381:
the modern
Paraiyan". He says that these people were believed to be associated with magical power and kept at a distance, made to live in separate hamlets outside villages. However, their magical power was believed to sustain the king, who had the ability to transform it into auspicious power. Moffatt is less sure of this, saying that we do not know whether the distancing was a consequence of the belief in their magical powers or in Hinduism's ritual pollution as we know of it nowadays.
42:
3045:
363:. However, in their translation of the Purananuru, George L. Hart and Hank Heifetz argue that this interpretation is incorrect: as with other poems in this section of the Purananuru, this verse "deals with life in a marginal village... All these plants, food, castes, and gods are typically those found in such marginal areas," and thus the four castes mentioned here should not be taken as a comprehensive list of all Tamil castes in this period.
828:
490:. This report largely shaped the perceptions of the British officials about contemporary society. They regarded Pariyars as an outcaste, untouchable community. In the second half of the 19th century, there were frequent descriptions of the Paraiyars in official documents and reformist tracts as being "disinherited sons of the earth". The first reference to the idea may be that written by
631:. He described them as people who lived outside the system of morals prescribed by Hinduism, accepted that outcaste position and were characterised by "drunkenness, shamelessness, brutality, truthlessness, uncleanliness, disgusting food practices, and an absolute lack of personal honour". Moffat says this led to
380:
performed a ritual function by composing and singing songs in the king's favour and beating drums, as well as travelling around villages to announce royal decrees. They were divided into subgroups based on the instruments they played and one of these groups – the
Kinaiyan – "was probably the same as
524:
converted many
Paraiyars to Christianity by the early 19th century. During the British Raj, the missionary schools and colleges admitted Paraiyar students amid opposition from the upper-caste students. In 1893, the colonial government sanctioned an additional stipend for the Paraiyar students. The
703:
to describe an organisation, which was probably
Srinivasan's Parayar Mahajana Sabha. In 1895, he established the People's Assembly of Urdravidians (Adidravida Jana Sabha), which probably split off from Srinivasan's organisation. According to Michael Bergunder, Thass was thus the first person to
411:
drum or by integration into the low-status labouring groups who were generically called
Paraiyar. Thus, it is thought that Paraiyar came to have many subcastes. According to 1961 Madras Census Report, castes that are categorised under Paraiyar include Koliyar, Panchamar, Thoti, Vettiyan, Vetti,
406:
describes an essentially continuous process of expansion of the nuclear areas of the caste society into forest and upland areas of tribal and warrior people, and their integration into the caste society at the lowest levels. Many of the forest groups were incorporated as
Paraiyar either by
599:
defeated them and destroyed
Buddhism in southern India; as a result, the Paraiyars lost their culture, religion, wealth and status in the society and become destitute. In 1898, Thass and many of his followers converted to Buddhism and founded the Sakya Buddha Society
677:
Thass continued his campaign against the term, and petitioned the government to discontinue its usage, demanding punishment for those who used the term. He incorrectly claimed that the term
466:
Scholars such as
Burchett and Moffatt state that the Bhakti devotationalism did not undermine Brahmin ritual dominance. Instead, it might have strengthened it by warding off challenges from
304:
300 BCE – 300 CE) has led him to favour
Caldwell's earlier hypothesis. The literature has references to the Tamil caste system and refers to a number of "low-born" groups variously called
399:
There are also references to "Paraiya chieftainships" in the 8th and 10th centuries, but it is not known what these were and how they were integrated into the Chola political system.
393:
s, which were separate hamlets of the
Paraiyars. Also living in separate hamlets were the artisans such as goldsmiths and cobblers, who were also recorded in the Sangam literature.
247:, a nineteenth-century missionary and grammarian who worked in South India, was in agreement with some Indian writers of the same period who considered the name to derive from the
517:; Washbrook calls it the "Golden Age of the Pariah". Raj Sekhar Basu disagrees with this narrative, although he agrees that there were "certain important economic developments".
2501:
412:
Vellam, Vel, Natuvile, Pani, Pambaikaran, Ammaparaiyan, Urumikaran, Morasu, Tangalam, Samban, Paryan, Nesavukaraparayan, Thotiparayan, Kongaparayan, Mannaparayan, and Semban.
525:
colonial officials, scholars, and missionaries attempted to rewrite the history of the Paraiyars, characterising them as a community that enjoyed a high status in the past.
271:
M. Srinivasa Aiyangar, writing a little later, found this etymology unsatisfactory, arguing that beating of drums could not have been an occupation of so many people.
447:, in a "threshold of the huts covered with strips of leather", with mango trees from whose branches were hung drums. "In this abode of the people of the lowest caste (
1827:
529:(1855–1935), for example, claimed that their status was nearly equal to that of the Brahmins in the past. H. A. Stuart, in his Census Report of 1891, claimed that
498:
missionary, said that the Paraiyars were self-evidently the "disinherited children of the soil". English officials such as Ellis believed that the Paraiyars were
1102:
1441:
Burchett, Patton (August 2009). "Bhakti Rhetoric in the Hagiography of 'Untouchable' Saints: Discerning Bhakti's Ambivalence on Caste and Brahminhood".
