Scientific method - Knowledge

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findings are to be true.") and economical ("The greater the financial and other interests and prejudices in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The hotter a scientific field (with more scientific teams involved), the less likely the research findings are to be true.") Hence: "Most research findings are false for most research designs and for most fields" and "As shown, the majority of modern biomedical research is operating in areas with very low pre- and poststudy probability for true findings." However: "Nevertheless, most new discoveries will continue to stem from hypothesis-generating research with low or very low pre-study odds," which means that *new* discoveries will come from research that, when that research started, had low or very low odds (a low or very low chance) of succeeding. Hence, if the scientific method is used to expand the frontiers of knowledge, research into areas that are outside the mainstream will yield the newest discoveries.

3302: 2511:, or allochthonous reasoning, typically is the formulation of a hypothesis followed by building mathematical constructs that can be tested in place of conducting physical laboratory experiments. This approach has two main factors: simplification/abstraction and secondly a set of correspondence rules. The correspondence rules lay out how the constructed model will relate back to reality-how truth is derived; and the simplifying steps taken in the abstraction of the given system are to reduce factors that do not bear relevance and thereby reduce unexpected errors. These steps can also help the researcher in understanding the important factors of the system, how far parsimony can be taken until the system becomes more and more unchangeable and thereby stable. Parsimony and related principles are further explored 6509:, and immediately recognizes the diffraction pattern of a helical structure. But additional questions remained, requiring additional iterations of their research. For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc. One key point was that they realized that the quickest way to reach a result was not to continue a mathematical analysis, but to build a physical model. Later that evening — Watson urges Wilkins to begin model-building immediately. But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure. 4717:"The sociology of knowledge is concerned with "the relationship between human thought and the social context in which it arises." So, on this reading, the sociology of science may be taken to be considered with the analysis of the social context of scientific thought. But scientific thought, most sociologists concede, is distinguished from other modes of thought precisely by virtue of its immunity from social determination — insofar as it is governed by reason rather than by tradition, and insofar as it is rational it escapes determination by "non-logical" social forces." — M. D. King leading into his article on 2039: 2794:. The one of a lab suspended in empty space is an example of a useful invariant observation. He imagined the absence of gravity and an experimenter free floating in the lab. — If now an entity pulls the lab upwards, accelerating uniformly, the experimenter would perceive the resulting force as gravity. The entity however would feel the work needed to accelerate the lab continuously. Through this experiment Einstein was able to equate gravitational and inertial mass; something unexplained by Newton's laws, and an early but "powerful argument for a generalised postulate of relativity". 896:), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct. However, there are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method. Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, these actions are better considered as general principles. Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always done in the same order. As noted by scientist and philosopher 1686:, so that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of an experiment to produce interesting results may lead a scientist to reconsider the experimental method, the hypothesis, or the definition of the subject. 2212: 1937:'s method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because, contrary to Brahe, he knew that there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the images taken would become more accurate, the larger the aperture—this fact is now fundamental for optical system design. Another historic example here is the 5743:"Philosophy is written in this grand book – I mean the universe – which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth." – Galileo Galilei, 2061: 6987:, on sabbatical from Pauling's lab and visiting Cambridge, advises Watson that the textbook form of the base pairs was incorrect for DNA base pairs; rather, the keto form of the base pairs should be used instead. This form allowed the bases' hydrogen bonds to pair 'unlike' with 'unlike', rather than to pair 'like' with 'like', as Watson was inclined to model, based on the textbook statements. On February 27, 1953, Watson was convinced enough to make cardboard models of the nucleotides in their keto form. 861: 13016: 451: 2306:

also'. If it was properly shown that 'this case' fulfils the conditions, the conclusion follows. An extension of this is the assumption of a solution to an open problem. This weaker kind of deductive reasoning will get used in current research, when multiple scientists or even teams of researchers are all gradually solving specific cases in working towards proving a larger theory. This often sees hypotheses being revised again and again as new proof emerges.

13850: 1426:, and others hypothesized that DNA had a helical structure. This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'. This prediction followed from the work of Cochran, Crick and Vand (and independently by Stokes). The Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theorem provided a mathematical explanation for the empirical observation that diffraction from helical structures produces x-shaped patterns. In their first paper, Watson and Crick also noted that the 3069:, the idea of a general and universal scientific method has been notably influential, and numerous studies (in the US) have shown that this framing of method often forms part of both students’ and teachers’ conception of science. This convention of traditional education has been argued against by scientists, as there is a consensus that educations' sequential elements and unified view of scientific method do not reflect how scientists actually work. 13825: 2149:, p. 27 notes "Words and ideas are originally phonetic and mental equivalences of the experiences coinciding with them. ... Such proto-ideas are at first always too broad and insufficiently specialized. ... Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it". Sometimes, these relations have their elements assumed 1906: 562:(hypothetical explanations), deriving predictions from the hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be 2445:

test show the implications to be true, new insights will be gained. It is important to be aware that a positive test here will at best strongly imply but not definitively prove the tested hypothesis, as deductive inference (A ⇒ B) is not equivalent like that; only (¬B ⇒ ¬A) is valid logic. Their positive outcomes however, as Hempel put it, provide "at least some support, some corroboration or confirmation for it". This is why

3849:, p. 192 recounts how Kepler used Giambattista della Porta's water-filled glass spheres to model the eye, and using an aperture to represent the entrance pupil of the eye, showed that the entire scene at the entrance pupil-focused on a single point of the rear of the glass sphere (representing the retina of the eye). This completed Kepler's investigation of the optical train, as it satisfied his application to astronomy. 2552:

been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence. Often subsequent researchers re-formulate the explanations over time, or combined explanations to produce new explanations.

4684:...Hawking & Mlodinow on criteria for a good theory: "The above criteria are obviously subjective. Elegance, for example, is not something easily measured, but it is highly prized among scientists." The idea of 'too baroque' is connected to 'simplicity': "a theory jammed with fudge factors is not very elegant. To paraphrase Einstein, a theory should be as simple as possible, but not simpler". See also: 7696:, Quotes from p. 30, expanded on in ch. 4: Gauch gives two simplified statements on what he calls "rational-knowledge claim". It is either "I hold belief X for reasons R with level of confidence C, where inquiry into X is within the domain of competence of method M that accesses the relevant aspects of reality" (inductive reasoning) or "I hold belief X because of presuppositions P." (deductive reasoning) 4926:, p. 3: "The scientific method 'is often misrepresented as a fixed sequence of steps,' rather than being seen for what it truly is, 'a highly variable and creative process' (AAAS 2000:18). The claim here is that science has general principles that must be mastered to increase productivity and enhance perspective, not that these principles provide a simple and automated sequence of steps to follow." 1651: 1510: 1416: 1271: 1018: 849: 2186: 3996:"What one does not in the least doubt one should not pretend to doubt; but a man should train himself to doubt," said Peirce in a brief intellectual autobiography. Peirce held that actual, genuine doubt originates externally, usually in surprise, but also that it is to be sought and cultivated, "provided only that it be the weighty and noble metal itself, and no counterfeit nor paper substitute". 924:. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.The scientific method is an iterative, cyclical process through which information is continually revised. It is generally recognized to develop advances in knowledge through the following elements, in varying combinations or contributions: 13004: 466: 2025:

principles, and it steers actions, directing them towards coherent and beneficial outcomes. This understanding underscores the pivotal role of reason in shaping our understanding of the world and in informing our choices and behaviours. The following section will first explore beliefs and biases, and then get to the rational reasoning most associated with the sciences.

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debate, the continuation of which can be summed up as yet more of the proverbial 'flogging a dead horse'. We beg to differ. ... We shall claim that Feyerabend did endorse various scientific values, did accept rules of method (on a certain understanding of what these are), and did attempt to justify them using a meta methodology somewhat akin to the principle of

2819:. The Einstein example above, in the parlance of Mill would be an agreement between two values. In the context of invariance, it is a variable that remains unchanged through some kind of transformation or change in perspective. And discussion focused on symmetry would view the two perspectives as systems that share a relevant aspect and are therefore symmetrical. 4517:. Firstly: "we agree to tell the truth and we agree to be governed by rational argument from public evidence". And secondly, that ..."when the evidence is not sufficient to decide from rational argument, whether one point of view is right or another point of view is right, we agree to encourage competition and diversification". Thus echoing 3841:

Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible because there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead, he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the projected image (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the image – this fact is now fundamental for optical system design).

964:. On the contrary, if the astronomically massive, the feather-light, and the extremely fast are removed from Einstein's theories – all phenomena Newton could not have observed – Newton's equations are what remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase confidence in Newton's work. 2718:, which is often taken as an attribute of a good theory. Science tries to be simple. When gathered data supports multiple explanations, the most simple explanation for phenomena or the most simple formation of a theory is recommended by the principle of parsimony. Scientists go as far as to call simple proofs of complex statements 2326:. The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used. Counts of things, such as the number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to 1772:. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work. Replication has become a contentious issue in social and biomedical science where treatments are administered to groups of individuals. Typically an 1462:

intelligent species may be convincing with scientifically based speculation, no known experiment can test this hypothesis. Therefore, science itself can have little to say about the possibility. In the future, a new technique may allow for an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science.

5801:, pp. 2–3: "There is a danger that must be avoided. ... If we wish to do justice to the historical enterprise, we must take the past for what it was. And that means we must resist the temptation to scour the past for examples or precursors of modern science. ...My concern will be with the beginnings of scientific 3111:). They, too, influenced international science education, and the standards measured for have shifted since from the singular hypothesis-testing method to a broader conception of scientific methods. These scientific methods, which are rooted in scientific practices and not epistemology, are described as the 3 2488:, not a hypothesis. Following the initial question instead, a suitable "high-throughput method" of data-collection is determined, the resulting data processed and 'cleaned up', and conclusions drawn after. "This shift in focus elevates the data to the supreme role of revealing novel insights by themselves". 3406:, may be considered to be at odds with the scientific method, as some of the data may have been stripped of the parameters which might be material in alternative hypotheses for an explanation; thus the stripped data would only serve to support the null hypothesis in the predictive analytics application. 816:, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology. Staddon (2017) argues it is a mistake to try following rules in the absence of an algorithmic scientific method; in that case, "science is best understood through examples". But algorithmic methods, such as 9112:

In chapter six, Dewey analyzed what he called a "complete act of thought." Any such act, he wrote, consisted of the following five "logically distinct" steps: "(i) a felt difficulty; (ii) its location and definition; (iii) suggestion of possible solution; (iv) development by reasoning of the bearings

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On Dewey's Laboratory school in 1902: Cowles 2020 notes that Dewey regarded the Lab school as a collaboration between teachers and students. The five-step exposition was taken as mandatory, rather than descriptive. Dismayed by the Procrustean interpretation, Dewey attempted to tone down his five-step

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The sociology of knowledge is a concept in the discussion around scientific method, claiming the underlying method of science to be sociological. King explains that sociology distinguishes here between the system of ideas that govern the sciences through an inner logic, and the social system in which

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governing the progress of science. In essence, he said that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. He jokingly suggested that, if believers in the scientific method wish to express a single universally

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reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that all the special sciences share a

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Sometimes ad-hoc modifications of a failing idea may also be dismissed as lacking "formal elegance". This appeal to what may be called "aesthetic" is hard to characterise, but essentially about a sort of familiarity. Though, argument based on "elegance" is contentious and over-reliance on familiarity

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with an open frame of mind and broadened his initial viewpoint even in unlikely directions. Once he had a sufficient body of ideas, he would try to simplify and thus find what worked among what did not. Specific to Krugman here was to "question the question". He recognised that prior work had applied

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the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can

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Once this translation into mathematics is complete, the resulting model, in place of the corresponding system, can be analysed through purely mathematical and computational means. The results of this analysis are of course also purely mathematical in nature and get translated back to the system as it

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effectiveness to the method. It is most-associated with data-mining projects or large-scale observation projects. In both these cases, it is often not at all clear what the results of proposed experiments will be, and thus knowledge will arise after the collection of data through inductive reasoning.

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The idea of there being two opposed justifications for truth has shown up through-out the history of scientific method as analysis versus synthesis, non-ampliative/ampliative, or even confirmation and verification. (And there are other kinds of reasoning.) One to use what is observed to build towards

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Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those experimenting. Detailed record-keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and supports the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the

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It is a whole family of different theories, each of which is a good description of observations only in some range of physical situations...But just as there is no map that is a good representation of the earth's entire surface, there is no single theory that is a good representation of observations

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of difference and agreement—methods that would be referred back to in the context of contrast and invariance. But as tends to be the case, there is a difference between something being a basic consideration and something being given weight. Principles of invariance have only been given weight in the

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does simplicity concern the ontological commitments of a theory or its mathematical form?). Secondly, these criteria are imprecise, and so there is room for disagreement about the degree to which they hold. Thirdly, there can be disagreement about how they are to be weighted relative to one another,

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Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across different domains of science. Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have

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The advantage the inductive method has over methods formulating a hypothesis that it is essentially free of "a researcher's preconceived notions" regarding their subject. On the other hand, inductive reasoning is always attached to a measure of certainty, as all inductively reasoned conclusions are.

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Goldhaber and Nieto published in 2010 the observation that if theoretical structures with "many closely neighboring subjects are described by connecting theoretical concepts, then the theoretical structure acquires a robustness which makes it increasingly hard – though certainly never

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Popper previously took ethical principles even further, going as far as to ascribe value to theories only if they were falsifiable. Popper used the falsifiability criterion to demarcate a scientific theory from a theory like astrology: both "explain" observations, but the scientific theory takes the

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If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense. A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible. For example, while a hypothesis on the existence of other

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to cure this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be

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An uncovered Petri dish sitting next to an open window became contaminated with mould spores. Fleming observed that the bacteria in proximity to the mould colonies were dying, as evidenced by the dissolving and clearing of the surrounding agar gel. He was able to isolate the mould and identified it

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v. 5, in paragraph 582, from 1898: "... inquiry of every type, fully carried out, has the vital power of self-correction and of growth. This is a property so deeply saturating its inmost nature that it may truly be said that there is but one thing needful for learning the truth, and that is a

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has yet been found. Once a counterexample, i.e. an entity contradicting/not explained by the theorem is found, we adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (However,

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if new experimental observations are incompatible with what is found. That is, no theory can ever be considered final since new problematic evidence might be discovered. If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory

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of this testing is what affords this method of inquiry to be reasoned deductively. The formulated hypothesis is assumed to be 'true', and from that 'true' statement implications are inferred. If the following tests show the implications to be false, it follows that the hypothesis was false also. If

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involves the evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically give their opinions anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of possible peer reviewers, especially if the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only

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at any stage. They might adopt the characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions. Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the prediction, and the characterization is based on experiments done by someone else.

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between science and non-science, such as "scientist" and "pseudoscience", appearing. Throughout the 1830s and 1850s, when Baconianism was popular, naturalists like William Whewell, John Herschel and John Stuart Mill engaged in debates over "induction" and "facts" and were focused on how to generate

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The particular points raised are statistical ("The smaller the studies conducted in a scientific field, the less likely the research findings are to be true" and "The greater the flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes in a scientific field, the less likely the research

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is an error in their method. Eventually, the researcher decides the error is too persistent and systematic to be a coincidence. The highly controlled, cautious, and curious aspects of the scientific method are thus what make it well suited for identifying such persistent systematic errors. At this

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It is the natural limitations of scientific inquiry that there is no pure observation as theory is required to interpret empirical data, and observation is therefore influenced by the observer's conceptual framework. As science is an unfinished project, this does lead to difficulties. Namely, that

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Watson and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing. After considerable fruitless experimentation, being discouraged by their superior from continuing, and numerous false

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Invariably one came up against fundamental physical limits to the accuracy of measurement. ... The art of physical measurement seemed to be a matter of compromise, of choosing between reciprocally related uncertainties. ... Multiplying together the conjugate pairs of uncertainty limits mentioned,

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is credited with the famous saying that "Luck favours the prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected.

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A theory being assumed as true and subsequently built on is a common example of deductive reasoning. Theory building on Einstein's achievement can simply state that 'we have shown that this case fulfils the conditions under which general/special relativity applies, therefore its conclusions apply

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There is a large core of people who think there is such a thing as a scientific method that can be justified, although not all agree as to what this might be. But there are also a growing number of people who think that there is no method to be justified. For some, the whole idea is yesteryear's

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perspectives. Postmodernists argue that scientific knowledge is merely a discourse, devoid of any claim to fundamental truth. In contrast, realists within the scientific community maintain that science uncovers real and fundamental truths about reality. Many books have been written by scientists

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Claims of scientific truth can be opposed in three ways: by falsifying them, by questioning their certainty, or by asserting the claim itself to be incoherent. Incoherence, here, means internal errors in logic, like stating opposites to be true; falsification is what Popper would have called the

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of Memoir 27: "Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery. Consequently, the art of discovery is purely a question of economics. The economics of research is, so far as logic is concerned, the

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Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with

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How the sciences make knowledge has been taught in the context of "the" scientific method (singular) since the early 20th century. Various systems of education, including but not limited to the US, have taught the method of science as a process or procedure, structured as a definitive series of

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During the course of history, one theory has succeeded another, and some have suggested further work while others have seemed content just to explain the phenomena. The reasons why one theory has replaced another are not always obvious or simple. The philosophy of science includes the question:

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Deductive reasoning is the building of knowledge based on what has been shown to be true before. It requires the assumption of fact established prior, and, given the truth of the assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning builds knowledge not from

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Rationality embodies the essence of sound reasoning, a cornerstone not only in philosophical discourse but also in the realms of science and practical decision-making. According to the traditional viewpoint, rationality serves a dual purpose: it governs beliefs, ensuring they align with logical

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Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a

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that is implicit in science. There are basic assumptions, derived from philosophy by at least one prominent scientist, that form the base of the scientific method – namely, that reality is objective and consistent, that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that rational

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and those who followed him. After the establishment of the HD-method, it was often put aside as something of a "fishing expedition" though. It is still valid to some degree, but today's inductive method is often far removed from the historic approach—the scale of the data collected lending new

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is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for the acts of measurement, to help isolate what has

4542:"At the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingly contradictory attitudes—an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive, and the most ruthlessly skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new. This is how deep truths are winnowed from deep nonsense." — 1949:

Scientific endeavour can be characterised as the pursuit of truths about the natural world or as the elimination of doubt about the same. The former is the direct construction of explanations from empirical data and logic, the latter the reduction of potential explanations. It was established

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A more general inference against formalised method has been found through research involving interviews with scientists regarding their conception of method. This research indicated that scientists frequently encounter difficulty in determining whether the available evidence supports their

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to other scientists who wish to replicate their original results (or parts of their original results), extending to the sharing of any experimental samples that may be difficult to obtain. To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research-granting agencies such as the

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Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision;

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Kuhn (1977) identified: accuracy; consistency (both internal and with other relevant currently accepted theories); scope (its consequences should extend beyond the data it is required to explain); simplicity (organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena); fruitfulness (for further

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Smith, A. Mark (2001a). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One: Introduction and Latin text".

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It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown. Only in this case does a successful outcome increase the probability that the hypothesis is true. If the outcome is already known, it is called a consequence and should have already been considered while

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Principles of invariance have been a theme in scientific writing, and especially physics, since at least the early 20th century. The basic idea here is that good structures to look for are those independent of perspective, an idea that has featured earlier of course for example in

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Smith, A. Mark (2001b). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two: English translation".

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Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors. For example, the theory of

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that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter). If the work passes peer review, which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it will be published in a peer-reviewed

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had questioned the universality of the "scientific method" and in doing so largely replaced the notion of science as a homogeneous and universal method with that of it being a heterogeneous and local practice. In particular, Paul Feyerabend, in the 1975 first edition of his book

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the success of a hypothesis, or its service to science, lies not simply in its perceived "truth", or power to displace, subsume or reduce a predecessor idea, but perhaps more in its ability to stimulate the research that will illuminate ... bald suppositions and areas of

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has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge.

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views framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or "hyperbolic doubt", which he held to be fruitless. This "hyperbolic doubt" Peirce argues against here is of course just another name for

1060:, and proceeding to more complicated substances. Using clues painstakingly assembled over decades, beginning with its chemical composition, it was determined that it should be possible to characterize the physical structure of DNA, and the X-ray images would be the vehicle. 3858:

Sanches and Locke were both physicians. By his training in Rome and France, Sanches sought a method of science beyond that of the Scholastic Aristotelian school. Botanical gardens were added to the universities in Sanches' time to aid medical training before the 1600s.

2360:, after all. More general, claims to rational knowledge, and especially statistics, have to be put into their appropriate context. Simple statements such as '9 out of 10 doctors recommend' are therefore of unknown quality because they do not justify their methodology. 4281:. But let us now mention something to prove this convincingly: the fact that light travels in straight lines is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms through holes.... he entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air. 4111:

is a form of inductive reasoning. Conversely, assuming that a specific outcome will occur based on general trends observed across multiple experiments, as in "Most experiments have shown this pattern, so it will likely occur in this case as well," illustrates faulty

5529: 1254:, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of DNA; it would have been counterproductive to spend much time on the definition of the gene, before them. 3350:

When the scientific method employs statistics as a key part of its arsenal, there are mathematical and practical issues that can have a deleterious effect on the reliability of the output of scientific methods. This is described in a popular 2005 scientific paper

1965:, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect; later clarified by Popper to be built on prior theory. The scientific method embodies the position that reason alone cannot solve a particular scientific problem; it unequivocally refutes claims that 3334:, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile). Taleb believes that the more anti-fragile the system, the more it will flourish in the real world. 8429:

Whatever might be the ultimate goals of some scientists, science, as it is currently practised, depends on multiple overlapping descriptions of the world, each of which has a domain of applicability. In some cases this domain is very large, but in others quite

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Occam's razor, sometimes referred to as "ontological parsimony", is roughly stated as: Given a choice between two theories, the simplest is the best. This suggestion commonly is attributed to William of Ockham in the 14th-century, although it probably predates

1606:(JWST), entail expected costs of billions of dollars, and timeframes extending over decades. These kinds of institutions affect public policy, on a national or even international basis, and the researchers would require shared access to such machines and their 2309:

This way of presenting inductive and deductive reasoning shows part of why science is often presented as being a cycle of iteration. It is important to keep in mind that that cycle's foundations lie in reasoning, and not wholly in the following of procedure.

3161:. According to Fleck, scientists' work is based on a thought-style, that cannot be rationally reconstructed. It gets instilled through the experience of learning, and science is then advanced based on a tradition of shared assumptions held by what he called 2739:

The concept of parsimony should not be held to imply complete frugality in the pursuit of scientific truth. The general process starts at the opposite end of there being a vast number of potential explanations and general disorder. An example can be seen in

3118:

The scientific method, as a result of simplified and universal explanations, is often held to have reached a kind of mythological status; as a tool for communication or, at best, an idealisation. Education's approach was heavily influenced by John Dewey's,

1585:

These institutions thereby reduce the research function to a cost/benefit, which is expressed as money, and the time and attention of the researchers to be expended, in exchange for a report to their constituents. Current large instruments, such as CERN's

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The practice of experimental control and reproducibility can have the effect of diminishing the potentially harmful effects of circumstance, and to a degree, personal bias. For example, pre-existing beliefs can alter the interpretation of results, as in

9207:

Traditionally 5, after Dewey's 1910 idea of a "complete act of thought". He held that thought-process best represented science (for education). These steps would end up being simplified and adjusted, often shortened to 4, or extended to include various

8064:

v. 4, pp. 37–38: "For it is not sufficient that a hypothesis should be a justifiable one. Any hypothesis that explains the facts is justified critically. But among justifiable hypotheses we have to select that one which is suitable for being tested by

754:, appearing in dictionaries and science textbooks, although there was little consensus over its meaning. Although there was growth through the middle of the twentieth century, by the 1960s and 1970s numerous influential philosophers of science such as 3076:

This version of the method of science has been a long-established standard in primary and secondary education, as well as the biomedical sciences. It has long been held to be an inaccurate idealisation of how some scientific inquiries are structured.

