131:
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environments have been found to be 2000 years old with little or no wear. In 2013, the
University of California Berkeley published an article that described for the first time the mechanism by which the suprastable calcium-aluminium-silicate-hydrate compound binds the material together. During its production, less carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere than any modern concrete production process. It is no coincidence that the walls of Roman buildings are thicker than those of modern buildings. However, Roman concrete was still gaining its strength for several decades after construction had been completed.
311:
31:
219:
396:, interruptions and internal constructions within walls and domes created discontinuities in the concrete mass. Portions of the building could then shift slightly when there was movement of the earth to accommodate such stresses, enhancing the overall strength of the structure. It was in this sense that bricks and concrete were flexible. It may have been precisely for this reason that, although many buildings sustained serious cracking from a variety of causes, they continue to stand to this day.
381:
47:
1980:
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that has similar properties. Proponents say that concrete made with fly ash can cost up to 60% less, because it requires less cement. It also has a reduced environmental footprint, due to its lower cooking temperature and much longer lifespan. Usable examples of Roman concrete exposed to harsh marine
427:
Scientific studies of Roman concrete since 2010 have attracted both media and industry attention. Because of its unusual durability, longevity, and lessened environmental footprint, corporations and municipalities are starting to explore the use of Roman-style concrete in North
America. This involves
286:
Research in 2023 found that lime clasts, previously considered a sign of poor aggregation technique, react with water seeping into any cracks. This produces reactive calcium, which allows new calcium carbonate crystals to form and reseal the cracks. These lime clasts have a brittle structure that was
121:
Roman concrete differs from modern concrete in that the aggregates often included larger components; hence, it was laid rather than poured. Roman concretes, like any hydraulic concrete, were usually able to set underwater, which was useful for bridges and other waterside construction.
87:
Many buildings and structures still standing today, such as bridges, reservoirs and aqueducts, were built with this material, which attests to both its versatility and its durability. Its strength was sometimes enhanced by the incorporation of
189:, which are brownish-yellow-gray in colour in that area around Naples, and reddish-brown near Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for mortar used in buildings and a 1:2 ratio for underwater work.
302:
in the paste state. The setting and hardening of hydraulic cements derived from hydration of materials and the subsequent chemical and physical interaction of these hydration products. This differed from the setting of
96:). The addition of ash prevented cracks from spreading. Recent research has shown that the incorporation of mixtures of different types of lime, forming conglomerate "clasts" allowed the concrete to self-repair cracks.
1219:
Jackson, Marie D.; Moon, Juhyuk; Gotti, Emanuele; Taylor, Rae; Chae, Sejung R.; Kunz, Martin; Emwas, Abdul-Hamid; Meral, Cagla; Guttmann, Peter; Levitz, Pierre; Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Monteiro, Paulo J. M. (28 May 2013).
870:
Oleson et al., 2004, The ROMACONS Project: A Contribution to the
Historican and Engineering Analysis of the Hydrauilc Concrete in Roman Maritime Structures, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 33.2:
1184:
880:
Hohlfelder, R. 2007. "Constructing the
Harbour of Caesarea Palaestina, Israel: New Evidence from ROMACONS Field Campaign of October 2005". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:409-415.
1017:
365:
tobermorite crystals. The result is a candidate for "the most durable building material in human history". In contrast, modern concrete exposed to saltwater deteriorates within decades.
275:
or "pit sand", were favoured where they could be obtained. Pozzolana makes the concrete more resistant to salt water than modern-day concrete. Pozzolanic mortar had a high content of
372:
is another variation higher in potassium that triggered changes that "reinforce interfacial zones and potentially contribute to improved mechanical performance".
307:, the most common cements of the pre-Roman world. Once set, Roman concrete exhibited little plasticity, although it retained some resistance to tensile stresses.
2129:
200:
is an example (22-15 BC) of the use of underwater Roman concrete technology on a large scale, for which enormous quantities of pozzolana were imported from
1113:
1221:
298:
Concrete and, in particular, the hydraulic mortar responsible for its cohesion, was a type of structural ceramic whose utility derived largely from its
215:'s new building code largely called for brick-faced concrete. This appears to have encouraged the development of the brick and concrete industries.