2651:
2277:
455:." Nandanar was described as a temple servant and leather worker, who supplied straps for drums and gut-string for stringed instruments used in the
2636:
2009:
1097:
506:. However, scholars such as Burton Stein argue that the agricultural bondage in Tamil society was different from the contemporary British ideas of
2446:
591:
Thass subsequently attempted a Buddhist reconstruction of the Tamil religious history. He argued that the Paraiyars were originally followers of
335:
494:
in 1818, where he writes that the Paraiyars "affect to consider themselves as the real proprietors of the soil". In 1894, William Goudie, a
486:'s report on socio-economic condition of South Indians described them ("Pariar") as inferior caste slaves, who cultivated the lands held by
2682:
2641:
2543:
513:
Historians such as David Washbrook have argued that the socio-economic status of the Paraiyars rose greatly in the 18th century during the
2560:
576:. This experience led him to believe that it was impossible to emancipate the community within the Hindu fold. In 1893, he also rejected
2626:
459:
temple, but he was himself not allowed to enter the temple. The Paraiyar regard Nandanar as one of their own caste. Paraiyars wear the
2384:
2618:
2420:
670:
with pride. In 1892, he formed the Parayar Mahajana Sabha (Paraiyar Mahajana Assembly), and also started a news publication titled
568:
by occupation, belonged to a Paraiyar elite. In 1892, he demanded access for Paraiyars to Hindu temples, but faced resistance from
3082:
2702:
3007:
2802:
2538:
2321:
2555:
2270:
2245:
2224:
2203:
2182:
2125:
2099:
2050:
1909:
1881:
1856:
1773:
1662:
1311:
1178:
1148:
647:
221:
55:
1983:
2727:
1938:
585:
3107:
2656:
2608:
2533:
2461:
915:
268:, the Paraiyars were originally a community of drummers who performed at auspicious events like weddings and funerals.
3028:
2788:
2598:
3092:
3072:
3023:
2149:
2061:
1993:
1948:
1254:
1203:
875:
203:
857:
3097:
3087:
3067:
3048:
2646:
2603:
2471:
2263:
2631:
2995:
2159:
979:
900:
853:
396:
In a few inscriptions (all of them from outside Thanjavur district), Paraiyars are described as temple patrons.
2962:
2588:
2364:
1009:, founding member of the Justice Party, former mayor of Madras and President of the Republican Party of India
972:, Minister for Home Affairs, Agriculture, Public Works, Member of Parliament (1946–1967) in Kamaraj's cabinet
2441:
956:
125:
3000:
2793:
2762:
2528:
3077:
2904:
2550:
952:
724:
1140:
Global Capital and Peripheral Labour: The History and Political Economy of Plantation Workers in India
2939:
2871:
2583:
2578:
2486:
2466:
2316:
2295:
1812:
988:
849:
483:
17:
1246:
The Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil, the Purananuru
2988:
2947:
2697:
1091:
946:
838:
635:
entering the English language as "a synonym for the socially ostracised and the morally depraved".
1844:
595:
and constituted the original population of India. According to him, the Brahmanical invaders from
2783:
2692:
2677:
2593:
2415:
842:
2062:"Contested Past: Anti-brahmanical and Hindu nationalist reconstructions of early Indian history"
1765:
334:
as a word referring to an occupational group first appears in the second century CE writings of
3102:
2476:
2369:
994:
736:
546:
521:
2235:
2214:
1964:
1753:
943:(1845–1914), founder of the Sakya Buddhist Society (also known as Indian Buddhist Association)
2978:
2957:
2425:
2379:
2193:
2172:
1138:
934:
810:
is the mother goddesses who are installed in the homes of the Parayas and worshiped by them.
663:
514:
275:
2040:
1764:. Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology. Vol. 9. Cambridge University Press. p.
1723:
2952:
2914:
2672:
2496:
1897:
975:
918:, spiritual leader, social activist, politician and founder of Nandanar school, Chidambaram
792:
609:
542:
1003:, Minister for Transport, Hindu Religious Endowments, Harijan Welfare in Kamaraj's cabinet
931:(1883–1943), politician, social and political activist from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu
359:
This poem is sometimes interpreted as evidence of there being only four castes in ancient
8:
2983:
2394:
2374:
2331:
959:
member who founded the organization Brahma Pratyaksha Sadhujana Paripalana Parayar Sangam
620:
491:
1379:
Vincentnathan, Lynn (June 1993). "Nandanar: Untouchable Saint and Caste Hindu Anomaly".
2919:
2687:
2456:
2341:
1789:
1758:
1466:
1458:
1396:
1085:
1055:
605:
386:
95:
806:
is a ritualistic dance drama performed once a year by the Paraya community in Kerala.
681:
was not found in any ancient records (it has been, in fact, found in the 10th-century
2879:
2336:
2286:
2241:
2220:
2199:
2178:
2145:
2121:
2095:
2046:
1989:
1944:
1905:
1877:
1852:
1769:
1470:
1250:
1199:
1174:
1144:
896:
716:
592:
482:
By the early 19th century, the Paraiyars had a degraded status in the Tamil society.