2519:

exists in reality via the previously determined correspondence rules—iteration following review and interpretation of the findings. The way such models are reasoned will often be mathematically deductive—but they don't have to be. An example here are

1767:

to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of

4705:

The fact that the standards of scientific success shift with time does not only make the philosophy of science difficult; it also raises problems for the public understanding of science. We do not have a fixed scientific method to rally around and

2992:

3126:. Van der Ploeg (2016) indicated that Dewey's views on education had long been used to further an idea of citizen education removed from "sound education", claiming that references to Dewey in such arguments were undue interpretations (of Dewey). 1141:, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized 8654:. Like singular statements and probability statements, they are empirically testable, but their tests do not have certain, definite results, do not result in strict verification or falsification but only in temporary acceptance or rejection. 4141:, 1920: "The relativity theory of physics reduces everything to relations; that is to say, it is structure, not material, which counts." — Weinert, giving the Einstein example and quoting: "Eddington, Space, Time and Gravitation (1920), 197" 3262:, a sociological approach that seeks to explain scientific knowledge without recourse to the truth or validity of scientific theories. It examines how scientific beliefs are shaped by social factors such as power, ideology, and interests. 2363:

Lack of familiarity with statistical methodologies can result in erroneous conclusions. Foregoing the easy example, multiple probabilities interacting is where, for example medical professionals, have shown a lack of proper understanding.

4697:

already in 1913. There is however a consensus that stating this somewhat nihilistic assertion without introduction and in too unexpected a fashion is counterproductive, confusing, and can even be damaging. There may never be one, too. As

2842:". The importance of scientific theories to be falsifiable finds especial emphasis in the philosophy of Karl Popper. The broader view here is testability, since it includes the former and allows for additional practical considerations. 2701:

It also is debatable whether existing scientific theories satisfy all these criteria, which may represent goals not yet achieved. For example, explanatory power over all existing observations is satisfied by no one theory at the moment.

2544:

be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations – those that explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances – are often called

4468:

that "theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses" were (and still are) considered "one of the first important formulations of the scientific method on

3257:

Kuhn and Feyerabend acknowledged Hanson's pioneering work, although Feyerabend's views on methodological pluralism were more radical. Criticisms like those from Kuhn and Feyerabend prompted discussions leading to the development of the

4274:

argued the importance of forming questions and subsequently testing them: "How does light travel through transparent bodies? Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only... We have explained this exhaustively in our

4218:, the thought collectives within the respective fields will have to settle on common specialized terminology, publish their results and further intercommunicate with their colleagues using the common terminology, in order to progress. 1851:

The unfettered principles of science are to strive for accuracy and the creed of honesty; openness already being a matter of degrees. Openness is restricted by the general rigour of scepticism. And of course the matter of non-science.

5541:

It's probably best to get the bad news out of the way first, the so-called scientific method is a myth. ... If typical formulations were accurate, the only location true science would be taking place in would be grade-school

3987:, there are three 'reviewers': Simplicio, Sagredo, and Salviati, who serve as foil, antagonist, and protagonist. Galileo speaks for himself only briefly. But Einstein's 1905 papers were not peer-reviewed before their publication. 6959:, p. 53: The weekend (January 31 – February 1) — After seeing photo 51, Watson informed Bragg of the X-ray diffraction image of DNA in B form. Bragg permitted them to restart their research on DNA (that is, model building). 3866:

Berkeley served as foil to the materialist System of the World of Newton; Berkeley emphasizes that scientist should seek 'reduction to regularity'. Atherton (ed.) 1999 selects Locke, Berkeley, and Hume as part of the empiricist

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Science has limits. Those limits are usually deemed to be answers to questions that aren't in science's domain, such as faith. Science has other limits as well, as it seeks to make true statements about reality. The nature of

8151: 5059:, p. 240: "Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not interested in other things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough." – 2436:

test of those hypothetical consequences shows them to be false, it follows logically that the part of the theory that implied them was false also. If they show as true however, it does not prove the theory definitively.

960:, constantly developing more useful, accurate, and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's 880:

is carried out. As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge, and can unify understanding of its topics of study over time. This model can be seen to underlie the

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leading doctrine concerning the art of discovery. Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations."

2125:

horse are splayed at the point when none of the horse's legs touch the ground, to the point of this image being included in paintings by its supporters. However, the first stop-action pictures of a horse's gallop by

3942:

The goal shifts: after observing the x-ray diffraction pattern of DNA, and as time was of the essence, Watson and Crick realize that fastest way to discover DNA's structure was not by mathematical analysis, but by

2900:, arguing degrees of science being too fractured for a universal definition of its method to by useful. And those, who argue that the very attempt at definition is already detrimental to the free flow of ideas. 566:, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested. 3845:, p. 61, notes that Kepler's 1604 experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye, because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by ignoring the eye. 2903:

Additionally, there have been views on the social framework in which science is done, and the impact of the sciences social envrionment on research. Also, there is 'scientific method' as popularised by Dewey in

2428:, that are falsifiable via experiment is of central importance here, as not the hypothesis but its implications are what is tested. Basically, scientists will look at the hypothetical consequences a (potential) 11214: 9924: 4779:]. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Cohen, I. Bernard; Whitman, Anne; Budenz, Julia. Includes "A Guide to Newton's Principia" by I. Bernard Cohen, pp. 1–370. (The 6144:, pp. 49–50: January 28, 1953 — Watson read Pauling's pre-print, and realized that in Pauling's model, DNA's phosphate groups had to be un-ionized. But DNA is an acid, which contradicts Pauling's model. 5714: 8208:

Kuhn, T.S. (1977) Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice. In: Kuhn, T.S., Ed., The Essential Tension—Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago,

2073:, 1878, were used to answer the question of whether all four feet of a galloping horse are ever off the ground at the same time. This demonstrates a use of photography as an experimental tool in science. 9198:

Schuster & Powers hold that sources for research questions are: attempts to explain the cause of novel observations, verifying the predictions of existing theory, literature sources, and technology.

8572: : Wigner also differentiates between geometrical invariance principles, and the "new" ones that arose in the wake of Einstein's theories of relativity that he calls dynamic invariance principles. 4393:

wrote on the matter that not all approaches can be regarded as "equally suitable and deserving of equal resources" because such positions would "sap mathematics of its sense of direction and purpose".

3620:

argued that mathematicians actually use contradiction, criticism, and revision as principles for improving their work. In like manner to science, where truth is sought, but certainty is not found, in

2182:

established truth, but from a body of observations. It requires stringent scepticism regarding observed phenomena, because cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of initial perceptions.

1984:

but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, the belief being that on which one is prepared to act. His

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but discarded. When Watson and Crick learned of Pauling's hypothesis, they understood from existing data that Pauling was wrong. and that Pauling would soon admit his difficulties with that structure.

2100:

that leads a person with a particular belief to see things as reinforcing their belief, even if another observer might disagree (in other words, people tend to observe what they expect to observe).

7031:, p. 57: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson tried 'like with like' and admitted these base pairs didn't have hydrogen bonds that line up. But after trying 'unlike with unlike', and getting 2638:. This question has a long history, and many scientists, as well as philosophers, have considered it. The objective is to be able to choose one theory as preferable to another without introducing 956:

The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow but is rather an

4442:: light rays from the sun are doubly refracted within the raindrops in the air, back to the observer. Refraction of the colors from the sun's light then forms the spread of colors in the rainbow. 3813:

Book Seven, Chapter Two p.220: — light travels through transparent bodies, such as air, water, glass, transparent stones, in straight lines. "Indeed, this is observable by means of experiment".

4013:

who took all knowledge – even mathematical knowledge – to arise from experience through induction. The inductivist approach is still common place, though Mill's extreme views are outdated today.

1320:, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. Albert Einstein once observed that "there is no logical bridge between phenomena and their theoretical principles." 4041:

condensed Kepler's law of for the planetary motion of Mars, Galileo's law of falling bodies, the motion of the planets of the Solar system, etc. into consequences of his three laws of motion.

1450:. It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities. 9780:

Dunbar, K., & Fugelsang, J. (2005). Causal Thinking in Science: How Scientists and Students Interpret the Unexpected. In M. E. Gorman, R.D. Tweney, D. Gooding & A. Kincannon (eds.),

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is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. Normally, hypotheses have the form of a

6505:, p. 52: Friday, January 30, 1953. Tea time — Franklin confronts Watson and his paper – "Of course it is wrong. DNA is not a helix." However, Watson then visits Wilkins' office, sees 3471: 1925:

An example here are the experiments of Kepler and Brahe, used by Hanson to illustrate the concept. Despite observing the same sunrise the two scientists came to different conclusions—their

1348:. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. 7272: 3337:

Psychologist Kevin Dunbar says the process of discovery often starts with researchers finding bugs in their experiments. These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they

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Smolin, in 2013, espoused ethical principles rather than giving any potentially limited definition of the rules of inquiry. His ideas stand in the context of the scale of data–driven and

3426:. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines try to distinguish what is 2765:

pull in different directions. Introducing additional elements could simplify theory formulation, whereas simplifying a theory's ontology might lead to increased syntactical complexity.

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erroneous models to already present evidence, commenting that "intelligent commentary was ignored". Thus touching on the need to bridge the common bias against other circles of thought.

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On the web. N.B.: the web version does not have the 3 addenda by Born, 1950, 1964, in which he notes that all knowledge is subjective. Born then proposes a solution in Appendix 3 (1964)

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He demonstrated his conjecture that "light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only" by placing a straight stick or a taut thread next to the light beam, as quoted in

4107:

For instance, extrapolating from a single scientific observation, such as "This experiment yielded these results, so it should apply broadly," exemplifies inductive wishful thinking.

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paradigm, the stage of "characterization, observation, definition, ..." is more briefly summed up under the rubric of a Question. The question at some stage might be as basic as the

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emission theory of vision, using logic and deduction from experiment. He showed Euclid's first postulate of Optics to be hypothetical only, and fails to account for his experiments.

6971:, p. 54: Sunday, February 8, 1953 — Maurice Wilkes gave Watson and Crick permission to work on models, as Wilkes would not be building models until Franklin left DNA research. 3309:. One of his bacteria cultures got contaminated with mould in which surroundings the bacteria had died off; thereby the method of discovery was simply knowing what to look out for. 2352:, the collection of data, or the interpretation of results, all are subject to larger amounts of scrutiny than in comfortably logical environments. Statistical models go through a 4434:

recalled having seen Alhacen's manuscript as a youth, and arranged to get al-Fārisī a copy "from a distant country". al-Fārisī is now remembered for his Commentary on Alhacen's

1724:

This is why the scientific method is often represented as circular – new information leads to new characterisations, and the cycle of science continues. Measurements collected

846:

The basic elements of the scientific method are illustrated by the following example (which occurred from 1944 to 1953) from the discovery of the structure of DNA (marked with

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will take sample data and extrapolate more general conclusions, which has to be justified — and scrutinised. It can even be said that statistical models are only ever useful,

11853: 8001: 7162: 2460:—the search for the most plausible explanation via logical inference. For example in biology, where general laws are few, as valid deductions rely on solid presuppositions. 1820:, have a policy that researchers must archive their data and methods so that other researchers can test the data and methods and build on the research that has gone before. 6312:

was real, but possibly an artifact of instrumentation (null hypothesis), so he went outside and disproved his null hypothesis by observing SN 1987a with the naked eye. The

1542:. If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to 1094:, but it has taken a long series of experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, careful thought may also 6116:, p. 40: October 1951 — "That's what a helix should look like!" Crick exclaimed in delight (This is the Cochran-Crick-Vand-Stokes theory of the transform of a helix). 9876: 3047:

hypotheses. This reveals that there are no straightforward mappings between overarching methodological concepts and precise strategies to direct the conduct of research.

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conditions wherever possible. This is frequently possible in certain areas, such as in the biological sciences, and more difficult in other areas, such as in astronomy.

1133:, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as 11775: 9921: 3482:) have suggested that mathematics is the result of practitioner bias and human limitation (including cultural ones), somewhat like the post-modernist view of science. 5030: 11660: 3398:

In general, the scientific method may be difficult to apply stringently to diverse, interconnected systems and large data sets. In particular, practices used within

1961:, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations. This is in opposition to stringent forms of 916:

generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of

5938:, p. 92: "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science." 5707: 2302:

of physics suggests that we still do not know at least some of the concepts surrounding Einstein's theory, it holds to this day and is being built on deductively.

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Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the article "Physics and Reality" (1936), reprinted in

3238:, extensively explored the theory-laden nature of observation in science. Hanson introduced the concept in 1958, emphasizing that observation is influenced by the 1434:, writing, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material". 12107: 3342:

point, the researcher will begin to think of theoretical explanations for the error, often seeking the help of colleagues across different domains of expertise.

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While the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every

6734: 719:

The term "scientific method" emerged in the 19th century, as a result of significant institutional development of science, and terminologies establishing clear

1126:

posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect the outcome of the investigation.

9219: 8705:(1956). 'It is one of the great realizations of Immanuel Kant that the setting up of a real external world would be senseless without this comprehensibility.' 4787: 3500:

show that the mathematical method and the scientific method differ in detail, while nevertheless resembling each other in using iterative or recursive steps.

3474:", is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. In fact, some observers (including some well-known mathematicians such as 8883:

Aikenhead, Glen S. (1987). "High-school graduates' beliefs about science-technology-society. III. Characteristics and limitations of scientific knowledge".

6906: 1623: 13858: 4576:(2004) noted the theme of invariance as a fundamental aspect of a scientific account of reality in many writings from around 1900 onward, such as works by 4389:

First rule of logic (F.R.L) Paragraph 1.136: From the first rule of logic, if we truly desire the goal of the inquiry we are not to waste our resources. —

2569:

are sufficient to explain the new evidence. The strength of a theory relates to how long it has persisted without major alteration to its core principles.

9947:': "When we are working intensively, we feel keenly the progress of our work; we are elated when our progress is rapid, we are depressed when it is slow." 7303: 2580:), which explained both the (previously unexplained) exceptions to Newton's laws and predicted and explained other observations such as the deflection of 2337:

In the case of measurement imprecision, there will simply be a 'probable deviation' expressing itself in a study's conclusions. Statistics are different.

2159:

has analyzed these elements in terms of limits to the accuracy of measurement and has related them to instrumental elements in a category of measurement.

7957: 2889:, and other theories have criticized these assumptions and given alternative accounts of the logic of science, but each has also itself been criticized. 2139:), which can result in a search for evidence that the new is true. Poorly attested beliefs can be believed and acted upon via a less rigorous heuristic. 2004:

in which the empirical data is put forward in the form of experience or other abstracted forms of knowledge as in current scientific practice the use of

6187: 3784:

1027) After anatomical investigation of the human eye, and an exhaustive study of human visual perception, Alhacen characterizes the first postulate of

1305:, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of 1234:, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. 6352:, p. 43: June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix. 4899:

v. 2, pp. 434–450, and elsewhere. N.B. 435.30 'living institution': Hibbert J. mis-transcribed 'living institution': ("constitution" for "institution")

2680:

The goal here is to make the choice between theories less arbitrary. Nonetheless, these criteria contain subjective elements, and should be considered

2572:

Theories can also become subsumed by other theories. For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets

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Specifically, the scientific method has featured in introductory science courses for biology, medicine, and psychology. Also, in education in general.

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wake of Einstein's theories of relativity, which reduced everything to relations and were thereby fundamentally unchangeable, unable to be varied. As

5248:. The optics of Giovan Battista della Porta (1535–1615): A Reassessment Workshop at Technische Universität Berlin, 24–25 October 2014. Archived from 3589:

involves restating unfamiliar definitions in your own words, resorting to geometrical figures, and questioning what we know and do not know already;

1384:". Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle. 1238:

cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of

4811: 2588:. Thus, in certain cases independent, unconnected, scientific observations can be connected, unified by principles of increasing explanatory power. 13868: 13863: 9269:"Reintroducing "the" Scientific Method to Introduce Scientific Inquiry in Schools?: A Cautioning Plea Not to Throw Out the Baby with the Bathwater" 6521:, p. 167: "The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race." Page 168 shows the X-shaped pattern of the B-form of 4225: 588: 9900: 6543: 5482: 5021: 4091:, in 2005, has shown that not everybody respects the principles of statistical analysis; whether they be the principles of inference or otherwise. 3301: 2892:

There are several kinds of modern philosophical conceptualizations and attempts at definitions of the method of science. The one attempted by the

12177: 3096:

it gives the illusion of determination; that questions necessarily lead to some kind of answers and answers are preceded by (specific) questions,

2523:. These generate empirical data "arbitrarily", and, while they may not be able to reveal universal principles, they can nevertheless be useful. 10555: 3352: 3194:) to conclude that the epistemic practices and reasonings within both scientific communities are different enough to introduce the concept of " 2356:, for which one could even say that awareness of potential biases is more important than the hard logic; errors in logic are easier to find in 11078: 6883: 4770: 4426:, which by then was some two centuries old: al-Fārisī's project was to write an advanced optics treatise, but he could not understand optical 3282:

which take on this problem and challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as a legitimate way of deriving truth.

1973:, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth. 13045: 11015: 5249: 8488:...I have already implicitly given my four basic rules for research. Let me now state them explicitly, then explain. Here are the rules: 7039:

memoir quoted above). Watson now felt confident enough to inform Crick. (Of course, 'unlike with unlike' increases the number of possible

4025:

used his own observations of the stars, as well as the observations by Chaldean and Babylonian astronomers to estimate Earth's precession.

2988:

Development of the idea has been troubled by accelerated advancement in technology that has opened up many new ways to look at the world.

2934:

of scientific method and subject matter. Scientific pluralists hold that science is not unified in one or more of the following ways: the

2319:

honest work of conjecture and refutation — certainty, perhaps, is where difficulties in telling truths from non-truths arise most easily.

5777:, p. xv: "The thesis of this book, as outlined in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicable to all the sciences." 3246:

to show how preconceptions can affect both observation and description, and illustrated this with examples like the initial rejection of

12077: 10100: 7254: 5462:

If we have made this our task, then there is no more rational procedure than the method of trial and error--of conjecture and refutation

3630:

is final or perfect. This means that, in non-axiomatic mathematics, we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no

2946:

and models that should be used. Some pluralists believe that pluralism is necessary due to the nature of science. Others say that since

8848:

Schickore, Jutta; Hangel, Nora (2019). ""It might be this, it should be that…" uncertainty and doubt in day-to-day research practice".

6810: 5599:, p. 72 lists ways to avoid the narrative fallacy and confirmation bias; the narrative fallacy being a substitute for explanation. 1562:

Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a

1206:

New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example,

8926:

Osborne, Jonathan; Simon, Shirley; Collins, Sue (2003). "Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications".

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however, I found that they formed invariant products of not one but two distinct kinds. ... The first group of limits were calculable

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suggested that physics' models of reality should simply be accepted where they prove to make useful predictions. He calls the concept

1003:

While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis/testing method, many philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including

13185: 12796: 10532: 3903:"no opinion, however absurd and incredible, can be imagined, which has not been maintained by some of the philosophers". —Descartes 12233: 11848: 11403:

Smith, A. Mark (2010). "ALHACEN ON REFRACTION: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's

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The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". The topics are

3296: 2676:

Scientists will sometimes also list the very subjective criteria of "formal elegance" which can indicate multiple different things.

4316:, was translated from Arabic into Latin for European use as early as 1270. Hockney cites Friedrich Risner's 1572 Basle edition of 3466:

Nevertheless, the connection between mathematics and reality (and so science to the extent it describes reality) remains obscure.

13853: 13038: 12462: 9640: 2373: 532: 4847: 3250:

as an artefact of staining technique, and the differing interpretations of the same sunrise by Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler.

2798:

The feature, which suggests reality, is always some kind of invariance of a structure independent of the aspect, the projection.

10680: 9842: 6913: 6567: 5617: 4150:

The topics of study, as expressed in the vocabulary of its scientists, are approached by a "single unified method". A topic is

1355: 11868: 10162: 5097: 4044: 1875:"Those among us who are unwilling to expose their ideas to the hazard of refutation do not take part in the game of science." 12633: 11798: 11721: 11670: 11461: 11437: 11325: 11271: 11224: 11125: 11051: 11025: 10969: 10946: 10925: 10894: 10809: 10718: 10696: 10660: 10639: 10605: 10541: 10517: 10494: 10464: 10420: 10354: 10336: 10299: 10259: 10219: 9650: 9574: 9229: 9185: 8978: 8747: 8677: 8591: 8145: 8118: 7915: 7756: 7442: 7410: 7073: 5841: 5690: 5578: 5523: 5403: 5197: 4795: 4530:

The machinery of the mind can only transform knowledge, but never originate it, unless it be fed with facts of observation. —

3440:(capable of disproof). In mathematics, a statement need not yet be proved; at such a stage, that statement would be called a 1129:

The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between

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in the morning and evening due to atmospheric refraction even when the depression angle of the sun is 18° below the horizon.

3388: 2896:, who argue for the existence of a unified definition that is useful (or at least 'works' in every context of science). The 547:, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results. 3434:

at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be

3108: 2744:'s process, who makes explicit to "dare to be silly". He writes that in his work on new theories of international trade he 71: 10278: 13546: 13260: 12455: 12170: 12069: 12048: 12034: 11963:

Search for a Naturalistic World View: Vol. 1, Scientific Method and Epistemology, Vol. 2, Natural Science and Metaphysics

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Cochran W, Crick FHC and Vand V. (1952) "The Structure of Synthetic Polypeptides. I. The Transform of Atoms on a Helix",

1069: 1007:, claim that such descriptions of scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced. 11201: 3961:

Book II to Summary p.444 for Alhazen's experiments on color; pp.343—394 for his physiological experiments on the eye

3674:, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He thought that mathematical ' 2726:

We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.

2666:

In trying to look for such theories, scientists will, given a lack of guidance by empirical evidence, try to adhere to:

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itself is on pp. 371–946). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 791–796 ("Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy");

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of scientific and engineering practices, crosscutting concepts (interdisciplinary ideas), and disciplinary core ideas.

2684:

rather than a definitive. Also, criteria such as these do not necessarily decide between alternative theories. Quoting

1064:

The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of investigation. (The

869: 32: 7718: 5445: 3093:

it oversimplifies science, giving the impression that following a scientific process automatically leads to knowledge,

2416:, or hypothesis-testing method, or "traditional" scientific method is, as the name implies, based on the formation of 13255: 13248: 13231: 13110: 13100: 13082: 12816: 12811: 12764: 12445: 11902:, "Masked Confusion: A trusted source of health information misleads the public by prioritizing rigor over reality", 11195: 11168: 11148: 10997: 10832: 10788: 10549:

Entstehung und Entwickelung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollectiv

10080: 9806: 9697: 8631: 6726: 6656: 6627: 6101: 6045: 5641: 5107: 3135: 3104: 3020:

examined the history of science, and was led to deny that science is genuinely a methodological process. In his book

2855: 494: 11747:, vol. 15 in 'Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1992. 9078:

Rudolph, John L. (2005). "Epistemology for the Masses: The Origins of "The Scientific Method" in American Schools".

4201:

Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einfǖhrung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv

4108: 2338: 13482: 10612:

Additional publication information is from the collection of first editions of the Library of Congress surveyed by

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McComas, William F. (1996). "Ten Myths of Science: Reexamining What We Think We Know About the Nature of Science".

8135: 7064: 6462: 4413: 9823: 3363:. Much research in metascience seeks to identify poor use of statistics and improve its use, an example being the 2692:" cannot determine scientific choice. First, which features of a theory satisfy these criteria may be disputable ( 2256: 594:

The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the

13591: 12826: 11996: 11576: 9345:"Beyond Hypothesis Testing: Investigating the Diversity of Scientific Methods in Science Teachers' Understanding" 4625: 2609: 2298:. His relativistic calculations matched observation much more closely than Newtonian theory did. Though, today's 2220: 2143:

impossible – to overturn". When a narrative is constructed its elements become easier to believe.

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critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. This ongoing debate, known as the

2950:

already vary in practice, there is no reason to believe this variation is wrong until a specific unification is

2395:

is used to advance fields of science where research objects have no definitive states of being. For example, in

1533:, a detailed X-ray diffraction image, which showed an X-shape and was able to confirm the structure was helical. 13901: 13896: 13061: 12996: 12163: 8277: 8233: 8193: 7310: 7286: 4664:

Colyvan (2001) listed simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, boldness/fruitfulness, and elegance;

4605: 4211: 4167: 4063:"Lettre de M. Le Verrier à M. Faye sur la théorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du périhélie de cette planète" 3887: 3598: 2330:

limitations. Or counts may represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the

1863:. His thought is that science is a community effort by those who have accreditation and are working within the 76: 6920:(Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, 46, 2), Philadelphia, 1956, pp. 10–11, 32–34. 6699: 4057:

The difference is approximately 43 arc-seconds per century. And the precession of Mercury's orbit is cited in

3030:

to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free

10507: 8174:

formally stated this need for the "norms for rational theory choice". One of his discussions is reprinted in

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serves as a rule of thumb for choosing the most desirable amongst a group of equally explanatory hypotheses.