1918:
1185:"By 25 BC, ancient Romans developed a recipe for concrete specifically used for underwater work which is essentially the same formula used today"
610:
2016:
2558:
655:
2600:
2588:
1151:
K. de Fine Licht, The
Rotunda in Rome: A Study of Hadrian's Pantheon. Jutland Archaeological Society, Copenhagen, 1968, pp. 89–94, 134–35
295:, causing cracks to preferentially move through the lime clasts, thus potentially playing a critical role in the self-healing mechanism.
3971:
2647:
1939:
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1366:
2563:
1258:
1201:
M. D. Jackson, S. R. Chae, R. Taylor, C. Meral, J. Moon, S. Yoon, P. Li, A. M. Emwas, G. Vola, H.-R. Wenk, and P. J. M. Monteiro,
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2573:
415:, giving the concrete a density of 1,350 kilograms per cubic metre (84 lb/cu ft). The foundation of the structure used
3880:
2568:
2302:
1807:
1039:"Phillipsite and Al-tobermorite mineral cements produced through low-temperature water-rock reactions in Roman marine concrete"
3850:
2675:
2202:
3940:
3815:
2968:
1481:
151:
253:, a binder mixed with water that hardens over time. The composition of the aggregate varied, and included pieces of rock,
3961:
2521:
1898:
1037:
Jackson, Marie D.; Mulcahy, Sean R.; Chen, Heng; Li, Yao; Li, Qinfei; Cappelletti, Piergiulio; Wenk, Hans-Rudolf (2017).
1327:
2192:
671:
545:
Lechtman, Heather; Hobbs, Linn (1986). "Roman
Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution". In W.D. Kingery (ed.).
330:. The high silica composition of Roman pozzolana cements is very close to that of modern cement to which blast furnace
99:
Roman concrete was in widespread use from about 150 BC; some scholars believe it was developed a century before that.
3860:
2620:
2187:
2182:
2158:
2009:
1289:
916:
573:
535:
516:
17:
357:, which may resist fracturing. As seawater percolated within the tiny cracks in the Roman concrete, it reacted with
257:
tile, lime clasts, and brick rubble from the remains of previously demolished buildings. In Rome, readily available
3875:
2548:
2197:
2124:
1666:
2141:
2074:
687:
4006:
4001:
2895:
2820:
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111:
3391:
1872:
1439:
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458:
3991:
3231:
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2287:
2002:
489: – Capacity of silica-rich materials to react with calcium hydroxyde to form calcium silicate hydrates
419:
as an aggregate, having a much higher density of 2,200 kilograms per cubic metre (140 lb/cu ft).
192:
The Romans first used hydraulic concrete in coastal underwater structures, probably in the harbours around
102:
It was often used in combination with facings and other supports, and interiors were further decorated by
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paintings, or coloured marble. Further innovative developments in the material, part of the so-called
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The strength and longevity of Roman 'marine' concrete is understood to benefit from a reaction of
3920:
3900:
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3830:
3820:
3226:
2915:
2815:
2795:
2710:
2700:
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81:
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2993:
2900:
2825:
2788:
2773:
2748:
2728:
2630:
1857:
1600:
400:
688:"Aqua Clopedia, a picture dictionary on Roman aqueducts: Roman concrete / opus caementicium"
114:, contributed to structurally complicated forms. The most prominent example of these is the
3905:
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3426:
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3116:
3079:
2455:
2119:
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1524:
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951:
549:. Vol. 3: High Technology Ceramics: Past, Present, Future. American Ceramics Society.
3549:
1087:
1018:"Ancient Romans made world's 'most durable' concrete. We might use it to stop rising seas"
712:
8:
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2222:
1840:
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1529:
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1022:
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1754:
1671:
995:
982:
939:
811:
794:
Mark, Robert; Hutchinson, Paul (March 1986). "On the
Structure of the Roman Pantheon".