297:
149:
145:
99:
949:, first woman president of the Scheduled Caste Federation and Deputy Mayor of Madras
282:, the name of a regional subdivision mentioned by ancient Tamil grammarians, or the
2909:
2889:
2451:
2346:
2326:
2076:
1940:
Party System Change in South India: Political Entrepreneurs, Patterns and Processes
1828:"Malayalam docu-fiction 'Thevan' pays tribute to folk artiste Thevan Peradipurathu"
1450:
1392:
1388:
1031:
910:
530:
174:
2929:
2899:
2884:
2399:
2139:
2135:
2113:
2089:
1846:
1244:
1168:
1043:
1025:
1000:
811:
803:
784:
565:
538:
534:
416:
244:
2816:
2356:
2109:
1164:
686:
588:, while the backwardness of contemporary local Muslims made Islam unappealing.
526:
443:
437:– contained one saint each from the untouchable communities. The Nayanar saint
293:
248:
91:
2161:
Irschick, Eugene F. (1994), Complete book at Cdlib, but without page numbering
2042:
Nandanar's Children: The Paraiyans' Tryst with Destiny, Tamil Nadu 1850 - 1956
1454:
3061:
2924:
2894:
2010:"Casteist message in Ilaiyaraaja's name is fake, composer's lawyer clarifies"
1845:
Mylapore Institute for Indigenous Studies; I.S.P.C.K. (Organisation) (2000).
1110:
1079:
1061:
1049:
940:
682:
658:
as an alternative term, and formed the Dhraavidar Mahajana Sabhai (Dravidian
650:, he requested the government to record the community members under the name
561:
550:
460:
2767:
2757:
577:
403:
73:
2255:
2080:
623:, a French missionary who worked in India between 1792 and 1823 and had a
612:. Olcott subsequently and greatly supported the Tamil Paraiyar Buddhists.
2844:
2830:
2481:
1073:
1037:
1019:
928:
712:
691:
495:
456:
431:
41:
1462:
533:
were a priestly class among the Paraiyars, and served as priests during
2858:
2837:
2491:
1985:
Untouchable Citizens: Dalit Movements and Democratization in Tamil Nadu
1006:
788:
643:
343:
265:
225:
117:
1400:
997:, Minister for Agriculture & Rural development in Rajaji's cabinet
2809:
1703:
969:
360:
233:
827:
502:
toiling under a system of bonded labour that resembled the European
451:), there arose a man with a feeling of true devotion to the feet of
2823:
2742:
2732:
2389:
905:
753:
727:
passed a resolution that officially censured the usage of the term
719:
councillor — made successful efforts for adoption of the term
659:
573:
471:
438:
427:
424:
283:
77:
69:
65:
2851:
2747:
2118:
Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David B. Mandelbaum
2088:
Bergunder, Michael; Frese, Heiko; Schröder, Ulrike, eds. (2011).
1196:
The Light and the Dark: Dualism in ancient Iran, India, and China
1067:
984:
767:
624:
569:
507:
503:
487:
467:
2195:
An Untouchable Community in South India: Structure and Consensus
1848:
Christianity is Indian: the emergence of an indigenous community
217:
2737:
596:
584:
as the alternatives to Hinduism, because caste differences had
434:
229:
135:
121:
1902:
India's silent revolution: Rise of lower castes in North India
2722:
581:
452:
253:
81:
814:
is performed to please the deities through music and drama.
757:("Right-hand caste faction"). Some of them assume the title
1501:
499:
195:
189:
180:
27:
Dominant Scheduled Caste found in South India and Sri Lanka
1693:
1691:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1638:
1520:
1518:
1516:
937:(1860–1945), Paraiyar activist, politician from Tamil Nadu
354:
and the Paraiyans and the Katampans, there are no castes.
2141:
Dialogue and History: Constructing South India, 1795–1895
1323:
1321:
1263:
1754:"Caste rank and verbal interaction in western Tamilnadu"
1614:
1578:
1360:
1338:
1336:
615:
1918:
1688:
1669:
1626:
1590:
1513:
699:) to describe the community. In 1892, he used the term
2087:
1851:. Published for MIIS, Mylapore by ISPCK. p. 322.
1709:
1318:
1287:
1224:
765:
comprised castes with an agricultural basis while the
1650:
1602:
1554:
1422:
1348:
1333:
556:
352:
Other than the Tutiyan drummers and the Panan singers
204:
2002:
1530:
1299:
1249:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 191.
646:, and campaigned against its usage. During the 1881
186:
177:
2091:
Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India
627:-centric outlook, recorded the community's name as
183:
1757:
1566:
1477:
1275:
1212:
899:, rejected Christianity and Hinduism to found the
890:
731:to refer to a specific community, and recommended
1542:
1489:
1088:, music director (part of the Shankar Ganesh duo)
922:
46:Group of Paraiyars in the Madras Presidency, 1909
3059:
1890:
771:consisted of castes involved in manufacturing.
1904:. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 169.
1876:. Penguin Books India. pp. 68, 271, 281.
1813:"അവതരണങ്ങളിൽ അപമാനിക്കപ്പെടുന്ന അനുഷ്ഠാനകലകൾ"
1413:
2271:
1965:"കാവാരികുളം കണ്ടന് കുമാരനും ദളിത് പ്രശ്നവും"
1378:
312:. Hart believes that one of the drums called
2683:Federation of Tamil Sangams of North America
2198:. Princeton University Press. pp. 37–.