11428:

Thurs, Daniel (2011). "12. Scientific Methods". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).

4673:(2010): simplicity/parsimony, unificatory/explanatory power, and elegance, but did not mention fruitfulness. 4644:

in a 2009 TED talk proclaimed that "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".

2368:

is the mathematical principle lining out how standing probabilities are adjusted given new information. The

1941:, credited as being found via mathematics because previous observers didn't know what they were looking at. 967:

An iterative, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:

13778: 13608: 13536: 13236: 13165: 12686: 12679: 12021: 11709: 10389: 10384: 9982: 8305: 6760: 6405: 4113: 3731: 3689: 3651:, as shown by Poincaré, who demonstrated the technique of transforming tautologically true forms (viz. the 3479: 2492:

This measure of certainty can reach quite high degrees, though. For example, in the determination of large

2353: 1227: 582: 40: 10728:

Goldhaber, Alfred Scharff; Nieto, Michael Martin (January–March 2010), "Photon and graviton mass limits",

4742: 4065:, Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences (Paris), vol. 49 (1859), pp.379–383. 812:, said that debates over the scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of 12538: 12513: 12498: 11451: 9665:

Feyerabend, Paul K (1960) "Patterns of Discovery" The Philosophical Review (1960) vol. 69 (2) pp. 247–252

4980: 4819: 4593: 4058: 3701: 3224:: that the perspective of the researcher fundamentally affects their work; and, too, more radical views. 3198:", in contradiction with the idea that a so-called "scientific method" is unique and a unifying concept. 2413: 1809: 1599: 1312:

Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields,

713: 154: 9897: 7799:

Welsby, Philip D; Weatherall, Mark (1 October 2022). "Statistics: an introduction to basic principles".

7665: 6606:, pp. 57–59: Saturday, February 28, 1953 — Watson found the base-pairing mechanism which explained 4370:... .— C. S. Peirce, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LOGIC OF SCIENCE, SECOND PAPER. —HOW TO MAKE OUR IDEAS CLEAR. 1529:. Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's 1161:, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement. 13891: 13586: 11584: 8619: 6835: 6710: 6540: 6397: 5478: 5018: 3926: 2449:

insisted on fielded hypotheses to be falsifieable, as successful tests imply very little otherwise. As

2264: 2066: 1603: 1595: 1481:, and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that gravitational field. 1302: 1215: 12087: 9509: 8798: 4062: 3922: 3862: 1733:

Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis predicting their own reproducibility.

13836: 13793: 13788: 13763: 13678: 13668: 13663: 12711: 12691: 12599: 12595: 12518: 12210: 8526:"Relating covariation information to causal dimensions through principles of contrast and invariance" 7522: 7518: 7143:

On 6 August 1753, the Swedish scientist Georg Wilhelm Richmann was electrocuted in St. Petersburg ...

6132:'The structure that we propose is a three-chain structure, each chain being a helix' – Linus Pauling" 5787: 3012: 2380:

is a way to measure dependence, independence, or interdependence of the information under scrutiny.

2178:

fundamental truths – and the other to derive from those fundamental truths more specific principles.

2155:, or contain some other logical or methodological flaw in the process that ultimately produced them. 2151: 1898:

and the discussion on how scientific statements relate to reality is best left to the article on the

1821: 1033:). But the mechanism of storing genetic information (i.e., genes) in DNA was unclear. Researchers in 1000:

The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step method goes from point 3 to 6 and back to 3 again.

716:. Formulated in the 20th century, the model has undergone significant revision since first proposed. 10552: 7035:'s approval, the base pairs turned out to be identical in shape (as Watson stated above in his 1968 3447:

Mathematical work and scientific work can inspire each other. For example, the technical concept of

2484:

Where the traditional method of inquiry does both, the inductive approach usually formulates only a

1513:

Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from

13673: 13576: 13223: 13170: 12716: 12356: 12341: 12330: 12307: 11072: 9958:(3 Dec 2006) Hamilton-Perelman’s Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture and the Geometrization Conjecture 9113:

of the suggestion; (v) further observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or rejection."

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Another important human bias that plays a role is a preference for new, surprising statements (see

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in 2005 pointed out that the method being used has led to many findings that cannot be replicated.

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Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject)

678: 326: 11039: 7429:. Historical & Cultural Astronomy. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 159–183. 3635:

if axioms are given for a branch of mathematics, this creates a logical system —Wittgenstein 1921

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which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.

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There is no universally agreed upon definition of the method of science. This was expressed with

4210:, flourishing only after incubation periods. His selected question for investigation (1934) was " 3750: – Statement based on repeated empirical observations that describes some natural phenomenon 3648: 3321:, rather than sought out. This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky. 3056: 2874: 2656:

has explanatory power, meaning its consequences extend beyond the data it is required to explain;

2392: 2279: 2244: 2193: 2045: 2013: 1725: 1643: 1038: 913: 112: 11057:. Translated to English by Karen Jelved, Andrew D. Jackson, and Ole Knudsen, (translators 1997). 8110: 8104: 6063:

This chapter also discusses the different types of research questions and how they are produced.

13703: 13688: 13648: 13420: 13243: 12909: 12899: 12317: 12243: 12200: 10884: 10797: 10124: 8669:

Mathematical Apocrypha Redux: More Stories and Anecdotes of Mathematicians and the Mathematical

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he action of thought is excited by the irritation of doubt, and ceases when belief is attained.

1796:. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates the perceived quality of the work. 1749: 1718: 1683: 1321: 1034: 536: 291: 8177: 6340:

to produce the diffraction pattern for a helix, per Crick's work on the transform of a helix."

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as 'superfluous and useless' (Book I, —thereby overturning Euclid's, Ptolemy's, and Galen's

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emphasizes the need for entertaining multiple alternative hypotheses, and avoiding artifacts.

645:

of the 16th and 17th centuries some of the most important developments were the furthering of

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that showed Newton's theory to be at least incomplete. The observed difference of Mercury's

949:(e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology). The elements above are often taught in 13715: 13658: 13561: 13541: 13499: 13415: 13410: 13385: 13310: 13077: 12739: 12734: 12609: 12493: 12398: 12371: 12253: 11590: 11495: 11291: 10749: 8935: 8892: 8525: 7364: 7116: 6337: 6264: 4733: 4221: 3681: 3652: 3627: 3594: 3403: 3392: 3314: 2921: 2812: 2577: 2342: 2295: 2005: 1938: 1864: 1842: 1614:

experimental results, likely by others. Traces of this approach can be seen in the work of

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Interpret the data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for a new hypothesis

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was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable.

599: 359: 341: 276: 12113: 7425:

Lequeux, James (2021). "Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier: Predictions Leading to Discovery".

2787:

put it in 2009: "the search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress".

1997:. It is a methodological route to certain knowledge by identifying what can't be doubted. 1954:

how the interpretation of empirical data is theory-laden, so neither approach is trivial.

1902:

here. More immediately topical limitations show themselves in the observation of reality.

8: 13906: 13708: 13698: 13556: 13526: 13450: 13435: 13395: 13390: 13315: 13200: 12801: 12483: 12376: 12351: 12336: 12265: 11904: 11698: 10706: 9993:"If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it." — 9128:

Spiece, Kelly R.; Colosi, Joseph (1 January 2000). "Redefining the "Scientific Method"".

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cites Alhazen several times as the likely source for the portraiture technique using the

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by its predicates, in a system of expressions. The unification process was formalized by

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Occam's razor might fall under the heading of "simple elegance", but it is arguable that

2714:

of a "good" theory have been debated for centuries, going back perhaps even earlier than

2612:. In subsequent modifications, it has also subsumed aspects of many other fields such as 2576:. However, these laws were then determined to be special cases of a more general theory ( 2545: 2497: 2457: 2421: 2369: 2172: 2168: 1769: 1478: 1447: 1344: 1313: 1165:

I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations.

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Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry)

720: 610:

and the scientific method can be found throughout history, for instance with the ancient

551: 544: 271: 166: 104: 12025: 12010: 11499: 11295: 11261: 10753: 10600:. Translated by Henry Crew & Alfonso de Salvio (reprint ed.). New York: Dover. 8939: 8896: 8257:

The Scientist as Philosopher: Philosophical Consequences of Great Scientific Discoveries

7368: 7120: 6268: 3756: – Extent to which truthness or falseness of a hypothesis/declaration can be tested 2453:

put it, “successful theories are those that survive elimination through falsification”.

908:

There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The

796:, which concluded that the scientific method is a myth or, at best, an idealization. As 13753: 13623: 13425: 13325: 13320: 13105: 12949: 12904: 12791: 12614: 12435: 12270: 12260: 11788: 11782: 11730: 11526: 11483: 11416: 11391: 11361: 11245: 11239:

The "Commentary" That Saved the Text. The Hazardous Journey of Ibn al-Haytham's Arabic

10869: 10861: 10765: 10739: 10685: 10325: 9749: 9724: 9547: 9490: 9377: 9344: 9325: 9153: 9103: 9091: 9057: 9010: 8828: 8780: 8479: 8420: 7997: 7883: 7848: 7309:. Texas A&M University The motivation & cognition interface lab. Archived from 7216: 7187: 7134: 5805:, the methods by which they were formulated, and the uses to which they were put; ... " 5280: 5269:(Supplements to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in 4555: 4192: 4155: 3792:), and deduces that light must enter the eye, in order for us to see. He describes the 3785: 3675: 3493: 3422:

Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against

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calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of

3278: 3243: 3239: 3221: 3195: 3183: 3162: 2973: 2878: 2834:

are theories that resist falsification—a frustration that was expressed colourfully by

2816: 2604:

observed in the natural world; its most recent major modification was unification with

2561: 2520: 2384: 2287: 2201: 2189: 2127: 2085: 1728:, passed onwards and used by others. Other scientists may start their own research and 1619: 1539: 1466: 1317: 1298: 1211: 1107: 1083: 789: 595: 512: 81: 61: 11755:

Representing and Intervening, Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science

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Hoffmann, Banesh (1976), "'Because it's there': Man's struggle to understand Nature",

10285: 10242:"'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in 5570: 3412:

scientific discovery remains incomplete without considerations of the social practices

13841: 13824: 13805: 13375: 13345: 13008: 12781: 12638: 12428: 12287: 12226: 11794: 11760: 11717: 11666: 11531: 11513: 11457: 11433: 11331: 11321: 11313: 11267: 11220: 11191: 11164: 11131: 11121: 11104: 11047: 11021: 10965: 10942: 10921: 10903: 10890: 10873: 10828: 10805: 10784: 10714: 10692: 10656: 10635: 10601: 10537: 10513: 10490: 10483: 10460: 10443: 10416: 10369: 10350: 10332: 10295: 10255: 10215: 10076: 9868: 9863: 9802: 9754: 9693: 9646: 9580: 9570: 9482: 9424: 9382: 9364: 9317: 9290: 9235: 9225: 9181: 9145: 9095: 9049: 9014: 8974: 8951: 8908: 8865: 8772: 8743: 8673: 8637: 8627: 8587: 8545: 8471: 8395: 8369: 8283: 8273: 8229: 8189: 8141: 8114: 7927: 7911: 7888: 7870: 7824: 7816: 7812: 7752: 7707:"ESO Telescope Sees Star Dance Around Supermassive Black Hole, Proves Einstein Right" 7555: 7498:

Ketner, Kenneth Laine (2009). "Charles Sanders Peirce: Interdisciplinary Scientist".

7448: 7438: 7406: 7380: 7282: 7221: 7138: 6652: 6623: 6485: 6280: 6097: 6041: 5837: 5686: 5647: 5637: 5574: 5519: 5511: 5399: 5336: 5288: 5203: 5193: 5103: 4791: 4694: 4478:...an experimental approach was advocated by Galileo in 1638 with the publication of 3640: 3251: 3191: 3167:. Fleck also claims this phenomenon to be largely invisible to members of the group. 3066: 2779: 2745: 2659:

has unificatory power; as in its organizing otherwise confused and isolated phenomena

2617: 2485: 2450: 2365: 2349: 2275: 2135: 2093: 1926: 1825: 1757: 1675: 1518: 1392: 1114: 1079: 801: 690: 635: 470: 407: 331: 181: 123: 12879: 11068: 10769: 7623:'A myth is a belief given uncritical acceptance by members of a group ...' – Weiss, 7594:, p. 166 shows how the 'flying gallop' image propagated from China to the West. 6575: 5986: 5271:

Smith, A. Mark (June 2004). "What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?".

5223:"First general: The present state of natural philosophy and wherein it is deficient" 4981:

Physical thought from the Presocratics to the quantum physicists : an anthology

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has been proved using time as a mathematical concept in which objects can flow (see

3103:

The scientific method no longer features in the standards for US education of 2013 (

1994: 1799:

Scientists typically are careful in recording their data, a requirement promoted by

662: 13758: 13733: 13633: 13494: 13489: 13270: 12979: 12934: 12914: 12450: 12440: 12423: 11948: 11879: 11844: 11834: 11779:, 1st edition 1973, revised edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1988. 11693:

Inference, Explanation, and Other Frustrations: Essays in the Philosophy of Science

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is consistent, both internally and with other relevant currently accepted theories;

2283: 2156: 2000:

A strong formulation of the scientific method is not always aligned with a form of

1793: 1660: 1552: 1482: 1396: 1385: 1231: 1184: 1170: 945:

for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do but

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Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics

6668:

from a specification of the instrument. The second group could be calculated only

6525:, clearly indicating crucial details of its helical structure to Watson and Crick. 6421: 6409: 4728: 4726: 2196: – exaggerated in the case of Mercury, but observed in the case of 1803:(1896–1961) and others. Though not typically required, they might be requested to 1670:

which comprise it. They were guided by the bond lengths which had been deduced by

13773: 13618: 13596: 13365: 13280: 13265: 13030: 12969: 12929: 12851: 12806: 12643: 12548: 12533: 12508: 12322: 12302: 12144: 12140: 12081: 12029: 11864: 11857: 11740: 11633: 11619: 11613: 11604: 11600: 11543: 11508: 11213:

Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics". In Rushdī, Rāshid (ed.).

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Brown, Ronald A.; Kumar, Alok (2013). "The Scientific Method: Reality or Myth?".

8810: 8667: 8331: 8261: 7865: 7258: 7206: 7068: 6863: 6714: 6703: 6547: 6309: 6276: 6191: 6035: 5997: 5831: 5348: 5025: 4938: 4699: 4670: 4629: 4498: 3508: 3489: 3475: 3247: 3235: 3040: 3017: 2998: 2869: 2377: 2331: 2327: 2291: 2252: 2232: 2009: 1990: 1930: 1860: 1764: 1742: 1556: 1526: 1522: 1431: 1419: 1349: 1330: 1309:, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. 1286: 1207: 1004: 981: 897: 759: 698: 686: 682: 382: 377: 367: 256: 213: 149: 12096: 11094: 9218:

Stangor, Charles; Walinga, Jennifer; BC Open Textbook Project; BCcampus (2014).

8947: 8739: 7772: 7434: 6680:(conceptual category), whereas in the second each unit would add one additional 5558: 3485: 3043:, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry. 2711: 2290:

between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to

2211: 2008:

and reliance on abstract typologies and theories is normally accepted. In 2010,

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Weinberg, (1995) “The Methods of Science … And Those By Which We Live”, page: 8

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with the instrument. ... In the first case each unit would add one additional

5754: 5064: 4723: 4609: 4601: 4581: 4422: 4358:, and so forth. The questions of the inquirer spiral until the goal is reached. 4308: 4295: 4277: 4088: 3957: 3809: 3793: 3776: 3747: 3666:

Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on Polya's idea of

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An example for how inductive and deductive reasoning works can be found in the

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The scientific method is iterative. At any stage, it is possible to refine its

1618:(190–120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth, while 1408: 921: 826: 765: 455: 422: 372: 132: 12150: 12126: 12101: 10761: 10562:

Edited by Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton. Foreword by Robert K. Merton

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Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning

9239: 9217: 8861: 8324: 6856: 6488: 4320:. Hockney quotes Alhazen as the first clear description of the camera obscura. 4226:

Perceptual control theory § The methodology of modeling, and PCT as model

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Measurements in scientific work are usually accompanied by estimates of their

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King, M. D. (1971). "Reason, Tradition, and the Progressiveness of Science".

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Crawford S, Stucki L (1990). "Peer review and the changing research record".

5651: 5085:, p. 139. (This quotation is from Alhazen's critique of Ptolemy's books 4641: 4633: 4597: 4291: 3644: 3613:

involves reconsidering and re-examining the result and the path taken to it.

3523: 3467: 3322: 3274: 3266: 3179: 2784: 2473: 2263:

was able to unify prior theory and measurements into the consequences of his

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The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its

1130: 1026: 934:

Predictions (inductive and deductive reasoning from the hypothesis or theory)

740:

The term "scientific method" came into popular use in the twentieth century;

674: 650: 336: 9584: 8641: 8541: 8287: 6781: 5990: 5508:"That the scientific method accurately reflects what scientists actually do" 5207: 4513:

Lee Smolin, in his 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method", espouses two

1709:, that is: "the body of the heavens is rarer than the body of air". In 1079 1121:, as in "Why is the sky blue?" but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I 13603: 13462: 13400: 13135: 12984: 12964: 12919: 12894: 12884: 12856: 12786: 12744: 12618: 12572: 12543: 12523: 12136: 11968: 11889: 11817: 11535: 11108: 11011: 10880: 10527: 9916: 9758: 9740: 9386: 8904: 8730:; Bonk, Thomas (2011). "Unity of Science and Logical Empiricism: A Reply". 8727: 7892: 7828: 7783: 7706: 7376: 7225: 7044: 6420:

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10447: 9872: 5682: 5633: 3739: – All procedures for the numerical representation of empirical facts 3455:, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. But today, the 3305:

A famous example of discovery being stumbled upon was Alexander Fleming's

3099:

and, it holds that scientific theories arise from observed phenomena only.

2873:

explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions from

2456:

Deductive reasoning in this mode of inquiry will sometimes be replaced by

2130:

showed this to be false, and that the legs are instead gathered together.

13638: 13335: 13305: 13290: 13155: 13150: 12974: 12959: 12944: 12924: 12841: 12769: 12586: 12576: 12563: 12528: 12478: 12408: 12361: 12248: 12238: 12065: 11878:. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 53–70. Archived from 11822:

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In statistical analysis, expected and unexpected bias is a large factor.

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Test the hypothesis by performing an experiment and collecting data in a

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The posthumous works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc

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The philosophy of knowledge arising through observation is also called

3460: 3441: 3423: 3211: 2882: 2681: 2433: 2425: 2417: 2081: 2001: 1985: 1966: 1958: 1756:(1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of 1717:

was able to infer that Earth's atmosphere was 50 miles thick, based on

1698: 1667: 1655:

starts, Watson and Crick were able to infer the essential structure of

1615: 1502: 1439: 1352:

made such creativity the centerpiece of his discussion of methodology.

1294: 1087: 893: 889: 781: 702: 694: 646: 607: 559: 558:

is often similar. The process in the scientific method involves making

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Another common example of inductive reasoning is the observation of a

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overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in

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risk of making predictions that decide whether it is right or wrong:

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makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of

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5894: 1944: 1905: 1559:

is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.

724:

knowledge. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over

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Science: Men, Methods, Goals: A Reader: Methods of Physical Science

10857: 10268: 9507: 7792: 7016: 6696: 6506: 6417: 6321: 6317: 5087: 4585: 3971: 3678:' are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and proofs. 3597:, involves free and heuristic construction of plausible arguments, 3538: 3399: 3186:

has conducted a comparative study of two scientific fields (namely

3080:

The taught presentation of science had to defend demerits such as:

2803: 2605: 1914: 1689:

This manner of iteration can span decades and sometimes centuries.

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6756: 5833:

Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science

3379:

Science applied to complex systems can involve elements such as

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proven. Finally, some hold that pluralism should be allowed for

16:

Interplay between observation, experiment, and theory in science

13725: 12413: 12114:

Using the scientific method for designing science fair projects

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Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge

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with added notes. Reprinted with previously unpublished part,

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10094:"Charles A. Weibel (ca. 1995) History of Homological Algebra" 8815:

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7040: 6831: 6587:... in order to learn, one must desire to learn ... 4448: 4288:, p. 136 to prove that light travels in a straight line. 2581: 2441: 2255:(and others) were then able to build their early theories by 2248: 2240: 2228: 1980:

characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth

1970: 1922:

false conclusions are drawn, because of limited information.

1895: 1575: 1474: 1042: 1029:, and that DNA contained genetic information (Oswald Avery's 1025:

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pair held together by at least two hydrogen bonds. ..."

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can be done at several national archives in the U.S. or the

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5299: 5017:), translated into English from German by M. Schwarz, from 4788:

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4074:...simplified and (post-modern) philosophy notwithstanding. 3448: 2472:

to deriving scientific truth first rose to prominence with

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Twenty-three hundred years ago, Aristotle proposed that a

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5.13; Lakatos claimed that proofs from such a system were

2912:(1892), as used in fairly uncritical manner in education. 2600:, how species adapt to their environments, and many other 1555:

can then help us figure out what the important factor is.

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Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method

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Stillwell's review (p. 381) of Poincaré's efforts on the

4343: 4129: 3688:, once replied "durch planmässiges Tattonieren" (through 3626:, what Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of 3087:

it suggests a singular methodology of deriving knowledge,

1917:, 2 August 1932; interpretable only through prior theory. 1888: 1706: 1656: 1199:. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their 286: 11841:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998. Paperback 2003. 9025: 7645: 6076:(1546), p. 141. Quoted and translated in C.D. O'Malley, 4934: 4932: 4009:. A radical proponent of this approach to knowledge was 3073:

steps: observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment.

2815:

in physics is often had in the more specific context of

1836: 1430:

structure they proposed provided a simple mechanism for

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Weinert (2004) noted the recurring theme of invariance;

4250:

did not exist in nature; thirteen hundred years later,

3771: 3769: 3715:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

3706:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2223:. It took thousands of years of measurements, from the 12097:

The scientific method from a philosophical perspective

11829:

A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science

11793:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 10184: 10172: 9169: 9167: 8841: 8817:, 1st published, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, 1978. 8523: 8060:

Peirce, Charles S., Carnegie application (L75, 1902),

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Actes X Congrès internationale d'histoire des sciences

4554:

The scientific method requires testing and validation

3513: 2121:

A historical example is the belief that the legs of a

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to the validity of a predicated expression (that is,

39:

For notable practitioners in previous centuries, see

11316:(1988) , Limbrick, Elaine; Thomson, Douglas (eds.), 9123: 9121: 8505: 7980: 7978: 7976: 7974: 7972: 7970: 7968: 7966: 7930:

right. Book, including the assertion, introduced in

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Hepburn, Brian; Andersen, Hanne (13 November 2015).

