Dennis R. (1992).
3004:Dean, Dennis R. (1992).
2949:Lovelock, James (1979).
2374:7 September 2008 at the
2354:full text (1788 version)
1462:
1448:On the Origin of Species
1420:non-heritable variations
1344:Earth as a living entity
1255:Earth must be much older
297:High School of Edinburgh
5358:Scottish meteorologists
5343:Scottish businesspeople
5232:Natural history museums
4834:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
3323:"Theory of the Earth."
3152:Repcheck, Jack (2003).
3140:Playfair, John (1822).
2905:The Founders of Geology
2742:Thomson, Keith (2001).
2686:"Hutton's Unconformity"
2656:"Hutton's Unconformity"
2488:"Hutton's Unconformity"
2292:"Settled and Unsettled"
2181:. 1773–1774. p. 36
1757:University of Edinburgh
1557:Elements of Agriculture
1551:e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek)
1525:e-rara (ETH-Bibliothek)
1511:Observations on granite
1412:Elements of Agriculture
1271:Principles of Knowledge
1213:The whole was entitled
941:Hutton Unconformity at
866:and other sites in the
309:University of Edinburgh
295:He was educated at the
95:University of Edinburgh
79:26 March 1797 (aged 70)
5084:William Jackson Hooker
5032:Alexander von Humboldt
4949:Philosophie zoologique
4732:Pinax theatri botanici
3570:
3504:
3470:Enlightened absolutism
3461:
3347:John Playfair (1815),
3339:John Playfair (1802),
3331:Hutton's (1795–1899),
3199:The James Hutton Trail
1635:James Hutton Institute
1619:is named after Hutton.
1586:
1437:in nature. Studies of
1296:
1232:Abraham Gottlob Werner
1171:Scottish Enlightenment
1098:
994:angular unconformities
989:
934:
859:
808:
757:
706:
686:56.851082°N 3.741822°W
651:
573:
553:55.945626°N 3.192200°W
465:Scottish Enlightenment
419:
5170:The Study of Instinct
5109:Kunstformen der Natur
5013:The Malay Archipelago
5008:Alfred Russel Wallace
4944:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
3436:Counter-Enlightenment
3275:Works by James Hutton
3128:Edinburgh: Birlinn.
2914:james hutton geology.
2494:Heritage Museum. 2014
2318:"Theory of the Earth"
2121:"Return to Edinburgh"
1893:Earth: Inside and Out
1584:
1453:William Charles Wells
1287:
1236:interior of the Earth
1054:An eroded outcrop at
1053:
1014:Hutton's Unconformity
940:
932:
814:
788:56.880493°N 4.09473°W
763:
712:
661:
627:
578:stones in the bladder
524:
496:Forth and Clyde canal
491:for weekly meetings.
461:James Crichton-Browne
378:
284:Early life and career
224:chemical manufacturer
5338:Scottish agronomists
5089:Joseph Dalton Hooker
5042:The Birds of America
3390:Age of Enlightenment
3295:Robertson, Edmund F.
3162:Simon & Schuster
3124:Perman, Ray (2022).
2786:"Lyrics, No Control"
2690:Transactions of the
2662:on 24 September 2015
2278:www.encyclopedia.com
1737:on 19 September 2015
1596:Edinburgh University
1352:, who developed the
922:in 1786, and on the
737:56.48964°N 3.42455°W
691:56.851082; -3.741822
558:55.945626; -3.192200
517:Later life and death
399:55.82675°N 2.28586°W
5373:Scottish biologists
5353:Scottish geologists
5137:Martinus Beijerinck
4680:De Natura Animalium
4396:Feijóo y Montenegro
4347:Vorontsova-Dashkova
3293:O'Connor, John J.;
2871:2003Natur.425..665P
2567:Hugh Rance (1999).
2351:Theory of the Earth
2324:on 8 September 2012
2127:on 8 September 2012
1832:Theory of the Earth
1779:on 1 November 2007.