2144:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1957:
1871:
783:As of 2017, the Paraiyar were a listed as a
739:ensured the wider dissemination of the term
662:Assembly) in 1891. Another Paraiyar leader,
463:under rituals such as marriage and funeral.
278:, have derived the name from the Tamil word
2285:
1269:
1242:
856:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
746:
735:as an alternative. In the 1920s and 1930s,
192:
2278:
2264:
1724:"More inscriptions from the Tambaram area"
1661:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMoffat1979 (
1310:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMoffat1979 (
1194:Fontaine, Petrus Franciscus Maria (1990).
1173:. Cambridge University Press. p. 32.
549:claimed that the ancient poet-philosopher
316:in the literature later came to be called
40:
2170:
2114:"Early Evidence for Caste in South India"
2059:
1896:
1865:
1721:
1697:
1644:
1632:
1596:
1584:
1524:
1414:Kolappa Pillay, Kanakasabhapathi (1977).
1013:
876:Learn how and when to remove this message
761:("Head of the right-hand division"). The
689:). Thass subsequently advocated the term
320:and the people that played the drum were
2237:Kolar Gold Field: (Unfolding the Untold)
2233:
2174:The Future of Christian Mission in India
2134:
1981:
1924:
1810:
1751:
1682:
1507:
1440:
1193:
723:in the government records. In 1914, the
385:Inscriptions, especially those from the
2703:Transnational Government of Tamil Eelam
2191:
1620:
1428:
1366:
1354:
1342:
1243:Hart, George L.; Heifetz, Hank (2001).
477:
14:
3060:
2216:Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God
1804:
1710:Bergunder, Frese & Schröder (2011)
1656:
1443:International Journal of Hindu Studies
1305:
2259:
1936:
1819:
1163:
1136:
616:Controversy over the community's name
371:
2108:
2038:
1608:
1572:
1560:
1548:
1536:
1495:
1483:
1293:
1281:
1230:
1218:
854:adding citations to reliable sources
821:
666:, however, advocated using the term
604:) with the influential mediation of
423:7th–9th centuries CE), the saints –
2534:Government of the Northern Province
2212:
1811:Varavoor, Prashanth (August 2011).
1418:. University of Madras. p. 33.
1327:
1198:. Brill Academic Pub. p. 100.
775:were better organised politically.
24:
2599:Democratic Tamil National Alliance
1937:Wyatt, Andrew (16 December 2009).
1792:. Ministry of Social Justice. 2017
557:Buddhist advocacy by Iyothee Thass
25:
3119:
1982:Gorringe, Hugo (7 January 2005).
1825:
1756:. In McGilvray, Dennis B. (ed.).
1728:Madras Christian College Magazine
817:
778:
586:persisted among Indian Christians
3044:
3043:
2789:Representations in Indian cinema
2609:Tamil People's National Alliance
1170:Rural Society in Southeast India
991:leader and former Union Minister
978:, politician and chairperson of
826:
173:
2462:Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact
1975:
1930:
1874:Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide
1838:
1782:
1745:
1715:
1434:
1407:
1372:
891:Religious and spiritual leaders
3083:Scheduled Castes of Tamil Nadu
2240:. Partridge Publishing India.
1760:Caste Ideology and Interaction
1416:The Caste System in Tamil Nadu
1393:10.1525/eth.1993.21.2.02a00020
1236:
1187:
1157:
1130:
980:Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi
923:Social reformers and activists
901:Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha
13:
1:
2604:Tamil National People's Front
2589:Tamil United Liberation Front
2171:Kanjamala, Augustine (2014).
2120:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
1752:Levinson, Stephen C. (1982).
1117:
420:
301:
793:system of affirmative action
274:Some other writers, such as
239:
7:
3001:Shrine of Our Lady of Madhu
2529:Northern Provincial Council
2219:. Oxford University Press.
2116:. In Hockings, Paul (ed.).
2069:Historiographia Linguistica
2060:Bergunder, Michael (2004).
1826:M, Athira (24 March 2022).
963:
708:into political discussion.
296:'s textual analysis of the
10:
3124:
3108:Social groups of Sri Lanka
2551:Eastern Provincial Council
2502:NPC Resolution on Genocide
2421:Wesleyan Methodist Mission
1113:, Malayalam music director
953:Kavarikulam Kandan Kumaran
798:
725:Madras Legislative Council
366:
3041:
3016:
2971:
2938:
2870:
2776:
2715:
2665:
2617:
2579:All Ceylon Tamil Congress
2571:
2521:
2514:
2487:Burning of Jaffna library
2434:
2408:
2355:
2322:Tissamaharama inscription
2317:History of Eastern Tamils
2309:
2302:
2296:List of Sri Lankan Tamils
2293:
2192:Moffatt, Michael (1979).
2039:Basu, Raj Sekhar (2011).
1988:. SAGE Publishing India.
1455:10.1007/s11407-009-9072-5
1143:. Routledge. p. 67.
711:Another Paraiyar leader,
704:introduce the concept of
141:
131:
113:
105:
87:
61:
51:
39:
34:
3093:South Indian communities
3073:Sri Lankan Tamil society
2989:Nallur Kandaswamy temple
2698:Tamil Youth Organisation
1722:Siromoney, Gift (1975).
