306:
as "the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component", and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as "A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy". These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the "Patient interrogation of a landscape" while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo (
282:
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critical information on habits and chronologies of plants and animals that we could eat or that could eat us. Natural history continues to be critical to human survival and thriving. It contributes to our fundamental understanding of how the world works by providing the empirical foundation of natural sciences, and it contributes directly and indirectly to human emotional and physical health, thereby fostering healthier human communities. It also serves as the basis for all conservation efforts, with natural history both informing the science and inspiring the values that drive these.
716:
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596:, formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an "amateur" activity, rather than a part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland, the study of natural history was believed to contribute to good mental health. Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the
294:
of the individual—of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment, how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities" and this more recent definition by D.S. Wilcove and T. Eisner: "The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species".
302:
inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment".
857:
Natural history observations have contributed to scientific questioning and theory formation. In recent times such observations contribute to how conservation priorities are determined. Mental health benefits can ensue, as well, from regular and active observation of chosen components of nature, and
346:
Natural history – a practice of intentional focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy – is the oldest continuous human endeavor. In the evolutionary past of our species, the practice of natural history was essential for our survival, imparting
293:
Definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by
Marston Bates: "Natural history is the study of animals and Plants—of organisms. ... I like to think, then, of natural history as the study of life at the level
289:
Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field, creating a plurality of definitions with a number of common themes among them. For example, while natural history is most often defined as a
305:
A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: "Descriptive ecology and ethology". Several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field
301:
Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environments, both past and present, such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: "A student of natural history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally
297:
This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: "Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what
703:, played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own
824:
Professional societies have recognized the importance of natural history and have initiated new sections in their journals specifically for natural history observations to support the discipline. These include "Natural
History Field Notes" of
612:). Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving living organisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that support them),
572:
argument for the existence or goodness of God. Since early modern times, however, a great number of women made contributions to natural history, particularly in the field of botany, be it as authors, collectors, or illustrators.
454:. During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists, particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual
320:
The plurality of definitions for this field has been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a range of definitions has recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history.
646:—who knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of "remote" parts of the world—the
290:
type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed.
422:, an arrangement of minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex life forms on a linear scale of supposedly increasing perfection, culminating in our species.
798:, founded in 1918. The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many
794:
Microscopical and
Natural History Society established in 1880, Whitby Naturalists' Club founded in 1913, Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society,
735:
The term "natural history" alone, or sometimes together with archaeology, forms the name of many national, regional, and local natural history societies that maintain records for
317:, which often include elements of anthropology, geology, paleontology, and astronomy along with botany and zoology, or include both cultural and natural components of the world.
45:
342:. 21st century definitions of natural history are inclusive of this understanding, such as this by Thomas Fleischner of the Natural History Institute (Prescott, Arizona):
1499:
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608:), beetles, and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until the
519:"undoubtedly the greatest scientific achievement of the Ming". His works translated to many languages direct or influence many scholars and researchers.
313:
A slightly different framework for natural history, covering a similar range of themes, is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading
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Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world's large natural history collections, such as the
540:, a 44-volume encyclopedia describing quadrupeds, birds, minerals, and some science and technology. Reptiles and fish were covered in supplements by
1862:
265:
Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as
Linnaeus' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the
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1427:
620:(the study of the relationships between life forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology.
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1983:
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humans were engaged and highly competent in indigenous ways of understanding the more-than-human world that are now referred to as
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to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology, astronomy, technology, art, and humanity.
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775:
531:
1901:
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Finnegan, Diarmid A. (2008), "'An aid to mental health': natural history, alienists and therapeutics in
Victorian Scotland",
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1448:
1123:
1087:
1667:
154:) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast, the meaning of the related term "nature" has widened (see also
832:
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world, it proceeded at a much brisker pace. From the 13th century, the work of
Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into
494:. The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into
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2805:
2619:
1151:
D. S Wilcove and T. Eisner, "The impending extinction of natural history," Chronicle of Higher
Education 15 (2000): B24
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628:
222:, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. The study of nature revived in the
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and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world. Natural history was understood by
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568:, who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. Many of these men wrote about nature to make the
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226:, and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge, itself divided into descriptive natural history and
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1976:
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665:(Prussia, 1769–1859). Humboldt's copious writings and research were seminal influences for Charles Darwin,
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557:
481:
1567:
399:, a Roman physician of Greek origin. It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted in the
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27:
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The understanding of "Nature" as "an organism and not as a mechanism" can be traced to the writings of
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1102:
Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, "Natural order: historical studies of scientific culture", Sage, 1979.