7093:, but attributed to Alhazen rather than Ibn Mu'adh.) 6877:"James Crutchfield (2003) "Complex Systems Theory?"" 6782:"NIF (2021) What Is the National Ignition Facility?" 6432:, as compared to Einstein's desk prediction of 1.75 5563:

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Volume 18

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but never a complete representation of circumstances

2162: 1395:

that results from entertaining a single hypothesis,

941:

Each element of the scientific method is subject to

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Jones & Bartlett. p. 7842: 7840: 7838: 7639: 7609: 7603: 7396: 7394: 6633: 6416:, and Eddington's expedition to the island of 6355: 6304:, illustrates how to avoid confirmation bias: 6033: 5947: 5935: 5768: 5614:Theories of Scientific Method: An Introduction 5518:, Harvard University Press, pp. 210–218, 5472: 5470: 5436: 5434: 4816:Oxford Dictionaries: British and World English 4361: 4144: 4051: 3921:From the hypothesis, deduce valid forms using 3906: 3863:(1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 3353:Why Most Published Research Findings Are False 3290: 2926:Scientific pluralism is a position within the 2636:What criteria are satisfied by a 'good' theory 1633: 876:The scientific method is the process by which 13046: 12171: 12108:Lecture on Scientific Method by Greg Anderson 11216:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 11010: 10705: 9510:"Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi" 9399: 9262: 9260: 9258: 8575: 8517: 8242: 8175: 8051: 7960:pp. 21, 30, 55, 152, 161, 277, 360, 448, 580 7732: 7554:. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 51–52. 7485: 6316:experiment, in Japan, independently observed 5866: 5864: 5826: 5359: 4777:Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 4028: 4016: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3374: 2980:thesis, that the objects investigated by the 1487:observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse 708:A sea voyage from America to Europe afforded 488: 11923:Unended Quest, An Intellectual Autobiography 11786: 11430:Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science 11103:(2nd ed.), Princeton University Press, 11017:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 10533:Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact 9922:Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact 9799:The Incomplete Guide to the Art of Discovery 9722: 9564: 9458: 9127: 9068: 8756: 8726: 8221: 7990: 7777: 7050: 6869: 6599: 6597: 6595: 5792: 5734: 5516:Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science 5501: 5499: 5012: 4919: 4917: 4678: 4501:can stand to be called a 'universal method'. 4334: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4235:Notes: Problem-solving via scientific method 4215: 4212:HOW, THEN, DID THIS EMPIRICAL FACT ORIGINATE 4207: 3964: 3006: 2864:of the scientific method, at what separates 2531:Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain 1776:gets the treatment, such as a drug, and the 1582:hypotheses used for constructing the plane. 996:Retest (frequently done by other scientists) 794:Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science 12020: 11983:Real Science: what it is, and what it means 11860:, Paragon House, St. Paul, Minnesota, 2017. 10988: 10815:. 1877, 1879. Reprinted with a foreword by 10691:, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 10368:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 10344: 9769: 8791: 8556: 8348: 8228:. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–79. 8217: 8215: 8134:Cracraft, J.; Donoghue, M.J., eds. (2005). 8127: 8103:Hall, B.K.; Hallgrímsson, B., eds. (2008). 8022: 7835: 7591: 7541: 7539: 7537: 7391: 6947:, p. 220 Book Seven covers refraction. 6081: 5887: 5885: 5729:science is best understood through examples 5467: 5431: 4772:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 4764: 4762: 4462: 3880: 3870: 3543: 2845: 2257:generalizing the collected data inductively 1455: 1117:can refer to the explanation of a specific 868:. This diagram represents one variant, and 13053: 13039: 12178: 12164: 11876:The Nature of Science in Science Education 10454: 10347:Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations 10154:(4), pp. 378–383, on Jeremy Gray's (2013) 10141: 9680:, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997 9307: 9255: 8928:International Journal of Science Education 8850:European Journal for Philosophy of Science 8388:Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). 8299: 8297: 8178:"Chapter 9: Rationality and Theory Choice" 7905: 7765: 7546:Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). 7531:v. 5, paragraphs 438–463, see 443 and 451. 6938: 6695:National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021) 6651:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 1–4. 6574:. v. 1. paragraphs 135–140. Archived from 6498: 6496: 5861: 5762: 5708:"Whatever Happened to History of Science?" 5608: 5393: 4449:Notes: Philosophical expressions of method 4380: 3829: 3027: 2573: 2080:Scientific methodology often directs that 1831: 1649: 1508: 1414: 1269: 1102:; these observations often demand careful 1016: 974:Gather information and resources (observe) 847: 838:, which still stand as scientific method. 519:that has characterized the development of 495: 481: 12834: 12797:Relationship between religion and science 12185: 11525: 11507: 11320:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11318:That Nothing is Known (Quod nihil scitur) 11256: 10889:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 10883:(1976), John Worrall; Elie Zahar (eds.), 10783:(expanded ed.), Penguin Publishing, 10743: 9981:George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez (2000) 9862: 9748: 9409:Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 9376: 9284: 8882: 8832: 8344: 8342: 8340: 8180:. In James Conant, John Haugeland (ed.). 7882: 7864: 7846: 7215: 7205: 7185: 7128: 6592: 6308:, in Chile, was initially skeptical that 5496: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5082: 5039: 4914: 4740:iterations for Poincaré to arrive at the 4472: 4405: 4403: 4325: 4285: 3897: 3852: 3559:Deduction: prediction from the hypothesis 3129: 2861: 2503: 2374:Bayesian estimation of mutual information 2044:Flying gallop as shown by this painting ( 1882:The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2002 ) 1693:can be built upon. For example: By 1027, 1281:. This hypothesis was also considered by 1257: 818:disproof of existing theory by experiment 539:. Scientific inquiry includes creating a 11985:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 11896:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991. 11708: 11705:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1980. 11281: 11067: 10959: 10902: 10621: 10207: 10129:Comptes rendusde l’Academie des Sciences 9943:, p. 131 in the section on 'Modern 9840: 9343:Ioannidou, Olga; Erduran, Sibel (2021). 9224:. : BCcampus, BC Open Textbook Project. 8820: 8581: 8447: 8394:. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 8. 8380: 8370:"§4.1 Methodological Incommensurability" 8212: 8140:. Oxford University Press. p. 592. 7693: 7579: 7534: 7354: 7342: 7295: 7264: 7028: 6980: 6968: 6956: 6918:A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables, 6914:translation from Arabic to Latin in 1116 6807:"ISS (2021) International Space Station" 6603: 6502: 6380: 6349: 6153: 6141: 6113: 6021: 5882: 5836:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5798: 5780: 5326: 5134: 4759: 4252:Alhazen disproved Aristotle's hypothesis 4093:For broader coverage of this topic, see 4075: 3300: 3297:Role of chance in scientific discoveries 3174:in an academic scientific laboratory by 2560:Scientific knowledge is closely tied to 2512: 2210: 2184: 1904: 859: 20:For broader coverage of this topic, see 11863: 11714:What Science Knows: And How It Knows It 11679: 11469: 11312: 10933: 10879: 10775: 10502: 10457:The Investigation of the Physical World 10178: 10135: 10056: 9987: 9801:. New York: Columbia University Press. 9642:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 9529: 9077: 8996: 8799:Unification: A Multidisciplinary Survey 8570:. Indiana University Press. p. 15. 8453: 8412: 8310:. TED talk. Event occurs at 15:05min. 8303: 8294: 8253: 8096: 7738: 7657: 7651: 7424: 7301: 6535: 6533: 6531: 6493: 6291: 6255:(16 October 1964). "Strong Inference". 6009: 5705: 5672: 5389: 5387: 5320: 5056: 4548: 3842: 3823: 2790:An example here can be found in one of 1242:, he actually found it easier to study 946: 937:Experiments (tests of all of the above) 797: 792:Daniel Thurs' chapter in the 2015 book 693:, by idealists as well as empiricists 570: 13884: 12104:by Paul Newall at The Galilean Library 11953:Four Decades of Scientific Explanation 11542: 11372: 11342: 11219:. Psychology Press. pp. 274–298. 11177: 11158: 11143: 11038: 10915: 10822: 10796: 10622:Gauch Jr, Hugh G. (12 December 2002). 10382: 10363: 10273:Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance 10239: 10190: 10156:Henri Poincaré: A Scientific Biography 9796: 9031: 8762: 8665: 8565: 8337: 8076:How to Think Straight About Psychology 7996: 7931: 7847:Ioannidis, John P.A. (1 August 2005). 7512: 7497: 7400: 7304:"Science: Conjectures and refutations" 7105:"Benjamin Franklin and lightning rods" 7102: 6996: 6932: 6646: 6568:"F.R.L. [First Rule of Logic]" 6565: 6518: 6333: 6210: 6206: 6204: 6202: 6200: 6125: 5891: 5556: 5476: 5425: 5412: 5187: 5171: 4908: 4870: 4768: 4518: 4430:using his best resources. His mentor, 4400: 4386: 4240: 4214:AND IN WHAT DOES IT CONSIST?". But by 3528: 3144: 2628: 2334:used and the number of samples taken. 2278:in 1859 pointed out problems with the 1889:Theory's interactions with observation 841: 808:and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book 669:, brought to particular prominence by 535:can distort the interpretation of the 13034: 12159: 12127:Richard Feynman on the Key to Science 12088:Introduction to the scientific method 11655: 11628:Readings in the Philosophy of Science 11472:Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy 11446: 11427: 11402: 11233: 11113: 11093: 10648: 10613: 10598:Dialogues concerning two new sciences 10526: 10428: 10410: 10319: 10294:, Berlin; New York: Springer Verlag, 10283: 10147:John Stillwell, reviewer (Apr 2014). 10044: 10032: 9994: 9975: 9940: 9764:as a member of the Penicillium genus. 9692:, University of Nebraska Press, 2000 9626: 9614: 9602: 9598: 9266: 9174:Schuster, D.P.; Powers, W.J. (2005). 8968: 8732:Otto Neurath and the Unity of Science 8659: 8606: 8530:European Journal of Social Psychology 8511: 8462:(2). Sage Publications, Inc.: 25–31. 8441: 8361: 8165: 8090: 8045: 7950: 7934:"Do doctors understand test results?" 7465: 7238: 7186:Ioannidis, John P. A. (August 2005). 7074:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 6944: 6824: 6749: 6251: 6245: 6168: 6040:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 5974: 5915: 5870: 5814: 5774: 5596: 5505: 5378: 5270: 5220: 4995: 4923: 4409: 4203: 4061:: U. Le Verrier (1859), (in French), 3846: 3407: 3313:Somewhere between 33% and 50% of all 2662:and is fruitful for further research. 2526: 2402: 2146: 2028: 1837:Honesty, openness, and falsifiability 947:apply mostly to experimental sciences 800:are beliefs, they are subject to the 741: 598:itself. The development of rules for 12122:an online book by Richard D. Jarrard 11911:Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo (ed.), 11478: 11035:and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation. 10840: 10679: 10415:, University of Pennsylvania Press, 10267: 10214:. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing. 9638: 9464: 8612:"From falsifiability to testability" 8454:Krugman, Paul (1993). "How I Work". 7984: 6799: 6774: 6528: 6239: 5384: 4952: 4866: 4864: 4514: 3970:The Sun's rays are still visible at 2673:and look for invariant observations. 2339:Inductive statistical generalisation 1607: 1338:) described the incipient stages of 1010: 888:The overall process involves making 785: 13547:Digital media use and mental health 13261:Sociology of the history of science 12070:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 12049:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 12035:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11943:Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature 11581:The Art of Scientific Investigation 11077:, London: Walter Scott Publishing, 11062:Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography 10918:Dictionary of Scientific Quotations 9723:Tan, Sy; Tatsumura, Y (July 2015). 9400:van der Ploeg, Piet (8 June 2016). 9310:Journal of College Science Teaching 8826: 8225:The Indispensability of Mathematics 8078:. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123 7670:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6719: 6689: 6649:Information, Mechanism, and Meaning 6214:"How to Make Our Ideas Clear" 6197: 5875: 5759:Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo 5706:Staddon, John (16 September 2020). 5334:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5013: 4493:Popper, in his 1963 publication of 4095:§ Relationship with statistics 3944: 3822:The full title translation is from 3728: – Scientific study of science 3690:systematic palpable experimentation 3684:, when asked how he came about his 3492:, the construction of mathematical 3285: 2463: 1697:, based on his measurements of the 1222:. These ideas were skipped over by 13: 11649:What Is This Thing Called Science? 11559: 11190:, Taylor & Francis e-Library, 11020:, University of California Press, 10999:Science and Civilisation in China 10451:Public domain in the US. 236 pages 9452:The Social Construction of Reality 9092:10.1111/j.1748-5959.2005.tb00039.x 9011:10.1111/j.1949-8594.1996.tb10205.x 8368:Bird, Alexander (11 August 2011). 8019:’ experiments with childbed fever. 7906:Gigerenzer, Gerd (31 March 2015). 7103:Krider, E. Philip (January 2006). 6855:James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) 6832:"JWST (2021) WEBB Space Telescope" 5565:. Vol. 18. pp. 247–305. 5453:. pp. 312–365. Archived from 3544:Hypothesis: a proposed explanation 3411: 3220:sociologists built the concept of 3090:it overemphasises experimentation, 2830:. The opposite of something being 1929:leading to differing conclusions. 1812:, and science journals, including 1701:of light, was able to deduce that 1465:For example, Einstein's theory of 1438:Any useful hypothesis will enable 804:as Taleb points out. Philosophers 550:Although procedures vary from one 33:Scientific method (disambiguation) 14: 13918: 13256:Sociology of scientific ignorance 13101:History and philosophy of science 13083:Economics of scientific knowledge 12817:Sociology of scientific knowledge 12812:Sociology of scientific ignorance 12765:History and philosophy of science 12133:Lectures on the Scientific Method 11990: 11925:, Open Court, La Salle, IL, 1982. 11850:Understanding Scientific Progress 11184:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 11150:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 10908:The Beginnings of Western Science 10345:Bynum, W.F.; Porter, Roy (2005), 9962:revised from H.D.Cao and X.P.Zhu 9821: 9782:Scientific and Technical Thinking 9415:(2). SAGE Publications: 145–159. 8176:Thomas S Kuhn (1 November 2002). 7274:The logic of scientific discovery 6672:from a specification of what was 6084:, p. 597: "Andreas Vesalius" 5788:(Dec 2007) Unification Algorithms 5673:Staddon, John (1 December 2017). 5147:Rozhanskaya & Levinova (1996) 4861: 4314:Opticae Thesaurus, Alhazen Arabis 4258:, thus deducing the existence of 3722: – Study of research methods 3202:Situated cognition and relativism 3136:Sociology of scientific knowledge 2961: 2856:Sociology of scientific knowledge 2536: 2163:Deductive and inductive reasoning 13849: 13848: 13823: 13014: 13002: 10954:Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment 10952:. Memoir of a researcher in the 10823:Judson, Horace Freeland (1979), 10489:, New York: Simon and Schuster, 10117: 10086: 10050: 10013: 10000: 9950: 9934: 9890: 9864:10.1097/00000542-198405000-00026 9834: 9668: 9659: 9632: 9620: 9608: 9591: 9558: 9501: 9435: 9246: 9201: 8973:. University of Illinois Press. 8804: 8600: 8349:Baker, Alan (25 February 2010). 8307:A new way to explain explanation 8202: 8068: 7813:10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-139446 7699: 7585: 7506: 7500:The Logic of Interdisciplinarity 7491: 7459: 7277:(Reprint of translation of 1935 7244: 7179: 7148: 7096: 7022: 6990: 6974: 6962: 6950: 6900: 6211:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). 5892:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877). 4871:Peirce, Charles Sanders (1908). 4711: 4687: 4647: 4536: 4206:, p. xxvii recognizes that 4185: 4119: 4101: 4081: 4068: 3999: 3990: 3977: 3950: 3577: 2942:of scientific knowledge, or the 2670:parsimony in causal explanations 2556:Properties of scientific inquiry 2294:as a possible early test of his 2059: 2037: 1578:is an experiment that tests the 780:Later stances include physicist 464: 449: 11081:from the original on 2007-09-29 10713:, University of Chicago Press, 10669:from the original on 2023-11-29 10455:di Francia, G. Toraldo (1981), 10397:from the original on 2020-06-24 10383:Riskin, Jessica (2 July 2020). 10308:from the original on 2023-11-29 10254:, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 10228:from the original on 2023-11-29 10106:from the original on 2021-09-06 9879:from the original on 2021-08-29 9705:, Oxford University Press, 2000 8314:from the original on 2018-11-04 8304:Deutsch, David (October 2009). 8154:from the original on 2023-11-29 7932:Kremer, William (6 July 2014). 7910:. New York, New York: Penguin. 7771:Brad Snowder's Astronomy Pages 7721:from the original on 2020-05-15 7168:from the original on 2014-04-29 6889:from the original on 2021-04-18 6838:from the original on 2012-01-04 6813:from the original on 2005-09-07 6788:from the original on 2017-07-31 6763:from the original on 2021-09-01 6737:from the original on 2020-04-25 6613: 6465:from the original on 2017-08-31 6447: 6436:. – Antonina Vallentin (1954), 6390: 6374: 6162: 6147: 6135: 6119: 6107: 6087: 6080:, (1964), p. 116. As quoted by 6066: 6054:from the original on 2023-11-29 6027: 5941: 5929: 5850:from the original on 2023-11-29 5820: 5720:from the original on 2021-08-27 5699: 5618:McGill–Queen's University Press 5602: 5532:from the original on 2023-11-29 5485:from the original on 2016-08-07 5479:"There is No Scientific Method" 5341: 5259: 5233: 5214: 5181: 5152: 5116:from the original on 2023-11-29 4947:Philosophy of Inductive Science 4850:from the original on 2023-11-29 4487: 4454: 4416:came by his manuscript copy of 4368:Never fail to recognize an idea 4265: 3915: 3816: 3240:observer's conceptual framework 3107:) that replaced those of 1996 ( 3036: 2860:Philosophy of science looks at 2697:especially when they conflict." 2221:history of gravitational theory 1736: 1729: 1403:Predictions from the hypothesis 751: 736:Modern use and critical thought 606:Different early expressions of 587:For a chronological guide, see 13062:Science and technology studies 12206:Analytic–synthetic distinction 10920:, London: IOP Publishing Ltd, 10655:, Cambridge University Press, 10626:. Cambridge University Press. 10579:] (in Italian and Latin), 10459:, Cambridge University Press, 10385:"Just Use Your Thinking Pump!" 10208:Alikuzai, Hamid Wahed (2013). 9956:Huai-Dong Cao and Xi-Ping Zhu 9086:(3). : 341–376, quote on 366. 9080:History of Education Quarterly 8999:School Science and Mathematics 8771:(4). Guilford Press: 550–561. 7743:. DE GRUYTER. pp. 33–52. 7405:, Cambridge University Press, 6489:(2021) Photograph 51 explained 5991:Discourse on the Method/Part 2 5895:"The Fixation of Belief" 5514:; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.), 4832: 4804: 3929:. Avoid invalid forms such as 3796:as part of this investigation. 3637:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 3599:working backward from the goal 3254:led to different conclusions. 3028:could possibly be broad enough 2930:that rejects various proposed 2792:Einstein's thought experiments 2019: 1496: 1218:and the means for determining 977:Form an explanatory hypothesis 1: 11716:, New York: Encounter Books, 11587:, Melbourne, Australia, 1950. 10916:Mackay, Alan L., ed. (1991), 10910:, University of Chicago Press 10652:Scientific Method in Practice 10624:Scientific Method in Practice 10509:The Character of Physical Law 10291:The Philosophy Behind Physics 10134:(1892), 633–636. as cited by 10061:Euler's formula for polyhedra 9841:Schaefer, Carl F (May 1984). 8616:The philosophy of Karl Popper 8003:Philosophy Of Natural Science 7715:European Southern Observatory 7056:Goldstein, Bernard R. (1977) 6916:, as cited by E. S. Kennedy, 6731:lhc-commissioning.web.cern.ch 5571:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60146-X 5559:"When Belief Creates Reality" 5347:Margaret Atherton (ed.) 1999 4975:(رسالة في الضوء) as cited in 4752: 3713: – Pragmatic methodology 3418:Relationship with mathematics 2772: 2623: 2610:modern evolutionary synthesis 2215:Inductive Deductive Reasoning 1951: 1678:'s X-ray diffraction images. 1277:proposed that DNA might be a 1178: 1082:conjectured, correctly, that 904:Factors of scientific inquiry 830:, and Galileo (1638) and his 810:Theories of Scientific Method 13609:Normalization process theory 13166:Philosophy of social science 12044:"Confirmation and Induction" 11787:Knorr Cetina, Karin (1999). 11735:Reason in the Age of Science 11509:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007279 11120:. Ishi Press International. 11088:– via The Mead Project 11006:, Cambridge University Press 10981:The Autobiography of Science 10960:McElheny, Victor K. (2004), 10632:10.1017/cbo9780511815034.011 10547:. (written in German, 1935, 10390:The New York Review of Books 10244:Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay 10240:Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), 9983:Where Mathematics Comes From 9130:The American Biology Teacher 9034:The American Biology Teacher 8566:Wigner, Eugene Paul (1967). 