947:Annai Meenambal Shivaraj
751:Paraiyars belong to the
747:Right-hand caste faction
685:stone inscriptions from
638:Iyothee Thass felt that
168:(formerly anglicised as
148: • other
3098:Ethnic groups in Kerala
3088:Sri Lankan Tamil castes
3068:Social groups of Kerala
2693:Tamils Against Genocide
2678:Canadian Tamil Congress
2594:Tamil National Alliance
2416:American Ceylon Mission
2287:Sri Lankan Tamil people
2213:Orr, Leslie C. (2000).
1270:Hart & Heifetz 2001
441:was born, according to
347:mentions the Paraiyar:
2940:Languages and dialects
2477:Vaddukoddai Resolution
1094:, Indian percussionist
1046:, Malayalam film actor
1022:, Indian film composer
1014:Arts and entertainment
995:V. I. Munuswamy Pillai
957:Sree Moolam Prajasabha
955:, social reformer and
737:Periyar E. V. Ramasamy
701:Adidravida Jana Sabhai
547:Edward Jewitt Robinson
522:Church Mission Society
357:
341:The 335th poem of the
289:, meaning "hill man".
2426:Jaffna Youth Congress
2380:Kotagama inscriptions
2081:10.1075/hl.31.1.05ber
1898:Jaffrelot, Christophe
1872:Roshen Dalal (2011).
1082:, Tamil film director
1076:, Tamil film director
1070:, Tamil film director
1064:, Tamil film director
935:Rettamalai Srinivasan
664:Rettamalai Srinivasan
654:. He later suggested
602:cākkaiya putta caṅkam
515:Company rule in India
407:association with the
349:
276:Gustav Solomon Oppert
2673:British Tamils Forum
2234:Srikumar, S (2014).
1137:Raman, Ravi (2010).
1034:, actor and director
976:Thol. Thirumavalavan
850:improve this section
610:Theosophical Society
543:J. H. A. Tremenheere
478:British colonial era
2984:Naguleswaram temple
2385:Portuguese conquest
2375:Jaffna Palace ruins
2332:Ketheeswaram temple
2136:Irschick, Eugene F.
1510:, pp. 153–190.
1330:, pp. 236–237.
1296:, pp. 482–483.
1233:, pp. 467–468.
697:Original Dravidians
621:Jean-Antoine Dubois
492:Francis Whyte Ellis
376:Hart says that the
220:group found in the
2688:Global Tamil Forum
2342:Munneswaram temple
2177:. Wipf and Stock.
1107:, Malayalam singer
1056:Yuvan Shankar Raja
1052:, Tamil film actor
606:Henry Steel Olcott
387:Thanjavur district
372:Pre-British period
264:According to this
3078:Dalit communities
3055:
3054:
3037:
3036:
2711:
2710:
2572:Political parties
2510:
2509:
2337:Koneswaram temple
2247:978-1-4828-1507-8
2226:978-0-19-535672-4
2205:978-1-4008-7036-3
2184:978-1-63087-485-8
2127:978-3-11084-685-0
2101:978-93-80607-21-4
2052:978-81-321-0679-1
1911:978-1-85065-670-8
1883:978-0-14-341421-6
1858:978-81-7214-561-3
1775:978-0-52124-145-8
1647:, pp. 67–71.
1623:, pp. 19–21.
1611:, pp. 24–26.
1563:, pp. 33–34.
1369:, pp. 38–39.
1180:978-0-52104-019-8
1150:978-1-13519-658-5
916:Swami Sahajananda
897:Poykayil Yohannan
886:
885:
878:
652:Aboriginal Tamils
298:Sangam literature
155:
154:
146:Sri Lankan Tamils
16:(Redirected from
3115:
3047:
3046:
2948:Batticaloa Tamil
2774:
2773:
2519:
2518:
2452:Sinhala Only Act
2347:Tenavaram temple
2327:Annaicoddai seal
2307:
2306:
2280:
2273:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2230:
2209:
2188:
2165:
2155:
2131:
2105:
2094:. Primus Books.
2084:
2066:
2056:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1763:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1698:Bergunder (2004)
1695:
1686:
1680:
1667:
1666:
1654:
1648:
1645:Bergunder (2004)
1642:
1636:
1633:Bergunder (2004)
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1597:Kanjamala (2014)
1594:
1588:
1585:Kanjamala (2014)
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1539:, pp. 9–11.
1534:
1528:
1525:Bergunder (2004)
1522:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1411:
1405:
1404:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1331:
1325:
1316:
1315:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1161:
1155:
1154:
1134:
1106:
1032:Raghava Lawrence
1028:, music director
911:Thiruppaan Alvar
881:
874:
870:
867:
861:
830:
822:
553:was a Paraiyar.
484:Francis Buchanan
422:
303:
208:
202:
201:
198:
197:
194:
191:
188:
185:
182:
179:
114:Populated states
109:India, Sri Lanka
44:
32:
31:
21:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3112:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3033:
3012:
3008:Village deities
2967:
2934:
2866:
2803:Saturday Review
2772:
2728:Genetic studies
2707:
2661:
2619:Militant groups
2613:
2567:
2561:Chief Ministers
2544:Chief Ministers
2506:
2467:Standardisation
2430:
2404:
2400:Demala Hatpattu
2351:
2298:
2289:
2284:
2254:
2248:
2227:
2206:
2185:
2158:
2152:
2128:
2110:Hart, George L.