250:, many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional
2358:
2339:
2248:
984:
230:, the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern
1348:
T. L. Fleischner, "Natural history and the spiral of offering", Wild Earth 11, no. 3/4 (2002): 10–13
1163:"Systematics, Natural History, and Conservation: Field Biologists Must Fight a Public-Image Problem"
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these reach beyond the benefits derived from passively walking through natural areas.
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took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in the
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1911:
Finding Order in Nature: The
Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson
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639:
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and other 18th-century naturalists, a major concept of natural history was the
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but is not limited to it. It involves the systematic study of any category of
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Powers, Jennifer S.; Carlo, Tomás A.; Slade, Eleanor M.; Slik, Ferry (2021).
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Cognitive
Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science
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The
English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion
1409:
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647:
201:
1927:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts.
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2082:
1954:
1771:
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597:
431:
400:
356:
223:
207:
119:
81:
1709:"Biotropica announces a new paper category: Natural History Field Notes"
210:
European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions: the
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1925:
The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
1755:
1590:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
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2019:
1930:
Rainger, Ronald; Keith R. Benson; and Jane Maienschein (eds) (1988),
1756:"Editorial: Transitioning Editorial Boards Through a Global Pandemic"
795:
678:
403:, making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history books.
378:
246:
sciences. The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the
235:
189:
185:
1319:
1225:
1178:
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In modern Europe, professional disciplines such as botany, geology,
122:
naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a
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3214:
3019:
3004:
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2446:
2258:
1918:
Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology
1874:
1871:
760:
728:
613:
577:
565:
527:
439:
215:
197:
88:
methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a
61:
16:
Study of organisms including plants or animals in their environment
1961:
1015:
The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles
548:
A significant contribution to English natural history was made by
3085:
787:
589:
455:
270:
243:
239:
231:
285:
A natural history collection in a French public secondary school
165:, "natural history" covered essentially anything connected with
1563:
1519:(Vol. 5, part.3, p. 216). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
911:
752:
744:
736:
696:
634:
Three of the greatest English naturalists of the 19th century,
435:
144:
104:
69:
65:
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With "natural history" articles more often published today in
1371:
756:
740:
307:
148:
73:
763:), plants (botany), and other organisms. They may also have
462:
was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with
107:
objects or organisms, so while it dates from studies in the
1470:
The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea
1896:, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 376,
1304:"Wildlife Biology and Natural History: Time for a Reunion"
1045:"The enduring and elemental importance of natural history"
778:
founded in 1829, London Natural History Society (1858),
269:
prompted the development of geology to help find useful
1825:, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 270,
803:
513:"the 'uncrowned king' of Chinese naturalists", and his
1473:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
843:, and the "Natural History Miscellany section" of the
498:, culminating in the system of the Swedish naturalist
1633:
1210:"The Role of Natural History in Contemporary Biology"
143:
The meaning of the English term "natural history" (a
1706:
1587:
1257:"Organisms in nature as a central focus for biology"
865:
774:Examples of these societies in Britain include the
2665:
1934:. University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia.
1843:, Beijing: Peking University Press, p. 363,
1528:
1463:
1038:
1036:
1034:
784:British Entomological and Natural History Society
470:. Other important contributors to the field were
430:Natural history was basically static through the
26:"Naturalist" redirects here. For other uses, see
3609:
1005:
169:, or used materials drawn from nature, such as
39:Black and white tables of natural history, from
1438:
616:(the scientific study of animal behavior), and
1955:The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 07 (of 10)
1031:
852:
2973:
2899:History of the creation-evolution controversy
2651:
1977:
1522:
1161:Greene, Harry W.; Losos, Jonathan B. (1988).
1011:
993:Natural History WordNet Search, princeton.edu
2987:
1913:. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.