1645:Geology of Scotland
1640:Climate of Scotland
1427:palaeoclimatologist
1416:heritable variation
1316:Theory of the Earth
1300:Other contributions
1161:Theory of the Earth
1073: /
964: /
868:Cairngorm mountains
834: /
793:56.880493; -4.09473
783: /
732: /
681: /
654:Search for evidence
609:Theory of the Earth
587:Greyfriars Kirkyard
548: /
527:Greyfriars Kirkyard
434:James Clerk Maxwell
394: /
347:Farming and geology
288:Hutton was born in
271:anthropic principle
263:geologic time scale
100:University of Paris
82:Edinburgh, Scotland
5242:Parson-naturalists
5074:Philip Henry Gosse
5037:John James Audubon
5020:Henry Walter Bates
4908:Histoire Naturelle
4896:Historia Plantarum
4784:Avium Praecipuarum
4768:Historia animalium
4669:Historia Plantarum
4657:History of Animals
3535:Natural philosophy
3316:Linda Hall Library
3232:Gould, Stephen Jay
2760:10.1511/2001.3.212
2748:American Scientist
2615:on 9 August 2010.
2585:on 3 December 2008
2417:. Scottish Geology
2254:on 24 January 2013
1587:
1480:The theory of rain
1473:. Edinburgh. 30pp.
1297:
1182:in the 1989 song "
1099:
1078:55.9315°N 2.3013°W
996:had been noted by
990:
969:55.4721°N 2.5545°W
935:
872:Scottish Highlands
860:
839:55.9432°N 3.1672°W
809:
799:Dalnacardoch dikes
758:
748:dike near Stobhall
742:56.48964; -3.42455
707:
697:Dail-an-eas bridge
574:
420:
404:55.82675; -2.28586
5265:
5264:
5211:
5210:
4829:Marcello Malpighi
4723:Ulisse Aldrovandi
4703:De Materia Medica
4591:
4590:
4559:
4558:
4555:
4554:
3611:
3610:
3607:
3606:
3584:Scientific method
3441:Critical thinking
3327:, Vol. 1, no. 20.
3321:Hutton's (1788),
3279:Project Gutenberg
2964:978-0-19-286030-9
2935:"Gaia hypothesis"
2834:Project Gutenberg
2815:Project Gutenberg
2766:on 11 June 2011.
1899:on 3 March 2016.
1863:978-0-226-20393-5
1823:volcanic activity
1727:978-0-902198-84-5
1693:978-1-5255-1758-7
1661:Stephen Jay Gould
1443:natural selection
1435:benevolent design
1382:natural selection
1277:in 1802 and then
1222:Opposing theories
1041:Old Red Sandstone
992:The existence of
255:uniformitarianism
243:Scottish lowlands
174:
173:
142:Scientific career
120:Uniformitarianism
5415:
5219:
5192:The Dancing Bees
5116:Richard Lydekker
5064:Jean-Henri Fabre
5049:William Buckland
4854:Regnier de Graaf
4748:Andrea Cesalpino
4638:
4637:
4618:
4611:
4604:
4595:
4594:
4580:
4579:
3628:
3627:
3617:
3616:
3575:
3509:
3480:
3466:
3409:
3408:
3398:
3397:
3383:
3376:
3369:
3360:
3359:
3311:
3288:Internet Archive
3271:
3269:
3267:
3258:. Archived from
3191:James-Hutton.org
3149:
3106:
3040:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3011:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2956:
2946:
2937:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2882:
2850:
2837:
2836:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2805:
2799:
2798:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2762:. Archived from
2739:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2700:. Archived from
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2636:on 2 August 2012
2626:
2620:
2619:
2611:. Archived from
2601:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2584:
2573:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2547:
2538:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2457:
2451:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2422:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2388:
2379:
2364:
2355:
2347:
2334:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2253:
2247:. Archived from
2236:
2226:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2093:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2063:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2037:
2031:
2026:
2011:
2010:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1922:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1895:. Archived from
1881:
1868:
1867:
1847:
1838:
1837:
1790:
1781:
1780:
1775:. Archived from
1767:modern geology,
1753:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1736:
1730:. Archived from
1715:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1686:. FriesenPress.