8372:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). 8353:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). 8074:Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). 7922:leads: (n=1000) only 21% of 7866:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 7801:Postgraduate Medical Journal 7640:Goldhaber & Nieto (2010) 7604:Goldhaber & Nieto (2010) 7271:Karl Raimund Popper (2002). 7207:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 7011:was identical in shape to a 6406:General theory of relativity 6277:10.1126/science.146.3642.347 6078:Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 5936:Einstein & Infeld (1938) 5225:. In Waller, Richard (ed.). 4943:History of Inductive Science 4574:The Scientist as Philosopher 4251: 3732:Outline of scientific method 3655:) into or out of forms from 3346:Relationship with statistics 3050: 2915: 2822:Related principles here are 2705: 2408:Hypothetico-deductive method 2391:, the concept together with 1627: 1622:can be seen in the works of 953:as "the scientific method". 583:History of scientific method 555: 41:History of scientific method 7: 12539:Hypothetico-deductive model 12514:Deductive-nomological model 12499:Constructivist epistemology 12147:(archived 21 January 2013). 11745:Cognitive Models of Science 10649:Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. (2003), 10512:, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 10288:; Peter E. Hodgson (eds.), 9512:. University of St. Andrews 8948:10.1080/0950069032000032199 8740:10.1007/978-94-007-0143-4_2 8421:"Epistemological pluralism" 8137:Assembling the tree of life 8062:New Elements of Mathematics 8015:Hempel illustrates this at 7926:got an example question on 7773:( Precession of the Equinox 7435:10.1007/978-3-030-54218-4_5 7327:Conjectures and Refutations 7085:was printed by F Risner in 6610:using his cardboard models. 6566:Peirce, Charles S. (1899). 5873:, p. 10 calls this an 5447:Conjectures and Refutations 5019:"Abhandlung über das Licht" 4960:Epicurus' Scientific Method 4594:Olivier Costa de Beauregard 4495:Conjectures and Refutations 4114:deductive probability logic 4059:Tests of general relativity 3702:Empirical limits in science 3695: 3659:, or more abstractly, from 3317:are estimated to have been 3291:Role of chance in discovery 2938:of its subject matter, the 2908:(1910) and Karl Pearson in 2752: 2539:that scientists can use to 2414:hypothetico-deductive model 2383:Beyond commonly associated 2114:How to Make Our Ideas Clear 1810:National Science Foundation 1763:If an experiment cannot be 1634:Communication and iteration 1600:International Space Station 1570:. Even taking a plane from 1566:study or an archaeological 1370:The Mass-Extinction Debates 1021:In 1950, it was known that 855: 714:hypothetico-deductive model 554:to another, the underlying 10: 13923: 13232:construction of technology 11488:PLOS Computational Biology 11470:Voelkel, James R. (2001), 10825:The Eighth Day of Creation 10411:Dales, Richard C. (1973), 10200: 9544:10.1177/030631286016001009 9361:10.1007/s11191-020-00185-9 9286:10.1007/s11191-021-00235-w 9221:Introduction to psychology 8652:are not strictly refutable 8620:Cambridge University Press 8568:Symmetries and reflections 8468:10.1177/056943459303700204 7788:On the System of the World 7007:pair held together by two 6647:MacKay, Donald M. (1969). 6398:Royal Astronomical Society 6095:The Astonishing Hypothesis 5761:pp. 237–238, as quoted by 5753:, 1623), as translated by 5081:Ithaca 1962, as quoted in 5073:, translated by S. Pines, 4962:. Cornell University Press 4560:before ideas are accepted. 4219: 4170:might take, then serve as 4109:Statistical generalisation 4092: 4039:On the System of the World 3616:Building on Pólya's work, 3410:, pp. 38–50 notes "a 3375:Science of complex systems 3294: 3205: 3170:Comparably, following the 3133: 3054: 3035:valid rule, it should be ' 3010: 2985:common scientific method. 2965: 2919: 2849: 2598:diversity of life on Earth 2564:and can remain subject to 2166: 1840: 1740: 1637: 1604:James Webb Space Telescope 1596:National Ignition Facility 1500: 1456:formulating the hypothesis 1406: 1261: 586: 580: 576: 272:Interdisciplinary sciences 38: 18: 13819: 13764:Politicization of science 13724: 13510: 13279: 13214: 13126: 13091: 13068: 12993: 12825: 12727: 12657: 12600:Semantic view of theories 12519:Epistemological anarchism 12471: 12456:dependent and independent 12193: 12084:by Steven D. Schafersman. 12011:Resources in your library 11665:, New York: Basic Books, 11474:, Oxford University Press 11003:Introductory Orientations 10983:(2nd ed.), Doubleday 10941:, New York: W.W. Norton, 10762:10.1103/RevModPhys.82.939 10364:Cowles, Henry M. (2020), 10284:Brody, Thomas A. (1993), 9843:"Regarding the Misuse of 9729:Singapore Medical Journal 9565:Knorr-Cetina, K. (1999). 9532:Social Studies of Science 8862:10.1007/s13194-019-0253-9 8582:Einstein, Albert (1961). 7592:Needham & Wang (1954) 6154:Einstein, Albert (1949). 6082:Bynum & Porter (2005) 5612:; Sankey, Howard (2007). 5506:Thurs, Daniel P. (2015), 4895:v. 6, paragraphs 452–85, 4842:Oxford English Dictionary 4352:who else might know this? 4043:See Motte's translation ( 3645:internally logically true 3593:, which Pólya takes from 3564: 3549: 3534: 3519: 3512: 3507: 3242:. He used the concept of 3013:Epistemological anarchism 3007:Epistemological anarchism 2875:methodological naturalism 1969:, political or religious 1822:Scientific data archiving 1409:Prediction § Science 13171:Philosophy of technology 12342:Intertheoretic reduction 12331:Ignoramus et ignorabimus 12308:Functional contextualism 12110:(archived 28 April 2006) 11159:Popper, Karl R. (1963), 10327:The Landmarks of Science 9639:Kuhn, Thomas S. (2009). 9421:10.1177/1746197916648283 8969:Bauer, Henry H. (1992). 8106:Strickberger's Evolution 7749:10.1515/9783110325867.33 7401:Hanson, Norwood (1958), 7241:, pp. xxvii–xxviii. 7043:, if this scheme were a 6727:"LHC long term schedule" 6455:"The Secret of Photo 51" 6181:Aristotle (trans. 1853) 5477:Smolin, Lee (May 2013). 5265:Kepler, Johannes (1604) 5188:Inwood, Stephen (2003). 4743:Poincaré homology sphere 4622:Alistair Cameron Crombie 3945:building physical models 3931:affirming the consequent 3760: 3711:Evidence-based practices 2866:science from non-science 2846:Philosophy and discourse 1324:, borrowing a page from 679:Giambattista della Porta 327:Research and development 12827:Philosophers of science 12605:Scientific essentialism 12554:Model-dependent realism 12489:Constructive empiricism 12382:Evidence-based practice 12092:University of Rochester 11603:and Capaldi, Nicholas, 11577:Beveridge, William I.B. 10798:Jevons, William Stanley 10440:D. C. Heath and Company 9896:Anderson, Chris (2008) 9711:, Economist Books, 2003 9709:Intellectual Impostures 9349:Science & Education 9273:Science & Education 8542:10.1002/ejsp.2420250407 8419:E Brian Davies (2006). 8330:8 November 2022 at the 8264:. pp. 62–74 (72). 7615:Ronald R. Sims (2003). 7568:model-dependent realism 7472:The Demon-Haunted World 7252:NIH Data Sharing Policy 6219:Popular Science Monthly 6093:Crick, Francis (1994), 5900:Popular Science Monthly 5677:. New York: Routledge. 4958:Elizabeth Asmis (1985) 4857:– via OED Online. 4769:Newton, Isaac (1999) . 4372:Popular Science Monthly 4340:inquiry-based education 4312:, at that time denoted 4254:, using experiments on 3307:discovery of penicillin 3216:On the idea of Fleck's 3057:Philosophy of education 2769:will breed stagnation. 2521:Monte-Carlo simulations 2393:probabilistic reasoning 2067:Muybridge's photographs 2014:model-dependent realism 1832:Foundational principles 1644:Scholarly communication 1250:, rather than to study 1226:with, "I do not define 914:philosophers of science 13244:Sociology of knowledge 12910:Alfred North Whitehead 12900:Charles Sanders Peirce 11973:Conceptual Revolutions 11680:Crombie, A.C. (1953), 11448:Taleb, Nassim Nicholas 11114:Pólya, George (2009). 11074:Science and Hypothesis 11040:Ørsted, Hans Christian 11031:, Third edition. From 10886:Proofs and Refutations 10827:, Simon and Schuster, 10804:, Dover Publications, 10123:Henri Poincaré, Sur l’ 10072:H.S.M. Coxeter (1973) 9907:. Wired Magazine 16.07 9741:10.11622/smedj.2015105 9267:Emden, Markus (2021). 8905:10.1002/sce.3730710402 8491:Listen to the Gentiles 8456:The American Economist 7956:Christopher M. Bishop 7741:Reason and Rationality 7377:10.1103/PhysRev.43.491 6225:: 286–302 – via 5659:reflective equilibrium 5309:Galileo Galilei (1638) 5221:Hooke, Robert (1705). 4818:, 2016, archived from 4708: 4702:described it in 1995: 4463: 4460:His assertions in the 4432:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 4414:Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī 3672:Proofs and Refutations 3623:Proofs and Refutations 3315:scientific discoveries 3310: 3228:Norwood Russell Hanson 3130:Sociology of knowledge 3004: 2948:scientific disciplines 2862:the underpinning logic 2809: 2737: 2699: 2509:Mathematical modelling 2504:Mathematical modelling 2476:and particularly with 2420:and their testing via 2354:process for validation 2216: 2208: 2119: 1918: 1886: 1750:Georg Wilhelm Richmann 1719:atmospheric refraction 1684:accuracy and precision 1680: 1664:of the physical shapes 1620:controlled experiments 1608:adjunct infrastructure 1535: 1436: 1374: 1322:Charles Sanders Peirce 1303:existential statements 1291: 1258:Hypothesis development 1176: 1143:scientific instruments 1062: 1031:transforming principle 951:the educational system 873: 661:approach described by 527:coupled with rigorous 234:Extrascientific fields 13902:Philosophy of science 13897:Scientific Revolution 13811:Transition management 13801:Technology assessment 13769:Regulation of science 13744:Evidence-based policy 13629:Sociotechnical system 13478:Traditional knowledge 13358:Psychology of science 13331:Mapping controversies 13237:shaping of technology 13196:Social constructivism 13161:Philosophy of science 13118:History of technology 13009:Philosophy portal 12760:Hard and soft science 12755:Faith and rationality 12624:Scientific skepticism 12404:Scientific Revolution 12187:Philosophy of science 12135:by Nick Josh Karean, 11616:, W.A. Benjamin, 1968 11591:Bernstein, Richard J. 11482:(12 September 2019). 10591:English translation: 10019:George Pólya (1954), 10006:George Pólya (1954), 8765:Science & Society 8703:Out of My Later Years 8666:Krantz, S.G. (2005). 8494:Question the question 8222:Mark Colyvan (2001). 7403:Patterns of Discovery 6426:Greenwich Observatory 6408:. One expedition, to 6156:The World as I See It 5683:10.4324/9781315100708 5634:10.4324/9781315711959 5557:Snyder, Mark (1984). 4885:: 90–112 – via 4703: 4377:, January 1878, p.286 4306:, which is Alhazen's 4166:. The values which a 3743:Research transparency 3737:Quantitative research 3478:, and others such as 3328:Nassim Nicholas Taleb 3304: 2990: 2928:philosophy of science 2852:Philosophy of science 2796: 2724: 2690: 2648:(the trivial element) 2537:testable explanations 2397:statistical mechanics 2214: 2188: 2102: 1908: 1900:philosophy of science 1873: 1647: 1640:Scientific literature 1588:Large Hadron Collider 1515:King's College London 1506: 1412: 1407:Further information: 1360: 1267: 1163: 1155:particle accelerators 1098:some definitions and 1014: 918:experimental sciences 883:scientific revolution 870:there are many others 863: 820:have been used since 643:scientific revolution 533:cognitive assumptions 515:method for acquiring 471:Philosophy portal 403:Science communication 247:Communication studies 13716:Women in engineering 13562:Financial technology 13542:Digital anthropology 13311:Criticism of science 13224:Actor–network theory 13186:Religion and science 13078:Economics of science 12735:Criticism of science 12610:Scientific formalism 12494:Constructive realism 12399:Scientific pluralism 12372:Problem of induction 11703:The Scientific Image 11699:Fraassen, Bas C. van 10707:Godfrey-Smith, Peter 10536:, Univ. of Chicago, 9970:(2) (2006), 165–492. 8797:Kevin Knight (1989) 8648:universal statements 8323:Also available from 8260:. Berlin; New York: 7486:Godfrey-Smith (2003) 7091:Liber de crepusculis 7083:Treatise On Twilight 6338:Tobacco mosaic virus 5977:, esp. chapters 5–8. 5921:Peirce, Charles S., 5828:Godfrey-Smith, Peter 5360:Godfrey-Smith (2003) 5093:Planetary Hypotheses 4897:The Essential Peirce 4734:Euler characteristic 4348:is this answer true? 4222:Cognitive revolution 4208:facts have lifetimes 4037:Isaac Newton (1727) 3653:Euler characteristic 3628:informal mathematics 3414:that condition it". 3404:predictive analytics 3393:scientific modelling 3032:methodological rules 2922:Scientific pluralism 2496:, which are used in 2470:inductivist approach 2296:theory of relativity 2006:scientific modelling 1939:discovery of Neptune 1843:Scientific integrity 1715:Treatise On Twilight 1705:was less dense than 1548:experimental control 1307:universal statements 1264:Hypothesis formation 1187:usage. For example, 1048:pictures of various 1039:Cambridge University 910:scientific community 790:historian of science 600:scientific reasoning 360:Scientific integrity 342:Vocational education 277:Knowledge management 167:Behavioural sciences 31:For other uses, see 13557:Engineering studies 13527:Cyborg anthropology 13316:Demarcation problem 13201:Social epistemology 12802:Rhetoric of science 12740:Descriptive science 12484:Confirmation holism 12377:Scientific evidence 12337:Inductive reasoning 12266:Demarcation problem 12026:"Scientific Method" 11933:Renewing Philosophy 11905:Scientific American 11865:McComas, William F. 11731:Gadamer, Hans-Georg 11684:, Oxford: Clarendon 11500:2019PLSCB..15E7279V 11296:1976PhT....29b..51S 11060:Peirce, C.S. – see 10754:2010RvMP...82..939G 10616:, pp. 261–264. 10149:Notices of the AMS. 9455:(London, 1967), 16. 8940:2003IJSEd..25.1049O 8897:1987SciEd..71..459A 8811:Feyerabend, Paul K. 7998:Hempel, Carl Gustav 7666:"Scientific Method" 7369:1933PhRv...43..491A 7279:Logik der Forschung 7121:2006PhT....59a..42K 6809:. 12 January 2015. 6396:In March 1917, the 6269:1964Sci...146..347P 5906:: 1–15 – via 5070:Critique of Ptolemy 4812:"scientific method" 4736:notes that it took 4572:Friedel Weinert in 4497:argued that merely 4193:Thought collectives 4158:, which describe a 3676:thought experiments 3661:homological algebra 3578:Test and experiment 3509:Mathematical method 3457:Poincaré conjecture 3381:transdisciplinarity 3218:thought collectives 3188:high energy physics 3164:thought collectives 3153:thought, echoed in 3145:Thought collectives 3141:those ideas arise. 3061:Scientific literacy 2746:reviewed prior work 2629:Confirmation theory 2546:scientific theories 2498:encryption software 2458:abductive reasoning 2422:deductive reasoning 2370:boy or girl paradox 2173:Inductive reasoning 2169:Deductive reasoning 2071:The Horse in Motion 1721:of the sun's rays. 1479:gravitational field 1448:deductive reasoning 1345:abductive reasoning 1314:inductive reasoning 1230:, space, place and 1214:begins by defining 1115:scientific question 1068:can also be called 1023:genetic inheritance 842:Elements of inquiry 677:, and performed by 545:inductive reasoning 13837:History of science 13754:Funding of science 13624:Skunkworks project 13321:Double hermeneutic 13106:History of science 13021:Science portal 12950:Carl Gustav Hempel 12905:Wilhelm Windelband 12792:Questionable cause 12615:Scientific realism 12436:Underdetermination 12271:Empirical evidence 12261:Creative synthesis 12120:Scientific Methods 12080:2018-01-01 at the 12024:; Hepburn, Brian. 11856:2018-02-20 at the 11783:Karin Knorr Cetina 11761:Heisenberg, Werner 11624:Grandy, Richard E. 11612:2023-04-13 at the 11314:Sanches, Francisco 11153:(English ed.) 10904:Lindberg, David C. 10558:2023-04-06 at the 10165:2021-07-04 at the 9927:2021-08-26 at the 9903:2021-05-02 at the 9467:History and Theory 9441:Here, King quotes 8646:Consequently, the 8500:Simplify, simplify 8407:in all situations. 7548:"What is reality?" 7257:2012-05-13 at the 7067:2022-09-21 at the 6862:2021-12-23 at the 6713:2021-08-20 at the 6702:2021-08-17 at the 6546:2011-05-24 at the 6190:2021-09-10 at the 6072:Andreas Vesalius, 5996:2021-09-01 at the 5786:Maribel Fernández 5512:Numbers, Ronald L. 5024:2019-12-30 at the 4515:ethical principles 3365:misuse of p-values 3311: 3222:situated cognition 3196:epistemic cultures 3184:Karin Knorr Cetina 2974:logical positivism 2910:Grammar of Science 2879:Logical positivist 2811:The discussion on 2562:empirical findings 2527:Scientific inquiry 2403:Methods of inquiry 2385:survey methodology 2350:Research questions 2217: 2209: 2202:apsidal precession 2128:Eadweard Muybridge 2046:Théodore Géricault 2029:Beliefs and biases 1919: 1794:scientific journal 1774:experimental group 1770:experimental error 1540:crucial experiment 1467:general relativity 1318:Bayesian inference 1299:mathematical model 1210:'s first paper on 1108:empirical research 874: 786:ethical principles 752:popular guidelines 596:history of science 571:scientific inquiry 456:Science portal 13892:Scientific method 13879: 13878: 13806:Technology policy 13537:Dematerialization 13346:black swan events 13028: 13027: 12870: 12869: 12782:Normative science 12639:Uniformitarianism 12394:Scientific method 12288:Explanatory power 12066:Scientific method 12057:Scientific method 12002:Scientific method 11997:Library resources 11949:Salmon, Wesley C. 11845:Maxwell, Nicholas 11835:Maxwell, Nicholas 11800:978-0-674-25894-5 11723:978-1-59403-207-3 11672:978-0-465-09137-9 11480:Voit, Eberhard O. 11463:978-1-4000-6351-2 11439:978-0-226-31783-0 11339:Critical edition. 11327:978-0-521-35077-8 11304:10.1063/1.3023315 11273:978-0-87663-712-8 11258:Sambursky, Shmuel 11226:978-0-415-12411-9 11127:978-4-87187-830-2 11053:978-0-691-04334-0 11027:978-0-520-08817-7 10971:978-0-7382-0866-4 10948:978-0-393-30450-3 10927:978-0-7503-0106-0 10912:2nd edition 2007. 10896:978-0-521-29038-8 10819:, New York, 1958. 10811:978-1-4304-8775-3 10720:978-0-226-30063-4 10698:978-0-8047-2285-8 10662:978-0-521-01708-4 10641:978-0-521-81689-2 10607:978-0-486-60099-4 10543:978-0-226-25325-1 10519:978-0-262-56003-0 10496:978-0-671-20156-2 10466:978-0-521-29925-1 10422:978-0-8122-1057-6 10356:978-0-19-858409-4 10338:978-0-8160-2137-6 10331:, Facts on File, 10321:Bruno, Leonard C. 10301:978-0-387-55914-8 10261:978-0-7546-6865-7 10221:978-1-4907-1446-2 10074:Regular Polytopes 9822:Taleb, Nassim N. 9652:978-1-4432-5544-8 9576:978-0-674-25893-8 9231:978-1-77420-005-6 9187:978-0-7817-5565-8 8980:978-0-252-06436-4 8885:Science Education 8749:978-94-007-0142-7 8679:978-0-88385-554-6 8593:978-0-517-88441-6 8147:978-0-19-517234-8 8120:978-0-7637-0066-9 8093:, pp. 44–45. 7917:978-0-14-312710-9 7807:(1164): 793–798. 7758:978-3-11-032514-0 7717:. 16 April 2020. 7582:, pp. 29–31. 7488:, pp. 19–74. 7444:978-3-030-54217-7 7412:978-0-521-05197-2 7130:10.1063/1.2180176 7087:Opticae Thesaurus 6911:De Motu Stellarum 6620:Mill, John Stuart 6486:Cynthia Wolberger 6364:Acta Crystallogr. 6324:at the same time. 6242:, pp. 37–38. 5843:978-0-226-30062-7 5763:di Francia (1981) 5692:978-1-315-10070-8 5580:978-0-12-015218-6 5525:978-0-674-91547-3 5405:978-0-8018-7943-2 5199:978-1-931561-56-3 5009:Treatise on Light 4973:Treatise on Light 4971:Alhacen (c.1035) 4797:978-0-520-08817-7 4626:Margaret Morrison 4588:(1949 and 1953), 4318:Opticae Thesaurus 3585:In Pólya's view, 3583: 3582: 3514:Scientific method 3252:Intersubjectivity 3192:molecular biology 3067:science education 2618:molecular biology 2486:research question 2136:Appeal to novelty 2094:confirmation bias 1927:intersubjectivity 1826:World Data Center 1758:Benjamin Franklin 1730:enter the process 1676:Rosalind Franklin 1626:(853–929 CE) and 1519:Rosalind Franklin 1393:confirmation bias 1080:Benjamin Franklin 1071:unsolved problems 1011:Characterizations 971:Define a question 802:narrative fallacy 742:Dewey's 1910 book 691:Francisco Sanches 636:William of Ockham 509:scientific method 505: 504: 418:Scientific method 408:Science education 349: 348: 332:Strategic studies 124:Scientific fields 13914: 13852: 13851: 13827: 13779:Right to science 13759:Horizon scanning 13734:Academic freedom 13634:Technical change 13495:Women in science 13490:Unity of science 13271:Strong programme 13055: 13048: 13041: 13032: 13031: 13019: 13018: 13007: 13006: 13005: 12980:Bas van Fraassen 12935:Hans Reichenbach 12915:Bertrand Russell 12832: 12831: 12658:Philosophy of... 12441:Unity of science 12234:Commensurability 12180: 12173: 12166: 12157: 12156: 12102:Theory-ladenness 12053: 12039: 12030:Zalta, Edward N. 11890:Misak, Cheryl J. 11886: 11884: 11873: 11804: 11741:Giere, Ronald N. 11726: 11685: 11675: 11634:Burks, Arthur W. 11620:Brody, Baruch A. 11601:Brody, Baruch A. 11553: 11549:The Double Helix 11544:Watson, James D. 11539: 11529: 11511: 11475: 11466: 11456:, Random House, 11443: 11424: 11399: 11369: 11338: 11306: 11276: 11252: 11230: 11208: 11206: 11200:, archived from 11189: 11173: 11154: 11139: 11111: 11089: 11087: 11086: 11056: 11033:I. Bernard Cohen 11030: 11007: 10984: 10974: 10951: 10930: 10911: 10899: 10876: 10837: 10814: 10793: 10772: 10747: 10723: 10701: 10690: 10676: 10675: 10674: 10645: 10611: 10587: 10585:House of Elzevir 10546: 10522: 10504:Feynman, Richard 10499: 10488: 10475:Einstein, Albert 10469: 10450: 10425: 10405: 10403: 10402: 10378: 10359: 10341: 10330: 10315: 10314: 10313: 10276: 10264: 10236: 10234: 10233: 10194: 10188: 10182: 10176: 10170: 10145: 10139: 10121: 10115: 10114: 10112: 10111: 10105: 10098: 10090: 10084: 10070: 10064: 10054: 10048: 10042: 10036: 10030: 10024: 10017: 10011: 10004: 9998: 9991: 9985: 9979: 9973: 9954: 9948: 9938: 9932: 9914: 9908: 9894: 9888: 9887: 9885: 9884: 9866: 9838: 9832: 9831: 9826:. Archived from 9819: 9813: 9812: 9794: 9785: 9778: 9767: 9766: 9752: 9720: 9714: 9672: 9666: 9663: 9657: 9656: 9636: 9630: 9624: 9618: 9617:, p. xxviii 9612: 9606: 9605:, pp. 38–50 9595: 9589: 9588: 9562: 9556: 9555: 9527: 9521: 9520: 9518: 9517: 9505: 9499: 9498: 9462: 9456: 9439: 9433: 9432: 9406: 9397: 9391: 9390: 9380: 9340: 9334: 9333: 9305: 9299: 9298: 9288: 9279:(5): 1037–1039. 