2515:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom
1823:The Naturalist in Britain: a social history
1674:. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013
1659:
1457:
1207:
1160:
479:
388:
126:umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g.,
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2658:
2644:
1984:
1970:
1491:
1489:
1111:
1042:
2929:Relationship between religion and science
813:Societies in other countries include the
505:The British historian of Chinese science
2166:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes
819:Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists
725:Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists
714:
526:
355:
280:
34:
1920:. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.
1665:
1486:
1068:
262:—both founded during the 17th century.
130:has a strong multidisciplinary nature.
3610:
1753:
1301:
1254:
1112:Fleischner, Thomas Lowe (2011-05-01).
776:Natural History Society of Northumbria
2961:
2639:
1965:
1891:
1820:
1647:from the original on January 24, 2018
1432:
238:, while natural history included the
3582:
1947:A History of the Ecological Sciences
1875:Early Modern Experimental Philosophy
1515:Needham, J., & Ling, W. (1976).
1370:American Museum of Natural History,
395:was written between 50 and 70 AD by
2393:The Naturalist on the River Amazons
1991:
1932:The American Development of Biology
1838:
13:
2806:Central dogma of molecular biology
1789:
1666:Mabbett, Andy (20 November 2010).
1308:The Journal of Wildlife Management
780:Birmingham Natural History Society
629:National Museum of Natural History
14:
3644:
1958:, London: Macmillan and Co., 1904
1939:
1517:Science and civilization in China
1261:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
831:, "The Scientific Naturalist" of
204:, as well as animals and plants.
3581:
3572:
3571:
3561:
3129:Traditional ecological knowledge
3075:
2942:
2941:
2583:
1043:Fleischner, Thomas Lowe (2025).
910:
896:
882:
868:
340:traditional ecological knowledge
214:(primarily what is now known as
21:Natural history (disambiguation)
3427:Science, technology and society
2625:List of natural history dealers
2293:The Natural History of Selborne
1747:
1700:
1615:
1581:
1570:from the original on 2019-09-03
1556:
1509:
1421:
1402:
1383:
1364:
1351:
1342:
1295:
1255:Greene, Harry W. (2005-01-01).
1248:
1208:Bartholomew, George A. (1986).
1201:
931:History of evolutionary thought
815:American Society of Naturalists
691:List of natural history museums
2831:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
2527:Adaptive Coloration in Animals
1909:Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000),
1821:Allen, David Elliston (1994),
1428:An Accepted Way of Viewing Art
1154:
1145:
1132:
1105:
1096:
1062:
977:
625:Natural History Museum, London
138:
133:
1:
3268:Religion and environmentalism
1140:The nature of natural history
971:
610:modern evolutionary synthesis
377:, natural history began with
329:
276:
178:
3331:Environmental interpretation
1859:Two Forms of Natural History
1441:Natural History: A Selection
1408:The Natural History Museum,
1118:. Trinity University Press.
926:Evolutionary history of life
710:
155:
99:Natural history encompasses
7:
3304:Environmental communication
2283:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
1754:Sundar, K. S. Gopi (2022).
1643:. whitbynaturalists.co.uk.
1602:10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.06.006
1075:Linnaeus: Nature and Nation
961:Timeline of natural history
918:Evolutionary biology portal
861:
853:Benefits of Natural History
542:Bernard Germain de Lacépède
534:is best remembered for his
425:
28:Naturalist (disambiguation)
10:
3649:
3119:Environmental anthropology
2305:A History of British Birds
1916:Kohler, Robert E. (2002),
1641:"Whitby Naturalists' Club"
1529:Patrick Armstrong (2000).
1302:Herman, Steven G. (2002).
1273:10.1016/j.tree.2004.11.005
1115:The Way of Natural History
688:
684:
600:, butterflies, seashells (
434:in Europe—although in the
351:
324:
260:French Academy of Sciences
175:encyclopedia of this title
25:
18:
3557:
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3364:
3286:
3248:
3180:
3137:
3084:
3073:
2995:
2937:
2859:
2791:
2678:
2620:Natural History Societies
2592:
2581:
2497:
2488:The Royal Natural History
2340:Ornithological Dictionary
2327:
2249:Johan Christian Fabricius
2175:
2081:
2008:
1999:
1810:Resources in your library
1692:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
790:Natural History Society,
522:
3628:History of Earth science
3534:Sustainable architecture
3472:Arts and Crafts movement
3336:Environmental journalism
3230:Environmental philosophy
2989:Environmental humanities
2466:The Naturalist's Library
2369:On the Origin of Species
1535:. Gracewing Publishing.