1677:
1571:Internet Archive
1494:Internet Archive
1165:and appeared in
1097:
1096:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1083:55.9315; -2.3013
1079:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1029:sedimentary rock
988:
987:
985:
984:
983:
981:
976:
975:
974:55.4721; -2.5545
970:
965:
962:
961:
960:
957:
904:sedimentary rock
858:
857:
855:
854:
853:
851:
846:
845:
844:55.9432; -3.1672
840:
835:
832:
831:
830:
827:
807:
806:
804:
803:
802:
800:
795:
794:
789:
784:
781:
780:
779:
776:
756:
755:
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751:
749:
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728:
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705:
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693:
692:
687:
682:
679:
678:
677:
674:
572:
571:
569:
568:
567:
565:
560:
559:
554:
549:
546:
545:
544:
541:
418:
417:
415:
414:
413:
411:
406:
405:
400:
395:
392:
391:
390:
387:
209:
208:
205:
204:
201:
198:
195:
192:
183:
116:Plutonic geology
49:
39:
28:
27:
5423:
5422:
5418:
5417:
5416:
5414:
5413:
5412:
5268:
5267:
5266:
5261:
5220:
5207:
5188:Karl von Frisch
5125:
5094:William Jardine
4984:Le Règne Animal
4955:
4903:Comte de Buffon
4864:Systema Naturae
4803:
4775:Frederik Ruysch
4753:Valerius Cordus
4743:Hieronymus Bock
4709:
4691:Natural History
4686:Pliny the Elder
4643:
4633:
4627:
4625:Natural history
4622:
4592:
4587:
4586:
4573:
4551:
4513:
4415:
4372:
4351:
4298:
4267:
4263:Carvalho e Melo
4251:
4198:
4132:
4084:
4048:
4015:
3934:
3893:
3737:
3622:
3603:
3589:Spanish America
3463:Encyclopédistes
3426:Civil liberties
3403:
3392:
3387:
3265:
3263:
3225:Wayback Machine
3187:
3103:
3052:Baxter, Stephen
3048:
3046:Further reading
3043:
3038:
3034:
3024:
3002:
2998:
2988:
2986:
2984:The Independent
2976:
2972:
2965:
2947:
2940:
2924:
2920:
2900:
2896:
2880:10.1038/425665a
2855:"In retrospect"
2851:
2840:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2779:
2775:
2740:
2736:
2726:
2724:
2723:on 9 March 2016
2713:
2709:
2704:on 8 July 2012.
2696:Natural History
2679:
2675:
2665:
2663:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2637:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2609:Jedburgh online
2603:
2602:
2598:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2571:
2565:
2561:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2528:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2507:
2497:
2495:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2469:
2468:on 24 June 2011
2458:
2454:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2420:
2418:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2389:
2382:
2376:Wayback Machine
2365:
2358:
2348:
2337:
2327:
2325:
2316:
2315:
2311:
2301:
2299:
2298:on 26 July 2011
2290:
2289:
2285:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2220:
2210:
2208:
2207:on 26 July 2011
2199:
2198:
2194:
2184:
2182:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2156:
2154:
2153:on 26 July 2011
2145:
2144:
2140:
2130:
2128:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2094:
2090:
2076:
2074:
2073:on 26 July 2011
2065:
2064:
2060:
2050:
2048:
2047:on 26 July 2011
2039:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2014:
2007:
1993:
1989:
1979:
1977:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1911:
1907:
1882:
1871:
1864:
1848:
1841:
1811:Salisbury Crags
1791:
1784:
1773:Grant Institute
1754:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1626:
1592:Kings Buildings
1579:
1506:at Google Books
1465:
1457:Patrick Matthew
1408:animal breeding
1370:
1354:Gaia hypothesis
1346:
1307:
1302:
1267:
1224:
1148:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1059:
1027:, in layers of
979:
977:
973:
971:
967:
966:
963:
958:
955:
953:
951:
950:
912:Salisbury Crags
874:, Hutton found
849:
847:
843:
841:
837:
836:
833:
828:
825:
823:
821:
820:
817:Salisbury Crags
798:
796:
792:
790:
786:
785:
782:
777:
774:
772:
770:
769:
747:
745:
741:
739:
735:
734:
731:
726:
723:
721:
719:
718:
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694:
690:
688:
684:
683:
680:
675:
672:
670:
668:
667:
656:
646:
644:
641:
634:
630:
603:rock formations
599:
563:
561:
557:
555:
551:
550:
547:
542:
539:
537:
535:
534:
519:
457:Salisbury Crags
442:
409:
407:
403:
401:
397:
396:
393:
388:
385:
383:
381:
380:
349:
286:
247:Salisbury Crags
220:agriculturalist
189:
185:
179:
170:
136:
132:Gaia Hypothesis
130:
126:
122:
118:
104:
88:Alma mater
83:
80:
71:
65:
56:
40:
35:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5421:
5411:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5303:British deists
5300:
5298:Charles Darwin
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5239:
5228:
5226:
5222:
5221:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5208:
5206:
5205:
5198:Ronald Lockley
5195:
5185:
5173:
5166:Niko Tinbergen
5163:
5151:
5139:
5133:
5131:
5127:
5126:
5124:
5123:
5113:
5101:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5046:
5034:
5029:
5017:
5005:
4996:Charles Darwin
4993:
4988:
4979:Georges Cuvier
4976:
4967:George Montagu
4963:
4961:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4941:
4929:
4917:
4912:
4900:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4868:
4856:
4851:
4849:Jan Swammerdam
4846:
4841:
4839:William Derham
4836:
4831:
4826:
4813:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4801:
4791:
4780:William Turner
4777:
4772:
4763:Conrad Gessner
4760:
4758:Leonhart Fuchs
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4728:Gaspard Bauhin
4725:
4719:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4707:
4695:
4683:
4673:
4661:
4648:
4646:
4635:
4629:
4628:
4621:
4620:
4613:
4606:
4598:
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4588:
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4584:
4566:
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4564:
4561:
4560:
4557:
4556:
4553:
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4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4523:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
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4456:
4451:
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4431:
4425:
4423:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4382:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4371:
4370:
4365:
4359:
4357:
4353:
4352:
4350:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4308:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4275:
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4269:
4268:
4266:
4265:
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4257:
4253:
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4250:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
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4214:
4208:
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4176:
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4166:
4161:
4156:
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4140:
4138:
4134:
4133:
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4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4094:
4092:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4056:
4054:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4025:
4023:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3942:
3940:
3936:
3935:
3933:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3901:
3899:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3745:
3743:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3735:
3733:Wollstonecraft
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3634:
3632:
3624:
3623:
3613:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3510:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3472:
3467:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3412:
3405:
3404:
3394:
3393:
3386:
3385:
3378:
3371:
3363:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3345:
3337:
3329:
3312:
3299:"James Hutton"
3290:
3281:
3272:
3262:on 8 June 2019
3228:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3202:
3186:
3185:External links
3183:
3182:
3181:
3150:
3137:
3122:
3107:
3101:
3086:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3032:
3023:978-0801426667
3022:
2996:
2970:
2963:
2938:
2918:
2894:
2838:
2819:
2800:
2773:
2734:
2707:
2673:
2647:
2621:
2596:
2559:
2526:
2505:
2479:
2452:
2437:
2428:
2406:
2380:
2356:
2335:
2309:
2283:
2265:
2244:0-902-198-84-X
2243:
2218:
2192:
2164:
2138:
2112:
2088:
2058:
2032:
2012:
2005:
1987:
1962:
1948:
1940:Stephen Baxter
1905:
1869:
1862:
1839:
1800:The New Yorker
1782:
1748:
1726:
1699:
1692:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1610:
1599:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1560:
1553:
1540:
1527:
1514:
1507:
1497:
1483:
1476:
1464:
1461:
1439:Charles Darwin
1399:sense of smell
1394:
1393:
1369:
1366:
1350:James Lovelock
1345:
1342:
1321:Theory of Rain
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1295:of rock (1787)
1266:
1263:
1223:
1220:
1195:Richard Kirwan
1173:concept which
1147:
1144:
1115:Sir James Hall
947:Clerk of Eldin
655:
652:
598:
595:
518:
515:
475:and economist
471:, philosopher
441:
438:
361:Nether Monynut
348:
345:
285:
282:
239:remote history
172:
171:
166:Member of the
165:
162:
161:
157:
156:
153:
152:
149:
145:
144:
138:
137:
135:
134:
112:
110:
109:Known for
106:
105:
103:
102:
97:
91:
89:
85:
84:
81:
77:
73:
72:
66:
62:
58:
57:
50:
42:
41:
34:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5420:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
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5294:
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5289:
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5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5275:
5273:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5247:
5243:
5240:
5237:
5233:
5230:
5229:
5227:
5223:
5218:
5203:
5199:
5196:
5193:
5189:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5181:On Aggression
5177:
5176:Konrad Lorenz
5174:
5171:
5167:
5164:
5161:
5160:
5155:
5152:
5149:
5148:
5143:
5142:Abbott Thayer
5140:
5138:
5135:
5134:
5132:
5128:
5121:
5117:
5114:
5111:
5110:
5105:
5104:Ernst Haeckel
5102:
5099:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5069:Louis Agassiz
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5054:Charles Lyell
5052:
5050:
5047:
5044:
5043:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5027:
5026:
5021:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5009:
5006:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4991:William Smith
4989:
4986:
4985:
4980:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4968:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4958:
4951:
4950:
4945:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4933:
4932:Thomas Bewick
4930:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4920:Gilbert White
4918:
4916:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4904:
4901:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4871:Georg Steller
4869:
4866:
4865:
4860:
4859:Carl Linnaeus
4857:
4855:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4824:
4823:
4818:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4809:Enlightenment
4806:
4799:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4738:Otto Brunfels
4736:
4733:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4712:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4677:
4674:
4671:
4670:
4665:
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4649:
4647:
4645:
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4543:
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4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4520:
4519:United States
4516:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
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4485:
4482:
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4457:
4455:
4452:
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4445:
4442:
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4437:
4435:
4432:
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4427:
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3643:Ashley-Cooper
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3545:Progressivism
3543:
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3521:
3518:
3516:
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3494:Individualism
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3209:
3207:(scroll down)
3206:
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3189:
3188:
3179:
3178:0-7382-0692-X
3175:
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3170:0-7432-3189-9
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3134:1-7802-7785-7
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3119:1-9106-8244-6
3116:
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3102:9780801426667
3098:
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3085:
3084:0-297-82975-0
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3068:0-7653-1238-7
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2865:(6959): 665.
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2682:John Playfair
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2492:Isle of Arran
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2483:
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2397:The Spectator
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2019:
2017:
2008:
2006:9789090365442
2002:
1998:
1991:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1951:
1949:0-7653-1238-7
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1926:The Historian
1921:
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1358:superorganism
1355:
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1331:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1294:
1290:
1286:
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1280:
1279:Charles Lyell
1276:
1275:John Playfair
1272:
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1252:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
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1204:Thomas Burnet
1200:
1196:
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1189:
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1179:Charles Lyell
1176:
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1120:
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1111:Cockburnspath
1108:
1104:
1103:John Playfair
1095:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:Isle of Arran
1007:
1003:
999:
998:Nicolas Steno
995:
986:
948:
944:
939:
931:
927:
925:
924:Isle of Arran
921:
917:
916:Arthur's Seat
913:
909:
905:
901:
900:volcanic rock
896:
893:
892:precipitating
888:
884:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
856:
819:. Location:
818:
813:
805:
767:
762:
754:
716:
711:
703:
665:
660:
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647:
637:
631:
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486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
469:John Playfair
466:
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458:
453:
451:
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437:
435:
430:
429:John Playfair
425:
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377:
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371:
366:
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344:
342:
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328:
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318:
314:
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306:
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293:
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281:
279:
274:
272:
268:
264:
260:
259:Earth's crust
256:
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244:
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182:
178:
169:
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107:
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78:
74:
69:
63:
59:
54:
53:Henry Raeburn
48:
43:
38:
29:
26:
22:
5201:
5191:
5179:
5169:
5157:
5154:Hugh B. Cott
5145:
5130:20th century
5119:
5107:
5097:
5040:
5023:
5011:
4999:
4982:
4970:
4960:19th century
4947:
4935:
4923:
4906:
4894:
4886:James Hutton
4885:
4876:Joseph Banks
4862:
4822:Micrographia
4820:
4817:Robert Hooke
4797:
4787:
4783:
4766:
4731:
4701:
4689:
4679:
4667:
4664:Theophrastus
4655:
4567:
4478:
4312:Catherine II
3764:Beaumarchais
3594:Universality
3565:Reductionism
3512:
3489:Human rights
3349:
3341:
3333:
3324:
3302:
3264:. Retrieved
3260:the original
3239:
3198:
3194:
3153:
3145:
3125:
3110:
3091:
3071:
3055:
3035:
3027:
3007:
2999:
2987:. Retrieved
2983:
2973:
2952:
2921:
2913:
2904:
2897:
2862:
2858:
2827:
2822:
2808:
2803:
2795:
2789:
2782:Greg Graffin
2776:
2767:
2764:the original
2751:
2747:
2737:
2727:28 September
2725:. Retrieved
2721:the original
2710:
2702:the original
2689:
2676:
2664:. Retrieved
2660:the original
2650:
2638:. Retrieved
2634:the original
2624:
2616:
2613:the original
2608:
2599:
2587:. Retrieved
2580:the original
2575:
2562:
2550:. Retrieved
2517:. Retrieved
2508:
2496:. Retrieved
2482:
2470:. Retrieved
2466:the original
2455:
2440:
2431:
2419:. Retrieved
2409:
2400:
2367:
2350:
2326:. Retrieved
2322:the original
2312:
2300:. Retrieved
2296:the original
2286:
2277:
2268:
2256:. Retrieved
2249:the original
2230:
2209:. Retrieved
2205:the original
2195:
2183:. Retrieved
2176:
2167:
2155:. Retrieved
2151:the original
2141:
2129:. Retrieved
2125:the original
2115:
2107:
2098:
2091:
2075:. Retrieved
2071:the original
2061:
2049:. Retrieved
2045:the original
2035:
1996:
1990:
1978:. Retrieved
1974:
1965:
1953:. Retrieved
1924:
1917:
1908:
1900:
1897:the original
1892:
1852:
1830:
1807:sal ammoniac
1804:
1798:
1777:the original
1751:
1739:. Retrieved
1732:the original
1709:
1702:
1682:
1675:
1659:, a book by
1654:
1630:Deep history
1613:Mount Hutton
1607:Bad Religion
1564:
1556:
1544:
1531:
1518:
1510:
1501:
1487:
1479:
1470:
1446:
1424:
1411:
1395:
1389:
1371:
1362:reductionism
1347:
1338:air currents
1320:
1314:
1308:
1270:
1268:
1258:
1248:
1225:
1214:
1212:
1192:
1188:Greg Graffin
1166:
1159:
1151:
1149:
1128:
1123:Siccar Point
1107:Berwickshire
1100:
1056:Siccar Point
1037:conglomerate
1022:
991:
914:, adjoining
897:
878:penetrating
861:
648:
638:
632:
628:
622:
619:Joseph Black
607:
600:
591:
583:Joseph Black
575:
533:. Location:
508:
503:
493:
488:
485:Joseph Black
454:
445:
443:
421:
369:
364:
360:
356:
353:Berwickshire
350:
332:sal ammoniac
329:
324:
321:
294:
287:
275:
251:Siccar Point
236:
177:James Hutton
176:
175:
141:
124:Unconformity
51:Portrait by
32:James Hutton
25:
5283:1797 deaths
5278:1726 births
5202:Shearwaters
5059:Mary Anning
4844:Hans Sloane
4794:John Gerard
4788:New Herball
4715:Renaissance
4698:Dioscorides
4634:naturalists
4569:Romanticism
4391:Charles III
4232:Poniatowski
4169:Leeuwenhoek
4149:de la Court
4137:Netherlands
3981:Mendelssohn
3976:Lichtenberg
3854:Montesquieu
3572:Sapere aude
3555:Rationalism
3550:Rationality
3540:Objectivity
3242:. pp.
3193:, links to
3156:London and
2933:. cited in
2698:, June 1999
2498:20 November
2415:"Glen Tilt"
2258:21 November
1980:29 December
1936:Book review
1577:Recognition
1392:, volume 2.