2102:
2064:
2053:
2030:
2029:
2019:
2017:
2014:The News Minute
2008:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1980:
1976:
1971:(in Malayalam).
1963:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1935:
1931:
1925:Srikumar (2014)
1923:
1919:
1912:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1870:
1866:
1859:
1843:
1839:
1824:
1820:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1793:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1750:
1746:
1736:
1734:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1689:
1683:Srikumar (2014)
1681:
1670:
1660:
1659:, pp. 6–7.
1655:
1651:
1643:
1639:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1591:
1583:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1514:
1508:Irschick (1994)
1506:
1502:
1494:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1439:
1435:
1427:
1423:
1412:
1408:
1377:
1373:
1365:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1341:
1334:
1326:
1319:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1280:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1221:, pp. 2–4.
1217:
1213:
1206:
1192:
1188:
1181:
1165:Gough, Kathleen
1162:
1158:
1151:
1135:
1131:
1120:
1100:
1044:Kalabhavan Mani
1016:
1001:B. Parameswaran
966:
925:
893:
882:
871:
865:
862:
847:
831:
820:
812:Malavazhiyattam
804:Malavazhiyattam
801:
785:Scheduled Caste
781:
749:
648:census of India
618:
559:
539:Robert Caldwell
480:
417:Bhakti movement
374:
369:
356:
353:
292:More recently,
245:Robert Caldwell
242:
206:
176:
172:
56:Scheduled Caste
47:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3121:
3111:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3053:
3052:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3031:
3026:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3005:
3004:
3003:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2944:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2927:
2925:United Kingdom
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2834:
2827:
2820:
2817:Tamil Guardian
2813:
2806:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2780:
2778:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2719:
2717:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2525:
2523:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2370:Aryacakravarti
2367:
2361:
2359:
2357:Jaffna kingdom
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2311:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2268:
2260:
2253:
2252:
2246:
2231:
2225:
2210:
2204:
2189:
2183:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2150:
2132:
2126:
2106:
2100:
2085:
2057:
2051:
2028:
2027:
2001:
1994:
1974:
1956:
1949:
1929:
1927:, p. 356.
1917:
1910:
1889:
1882:
1864:
1857:
1837:
1818:
1803:
1781:
1774:
1744:
1714:
1712:, p. 260.
1702:
1687:
1685:, p. 357.
1668:
1649:
1637:
1625:
1621:Moffatt (1979)
1613:
1601:
1589:
1587:, p. 127.
1577:
1565:
1553:
1541:
1529:
1512:
1500:
1488:
1476:
1449:(2): 115–141.
1433:
1429:Moffatt (1979)
1421:
1406:
1387:(2): 154–179.
1371:
1367:Moffatt (1979)
1359:
1355:Moffatt (1979)
1347:
1343:Moffatt (1979)
1332:
1317:
1298:
1286:
1284:, p. 468.
1274:
1272:, p. 322.
1262:
1255:
1235:
1223:
1211:
1204:
1186:
1179:
1156:
1149:
1128:
1127:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1108:
1098:Pandalam Balan
1095:
1092:Drums Sivamani
1089:
1083:
1077:
1071:
1065:
1059:
1053:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1029:
1023:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1004:
998:
992:
982:
973:
965:
962:
961:
960:
950:
944:
938:
932:
924:
921:
920:
919:
913:
908:
903:
892:
889:
884:
883:
834:
832:
825:
819:
818:Notable people
816:
800:
797:
791:under India's
780:
779:Present status
777:
748:
745:
687:Kolar district
617:
614:
558:
555:
527:Edgar Thurston
479:
476:
444:Periya Puranam
401:
400:
397:
394:
373:
370:
368:
365:
350:
294:George L. Hart
241:
238:
153:
152:
143:
142:Related groups
139:
138:
133:
129:
128:
115:
111:
110:
107:
103:
102:
89:
85:
84:
63:
59:
58:
53:
52:Classification
49:
48:
45:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3120:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3103:Indian castes
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3050:
3040:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3015:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2958:Negombo Tamil
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2930:United States
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2861:
2860:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2584:Federal Party
2582:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2435:Post-colonial
2433:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2269:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2249:
2243:
2239:
2238:
2232:
2228:
2222:
2218:
2217:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2151:9780520914322
2147:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2075:(1): 95–104.
2074:
2070:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2016:. 21 May 2019
2015:
2011:
2005:
1997:
1995:9789352803057
1991:
1987:
1986:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1952:
1950:9781135182014
1946:
1943:. Routledge.
1942:
1941:
1933:
1926:
1921:
1913:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1885:
1879:
1875:
1868:
1860:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1841:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1814:
1807:
1791:
1785:
1777:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1761:
1755:
1748:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1718:
1711:
1706:
1700:, p. 69.
1699:
1694:
1692:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1664:
1658:
1657:Moffat (1979)
1653:
1646:
1641:
1635:, p. 70.
1634:
1629:
1622:
1617:
1610:
1605:
1599:, p. 66.
1598:
1593:
1586:
1581:
1575:, p. 39.
1574:
1569:
1562:
1557:
1550:
1545:
1538:
1533:
1527:, p. 68.