1506:". HistoryofScience.com.
1497:Natural History Timeline
1439:Pliny the Elder (2004).
1080:Harvard University Press
450:, forming the basis for
3356:Thematic interpretation
3309:Environmental education
3109:Ecological anthropology
3015:Environmental sculpture
2600:Natural history museums
2202:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1627:The Invention of Nature
936:Naturalism (philosophy)
701:cabinets of curiosities
363:from the sixth-century
334:Prior to the advent of
315:natural history museums
80:, leaning more towards
3507:Landscape architecture
3454:Sustainability studies
3263:Environmental theology
2851:Spontaneous generation
2801:Germ theory of disease
2778:Zoology (through 1859)
2452:William Jackson Hooker
2400:Alexander von Humboldt
2317:Philosophie zoologique
2100:Pinax theatri botanici
1841:Living as a Naturalist
1672:West Midland Bird Club
1052:The Ecological Citizen
1018:, Oxford : Clarendon,
1012:Brown, Lesley (1993),
837:, "From the Field" of
808:Indian natural history
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656:Indonesian Archipelago
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116:mediaeval Arabic world
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2538:The Study of Instinct
2477:Kunstformen der Natur
2381:The Malay Archipelago
2376:Alfred Russel Wallace
2312:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1923:Mayr, Ernst. (1982),
1892:Atran, Scott (1990),
1856:Peter Anstey (2011),
1668:"Older Organisations"
876:Earth sciences portal
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689:Further information:
644:Alfred Russel Wallace
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267:Industrial Revolution
254:meetings such as the
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3502:Environmental design
3382:Biophilia hypothesis
3220:Environmental ethics
3190:Aesthetics of nature
2904:Human Genome Project
2816:Great chain of being
2783:Zoology (since 1859)
2718:Evolutionary thought
2688:Agricultural science
2457:Joseph Dalton Hooker
2410:The Birds of America
1839:Liu, Huajie (2012),
1772:10.1675/063.045.0101
1443:. Penguin Classics.
618:evolutionary biology
444:Christian philosophy
420:Great Chain of Being
397:Pedanius Dioscorides
248:gentleman scientists
19:For other uses, see
3544:Sustainable fashion
2909:Humboldtian science
2846:Sequence hypothesis
2753:Molecular evolution
2505:Martinus Beijerinck
2048:De Natura Animalium
1950:by Frank N. Egerton
1725:2021Biotr..53..352P
956:Russian naturalists
846:American Naturalist
671:Henry David Thoreau
631:in Washington, DC.
482:Historiae animalium
192:, humans and their
101:scientific research
78:natural environment
3633:History of science
3623:History of biology
3567:Environment portal
3539:Sustainable design
3172:Outdoor literature
3099:Cultural landscape
3025:Landscape painting
2919:Natural philosophy
2867:History of science
2667:History of biology
2610:Parson-naturalists
2442:Philip Henry Gosse
2405:John James Audubon
2388:Henry Walter Bates
2276:Histoire Naturelle
2264:Historia Plantarum
2152:Avium Praecipuarum
2136:Historia animalium
2037:Historia Plantarum
2025:History of Animals
1883:2011-07-21 at the
1865:2011-08-09 at the
1502:2010-12-31 at the
1415:2014-12-27 at the
1396:2012-01-03 at the
1377:2011-06-04 at the
1142:, Scribners, 1954.