9264: 9253: 9250: 9244: 9243: 9215: 9209: 9205: 9199: 9197: 9195: 9194: 9171: 9162: 9161: 9125: 9116: 9115: 9075: 9066: 9065: 9029: 9023: 9022: 8994: 8985: 8984: 8966: 8960: 8959: 8934:(9): 1049–1079. 8923: 8917: 8916: 8880: 8874: 8873: 8845: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8824: 8818: 8808: 8802: 8795: 8789: 8788: 8760: 8754: 8753: 8724: 8718: 8715: 8706: 8699: 8690: 8689: 8687: 8686: 8663: 8657: 8656: 8604: 8598: 8597: 8579: 8573: 8571: 8563: 8554: 8553: 8521: 8515: 8509: 8503: 8497:Dare to be silly 8487: 8451: 8445: 8439: 8433: 8432: 8416: 8410: 8409: 8391:The Grand Design 8384: 8378: 8377: 8365: 8359: 8358: 8346: 8335: 8322: 8320: 8319: 8301: 8292: 8291: 8251: 8240: 8239: 8219: 8210: 8206: 8200: 8199: 8169: 8163: 8162: 8160: 8159: 8131: 8125: 8124: 8100: 8094: 8088: 8079: 8072: 8066: 8058: 8049: 8043: 8037: 8026: 8020: 8014: 8012: 8011: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7961: 7954: 7948: 7947: 7945: 7944: 7921: 7903: 7897: 7896: 7886: 7868: 7844: 7833: 7832: 7796: 7790: 7781: 7775: 7769: 7763: 7762: 7736: 7730: 7729: 7727: 7726: 7703: 7697: 7691: 7680: 7679: 7677: 7676: 7661: 7655: 7654:, pp. 1–19. 7649: 7643: 7637: 7628: 7622: 7613: 7607: 7601: 7595: 7589: 7583: 7577: 7571: 7565: 7552:The Grand Design 7543: 7532: 7529:Collected Papers 7526: 7510: 7504: 7503: 7495: 7489: 7483: 7477: 7476: 7463: 7457: 7456: 7422: 7416: 7415: 7398: 7389: 7388: 7352: 7346: 7340: 7334: 7324: 7322: 7321: 7315: 7308: 7299: 7293: 7292: 7268: 7262: 7248: 7242: 7236: 7230: 7229: 7219: 7209: 7183: 7177: 7176: 7174: 7173: 7167: 7160: 7152: 7146: 7145: 7132: 7100: 7094: 7054: 7048: 7026: 7020: 6994: 6988: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6942: 6936: 6930: 6921: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6894: 6888: 6881: 6873: 6867: 6853: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6843: 6828: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6818: 6803: 6797: 6796: 6794: 6793: 6778: 6772: 6771: 6769: 6768: 6753: 6747: 6745: 6743: 6742: 6723: 6717: 6693: 6687: 6686: 6644: 6631: 6617: 6611: 6608:Chargaff's rules 6601: 6590: 6589: 6584: 6583: 6572:Collected Papers 6563: 6552: 6537: 6526: 6516: 6510: 6500: 6491: 6483: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6470: 6451: 6445: 6394: 6388: 6378: 6372: 6359: 6353: 6347: 6341: 6331: 6325: 6295: 6289: 6288: 6249: 6243: 6237: 6231: 6230: 6216: 6208: 6195: 6178: 6172: 6166: 6160: 6159: 6151: 6145: 6139: 6133: 6131: 6123: 6117: 6111: 6105: 6091: 6085: 6070: 6064: 6062: 6060: 6059: 6031: 6025: 6019: 6013: 6007: 6001: 5984: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5945: 5939: 5933: 5927: 5923:Collected Papers 5919: 5913: 5911: 5897: 5889: 5880: 5868: 5859: 5858: 5856: 5855: 5824: 5818: 5812: 5806: 5796: 5790: 5784: 5778: 5772: 5766: 5741: 5732: 5731: 5726: 5725: 5719: 5712: 5703: 5697: 5696: 5670: 5664: 5663: 5606: 5600: 5594: 5585: 5584: 5554: 5545: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5503: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5490: 5474: 5465: 5464: 5459: 5452: 5438: 5429: 5423: 5410: 5409: 5391: 5382: 5376: 5363: 5357: 5351: 5345: 5339: 5330: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5306: 5297: 5296: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5247: 5237: 5231: 5230: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5185: 5179: 5169: 5163: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5138: 5132: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5121: 5083:Sambursky (1975) 5054: 5043: 5040:Sambursky (1975) 5016: 5015: 5005: 4999: 4993: 4984: 4977:Shmuel Sambursky 4969: 4963: 4956: 4950: 4936: 4927: 4921: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4893:Collected Papers 4890: 4876: 4868: 4859: 4858: 4856: 4855: 4845: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4828: 4827: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4766: 4747: 4730: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4691: 4685: 4682: 4676: 4651: 4645: 4614:Nicholas Maxwell 4606:Michael Friedman 4570: 4561: 4552: 4546: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4522: 4511: 4502: 4491: 4485: 4481:Two New Sciences 4476: 4470: 4466: 4458: 4443: 4407: 4394: 4384: 4378: 4365: 4359: 4336: 4323: 4304:Kitab al-Manazir 4300:Charles M. Falco 4286:Sambursky (1975) 4269: 4263: 4244: 4229: 4216:Fleck 1979, p.27 4189: 4183: 4162:of mathematical 4148: 4142: 4139:Arthur Eddington 4136: 4127: 4123: 4117: 4105: 4099: 4085: 4079: 4072: 4066: 4055: 4049: 4035: 4026: 4020: 4014: 4011:John Stuart Mill 4003: 3997: 3994: 3988: 3985:Two New Sciences 3981: 3975: 3968: 3962: 3954: 3948: 3940: 3934: 3919: 3913: 3910: 3904: 3901: 3895: 3892:Jacques Herbrand 3884: 3878: 3874: 3868: 3856: 3850: 3838: 3827: 3820: 3814: 3806: 3797: 3773: 3716: 3707: 3503: 3502: 3480:Lakoff and Núñez 3286:Limits of method 3260:strong programme 3002: 2982:special sciences 2968:Unity of science 2944:research methods 2887:falsificationist 2807: 2735: 2574:almost perfectly 2464:Inductive method 2378:random variables 2157:Donald M. MacKay 2117: 2063: 2041: 1993:associated with 1884: 1805:supply this data 1780:gets a placebo. 1691:Published papers 1653: 1652: 1544:further testing. 1512: 1511: 1483:Arthur Eddington 1418: 1417: 1397:strong inference 1391:To minimize the 1372: 1273: 1272: 1201:units of measure 1185:natural language 1174: 1171:Andreas Vesalius 1078:.) For example, 1052:, starting with 1020: 1019: 987:Analyze the data 851: 850: 832:Two New Sciences 552:field of inquiry 497: 490: 483: 469: 468: 467: 454: 453: 413:Research funding 282:Language studies 214:Applied sciences 150:Natural sciences 120: 119: 48: 47: 36: 29: 13922: 13921: 13917: 13916: 13915: 13913: 13912: 13911: 13882: 13881: 13880: 13875: 13815: 13774:Research ethics 13720: 13619:Reverse salient 13513: 13506: 13282: 13275: 13266:Sociotechnology 13210: 13122: 13087: 13064: 13059: 13029: 13024: 13013: 13003: 13001: 12989: 12970:Paul Feyerabend 12930:Michael Polanyi 12866: 12852:Galileo Galilei 12821: 12807:Science studies 12723: 12653: 12644:Verificationism 12549:Instrumentalism 12534:Foundationalism 12509:Conventionalism 12467: 12303:Feminist method 12189: 12184: 12145:Richard Dawkins 12141:Michael Shermer 12082:Wayback Machine 12042: 12022:Andersen, Hanne 12017: 12016: 12015: 12005: 12004: 12000: 11993: 11988: 11919:Popper, Karl R. 11882: 11871: 11858:Wayback Machine 11808:Kuhn, Thomas S. 11801: 11724: 11710:Franklin, James 11673: 11614:Wayback Machine 11567:Bauer, Henry H. 11562: 11560:Further reading 11557: 11494:(9): e1007279. 11464: 11440: 11388:10.2307/3657357 11358:10.2307/3657358 11328: 11274: 11227: 11204: 11198: 11187: 11179:Popper, Karl R. 11171: 11145:Popper, Karl R. 11128: 11100:How to Solve It 11084: 11082: 11069:Poincaré, Henri 11054: 11028: 10994:Wang, Ling (王玲) 10990:Needham, Joseph 10972: 10964:, Basic Books, 10949: 10935:McCarty, Maclyn 10928: 10897: 10842:Kuhn, Thomas S. 10835: 10812: 10791: 10731:Rev. Mod. Phys. 10721: 10699: 10672: 10670: 10663: 10642: 10608: 10594:Galileo Galilei 10567:Galileo Galilei 10560:Wayback Machine 10544: 10520: 10497: 10479:Infeld, Leopold 10467: 10423: 10400: 10398: 10376: 10357: 10339: 10311: 10309: 10302: 10286:Luis de la Peña 10262: 10231: 10229: 10222: 10203: 10198: 10197: 10189: 10185: 10177: 10173: 10167:Wayback Machine 10146: 10142: 10122: 10118: 10109: 10107: 10103: 10096: 10092: 10091: 10087: 10071: 10067: 10055: 10051: 10043: 10039: 10031: 10027: 10018: 10014: 10005: 10001: 9992: 9988: 9980: 9976: 9955: 9951: 9939: 9935: 9929:Wayback Machine 9915: 9911: 9905:Wayback Machine 9895: 9891: 9882: 9880: 9839: 9835: 9820: 9816: 9809: 9795: 9788: 9779: 9770: 9721: 9717: 9686:, Picador. 1999 9673: 9669: 9664: 9660: 9653: 9637: 9633: 9625: 9621: 9613: 9609: 9596: 9592: 9577: 9563: 9559: 9528: 9524: 9515: 9513: 9506: 9502: 9479:10.2307/2504396 9463: 9459: 9443:Peter L. Berger 9440: 9436: 9404: 9398: 9394: 9341: 9337: 9306: 9302: 9265: 9256: 9251: 9247: 9232: 9216: 9212: 9206: 9202: 9192: 9190: 9188: 9172: 9165: 9142:10.2307/4450823 9126: 9119: 9076: 9069: 9046:10.2307/4451400 9030: 9026: 8995: 8988: 8981: 8967: 8963: 8924: 8920: 8881: 8877: 8846: 8842: 8825: 8821: 8809: 8805: 8796: 8792: 8761: 8757: 8750: 8725: 8721: 8716: 8709: 8700: 8693: 8684: 8682: 8680: 8664: 8660: 8634: 8605: 8601: 8594: 8580: 8576: 8564: 8557: 8522: 8518: 8510: 8506: 8452: 8448: 8440: 8436: 8425:PhilSci Archive 8417: 8413: 8402: 8385: 8381: 8366: 8362: 8347: 8338: 8332:Wayback Machine 8317: 8315: 8302: 8295: 8280: 8270:10.1007/b138529 8262:Springer-Verlag 8252: 8243: 8236: 8220: 8213: 8207: 8203: 8196: 8170: 8166: 8157: 8155: 8148: 8132: 8128: 8121: 8101: 8097: 8089: 8082: 8073: 8069: 8059: 8052: 8044: 8040: 8027: 8023: 8009: 8007: 7995: 7991: 7983: 7964: 7955: 7951: 7942: 7940: 7918: 7904: 7900: 7845: 7836: 7797: 7793: 7782: 7778: 7770: 7766: 7759: 7737: 7733: 7724: 7722: 7711:Science Release 7705: 7704: 7700: 7694:Gauch Jr (2002) 7692: 7683: 7674: 7672: 7662: 7658: 7650: 7646: 7638: 7631: 7625:Business Ethics 7620: 7614: 7610: 7602: 7598: 7590: 7586: 7580:Gauch Jr (2002) 7578: 7574: 7562: 7544: 7535: 7511: 7507: 7496: 7492: 7484: 7480: 7464: 7460: 7445: 7423: 7419: 7413: 7399: 7392: 7357:Physical Review 7353: 7349: 7343:Gauch Jr (2002) 7341: 7337: 7319: 7317: 7313: 7306: 7300: 7296: 7289: 7269: 7265: 7259:Wayback Machine 7249: 7245: 7237: 7233: 7184: 7180: 7171: 7169: 7165: 7158: 7154: 7153: 7149: 7101: 7097: 7069:Wayback Machine 7055: 7051: 7029:McElheny (2004) 7027: 7023: 6995: 6991: 6981:McElheny (2004) 6979: 6975: 6969:McElheny (2004) 6967: 6963: 6957:McElheny (2004) 6955: 6951: 6943: 6939: 6931: 6924: 6905: 6901: 6892: 6890: 6886: 6879: 6875: 6874: 6870: 6864:Wayback Machine 6854: 6850: 6841: 6839: 6830: 6829: 6825: 6816: 6814: 6805: 6804: 6800: 6791: 6789: 6780: 6779: 6775: 6766: 6764: 6755: 6754: 6750: 6740: 6738: 6725: 6724: 6720: 6715:Wayback Machine 6704:Wayback Machine 6694: 6690: 6659: 6645: 6634: 6618: 6614: 6604:McElheny (2004) 6602: 6593: 6581: 6579: 6564: 6555: 6548:Wayback Machine 6538: 6529: 6517: 6513: 6503:McElheny (2004) 6501: 6494: 6484: 6477: 6468: 6466: 6453: 6452: 6448: 6395: 6391: 6387:April 25, 1953. 6381:McElheny (2004) 6379: 6375: 6360: 6356: 6350:McElheny (2004) 6348: 6344: 6332: 6328: 6310:supernova 1987a 6300:, for teaching 6296: 6292: 6250: 6246: 6238: 6234: 6209: 6198: 6192:Wayback Machine 6183:Prior Analytics 6179: 6175: 6167: 6163: 6152: 6148: 6142:McElheny (2004) 6140: 6136: 6129: 6128:, p. 157. 6124: 6120: 6114:McElheny (2004) 6112: 6108: 6092: 6088: 6071: 6067: 6057: 6055: 6048: 6032: 6028: 6022:McElheny (2004) 6020: 6016: 6008: 6004: 5998:Wayback Machine 5985: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5946: 5942: 5934: 5930: 5920: 5916: 5890: 5883: 5876:epistemic cycle 5869: 5862: 5853: 5851: 5844: 5825: 5821: 5813: 5809: 5799:Lindberg (2007) 5797: 5793: 5785: 5781: 5773: 5769: 5742: 5735: 5723: 5721: 5717: 5710: 5704: 5700: 5693: 5671: 5667: 5644: 5607: 5603: 5595: 5588: 5581: 5555: 5548: 5535: 5533: 5526: 5504: 5497: 5488: 5486: 5475: 5468: 5460:on 2017-10-13. 5457: 5450: 5440: 5439: 5432: 5424: 5413: 5406: 5392: 5385: 5377: 5366: 5358: 5354: 5349:The Empiricists 5346: 5342: 5331: 5327: 5319: 5315: 5307: 5300: 5264: 5260: 5252: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5234: 5219: 5215: 5200: 5186: 5182: 5170: 5166: 5157: 5153: 5145: 5141: 5135:Alikuzai (2013) 5133: 5129: 5119: 5117: 5110: 5096: 5067:965 – c. 1040) 5055: 5046: 5026:Wayback Machine 5006: 5002: 4994: 4987: 4970: 4966: 4957: 4953: 4945:(1837), and in 4939:William Whewell 4937: 4930: 4922: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4879:Hibbert Journal 4869: 4862: 4853: 4851: 4838: 4837: 4833: 4825: 4823: 4810: 4809: 4805: 4798: 4767: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4731: 4724: 4716: 4712: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4652: 4648: 4630:Richard Feynman 4571: 4564: 4553: 4549: 4541: 4537: 4529: 4525: 4512: 4505: 4499:Trial and Error 4492: 4488: 4477: 4473: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4408: 4401: 4397: 4385: 4381: 4366: 4362: 4356:can I ask them? 4337: 4326: 4270: 4266: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4228: 4197:denkkollektiven 4190: 4186: 4149: 4145: 4137: 4130: 4124: 4120: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4086: 4082: 4076:Gauch Jr (2002) 4073: 4069: 4056: 4052: 4036: 4029: 4021: 4017: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3982: 3978: 3969: 3965: 3955: 3951: 3941: 3937: 3920: 3916: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3898: 3885: 3881: 3875: 3871: 3857: 3853: 3839: 3830: 3821: 3817: 3807: 3800: 3786:Euclid's Optics 3774: 3767: 3763: 3714: 3705: 3698: 3649:rewriting forms 3490:problem solving 3476:Gregory Chaitin 3420: 3377: 3348: 3299: 3293: 3288: 3236:Paul Feyerabend 3214: 3204: 3147: 3138: 3132: 3063: 3053: 3041:problem solvers 3018:Paul Feyerabend 3015: 3009: 3003: 2999:Steven Weinberg 2997: 2970: 2964: 2924: 2918: 2894:unificationists 2858: 2848: 2838:as them being " 2808: 2802: 2775: 2755: 2736: 2730: 2708: 2631: 2626: 2558: 2535:in the form of 2529: 2506: 2466: 2410: 2405: 2332:sampling method 2328:data collection 2316: 2175: 2167:Main articles: 2165: 2118: 2108: 2078: 2077: 2076: 2075: 2074: 2064: 2055: 2054: 2053: 2042: 2031: 2022: 1991:Cartesian doubt 1947: 1931:Johannes Kepler 1891: 1885: 1879: 1861:reproducibility 1849: 1839: 1834: 1787:The process of 1745: 1743:Reproducibility 1739: 1726:can be archived 1650: 1646: 1636: 1630:(965–1039 CE). 1557:Factor analysis 1527:Raymond Gosling 1523:Maurice Wilkins 1509: 1505: 1499: 1473:, such as that 1432:DNA replication 1420:James D. Watson 1415: 1411: 1405: 1373: 1367: 1350:Michael Polanyi 1331:Prior Analytics 1287:James D. Watson 1270: 1266: 1260: 1208:Albert Einstein 1181: 1175: 1169: 1131:pseudo-sciences 1084:St. Elmo's fire 1017: 1013: 1005:Paul Feyerabend 993:Publish results 922:social sciences 906: 898:William Whewell 866:ongoing process 858: 852:and indented). 848: 844: 824:(1027) and his 760:Paul Feyerabend 738: 699:George Berkeley 687:Galileo Galilei 683:Johannes Kepler 592: 585: 579: 501: 465: 463: 448: 443: 442: 398: 397: 388: 387: 383:Research ethics 378:Logical fallacy 368:Reproducibility 363: 362: 351: 350: 187:Anthropological 133:Formal sciences 117: 116: 96: 72:Article indexes 44: 37: 30: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13920: 13910: 13909: 13904: 13899: 13894: 13877: 13876: 13874: 13873: 13872: 13871: 13866: 13861: 13846: 13845: 13844: 13839: 13834: 13820: 13817: 13816: 13814: 13813: 13808: 13803: 13798: 13797: 13796: 13791: 13784:Science policy 13781: 13776: 13771: 13766: 13761: 13756: 13751: 13746: 13741: 13739:Digital divide 13736: 13730: 13728: 13722: 13721: 13719: 13718: 13713: 13712: 13711: 13706: 13701: 13696: 13691: 13683: 13682: 13681: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13661: 13655:Technological 13653: 13652: 13651: 13641: 13636: 13631: 13626: 13621: 13616: 13611: 13606: 13601: 13600: 13599: 13594: 13589: 13584: 13579: 13569: 13564: 13559: 13554: 13549: 13544: 13539: 13534: 13532:Design studies 13529: 13524: 13518: 13516: 13508: 13507: 13505: 13504: 13503: 13502: 13492: 13487: 13486: 13485: 13475: 13470: 13468:Scientometrics 13465: 13460: 13459: 13458: 13453: 13448: 13443: 13438: 13433: 13428: 13423: 13418: 13413: 13405: 13404: 13403: 13398: 13393: 13388: 13383: 13378: 13373: 13368: 13360: 13355: 13350: 13349: 13348: 13341:Paradigm shift 13338: 13333: 13328: 13323: 13318: 13313: 13308: 13303: 13298: 13293: 13287: 13285: 13277: 13276: 13274: 13273: 13268: 13263: 13258: 13253: 13252: 13251: 13241: 13240: 13239: 13234: 13226: 13220: 13218: 13212: 13211: 13209: 13208: 13203: 13198: 13193: 13188: 13183: 13181:Postpositivism 13178: 13173: 13168: 13163: 13158: 13153: 13148: 13143: 13141:Antipositivism 13138: 13132: 13130: 13124: 13123: 13121: 13120: 13115: 13114: 13113: 13111:and technology 13103: 13097: 13095: 13089: 13088: 13086: 13085: 13080: 13074: 13072: 13066: 13065: 13058: 13057: 13050: 13043: 13035: 13026: 13025: 13023: 13011: 12999: 12994: 12991: 12990: 12988: 12987: 12982: 12977: 12972: 12967: 12962: 12957: 12955:W. V. O. Quine 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12902: 12897: 12892: 12890:Rudolf Steiner 12887: 12882: 12880:Henri Poincaré 12877: 12871: 12868: 12867: 12865: 12864: 12859: 12854: 12849: 12844: 12838: 12836: 12829: 12823: 12822: 12820: 12819: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12779: 12778: 12777: 12767: 12762: 12757: 12752: 12750:Exact sciences 12747: 12742: 12737: 12731: 12729: 12728:Related topics 12725: 12724: 12722: 12721: 12720: 12719: 12714: 12709: 12704: 12699: 12694: 12687:Social science 12684: 12683: 12682: 12680:Space and time 12672: 12667: 12661: 12659: 12655: 12654: 12652: 12651: 12646: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12621: 12612: 12607: 12602: 12593: 12584: 12579: 12566: 12561: 12556: 12551: 12546: 12541: 12536: 12531: 12526: 12521: 12516: 12511: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12481: 12475: 12473: 12469: 12468: 12466: 12465: 12460: 12459: 12458: 12453: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12432: 12431: 12426: 12421: 12411: 12406: 12401: 12396: 12391: 12389:Scientific law 12386: 12385: 12384: 12374: 12369: 12364: 12359: 12354: 12349: 12344: 12339: 12334: 12327: 12326: 12325: 12320: 12310: 12305: 12300: 12298:Falsifiability 12295: 12290: 12285: 12284: 12283: 12273: 12268: 12263: 12258: 12257: 12256: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12231: 12230: 12229: 12227:Mill's Methods 12219: 12208: 12203: 12197: 12195: 12191: 12190: 12183: 12182: 12175: 12168: 12160: 12154: 12153: 12148: 12130: 12124: 12116: 12111: 12105: 12099: 12094: 12085: 12072: 12063: 12054: 12040: 12014: 12013: 12007: 12006: 11995: 11994: 11992: 11991:External links 11989: 11987: 11986: 11976: 11966: 11959:Shimony, Abner 11956: 11946: 11939:Rorty, Richard 11936: 11929:Putnam, Hilary 11926: 11916: 11909: 11900:Oreskes, Naomi 11897: 11887: 11885:on 2014-07-01. 11867:, ed. (1998). 11861: 11842: 11832: 11825: 11815: 11805: 11799: 11780: 11771:Holton, Gerald 11768: 11758: 11748: 11738: 11728: 11722: 11706: 11696: 11686: 11677: 11671: 11657:Crick, Francis 11653: 11644:Chalmers, Alan 11641: 11631: 11617: 11598: 11588: 11574: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11555: 11540: 11476: 11467: 11462: 11453:The Black Swan 11444: 11438: 11425: 11400: 11382:(5): 339–819. 11370: 11340: 11326: 11310: 11309: 11308: 11272: 11266:, Pica Press, 11260:, ed. (1975), 11254: 11231: 11225: 11210: 11196: 11175: 11169: 11156: 11141: 11126: 11091: 11065: 11058: 11052: 11036: 11026: 11008: 10986: 10976: 10970: 10957: 10947: 10931: 10926: 10913: 10900: 10895: 10877: 10858:10.1086/349468 10852:(2): 161–193, 10838: 10833: 10820: 10810: 10794: 10789: 10777:Hockney, David 10773: 10738:(1): 939–979, 10725: 10719: 10703: 10697: 10683:, ed. (1994), 10677: 10661: 10646: 10640: 10619: 10618: 10617: 10606: 10563: 10542: 10524: 10518: 10500: 10495: 10471: 10465: 10452: 10426: 10421: 10408: 10407: 10406: 10375:978-0674976191 10374: 10361: 10355: 10342: 10337: 10317: 10300: 10281: 10265: 10260: 10237: 10220: 10204: 10202: 10199: 10196: 10195: 10193:, p. 100. 10183: 10179:Lakatos (1976) 10171: 10140: 10136:Lakatos (1976) 10125:analysis situs 10116: 10085: 10065: 10057:Lakatos (1976) 10049: 10047:, p. 144. 10037: 10035:, p. 142. 10025: 10012: 9999: 9986: 9974: 9972: 9971: 9964:Asian J. Math. 9949: 9933: 9909: 9889: 9851:Anesthesiology 9833: 9830:on 2013-05-07. 9814: 9807: 9786: 9768: 9735:(7): 366–367. 9715: 9713: 9712: 9706: 9700: 9687: 9681: 9667: 9658: 9651: 9631: 9619: 9607: 9601:, p. 27, 9590: 9575: 9557: 9538:(1): 173–187. 9522: 9500: 9457: 9447:Thomas Luckman 9434: 9392: 9355:(2): 345–364. 9335: 9300: 9254: 9245: 9230: 9210: 9200: 9186: 9163: 9117: 9067: 9040:(9): 645–646. 9024: 8986: 8979: 8961: 8918: 8891:(4): 459–487. 8875: 8840: 8819: 8803: 8790: 8755: 8748: 8728:Neurath†, Otto 8719: 8707: 8691: 8678: 8658: 8632: 8608:Keuth, Herbert 8599: 8592: 8574: 8555: 8536:(4): 435–455. 8516: 8504: 8502: 8501: 8498: 8495: 8492: 8446: 8444:, p. 269. 8434: 8411: 8401:978-0553907070 8400: 8379: 8360: 8336: 8293: 8278: 8241: 8234: 8211: 8201: 8194: 8164: 8146: 8126: 8119: 8095: 8080: 8067: 8050: 8048:, p. 159. 8038: 8021: 7989: 7962: 7949: 7928:Bayes' theorem 7924:gynaecologists 7916: 7898: 7834: 7791: 7776: 7764: 7757: 7731: 7698: 7681: 7656: 7652:Lakatos (1976) 7644: 7642:, p. 942. 7629: 7608: 7606:, p. 940. 7596: 7584: 7572: 7561:978-0553907070 7560: 7533: 7505: 7490: 7478: 7458: 7443: 7417: 7411: 7390: 7363:(6): 491–494. 7347: 7335: 7329:and is linked 7294: 7287: 7263: 7243: 7231: 7178: 7147: 7095: 7049: 7021: 7009:hydrogen bonds 6989: 6983:, p. 56: 6973: 6961: 6949: 6937: 6922: 6899: 6868: 6848: 6823: 6798: 6773: 6748: 6718: 6688: 6657: 6632: 6612: 6591: 6553: 6527: 6511: 6492: 6475: 6446: 6389: 6383:, p. 68: 6373: 6354: 6342: 6326: 6290: 6263:(3642): 347–. 6253:Platt, John R. 6244: 6232: 6196: 6194:via Wikisource 6173: 6161: 6146: 6134: 6118: 6106: 6086: 6065: 6046: 6026: 6014: 6012:, p. 252. 6010:McCarty (1985) 6002: 5987:René Descartes 5979: 5967: 5956:(3): 223–228. 5940: 5928: 5914: 5881: 5860: 5842: 5819: 5807: 5791: 5779: 5767: 5755:Stillman Drake 5733: 5698: 5691: 5665: 5642: 5601: 5586: 5579: 5546: 5524: 5495: 5466: 5430: 5411: 5404: 5383: 5364: 5362:, p. 236. 5352: 5340: 5332:Lisa Downing, 5325: 5321:Sanches (1988) 5313: 5298: 5279:(2): 180–194. 5258: 5255:on 2018-05-27. 5242:various papers 5232: 5213: 5198: 5180: 5164: 5151: 5139: 5137:, p. 154. 5127: 5108: 5065:Ibn Al-Haytham 5057:Hockney (2006) 5044: 5042:, p. 136. 5014:رسالة في الضوء 5000: 4998:Book 7, p.270 4985: 4964: 4951: 4928: 4913: 4911:, p. 273. 