1526:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1509:
1504:
1497:
1492:
1486:, p. 16.
1485:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1431:, p. 39.
1430:
1425:
1417:
1410:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1368:
1363:
1357:, p. 41.
1356:
1351:
1345:, p. 38.
1344:
1339:
1337:
1329:
1324:
1322:
1313:
1308:, p. 37.
1307:
1306:Moffat (1979)
1302:
1295:
1290:
1283:
1278:
1271:
1266:
1258:
1256:9780231115636
1252:
1248:
1247:
1239:
1232:
1227:
1220:
1215:
1207:
1205:9789050630511
1201:
1197:
1190:
1182:
1176:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1160:
1152:
1146:
1142:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1112:
1111:Mohan Sithara
1109:
1104:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1080:Mari Selvaraj
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1062:Venkat Prabhu
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1050:Premgi Amaren
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1008:
1005:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
990:
986:
983:
981:
977:
974:
971:
968:
967:
958:
954:
951:
948:
945:
942:
941:Iyothee Thass
939:
936:
933:
930:
927:
926:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
898:
895:
894:
888:
880:
877:
869:
866:November 2022
859:
855:
851:
845:
844:
840:
835:This section
833:
829:
824:
823:
815:
813:
809:
805:
796:
794:
790:
786:
776:
774:
770:
769:
764:
760:
756:
755:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
709:
707:
702:
698:
694:
693:
688:
684:
680:
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
613:
611:
607:
603:
598:
594:
589:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
566:Siddha doctor
563:
562:Iyothee Thass
554:
552:
551:Thiruvalluvar
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
523:
518:
516:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
475:
473:
469:
464:
462:
461:sacred thread
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:
440:
436:
433:
429:
426:
418:
413:
410:
405:
398:
395:
392:
388:
384:
383:
382:
379:
364:
362:
355:
348:
346:
345:
339:
337:
336:Mangudi Kilar
333:
329:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
299:
295:
290:
288:
285:
281:
277:
272:
269:
267:
262:
260:
256:
255:
250:
246:
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
222:Indian states
219:
215:
211:
210:
200:
171:
167:
163:
159:
151:
147:
144:
140:
137:
134:
130:
127:
123:
119:
116:
112:
108:
104:
101:
97:
93:
90:
86:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
64:
60:
57:
54:
50:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2953:Jaffna Tamil
2857:
2850:
2843:
2836:
2829:
2822:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2758:Thesavalamai
2752:
2447:Colonisation
2236:
2215:
2194:
2173:
2160:
2140:
2117:
2090:
2072:
2068:
2041:
2033:Bibliography
2032:
2031:
2018:. Retrieved
2013:
2004:
1984:
1977:
1969:Deshabhimani
1968:
1959:
1939:
1932:
1920:
1901:
1892:
1873:
1867:
1847:
1840:
1831:
1821:
1806:
1794:. Retrieved
1790:"Tamil Nadu"
1784:
1759:
1747:
1737:21 September
1735:. Retrieved
1731:
1727:
1717:
1705:
1652:
1640:
1628:
1616:
1604:
1592:
1580:
1568:
1556:
1551:, p. 4.
1544:
1532:
1503:
1498:, p. 2.
1491:
1479:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1424:
1415:
1409:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1265:
1245:
1238:
1226:
1214:
1195:
1189:
1169:
1159:
1139:
1132:
1123:
1122:
887:
872:
863:
848:Please help
836:
807:
802:
782:
772:
766:
762:
759:Valangaimaan
758:
752:
750:
740:
733:Adi Dravidar
732:
728:
721:Adi-Dravidar
720:
710:
705:
700:
696:
690:
678:
676:
671:
667:
655:
651:
639:
637:
632:
628:
619:
601:
590:
578:Christianity
560:
519:
512:
481:
465:
448:
442:
414:
408:
404:Burton Stein
402:
390:
377:
375:
358:
351:
342:
340:
331:
330:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
291:
286:
279:
273:
270:
263:
258:
252:
243:
213:
169:
165:
161:
157:
156:
74:Christianity
29:
2996:Catholicism
2915:New Zealand
2845:Thinakkural
2831:Tamil Times
2482:Tamil Eelam
2442:Nationalism
1609:Basu (2011)
1573:Basu (2011)
1561:Basu (2011)
1549:Basu (2011)
1537:Basu (2011)
1496:Basu (2011)
1484:Basu (2011)
1294:Hart (1987)
1282:Hart (1987)
1231:Hart (1987)
1219:Basu (2011)
1101: [
1074:Pa. Ranjith
1020:Ilaiyaraaja
929:M. C. Rajah
741:Adi Dravida
713:M. C. Rajah
706:Adi Dravida
692:Adi Dravida
457:Chidambaram
432:Vaishnavite
415:During the
324:(plural of
3062:Categories
2859:Virakesari
2838:Thinakaran
2794:Literature
2522:Government
2492:Black July
1328:Orr (2000)
1118:References
1058:, musician
1007:N. Sivaraj
789:Tamil Nadu
715: — a
504:villeinage
391:paraicceri
389:, mention
344:Purananuru
266:hypothesis
226:Tamil Nadu
150:Dravidians
126:Puducherry
118:Tamil Nadu
2963:Loanwords
2880:Australia
2810:Sudar Oli
2556:Governors
2539:Governors
2497:Civil War
2472:Militancy
2020:4 January
1832:The Hindu
1471:143000307
1167:(2008) .