998:2012-03-03 at the
941:Nature documentary
904:Environment portal
733:
636:Henry Walter Bates
550:parson-naturalists
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446:, particularly by
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2071:De Materia Medica
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1850:978-7-301-19788-2
1796:Library resources
1733:10.1111/btp.12944
1564:"Women in Botany"
1542:978-0-85244-516-7
1465:Arthur O. Lovejoy
1450:978-0-14-044413-1
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1089:978-0-674-09745-2
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2394:
2389:
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2382:
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2362:
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2359:William Smith
2357:
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2353:
2348:
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2333:
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2326:
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2313:
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2306:
2301:
2300:Thomas Bewick
2298:
2295:
2294:
2289:
2288:Gilbert White
2286:
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2269:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2239:Georg Steller
2237:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2227:Carl Linnaeus
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2177:Enlightenment
2174:
2167:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:Otto Brunfels
2104:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2007:
2004:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1982:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1852:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1834:
1832:0-691-03632-2
1828:
1824:
1819:
1818:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1695:
1689:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1629:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1611:
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1603:
1599:
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1591:
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1569:
1565:
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1534:
1533:
1525:
1518:
1512:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1492:
1490:
1482:
1480:0-674-36153-9
1476:
1472:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1452:
1446:
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1429:
1424:
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1411:
1405:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1376:
1373:
1367:
1360:
1359:Arctic Dreams
1357:Barry Lopez,
1354:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1298:
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1227:
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1219:
1215:
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1192:
1188:
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1176:
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1168:
1164:
1157:
1148:
1141:
1135:
1127:
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1116:
1108:
1099:
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1085:
1081:
1077:
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1071:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1027:
1025:0-19-861271-0
1021:
1017:
1016:
1008:
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997:
994:
990:
986:
980:
976:
967:
964:
962:
959:
957:
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952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
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923:
919:
913:
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899:
894:
891:
880:
877:
866:
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848:
847:
842:
841:
836:
835:
830:
829:
822:
820:
816:
811:
809:
806:. (See also:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
772:
770:
769:microscopical
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
730:
726:
722:
717:
708:
706:
705:morphological
702:
698:
692:
682:
680:
676:
675:Ernst Haeckel
672:
668:
667:SimĂłn BolĂvar
664:
659:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
632:
630:
626:
621:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
592:were formed.
591:
587:
583:
582:palaeontology
579:
574:
571:
567:
563:
559:
558:William Kirby
555:
554:Gilbert White
551:
543:
539:
538:
533:
529:
520:
518:
517:
516:Bencao gangmu
512:
508:
503:
501:
500:Carl Linnaeus
497:
493:
489:
484:
483:
477:
476:Konrad Gesner
473:
469:
465:
464:Otto Brunfels
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
423:
421:
417:
416:scala naturae
413:
412:Carl Linnaeus
409:
404:
402:
398:
393:
392:
386:
384:
380:
376:
368:
367:
362:
358:
348:
343:
341:
337:
322:
318:
316:
311:
309:
303:
299:
295:
291:
283:
274:
272:
268:
263:
261:
257:
256:Royal Society
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
176:
172:
168:
164:
159:
157:
153:
150:
146:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
82:observational
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
48:
47:
42:
37:
33:
29:
22:
3529:New Urbanism
3396:
3200:Deep ecology
3162:Geocriticism
3152:Ecocriticism
3124:Ethnoecology
3114:Ecosemiotics
3035:conservation
2913:
2758:Paleontology
2698:Biochemistry
2569:
2559:
2547:
2537:
2525:
2522:Hugh B. Cott
2513:
2498:20th century
2487:
2475:
2465:
2408:
2391:
2379:
2367:
2350:
2338:
2328:19th century
2315:
2303:
2291:
2274:
2262:
2254:James Hutton
2244:Joseph Banks
2230:
2190:Micrographia
2188:
2185:Robert Hooke
2165:
2155:
2151:
2134:
2099:
2069:
2057:
2047:
2035:
2032:Theophrastus
2023:
1992:
1953:
1946:
1931:
1924:
1917:
1910:
1893:
1879:
1876:
1870:
1858:
1840:
1822:
1800:
1766:(1): i–iii.
1763:
1759:
1749:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1676:. Retrieved
1661:
1649:. Retrieved
1635:
1625:
1617:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1572:. Retrieved
1558:
1546:. Retrieved
1531:
1524:
1516:
1511:
1469:
1459:
1440:
1434:
1423:
1404:
1385:
1366:
1358:
1353:
1344:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1267:(1): 23–27.