4901: 4860: 4831: 4803: 4796: 4757: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4748: 4722: 4710: 4695:Neurath's boat 4686: 4677: 4675: 4674: 4668: 4665: 4662: 4646: 4610:John D. Norton 4602:Lawrence Sklar 4582:Ernst Cassirer 4578:Henri Poincaré 4562: 4547: 4535: 4523: 4521:, p. viii 4503: 4486: 4471: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4444: 4436:Book of Optics 4423:Book of Optics 4398: 4396: 4395: 4379: 4360: 4324: 4322: 4321: 4309:Book of Optics 4296:camera obscura 4289: 4278:Book of Optics 4264: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4230: 4184: 4143: 4128: 4118: 4100: 4089:John Ioannidis 4080: 4067: 4050: 4027: 4015: 3998: 3989: 3976: 3963: 3958:Book of Optics 3949: 3935: 3914: 3905: 3896: 3879: 3869: 3851: 3843:Voelkel (2001) 3828: 3824:Voelkel (2001) 3815: 3810:Book of Optics 3798: 3794:camera obscura 3777:Book of Optics 3764: 3762: 3759: 3758: 3757: 3751: 3748:Scientific law 3745: 3740: 3734: 3729: 3723: 3717: 3708: 3697: 3694: 3632:counterexample 3605:is the strict 3581: 3580: 3575: 3566: 3562: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3419: 3416: 3389:control theory 3385:systems theory 3376: 3373: 3357:John Ioannidis 3347: 3344: 3295:Main article: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3208:Postpositivism 3203: 3200: 3172:field research 3159:normal science 3146: 3143: 3134:Main article: 3131: 3128: 3101: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3052: 3049: 3023:Against Method 3011:Main article: 3008: 3005: 2995: 2966:Main article: 2963: 2962:Unificationism 2960: 2920:Main article: 2917: 2914: 2847: 2844: 2840:not even wrong 2836:Wolfgang Pauli 2824:falsifiability 2800: 2780:Mill's Methods 2774: 2771: 2754: 2751: 2731:Isaac Newton, 2728: 2707: 2704: 2678: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2664: 2663: 2660: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2640:cognitive bias 2630: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2557: 2554: 2528: 2525: 2505: 2502: 2465: 2462: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2389:field research 2366:Bayes' theorem 2315: 2312: 2300:Standard Model 2272:counterexample 2265:laws of motion 2206:Sagittarius A* 2164: 2161: 2106: 2065: 2058: 2057: 2056: 2043: 2036: 2035: 2034: 2033: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2021: 2018: 1995:René Descartes 1946: 1943: 1890: 1887: 1877: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1830: 1782:John Ioannidis 1754:ball lightning 1752:was killed by 1741:Main article: 1738: 1735: 1635: 1632: 1602:(ISS), or the 1598:(NIF), or the 1501:Main article: 1498: 1495: 1404: 1401: 1368:William Glen, 1365: 1358:observes that 1262:Main article: 1259: 1256: 1180: 1177: 1167: 1037:laboratory at 1012: 1009: 998: 997: 994: 991: 988: 985: 978: 975: 972: 939: 938: 935: 932: 929: 905: 902: 857: 854: 843: 840: 827:Book of Optics 814:Against Method 766:Against Method 737: 734: 663:René Descartes 581:Main article: 578: 575: 503: 502: 500: 499: 492: 485: 477: 474: 473: 445: 444: 441: 440: 435: 430: 425: 423:Science policy 420: 415: 410: 405: 399: 395: 394: 393: 390: 389: 386: 385: 380: 375: 373:Cognitive bias 370: 364: 358: 357: 356: 353: 352: 347: 346: 345: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 244: 236: 235: 231: 230: 229: 228: 227: 226: 221: 211: 210: 209: 204: 199: 197:Criminological 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 164: 163: 162: 157: 147: 146: 145: 140: 127: 126: 118: 103: 102: 101: 98: 97: 95: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 58: 55: 54: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13919: 13908: 13905: 13903: 13900: 13898: 13895: 13893: 13890: 13889: 13887: 13870: 13867: 13865: 13862: 13860: 13857: 13856: 13855: 13847: 13843: 13840: 13838: 13835: 13833: 13830: 13829: 13826: 13822: 13821: 13818: 13812: 13809: 13807: 13804: 13802: 13799: 13795: 13792: 13790: 13787: 13786: 13785: 13782: 13780: 13777: 13775: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13765: 13762: 13760: 13757: 13755: 13752: 13750: 13747: 13745: 13742: 13740: 13737: 13735: 13732: 13731: 13729: 13727: 13723: 13717: 13714: 13710: 13707: 13705: 13702: 13700: 13697: 13695: 13692: 13690: 13687: 13686: 13684: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13660: 13657: 13656: 13654: 13650: 13647: 13646: 13645: 13644:Technoscience 13642: 13640: 13637: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13625: 13622: 13620: 13617: 13615: 13614:Media studies 13612: 13610: 13607: 13605: 13602: 13598: 13595: 13593: 13590: 13588: 13585: 13583: 13580: 13578: 13575: 13574: 13573: 13570: 13568: 13565: 13563: 13560: 13558: 13555: 13553: 13552:Early adopter 13550: 13548: 13545: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13528: 13525: 13523: 13522:Co-production 13520: 13519: 13517: 13515: 13509: 13501: 13498: 13497: 13496: 13493: 13491: 13488: 13484: 13481: 13480: 13479: 13476: 13474: 13471: 13469: 13466: 13464: 13461: 13457: 13454: 13452: 13449: 13447: 13444: 13442: 13439: 13437: 13434: 13432: 13429: 13427: 13424: 13422: 13419: 13417: 13414: 13412: 13409: 13408: 13406: 13402: 13399: 13397: 13394: 13392: 13389: 13387: 13384: 13382: 13379: 13377: 13374: 13372: 13371:communication 13369: 13367: 13364: 13363: 13361: 13359: 13356: 13354: 13353:Pseudoscience 13351: 13347: 13344: 13343: 13342: 13339: 13337: 13334: 13332: 13329: 13327: 13324: 13322: 13319: 13317: 13314: 13312: 13309: 13307: 13304: 13302: 13301:Boundary-work 13299: 13297: 13296:Bibliometrics 13294: 13292: 13289: 13288: 13286: 13284: 13278: 13272: 13269: 13267: 13264: 13262: 13259: 13257: 13254: 13250: 13247: 13246: 13245: 13242: 13238: 13235: 13233: 13230: 13229: 13227: 13225: 13222: 13221: 13219: 13217: 13213: 13207: 13206:Transhumanism 13204: 13202: 13199: 13197: 13194: 13192: 13189: 13187: 13184: 13182: 13179: 13177: 13174: 13172: 13169: 13167: 13164: 13162: 13159: 13157: 13154: 13152: 13149: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13137: 13134: 13133: 13131: 13129: 13125: 13119: 13116: 13112: 13109: 13108: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13098: 13096: 13094: 13090: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13076: 13075: 13073: 13071: 13067: 13063: 13056: 13051: 13049: 13044: 13042: 13037: 13036: 13033: 13022: 13017: 13012: 13010: 13000: 12998: 12995: 12992: 12986: 12983: 12981: 12978: 12976: 12973: 12971: 12968: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12940:Rudolf Carnap 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12881: 12878: 12876: 12875:Auguste Comte 12873: 12872: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12847:Francis Bacon 12845: 12843: 12840: 12839: 12837: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12824: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12785: 12783: 12780: 12776: 12775:Pseudoscience 12773: 12772: 12771: 12768: 12766: 12763: 12761: 12758: 12756: 12753: 12751: 12748: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12732: 12730: 12726: 12718: 12715: 12713: 12710: 12708: 12705: 12703: 12700: 12698: 12695: 12693: 12690: 12689: 12688: 12685: 12681: 12678: 12677: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12662: 12660: 12656: 12650: 12647: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12637: 12635: 12634:Structuralism 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12616: 12613: 12611: 12608: 12606: 12603: 12601: 12597: 12596:Received view 12594: 12592: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12574: 12570: 12567: 12565: 12562: 12560: 12557: 12555: 12552: 12550: 12547: 12545: 12542: 12540: 12537: 12535: 12532: 12530: 12527: 12525: 12522: 12520: 12517: 12515: 12512: 12510: 12507: 12505: 12504:Contextualism 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12476: 12474: 12470: 12464: 12461: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12448: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12430: 12427: 12425: 12422: 12420: 12417: 12416: 12415: 12412: 12410: 12407: 12405: 12402: 12400: 12397: 12395: 12392: 12390: 12387: 12383: 12380: 12379: 12378: 12375: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12363: 12360: 12358: 12355: 12353: 12350: 12348: 12345: 12343: 12340: 12338: 12335: 12333: 12332: 12328: 12324: 12321: 12319: 12316: 12315: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12299: 12296: 12294: 12291: 12289: 12286: 12282: 12279: 12278: 12277: 12274: 12272: 12269: 12267: 12264: 12262: 12259: 12255: 12252: 12251: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12228: 12225: 12224: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12217: 12213: 12209: 12207: 12204: 12202: 12199: 12198: 12196: 12192: 12188: 12181: 12176: 12174: 12169: 12167: 12162: 12161: 12158: 12152: 12149: 12146: 12142: 12138: 12134: 12131: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12121: 12117: 12115: 12112: 12109: 12106: 12103: 12100: 12098: 12095: 12093: 12089: 12086: 12083: 12079: 12076: 12073: 12071: 12067: 12064: 12062: 12058: 12055: 12051: 12050: 12045: 12041: 12037: 12036: 12031: 12027: 12023: 12019: 12018: 12012: 12009: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11984: 11980: 11977: 11974: 11970: 11969:Thagard, Paul 11967: 11964: 11960: 11957: 11954: 11950: 11947: 11944: 11940: 11937: 11934: 11930: 11927: 11924: 11920: 11917: 11914: 11910: 11907: 11906: 11901: 11898: 11895: 11891: 11888: 11881: 11877: 11870: 11866: 11862: 11859: 11855: 11852: 11851: 11846: 11843: 11840: 11836: 11833: 11830: 11827:Losee, John, 11826: 11823: 11819: 11818:Latour, Bruno 11816: 11813: 11809: 11806: 11802: 11796: 11792: 11791: 11784: 11781: 11778: 11777: 11772: 11769: 11766: 11762: 11759: 11756: 11752: 11749: 11746: 11742: 11739: 11736: 11732: 11729: 11725: 11719: 11715: 11711: 11707: 11704: 11700: 11697: 11694: 11690: 11687: 11683: 11678: 11674: 11668: 11664: 11663: 11658: 11654: 11651: 11650: 11645: 11642: 11639: 11635: 11632: 11629: 11625: 11621: 11618: 11615: 11611: 11608: 11607: 11602: 11599: 11596: 11592: 11589: 11586: 11582: 11578: 11575: 11572: 11568: 11565: 11564: 11551: 11550: 11545: 11541: 11537: 11533: 11528: 11523: 11519: 11515: 11510: 11505: 11501: 11497: 11493: 11489: 11485: 11481: 11477: 11473: 11468: 11465: 11459: 11455: 11454: 11449: 11445: 11441: 11435: 11431: 11426: 11422: 11418: 11414: 11410: 11406: 11405:De Aspectibus 11401: 11397: 11393: 11389: 11385: 11381: 11377: 11371: 11367: 11363: 11359: 11355: 11351: 11347: 11341: 11337: 11333: 11329: 11323: 11319: 11315: 11311: 11305: 11301: 11297: 11293: 11289: 11285: 11284:Physics Today 11279: 11278: 11275: 11269: 11265: 11264: 11259: 11255: 11251: 11247: 11243: 11240: 11236: 11232: 11228: 11222: 11218: 11217: 11211: 11207:on 2013-07-22 11203: 11199: 11197:0-203-99462-0 11193: 11186: 11185: 11180: 11176: 11172: 11170:0-415-28594-1 11166: 11163:, Routledge, 11162: 11157: 11152: 11151: 11146: 11142: 11137: 11133: 11129: 11123: 11119: 11116: 11110: 11106: 11102: 11101: 11096: 11095:Pólya, George 11092: 11080: 11076: 11075: 11070: 11066: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11049: 11046:, Princeton, 11045: 11041: 11037: 11034: 11029: 11023: 11019: 11018: 11013: 11012:Newton, Isaac 11009: 11005: 11004: 11000: 10995: 10991: 10987: 10982: 10977: 10973: 10967: 10963: 10958: 10955: 10950: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10929: 10923: 10919: 10914: 10909: 10905: 10901: 10898: 10892: 10888: 10887: 10882: 10881:Lakatos, Imre 10878: 10875: 10871: 10867: 10863: 10859: 10855: 10851: 10847: 10843: 10839: 10836: 10834:0-671-22540-5 10830: 10826: 10821: 10818: 10813: 10807: 10803: 10799: 10795: 10792: 10790:0-14-200512-6 10786: 10782: 10778: 10774: 10771: 10767: 10763: 10759: 10755: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10737: 10733: 10732: 10726: 10722: 10716: 10712: 10708: 10704: 10700: 10694: 10689: 10688: 10682: 10681:Glen, William 10678: 10668: 10664: 10658: 10654: 10653: 10647: 10643: 10637: 10633: 10629: 10625: 10620: 10615: 10609: 10603: 10599: 10595: 10590: 10589: 10586: 10582: 10578: 10574: 10573: 10568: 10564: 10561: 10557: 10554: 10550: 10545: 10539: 10535: 10534: 10529: 10528:Fleck, Ludwik 10525: 10521: 10515: 10511: 10510: 10505: 10501: 10498: 10492: 10487: 10486: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10468: 10462: 10458: 10453: 10449: 10445: 10441: 10437: 10436: 10431: 10427: 10424: 10418: 10414: 10409: 10396: 10392: 10391: 10386: 10381:Reviewed in: 10380: 10379: 10377: 10371: 10367: 10362: 10358: 10352: 10348: 10343: 10340: 10334: 10329: 10328: 10322: 10318: 10307: 10303: 10297: 10293: 10292: 10287: 10282: 10280: 10275:, Peter Smith 10274: 10270: 10266: 10263: 10257: 10253: 10252: 10247: 10245: 10238: 10227: 10223: 10217: 10213: 10212: 10206: 10205: 10192: 10191:Mackay (1991) 10187: 10181:, p. 55. 10180: 10175: 10168: 10164: 10161: 10157: 10153: 10150: 10144: 10138:, p. 162 10137: 10133: 10130: 10126: 10120: 10102: 10095: 10089: 10082: 10081:9780486614809 10078: 10075: 10069: 10062: 10058: 10053: 10046: 10041: 10034: 10029: 10022: 10016: 10009: 10003: 9997:, p. 114 9996: 9990: 9984: 9978: 9969: 9965: 9961: 9960: 9959: 9953: 9946: 9942: 9937: 9931: 9930: 9926: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9906: 9902: 9899: 9893: 9878: 9874: 9870: 9865: 9860: 9856: 9852: 9848: 9846: 9837: 9829: 9825: 9818: 9810: 9808:9780231076203 9804: 9800: 9793: 9791: 9783: 9777: 9775: 9773: 9765: 9760: 9756: 9751: 9746: 9742: 9738: 9734: 9730: 9726: 9719: 9710: 9707: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9698:0-8032-7995-7 9695: 9691: 9688: 9685: 9682: 9679: 9676: 9675: 9674:For example: 9671: 9662: 9654: 9648: 9644: 9643: 9635: 9628: 9623: 9616: 9611: 9604: 9600: 9594: 9586: 9582: 9578: 9572: 9568: 9561: 9553: 9549: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9533: 9526: 9511: 9504: 9496: 9492: 9488: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9473:(1). : 3–32. 9472: 9468: 9461: 9454: 9453: 9448: 9444: 9438: 9430: 9426: 9422: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9403: 9396: 9388: 9384: 9379: 9374: 9370: 9366: 9362: 9358: 9354: 9350: 9346: 9339: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9319: 9315: 9311: 9304: 9296: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9270: 9263: 9261: 9259: 9249: 9241: 9237: 9233: 9227: 9223: 9222: 9214: 9204: 9189: 9183: 9179: 9178: 9170: 9168: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9131: 9124: 9122: 9114: 9109: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9085: 9081: 9074: 9072: 9063: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9043: 9039: 9035: 9028: 9020: 9016: 9012: 9008: 9004: 9000: 8993: 8991: 8982: 8976: 8972: 8965: 8957: 8953: 8949: 8945: 8941: 8937: 8933: 8929: 8922: 8914: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8898: 8894: 8890: 8886: 8879: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8855: 8851: 8844: 8835: 8830: 8823: 8816: 8812: 8807: 8800: 8794: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8766: 8759: 8751: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8723: 8714: 8712: 8704: 8698: 8696: 8681: 8675: 8671: 8670: 8662: 8655: 8653: 8649: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8633:9780521548304 8629: 8625: 8621: 8617: 8613: 8609: 8603: 8595: 8589: 8585: 8578: 8569: 8562: 8560: 8551: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8531: 8527: 8520: 8514:, p. 27. 8513: 8508: 8499: 8496: 8493: 8490: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8465: 8461: 8457: 8450: 8443: 8438: 8431: 8427:. p. 4. 8426: 8422: 8415: 8408: 8403: 8397: 8393: 8392: 8383: 8375: 8371: 8364: 8356: 8352: 8345: 8343: 8341: 8333: 8329: 8326: 8313: 8309: 8308: 8300: 8298: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8258: 8250: 8248: 8246: 8237: 8231: 8227: 8226: 8218: 8216: 8205: 8197: 8191: 8187: 8183: 8179: 8173: 8168: 8153: 8149: 8143: 8139: 8138: 8130: 8122: 8116: 8112: 8108: 8107: 8099: 8092: 8087: 8085: 8077: 8071: 8063: 8057: 8055: 8047: 8042: 8036: 8035: 8034:Novum Organum 8030: 8029:Francis Bacon 8025: 8018: 8005: 8004: 7999: 7993: 7986: 7981: 7979: 7977: 7975: 7973: 7971: 7969: 7967: 7959: 7953: 7939: 7935: 7929: 7925: 7919: 7913: 7909: 7902: 7894: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7876: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7858: 7854: 7853:PLOS Medicine 7850: 7843: 7841: 7839: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7795: 7789: 7785: 7780: 7774: 7768: 7760: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7735: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7702: 7695: 7690: 7688: 7686: 7671: 7667: 7660: 7653: 7648: 7641: 7636: 7634: 7626: 7618: 7612: 7605: 7600: 7593: 7588: 7581: 7576: 7569: 7563: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7542: 7540: 7538: 7530: 7527:Reprinted in 7524: 7520: 7516: 7509: 7501: 7494: 7487: 7482: 7474: 7473: 7468: 7462: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7421: 7414: 7408: 7404: 7397: 7395: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7362: 7358: 7351: 7344: 7339: 7332: 7328: 7316:on 2013-09-09 7312: 7305: 7302:Karl Popper. 7298: 7290: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7267: 7260: 7256: 7253: 7247: 7240: 7235: 7227: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7194: 7193:PLOS Medicine 7189: 7182: 7164: 7157: 7151: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7109:Physics Today 7106: 7099: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7075: 7070: 7066: 7063: 7059: 7053: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7033:Jerry Donohue 7030: 7025: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6997:Watson (1968) 6993: 6986: 6985:Jerry Donohue 6982: 6977: 6970: 6965: 6958: 6953: 6946: 6941: 6934: 6933:Smith (2001b) 6929: 6927: 6919: 6915: 6912: 6908: 6903: 6885: 6878: 6872: 6865: 6861: 6858: 6852: 6837: 6833: 6827: 6812: 6808: 6802: 6787: 6783: 6777: 6762: 6758: 6752: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6722: 6716: 6712: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6698: 6692: 6685: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6660: 6658:0-262-63032-X 6654: 6650: 6643: 6641: 6639: 6637: 6629: 6628:1-4102-0252-6 6625: 6621: 6616: 6609: 6605: 6600: 6598: 6596: 6588: 6578:on 2012-01-06 6577: 6573: 6569: 6562: 6560: 6558: 6549: 6545: 6542: 6536: 6534: 6532: 6524: 6520: 6519:Watson (1968) 6515: 6508: 6504: 6499: 6497: 6490: 6487: 6482: 6480: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6450: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6410:Sobral, Ceará 6407: 6403: 6402:total eclipse 6399: 6393: 6386: 6382: 6377: 6370: 6366: 6365: 6358: 6351: 6346: 6339: 6335: 6334:Judson (1979) 6330: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6302:physics first 6299: 6298:Leon Lederman 6294: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6248: 6241: 6236: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6215: 6207: 6205: 6203: 6201: 6193: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6177: 6170: 6165: 6157: 6150: 6143: 6138: 6127: 6126:Judson (1979) 6122: 6115: 6110: 6103: 6102:0-684-19431-7 6099: 6096: 6090: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6053: 6049: 6047:9780781755658 6043: 6039: 6038: 6030: 6024:, p. 34. 6023: 6018: 6011: 6006: 5999: 5995: 5992: 5988: 5983: 5976: 5971: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5944: 5937: 5932: 5924: 5918: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5896: 5888: 5886: 5878: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5865: 5849: 5845: 5839: 5835: 5834: 5829: 5823: 5816: 5811: 5804: 5800: 5795: 5789: 5783: 5776: 5771: 5765:, p. 10. 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5751: 5746: 5745:Il Saggiatore 5740: 5738: 5730: 5716: 5709: 5702: 5694: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5669: 5662: 5660: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5643:9780773533448 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5598: 5593: 5591: 5582: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5553: 5551: 5543: 5531: 5527: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5500: 5484: 5480: 5473: 5471: 5463: 5456: 5449: 5448: 5443: 5437: 5435: 5428:, p. 264 5427: 5426:Cowles (2020) 5422: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5407: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5388: 5380: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5361: 5356: 5350: 5344: 5338: 5335: 5329: 5322: 5317: 5310: 5305: 5303: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5268: 5262: 5251: 5244: 5243: 5236: 5228: 5224: 5217: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5195: 5191: 5184: 5177: 5173: 5172:Borlik (2011) 5168: 5162:, Bk.&VI. 5161: 5155: 5148: 5143: 5136: 5131: 5115: 5111: 5109:9780871698629 5105: 5101: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5071: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5041: 5038:as quoted in 5037: 5033: 5032: 5027: 5023: 5020: 5010: 5004: 4997: 4992: 4990: 4982: 4979:, ed. (1975) 4978: 4974: 4968: 4961: 4955: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4933: 4925: 4920: 4918: 4910: 4909:Popper (1959) 4905: 4898: 4894: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4875: 4867: 4865: 4849: 4844: 4843: 4835: 4822:on 2016-06-20 4821: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4799: 4793: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4773: 4765: 4763: 4758: 4745: 4744: 4739: 4735: 4729: 4727: 4720: 4714: 4707: 4701: 4696: 4690: 4681: 4672: 4669: 4666: 4663: 4659: 4658: 4656: 4650: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4634:Robert Nozick 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4598:Eugene Wigner 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4569: 4567: 4559: 4558: 4551: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4520: 4519:Popper (1963) 4516: 4510: 4508: 4500: 4496: 4490: 4483: 4482: 4475: 4467: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4412:recounts how 4411: 4406: 4404: 4399: 4392: 4388: 4387:Peirce (1899) 4383: 4376: 4373: 4369: 4364: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4335: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4292:David Hockney 4290: 4287: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4279: 4273: 4268: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4239: 4227: 4223: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4188: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4140: 4135: 4133: 4122: 4115: 4110: 4104: 4096: 4090: 4084: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4048: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4032: 4024: 4019: 4012: 4008: 4002: 3993: 3986: 3980: 3973: 3967: 3960: 3959: 3953: 3946: 3939: 3932: 3928: 3927:modus tollens 3924: 3918: 3909: 3900: 3893: 3889: 3883: 3873: 3865: 3864: 3855: 3848: 3844: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3826:, p. 60. 