1305:Meteorology
1146:Publication
1081: /
972: /
880:metamorphic
842: /
791: /
766:River Garry
740: /
689: /
564:slighhouses
556: /
489:Oyster Club
446:Slighhouses
424:meteorology
410:slighhouses
402: /
365:Slighhouses
357:Slighhouses
301:mathematics
64:3 June 1726
5272:Categories
4632:Pioneering
4411:Villarroel
4406:Jovellanos
4342:Radishchev
4289:Micu-Klein
4227:Niemcewicz
4194:Swammerdam
4184:Nieuwentyt
4174:Mandeville
4029:Farmakidis
3915:Burlamaqui
3824:La Mettrie
3799:Fontenelle
3754:d'Argenson
3749:d'Alembert
3673:Harrington
3599:Utopianism
3499:Liberalism
3456:Empiricism
3431:Classicism
3421:Capitalism
3058:New York:
2989:5 February
2791:No Control
2754:(3): 212.
2589:20 October
2519:20 October
2185:2 December
1819:fossilized
1668:References
1311:atmosphere
1289:John Kay's
1184:No Control
1175:David Hume
1131:deposition
1087: (
1065:55°55′53″N
1045:Teviotdale
978: (
956:55°28′20″N
848: (
826:55°56′36″N
797: (
775:56°52′50″N
746: (
724:56°29′23″N
695: (
673:56°51′04″N
562: (
540:55°56′44″N
477:Adam Smith
473:David Hume
408: (
386:55°49′36″N
245:, such as
228:naturalist
70:, Scotland
4652:Aristotle
4644:antiquity
4642:Classical
4532:Jefferson
4474:Hutcheson
4363:Obradović
4332:Lomonosov
4327:Kheraskov
4237:Śniadecki
4001:Weishaupt
3996:Thomasius
3986:Pufendorf
3829:Lavoisier
3814:d'Holbach
3809:Helvétius
3789:Descartes
3784:Condorcet
3779:Condillac
3713:Priestley
3530:Modernity
3451:Democracy
3062:, 2004.
3060:Tor Books
2889:161935273
2029:Dean 1992
1815:Edinburgh
1765:father of
1374:evolution
1368:Evolution
1251:deep time
1244:Plutonist
1228:Neptunist
1199:atheistic
1068:2°18′05″W
1033:greywacke
1018:Lochranza
1006:Neptunism
959:2°33′16″W
926:in 1787.
908:Edinburgh
864:Glen Tilt
829:3°10′02″W
778:4°05′41″W
727:3°25′28″W
715:River Tay
676:3°44′31″W
664:Glen Tilt
662:Hutton's
643:required;
543:3°11′32″W
531:Edinburgh
389:2°17′09″W
355:farms of
305:chemistry
290:Edinburgh
232:physician
216:geologist
210:; 3 June
128:Deep time
68:Edinburgh
5079:Asa Gray
4891:John Ray
4582:Category
4527:Franklin
4494:Playfair
4464:Ferguson
4421:Scotland
4368:Mrazović
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4317:Fonvizin
4256:Portugal
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4217:Konarski
4212:Kołłątaj
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3991:Schiller
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3930:Saussure
3925:Rousseau
3889:Voltaire
3844:Maréchal
3819:Jaucourt
3774:Châtelet
3769:Chamfort
3718:Reynolds
3621:Thinkers
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3484:Humanism
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3353:(French)
3074:London:
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2552:26 March
2378:abstract
2372:Archived
2328:11 April
2302:3 August
2211:3 August
2157:3 August
2131:11 April
2085:Playfair
2077:3 August
2051:3 August
1930:abstract
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1650:Shen Kuo
1624:See also
1334:humidity
1325:solution
1240:sediment
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943:Jedburgh
920:Galloway
902:through
640:present.
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4537:Madison
4509:Stewart
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4272:Romania
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4189:Spinoza
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4103:Galiani
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3971:Lessing
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3286:at the
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2867:Bibcode
1955:8 April
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1741:17 July
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1378:a sense
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1105:to the
883:schists
876:granite
870:in the
452:plant.
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3804:Gouges
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1135:seabed
887:molten
450:madder
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