1264:
1260:
1250:
1217:
1213:
1203:
1170:
1166:
1156:
1147:
1139:
1134:
1114:
1107:
1098:
1074:
1064:
1055:
1051:
1014:
1007:
979:
946:Nature study
856:
845:
839:
833:
826:
823:
812:
773:
734:
694:
660:
648:Amazon basin
633:
622:
593:
575:
547:
535:
514:
504:
429:
415:
405:
387:
372:
364:
345:
333:
319:
312:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
264:
206:
202:superstition
177:, published
160:
151:
142:
98:
93:
89:
86:experimental
64:, including
53:
52:
44:
32:
3549:Themed walk
3278:Stewardship
3258:Ecotheology
3205:Ecofeminism
3030:Photography
2884:Ethnobotany
2773:RNA biology
2681:disciplines
2570:Shearwaters
2427:Mary Anning
2212:Hans Sloane
2162:John Gerard
2156:New Herball
2083:Renaissance
2066:Dioscorides
2002:naturalists
1678:11 February
1651:January 23,
1622:Andrea Wulf
1078:. Harvard:
739:(including
432:Middle Ages
401:Renaissance
224:Renaissance
139:Before 1900
134:Definitions
120:Renaissance
76:, in their
46:Cyclopaedia
3612:Categories
3512:assessment
3482:Biomimicry
3422:Sexecology
3319:arts-based
3182:Philosophy
3139:Literature
2826:Lamarckism
2733:Immunology
2000:Pioneering
1760:Waterbirds
1713:Biotropica
1574:2019-12-19
1214:BioScience
1167:BioScience
972:References
840:Waterbirds
828:Biotropica
792:Manchester
771:sections.
765:geological
749:entomology
707:research.
654:, and the
627:, and the
606:conchology
602:malacology
586:physiology
511:Li Shizhen
369:manuscript
361:Blackberry
330:Prehistory
277:Since 1900
273:deposits.
244:geological
240:biological
212:humanities
194:technology
128:geobiology
90:naturalist
60:involving
3492:Ecomuseum
3444:Slow food
3377:Bioethics
3157:Ecopoetry
3040:landscape
2894:Dysgenics
2877:Teleology
2841:RNA world
2836:Protocell
2811:Darwinism
2792:Theories,
2763:Phycology
2020:Aristotle
2012:antiquity
2010:Classical
1780:1524-4695
1741:0006-3606
1467:(1964) ,
1328:0022-541X
1281:0169-5347
1234:0006-3568
1187:0006-3568
796:Sheffield
711:Societies
679:John Muir
406:From the
379:Aristotle
236:chemistry
190:geography
186:astronomy
163:antiquity
62:organisms
3592:Journals
3577:Category
3517:planning
3250:Religion
3215:Ecosophy
3050:wildlife
3020:Land art
3005:Crop art
2947:Category
2889:Eugenics
2794:concepts
2738:Medicine
2723:Genetics
2671:timeline
2447:Asa Gray
2259:John Ray
1881:Archived
1863:Archived
1688:cite web
1645:Archived
1630:, Knopf
1610:18761284
1568:Archived
1548:31 March
1500:Archived
1413:Archived
1394:Archived
1375:Archived
1289:16701336
1072:(1999).
996:Archived
987:than in
862:See also
782:(1859),
761:mycology
731:, Poland
729:Szczecin
614:ethology
578:mycology
566:John Ray
552:such as
456:monsters
440:Oriental
426:Medieval
258:and the
220:divinity
216:classics
208:Medieval
198:medicine
158:below).
114:and the
43:'s 1728
3597:Degrees
3587:Commons
3464:Applied
3401:museums
3365:Related
3086:Culture
2860:Related
2728:Geology
2713:Ecology
2693:Anatomy
2679:Fields,
1721:Bibcode
1624:(2015),
1336:3802927
1242:1310237
1195:1310949
834:Ecology
804:Britain
788:Glasgow
753:mammals
745:insects
737:animals
697:museums
685:Museums
590:zoology
352:Ancient
325:History
271:mineral
232:physics
156:History
147:of the
109:ancient
105:natural
66:animals
58:inquiry
3045:nature
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2593:Topics
2044:Aelian
1900:
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1798:about
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167:nature
145:calque
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72:, and
3391:ethic
3314:adult
3287:Other
1332:JSTOR
1238:JSTOR
1191:JSTOR
1048:(PDF)
757:fungi
741:birds
308:Inuit
149:Latin
84:than
70:fungi
2614:List
2604:List
1898:ISBN
1845:ISBN
1827:ISBN
1776:ISSN
1737:ISSN
1694:link
1680:2015
1653:2018
1606:PMID
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1120:ISBN
1084:ISBN
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817:and
767:and
466:and
438:and
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