3825: 3819: 3812: 3811: 3805: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3778: 3772: 3770: 3765: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3727: 3724: 3721: 3718: 3712: 3709: 3703: 3700: 3699: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3587:understanding 3579: 3576: 3574: 3570: 3567: 3563: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3524:Understanding 3522: 3518: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3468:Eugene Wigner 3464: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3445: 3443: 3439: 3438: 3433: 3430:from what is 3429: 3425: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3372: 3368: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3343: 3340: 3335: 3333: 3329: 3326:This is what 3324: 3323:Louis Pasteur 3320: 3319:stumbled upon 3316: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3283: 3280: 3276: 3275:postmodernist 3272: 3268: 3267:postmodernist 3263: 3261: 3255: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3223: 3219: 3213: 3209: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3142: 3137: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3116: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3082: 3081: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3068: 3062: 3058: 3048: 3044: 3042: 3038: 3037:anything goes 3033: 3029: 3025: 3024: 3019: 3014: 3000: 2994: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2969: 2959: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2923: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2853: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2805: 2799: 2795: 2793: 2788: 2786: 2785:David Deutsch 2781: 2770: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2750: 2747: 2743: 2734: 2727: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2716:Occam's razor 2713: 2703: 2698: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2668: 2667: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2645: 2644: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2621: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2596:explains the 2595: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2567: 2566:falsification 2563: 2553: 2549: 2547: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2524: 2522: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2501: 2499: 2495: 2489: 2487: 2482: 2479: 2475: 2474:Francis Bacon 2471: 2461: 2459: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2400: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2361: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2213: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2160: 2158: 2154: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2138: 2137: 2131: 2129: 2124: 2115: 2111: 2105: 2101: 2099: 2095: 2089: 2087: 2084:be tested in 2083: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2051: 2047: 2040: 2026: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1955: 1953: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1916: 1912: 1911:cloud chamber 1907: 1903: 1901: 1897: 1883: 1880:Karl Popper, 1876: 1872: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1778:control group 1775: 1771: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1744: 1734: 1731: 1727: 1722: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1687: 1685: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1672:Linus Pauling 1669: 1665: 1662: 1658: 1645: 1641: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1611: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1583: 1581: 1580:aerodynamical 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1553:Mill's canons 1549: 1545: 1541: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1504: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1463: 1459: 1457: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1424:Francis Crick 1421: 1410: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1387: 1386:Occam's Razor 1383: 1379: 1371: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1332: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1283:Francis Crick 1280: 1276: 1275:Linus Pauling 1265: 1255: 1253: 1249: 1248:visual system 1245: 1241: 1240:consciousness 1237: 1236:Francis Crick 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1204: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1172: 1166: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1151:spectroscopes 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1127: 1124: 1123:design a drug 1120: 1116: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1027:Gregor Mendel 1024: 1008: 1006: 1001: 995: 992: 989: 986: 983: 979: 976: 973: 970: 969: 968: 965: 963: 959: 958:ongoing cycle 954: 952: 948: 944: 936: 933: 930: 927: 926: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 901: 899: 895: 891: 886: 884: 879: 871: 867: 862: 853: 839: 837: 833: 829: 828: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 778: 776: 772: 768: 767: 761: 757: 753: 749: 748: 743: 733: 731: 727: 722: 717: 715: 711: 706: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 675:Francis Bacon 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 651:Francis Bacon 648: 644: 639: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 604: 601: 597: 590: 584: 574: 572: 567: 565: 561: 557: 553: 548: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 498: 493: 491: 486: 484: 479: 478: 476: 475: 472: 461: 457: 452: 447: 446: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 400: 392: 391: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 365: 361: 355: 354: 343: 340: 338: 337:Urban studies 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 239: 238: 237: 233: 232: 225: 222: 220: 217: 216: 215: 212: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 172:Psychological 170: 169: 168: 165: 161: 160:Life sciences 158: 156: 153: 152: 151: 148: 144: 141: 139: 136: 135: 134: 131: 130: 129: 128: 125: 122: 121: 114: 110: 106: 100: 99: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 63: 60: 59: 57: 56: 53: 50: 49: 46: 42: 34: 27: 23: 13859:Associations 13694:criticism of 13604:Leapfrogging 13587:linear model 13473:Team science 13463:Scientocracy 13440: 13386:Neo-colonial 13136:Anthropocene 12985:Larry Laudan 12965:Imre Lakatos 12920:Otto Neurath 12895:Karl Pearson 12885:Pierre Duhem 12857:Isaac Newton 12787:Protoscience 12745:Epistemology 12619:Anti-realism 12617: / 12598: / 12589: / 12575: / 12573:Reductionism 12571: / 12544:Inductionism 12524:Evolutionism 12393: 12329: 12216:a posteriori 12215: 12211: 12137:Kevin Padian 12119: 12047: 12033: 12001: 11982: 11972: 11962: 11952: 11942: 11932: 11922: 11912: 11903: 11893: 11880:the original 11875: 11849: 11838: 11828: 11821: 11811: 11789: 11774: 11764: 11754: 11751:Hacking, Ian 11744: 11734: 11713: 11702: 11692: 11689:Earman, John 11681: 11661: 11647: 11637: 11627: 11605: 11594: 11580: 11570: 11548: 11491: 11487: 11471: 11452: 11429: 11412: 11408: 11404: 11379: 11375: 11352:(4): 1–337. 11349: 11345: 11317: 11290:(2): 51–53, 11287: 11283: 11280:Reviewed in 11262: 11242: 11238: 11235:Sabra, A. I. 11215: 11202:the original 11183: 11160: 11149: 11118: 11115: 11099: 11083:, retrieved 11073: 11043: 11016: 11002: 10998: 10980: 10961: 10938: 10917: 10907: 10885: 10849: 10845: 10824: 10801: 10780: 10735: 10729: 10710: 10686: 10671:, retrieved 10651: 10623: 10614:Bruno (1989) 10597: 10576: 10571: 10548: 10531: 10508: 10484: 10456: 10435:How we think 10434: 10412: 10399:. Retrieved 10388: 10365: 10346: 10326: 10310:, retrieved 10290: 10272: 10250: 10243: 10230:. Retrieved 10210: 10186: 10174: 10155: 10151: 10148: 10143: 10131: 10128: 10119: 10108:. Retrieved 10088: 10073: 10068: 10052: 10045:Pólya (1957) 10040: 10033:Pólya (1957) 10028: 10020: 10015: 10007: 10002: 9995:Pólya (1957) 9989: 9977: 9967: 9963: 9952: 9941:Pólya (1957) 9936: 9920: 9917:Ludwik Fleck 9912: 9892: 9881:. Retrieved 9854: 9850: 9844: 9836: 9828:the original 9817: 9798: 9781: 9762: 9732: 9728: 9718: 9708: 9702: 9689: 9683: 9677: 9670: 9661: 9641: 9634: 9629:, p. 27 9627:Fleck (1979) 9622: 9615:Fleck (1979) 9610: 9603:Fleck (1979) 9599:Fleck (1979) 9597:As cited in 9593: 9566: 9560: 9535: 9531: 9525: 9514:. Retrieved 9503: 9470: 9466: 9460: 9450: 9437: 9412: 9408: 9395: 9352: 9348: 9338: 9313: 9309: 9303: 9276: 9272: 9248: 9220: 9213: 9203: 9191:. Retrieved 9176: 9136:(1): 32–40. 9133: 9129: 9111: 9083: 9079: 9037: 9033: 9027: 9005:(1): 10–16. 9002: 8998: 8970: 8964: 8931: 8927: 8921: 8888: 8884: 8878: 8853: 8849: 8843: 8834:math/0702396 8822: 8814: 8806: 8793: 8768: 8764: 8758: 8731: 8722: 8702: 8683:. Retrieved 8668: 8661: 8651: 8647: 8645: 8615: 8602: 8583: 8577: 8567: 8533: 8529: 8519: 8512:Fleck (1979) 8507: 8459: 8455: 8449: 8442:Gauch (2003) 8437: 8428: 8424: 8414: 8405: 8390: 8382: 8373: 8363: 8354: 8351:"Simplicity" 8316:. 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Retrieved 6730: 6721: 6691: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6670:a posteriori 6669: 6665: 6662: 6648: 6615: 6586: 6580:. Retrieved 6576:the original 6571: 6514: 6467:. Retrieved 6458: 6449: 6441: 6437: 6392: 6384: 6376: 6368: 6362: 6357: 6345: 6329: 6293: 6260: 6256: 6247: 6235: 6222: 6218: 6182: 6176: 6171:, p. 26 6169:Dewey (1910) 6164: 6155: 6149: 6137: 6121: 6109: 6094: 6089: 6077: 6073: 6068: 6056:. Retrieved 6036: 6029: 6017: 6005: 5982: 5975:Gauch (2003) 5970: 5953: 5949: 5943: 5931: 5922: 5917: 5903: 5899: 5874: 5871:Brody (1993) 5852:. Retrieved 5832: 5822: 5817:, p. 3. 5815:Gauch (2003) 5810: 5802: 5794: 5782: 5775:Gauch (2003) 5770: 5758: 5748: 5744: 5728: 5722:. Retrieved 5701: 5674: 5668: 5655: 5613: 5610:Nola, Robert 5604: 5597:Taleb (2007) 5562: 5540: 5534:, retrieved 5515: 5487:. Retrieved 5461: 5455:the original 5446: 5395: 5379:Thurs (2011) 5355: 5343: 5333: 5328: 5316: 5276: 5272: 5266: 5261: 5250:the original 5241: 5235: 5226: 5216: 5189: 5183: 5167: 5159: 5154: 5142: 5130: 5118:. Retrieved 5098: 5092: 5086: 5078: 5074: 5068: 5035: 5029: 5008: 5003: 4996:Smith (2010) 4972: 4967: 4959: 4954: 4946: 4942: 4924:Gauch (2003) 4904: 4896: 4892: 4882: 4878: 4852:. Retrieved 4841: 4834: 4824:, retrieved 4820:the original 4815: 4806: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4771: 4741: 4737: 4718: 4713: 4704: 4689: 4680: 4654: 4649: 4636:(2001), and 4573: 4557:a posteriori 4556: 4550: 4538: 4526: 4494: 4489: 4479: 4474: 4461: 4456: 4435: 4421: 4410:Sabra (2007) 4382: 4374: 4371: 4363: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4317: 4313: 4307: 4303: 4276: 4267: 4242: 4204:Fleck (1979) 4200: 4196: 4187: 4179: 4175: 4146: 4121: 4103: 4083: 4078:, p. 33 4070: 4053: 4042: 4018: 4001: 3992: 3984: 3979: 3966: 3956: 3952: 3938: 3923:modus ponens 3917: 3908: 3899: 3882: 3872: 3860: 3854: 3847:Smith (2004) 3818: 3808: 3781: 3775: 3680: 3671: 3665: 3641:tautological 3636: 3621: 3618:Imre Lakatos 3615: 3610: 3602: 3590: 3586: 3584: 3486:George Pólya 3484: 3465: 3446: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3421: 3408:Fleck (1979) 3397: 3378: 3369: 3349: 3338: 3336: 3318: 3312: 3271:science wars 3264: 3256: 3248:Golgi bodies 3230:, alongside 3226: 3217: 3215: 3169: 3163: 3148: 3139: 3122:How We Think 3120: 3117: 3112: 3102: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3064: 3045: 3021: 3016: 2991: 2987: 2978:reductionist 2971: 2940:epistemology 2925: 2909: 2906:How We Think 2905: 2902: 2897: 2893: 2891: 2859: 2832:hard-to-vary 2831: 2821: 2810: 2797: 2789: 2776: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2756: 2742:Paul Krugman 2738: 2732: 2725: 2719: 2709: 2700: 2693: 2691: 2679: 2665: 2647: 2646:is accurate 2635: 2632: 2614:biochemistry 2608:to form the 2590: 2571: 2559: 2550: 2530: 2517: 2507: 2490: 2483: 2478:Isaac Newton 2467: 2455: 2439: 2434:experimental 2411: 2382: 2362: 2347: 2336: 2321: 2317: 2308: 2304: 2269: 2218: 2180: 2176: 2150: 2147:Fleck (1979) 2145: 2141: 2134: 2132: 2120: 2113: 2103: 2096:; this is a 2090: 2079: 2070: 2052:; see below. 2023: 1999: 1981: 1978:C. S. Peirce 1975: 1956: 1948: 1924: 1920: 1892: 1881: 1874: 1869: 1854: 1850: 1847:Open science 1817: 1813: 1801:Ludwik Fleck 1798: 1786: 1777: 1773: 1762: 1746: 1737:Confirmation 1723: 1714: 1688: 1681: 1659:by concrete 1648: 1612: 1584: 1564:double-blind 1561: 1536: 1507: 1464: 1460: 1452: 1437: 1428:double helix 1413: 1390: 1375: 1369: 1361: 1356:William Glen 1354: 1343: 1329: 1311: 1292: 1279:triple helix 1268: 1224:Isaac Newton 1216:simultaneity 1205: 1182: 1164: 1147:thermometers 1128: 1112: 1104:measurements 1100:observations 1075: 1070: 1065: 1063: 1030: 1015: 1002: 999: 982:reproducible 966: 961: 955: 940: 907: 887: 875: 845: 835: 831: 825: 817: 813: 809: 793: 779: 764: 747:How We Think 745: 739: 718: 710:C. S. Peirce 707: 671:Isaac Newton 655:Robert Hooke 640: 605: 593: 568: 549: 508: 506: 459: 417: 292:Liberal arts 192:Sociological 138:Mathematical 45: 26:Epistemology 13704:theories of 13689:and society 13685:Technology 13679:transitions 13669:determinism 13664:convergence 13639:Technocracy 13421:controversy 13407:Scientific 13391:post-normal 13336:Metascience 13306:Consilience 13291:Antiscience 13156:Neo-Luddism 13151:Fuzzy logic 12975:Ian Hacking 12960:Thomas Kuhn 12945:Karl Popper 12925:C. D. Broad 12842:Roger Bacon 12770:Non-science 12712:Linguistics 12692:Archaeology 12587:Rationalism 12577:Determinism 12564:Physicalism 12529:Fallibilism 12479:Coherentism 12409:Testability 12362:Observation 12357:Objectivity 12318:alternative 12249:Correlation 12239:Consilience 11979:Ziman, John 10817:Ernst Nagel 10430:Dewey, John 8622:. pp. 8172:Thomas Kuhn 8017:Semmelweiss 8006:. p. 7 7859:(8): e124. 7467:Sagan, Carl 7200:(8): e124. 6697:NSF Reports 6682:atomic fact 6434:arc-seconds 6430:arc-seconds 6306:Ian Shelton 6240:Glen (1994) 5750:The Assayer 5620:. pp. 5542:classrooms. 4655:good theory 4638:Tim Maudlin 4532:C.S. Peirce 4391:Terence Tao 4260:outer space 4164:expressions 4007:inductivism 3925:, or using 3754:Testability 3726:Metascience 3720:Methodology 3488:'s work on 3470:'s paper, " 3437:falsifiable 3424:observables 3361:metascience 3332:human error 3232:Thomas Kuhn 3157:concept of 2952:empirically 2936:metaphysics 2828:testability 2426:predictions 2358:peer review 2324:uncertainty 2110:C.S. Peirce 2048:, 1821) is 2020:Rationality 1963:rationalism 1935:Tycho Brahe 1857:big science 1789:peer review 1703:outer space 1668:nucleotides 1497:Experiments 1491:gravitation 1477:bends in a 1440:predictions 1135:correlation 1119:observation 1046:diffraction 943:peer review 890:conjectures 836:The Assayer 806:Robert Nola 775:Karl Popper 756:Thomas Kuhn 750:, inspired 730:antirealism 667:inductivism 659:rationalist 632:Roger Bacon 564:falsifiable 560:conjectures 537:observation 525:observation 396:Instruments 317:Professions 312:War studies 219:Engineering 13907:Empiricism 13886:Categories 13842:Technology 13794:science of 13789:history of 13674:revolution 13582:disruptive 13572:Innovation 13567:Hype cycle 13512:Technology 13483:ecological 13456:skepticism 13446:misconduct 13431:enterprise 13249:scientific 13176:Positivism 13146:Empiricism 13128:Philosophy 12862:David Hume 12835:Precursors 12717:Psychology 12697:Economics‎ 12591:Empiricism 12582:Pragmatism 12569:Positivism 12559:Naturalism 12429:scientific 12313:Hypothesis 12276:Experiment 12061:PhilPapers 11085:2007-08-01 10673:2020-05-09 10438:, Boston: 10401:2020-06-24 10349:, Oxford, 10312:2020-05-09 10232:2023-06-03 10110:2021-08-28 9883:2021-08-29 9857:(5): 505. 9516:2007-06-07 9240:1014457300 9208:practices. 9193:2024-05-20 8685:2024-08-29 8318:2018-09-16 8279:3540205802 8235:0195166612 8195:0226457990 8158:2020-10-20 8010:2024-04-30 7943:2024-04-24 7908:Risk Savvy 7725:2020-04-17 7675:2024-04-21 7566:See also: 7515:The Monist 7320:2013-01-22 7288:0415278430 7172:2014-04-28 7089:(1572) as 7058:Ibn Mu'adh 6907:al-Battani 6893:2018-05-27 6842:2021-08-22 6817:2021-08-22 6792:2021-08-22 6767:2021-08-30 6741:2021-08-22 6582:2012-01-06 6469:2017-09-11 6371:, 581–586. 6314:Kamiokande 6227:Wikisource 6058:2021-11-27 5908:Wikisource 5854:2020-05-09 5724:2021-08-27 5536:2020-10-20 5489:2016-06-07 5174:, p. 5160:Opus Majus 5120:2021-11-27 4887:Wikisource 4854:2018-05-31 4826:2016-05-28 4753:References 4661:research); 4640:(2002). — 4590:Paul Dirac 4544:Carl Sagan 4464:Opus Majus 4428:refraction 4256:refraction 4220:See also: 4156:predicates 4023:Hipparchus 3861:See Locke 3668:heuristics 3461:Ricci flow 3442:conjecture 3402:, such as 3212:Relativism 3206:See also: 3113:dimensions 3055:See also: 2898:pluralists 2883:empiricist 2868:, and the 2850:See also: 2813:invariance 2773:Invariance 2712:desiderata 2682:heuristics 2624:Heuristics 2578:relativity 2418:hypotheses 2288:precession 2280:perihelion 2276:Le Verrier 2267:in 1727. 2194:perihelion 2190:Precession 2086:controlled 2082:hypotheses 2002:empiricism 1967:revelation 1959:empiricism 1841:See also: 1711:Ibn Mu'adh 1699:refraction 1638:See also: 1624:al-Battani 1616:Hipparchus 1590:(LHC), or 1568:excavation 1503:Experiment 1446:including 1363:vagueness. 1295:hypothesis 1212:relativity 1179:Definition 1159:voltmeters 1139:regression 1088:electrical 894:hypotheses 782:Lee Smolin 721:boundaries 703:David Hume 695:John Locke 647:empiricism 608:empiricism 541:hypothesis 531:, because 529:scepticism 438:Technology 307:Philosophy 297:Literature 267:Humanities 257:Futurology 207:Linguistic 92:Philosophy 87:Literature 77:Glossaries 13749:Factor 10 13577:diffusion 13416:consensus 13411:community 13376:education 13216:Sociology 13191:Scientism 13070:Economics 12702:Geography 12670:Chemistry 12629:Scientism 12424:ladenness 12244:Construct 12222:Causality 11585:Heinemann 11518:1553-7358 11336:462156333 11181:(2005) , 11147:(1959) , 11136:706968824 11014:(1999) , 10874:144294881 10745:0809.1003 10596:(2003) . 10269:Born, Max 9945:heuristic 9487:1468-2303 9429:1746-1979 9369:0926-7220 9322:0047-231X 9295:0926-7220 9150:0002-7685 9100:0018-2680 9054:0002-7685 9019:0036-6803 8956:0950-0693 8913:0036-8326 8870:1879-4912 8777:0036-8237 8610:(2004) . 8550:0046-2772 8476:0569-4345 7985:Voit 2019 7875:1549-1277 7821:0032-5473 7453:2509-310X 7385:0031-899X 7139:110623159 7115:(1): 42. 6678:dimension 6318:neutrinos 5652:144602109 5007:Alhazen, 4781:Principia 4618:Alan Cook 4375:Volume 12 4168:predicate 3607:Euclidean 3603:synthesis 3554:Synthesis 3498:heuristic 3451:arose in 3051:Education 2956:normative 2916:Pluralism 2759:parsimony 2720:beautiful 2706:Parsimony 2594:evolution 2533:knowledge 2123:galloping 2098:heuristic 2050:falsified 1986:pragmatic 1976:In 1877, 1915:positrons 1865:community 1594:, or the 1551:changed. 1471:spacetime 1444:reasoning 1382:beautiful 1326:Aristotle 1252:free will 1244:awareness 1197:mechanics 1050:molecules 962:Principia 628:Al-Biruni 517:knowledge 513:empirical 428:Scientist 182:Political 13869:Scholars 13864:Journals 13854:Category 13828:Portals 13709:transfer 13699:dynamics 13649:feminist 13451:priority 13436:literacy 13396:rhetoric 13362:Science 13326:Logology 12997:Category 12649:Vitalism 12472:Theories 12446:Variable 12367:Paradigm 12254:function 12212:A priori 12201:Analysis 12194:Concepts 12078:Archived 11981:(2000). 11854:Archived 11712:(2009), 11659:(1988), 11610:Archived 11546:(1968), 11536:31513575 11450:(2007), 11421:20787647 11250:20617660 11237:(2007), 11097:(1957), 11079:archived 11071:(1905), 11042:(1997), 10996:(1954), 10937:(1985), 10906:(2007), 10800:(1874), 10779:(2006), 10770:14395472 10709:(2003), 10667:archived 10569:(1638), 10556:Archived 10530:(1979), 10506:(1965), 10481:(1938), 10432:(1910), 10395:Archived 10323:(1989), 10306:archived 10271:(1949), 10226:Archived 10163:Archived 10101:Archived 9925:Archived 9901:Archived 9877:Archived 9759:26243971 9585:39539508 9387:34720429 9330:43631913 9108:20461985 8785:40399117 8642:54503549 8484:25603965 8328:Archived 8312:Archived 8288:53434974 8209:320-339. 8152:Archived 8000:(1966). 7938:BBC News 7893:16060722 7829:34039698 7719:Archived 7469:(1995). 7345:, ch. 1. 7255:Archived 7226:16060722 7163:Archived 7065:Archived 7017:cytosine 6884:Archived 6860:Archived 6836:Archived 6811:Archived 6786:Archived 6761:Archived 6735:Archived 6711:Archived 6700:Archived 6666:a priori 6544:Archived 6507:photo 51 6463:Archived 6438:Einstein 6418:Principe 6322:SN 1987a 6285:17739513 6188:Archived 6052:Archived 5994:Archived 5848:Archived 5830:(2009). 5803:theories 5757:(1957), 5715:Archived 5530:archived 5483:Archived 5444:(1963). 5293:15338543 5208:53006741 5114:Archived 5088:Almagest 5022:Archived 4848:Archived 4785:see also 4700:Weinberg 4632:(1997), 4628:(1995), 4624:(1994), 4620:(1994), 4616:(1993), 4612:(1992), 4608:(1983), 4604:(1974), 4600:(1967), 4596:(1966), 4592:(1958), 4586:Max Born 4584:(1920), 4580:(1902), 4469:record". 4087:... and 3972:twilight 3894:in 1930. 3696:See also 3686:theorems 3657:homology 3591:analysis 3539:Analysis 3400:Big data 2996:— 2817:symmetry 2804:Max Born 2801:— 2763:elegance 2753:Elegance 2729:— 2606:genetics 2602:patterns 2376:between 2292:Einstein 2245:European 2225:Chaldean 2152:a priori 2107:— 1878:— 1765:repeated 1661:modeling 1572:New York 1531:photo 51 1366:— 1168:— 1145:such as 1076:unknowns 1066:subjects 1054:crystals 856:Overview 624:Avicenna 616:Epicurus 543:through 433:Research 322:Religion 224:Medicine 202:Military 177:Economic 155:Physical 143:Computer 67:Category 22:Research 13832:Science 13514:studies 13426:dissent 13366:citizen 13283:studies 13281:Science 13228:Social 13093:History 12707:History 12675:Physics 12665:Biology 12463:more... 12451:control 12347:Inquiry 12090:at the 12068:at the 12032:(ed.). 11743:(ed.), 11691:(ed.), 11527:6742218 11496:Bibcode 11396:3657357 11366:3657358 11292:Bibcode 11117:Reprint 11109:4140462 11001:Vol. 1: 10750:Bibcode 10201:Sources 9919:(1979) 9873:6711862 9750:4520913 9495:2504396 9378:8550242 9158:4450823 9062:4451400 8936:Bibcode 8893:Bibcode 8325:YouTube 7884:1182327 7786:(1727) 7627:p. 15." 7619:p. 21: 7365:Bibcode 7217:1182327 7117:Bibcode 7013:guanine 7005:thymine 7001:adenine 6541:Draft D 6461:. 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