1124:Citations
970:P. Kakkan
837:does not
808:Malavazhi
656:Dravidian
574:Vellalars
531:Valluvars
361:Tamilakam
240:Etymology
234:Sri Lanka
132:Ethnicity
96:Malayalam
88:Languages
62:Religions
18:Paraiyars
3049:Category
3029:Football
2979:Hinduism
2972:Religion
2920:Pakistan
2910:Malaysia
2872:Diaspora
2824:TamilNet
2763:Vellalar
2753:Paraiyar
2743:Mukkuvar
2733:Karaiyar
2666:Diaspora
2515:Politics
2409:Colonial
2390:Vannimai
2138:(1994).
2112:(1987).
2045:. SAGE.
1900:(2003).
1463:40608021
964:Politics
906:Nandanar
773:Valangai
763:Valangai
754:Valangai
729:Paraiyar
679:Paraiyar
672:Paraiyan
668:Paraiyar
660:Mahajana
640:Paraiyar
593:Buddhism
570:Brahmins
496:Wesleyan
488:Brahmins
472:Buddhism
449:kadainar
439:Nandanar
430:and the
428:Nayanars
425:Shaivite
378:pulaiyar
332:Paraiyar
326:paraiyan
322:paraiyar
310:Kinaiyar
306:Pulaiyar
287:pahariya
284:Sanskrit
166:Maraiyar
158:Paraiyar
100:Sanskrit
78:Buddhism
70:Shaivism
66:Hinduism
35:Paraiyar
3024:Cricket
2895:Germany
2852:Uthayan
2777:Culture
2748:Nalavar
2716:Society
2395:Vanniar
2365:History
2310:Ancient
2303:History
1796:20 July
1068:Mysskin
1040:, actor
858:removed
843:sources
799:Culture
768:Idangai
625:Brahmin
608:of the
537:reign.
535:Pallava
508:slavery
468:Jainism
367:History
280:poraian
232:and in
216:) is a
162:Parayar
106:Country
2890:France
2885:Canada
2784:Cinema
2738:Koviar
2244:
2223:
2202:
2181:
2148:
2124:
2098:
2049:
1992:
1947:
1908:
1880:
1855:
1772:
1469:
1461:
1401:640372
1399:
1253:
1202:
1177:
1147:
1086:Ganesh
985:A Raja
717:Madras
642:was a
633:pariah
629:Pariah
597:Persia
435:Alvars
230:Kerala
170:Pariah
136:Tamils
122:Kerala
3017:Sport
2905:India
2900:Italy
2798:News
2768:Vedar
2723:Eelam
2652:PLOTE
2637:EPRLF
2627:ENDLF
2457:Riots
2065:(PDF)
1467:S2CID
1459:JSTOR
1397:JSTOR
1381:Ethos
1105:]
683:Chola
582:Islam
500:serfs
409:parai
318:paṟai
314:kiṇai
254:parai
251:word
249:Tamil
218:caste
214:Paree
92:Tamil
82:Islam
2657:TELO
2647:LTTE
2642:EORS
2632:ENLF
2242:ISBN
2221:ISBN
2200:ISBN
2179:ISBN
2146:ISBN
2122:ISBN
2096:ISBN
2047:ISBN
2022:2021
1990:ISBN
1945:ISBN
1906:ISBN
1878:ISBN
1853:ISBN
1798:2020
1770:ISBN
1739:2008
1663:help
1312:help
1251:ISBN
1200:ISBN
1175:ISBN
1145:ISBN
1026:Deva
841:any
839:cite
644:slur
580:and
572:and
564:, a
545:and
520:The
470:and
453:Siva
308:and
259:drum
228:and
212:and
2077:doi
1766:105
1451:doi
1389:doi
1038:Jai
989:DMK
852:by
787:in
328:).
261:).
224:of
205:pə-
164:or
72:),
3064::
2073:31
2071:.
2067:.
2012:.
1967:.
1830:.
1768:.
1732:44
1730:.
1726:.
1690:^
1671:^
1515:^
1465:.
1457:.
1447:13
1445:.
1395:.
1385:21
1383:.
1335:^
1320:^
1103:ml
987:,
795:.
743:.
674:.
541:,
510:.
474:.
421:c.
338:.
302:c.
236:.
209:-ə
207:RY
190:aɪ
160:,
124:,
120:,
98:,
94:,
80:,
76:,
2279:e
2272:t
2265:v
2250:.
2229:.
2208:.
2187:.
2164:.
2154:.
2130:.
2104:.
2083:.
2079::
2055:.
2024:.
1998:.
1953:.
1914:.
1886:.
1861:.
1834:.
1815:.
1800:.
1778:.
1741:.
1665:)
1473:.
1453::
1403:.
1391::
1314:)
1259:.
1208:.
1183:.
1153:.
879:)
873:(
868:)
864:(
860:.
846:.
695:(
600:(
419:(
300:(
257:(
199:/
196:ə
193:.
187:r
184:ˈ
181:ə
178:p
175:/
68:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