407:, where the aggregate of the upper dome region consists of alternating layers of light
208:
3524:
1222:"Material and Elastic Properties of Al-Tobermorite in Ancient Roman Seawater Concrete"
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3519:
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1983:
1739:
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2878:
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2778:
2227:
2052:
1779:
1630:
1534:
1444:
1114:"Noblewoman's tomb reveals new secrets of ancient Rome's highly durable concrete"
855:
327:
218:
166:
940:"Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete"
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115:
35:
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495: – Inosilicate alteration mineral in metamorphosed limestone and in skarn
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93:
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harbour: an example of underwater Roman concrete technology on a large scale
3744:
3604:
3049:
2998:
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2800:
2610:
2496:
2440:
2435:
2207:
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2025:
1729:
1615:
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963:
480:
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69:
30:
1539:
130:
3539:
3161:
2983:
2873:
2267:
1830:
1549:
1486:
972:
492:
474:
465:) – Class of cements, mechanically processed to transform reactivity
403:
and stability of concrete was its gradation in domes. One example is the
380:
358:
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339:
315:
304:
292:
172:
141:
46:
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1934:
1719:
1699:
1491:
1237:
815:
468:
416:
389:
323:
229:
1994:
1309:"Roman Seawater Concrete Holds the Secret to Cutting Carbon Emissions"
528:
Concrete
Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome: innovations in context
171:, distinguished types of materials appropriate for the preparation of
3794:
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3749:
3674:
3644:
3624:
3501:
3441:
3351:
3301:
3296:
3221:
3181:
3069:
3039:
2848:
2723:
2516:
2400:
2375:
2254:
1965:
850:
717:
S Dept. of the
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region
471: – Polymeric Si–O–Al framework similar to zeolites but amorphous
362:
288:
272:
176:
162:
89:
1203:"Unlocking the secrets of Al-tobermorite in Roman seawater concrete"
807:
3754:
3739:
3729:
3714:
3629:
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3574:
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3381:
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2465:
2355:
2282:
2114:
1949:
1944:
1580:
1375:
346:
299:
242:
186:
73:
483: – Cement made by burning septaria, unrelated to ancient Rome
3774:
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3654:
3639:
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3276:
3008:
2863:
2642:
2450:
2445:
2335:
1908:
1476:
628:"National Pozzolan Association: The History of Natural Pozzolans"
429:
384:
Another view of the
Pantheon in Rome, including the concrete dome
335:
276:
254:
201:
147:
118:
dome, the world's largest and oldest unreinforced concrete dome.
3784:
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412:
280:
264:
107:
103:
1133:
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3018:
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1554:
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566:
The Architecture of the Roman Empire, v.2, an Urban Appraisal
326:
has much in common with setting of their modern counterpart,
193:
135:
833:
831:
829:
827:
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150:
built in the 1st century BC containing the oldest surviving
3779:
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2868:
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1344:
408:
331:
258:
212:
39:
2340:
1259:"Renaissance of Roman Concrete: Cutting carbon emissions"
1088:"Scientists explain ancient Rome's long-lasting concrete"
822:
477: – Style of brick used in Ancient Roman architecture
1218:
1164:. Trebuchet Capital Partners Research. 15 October 2015
775:
704:
650:
287:
most likely created in a "hot-mixing" technique with
196:
before the end of the 2nd century BC. The harbour of
1290:"Why Roman concrete outlasts its modern counterpart"
1036:
440:
603:"Riddle solved: Why was Roman concrete so durable?"
1030:
680:
662:(1978). "Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture".
361:naturally found in the volcanic rock and created
3953:
1919:International Federation for Structural Concrete
802:(1). New York, NY: College Art Association: 24.
232:in Rome. The original covering has been removed.
1162:"Fixing Canada's Infrastructure with Volcanoes"
1011:
1009:
793:
353:and quicklime to create a rare crystal called
185:in Latin), the volcanic sand from the beds of
2010:
1360:
837:
544:
271:were used as binders. Volcanic dusts, called
42:is an example of Roman concrete construction.
1006:
507:Adam, Jean-Pierre; Mathews, Anthony (2014).
211:which destroyed large portions of the city,
666:. Yale University Press. pp. 128–129.
506:
223:
180:
139:
62:
2017:
2003:
1367:
1353:
596:
594:
1328:"The Secrets of Ancient Rome's Buildings"
1139:
1111:
1062:
981:
971:
917:"The Secrets of Ancient Rome's Buildings"
781:
563:
525:
175:. For structural mortars, he recommended
600:
379:
309:
217:
129:
45:
29:
2024:
1226:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
1182:
1085:
1015:
937:
591:
399:Another technology used to improve the
14:
3954:
1112:Ouellette, Jennifer (1 January 2022).
914:
713:"The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete"
236:
125:
27:Building material used in ancient Rome
1998:
1348:
849:
736:
710:
613:from the original on 21 January 2023.
601:Chandler, David L. (6 January 2023).
428:replacing the volcanic ash with coal
375:
134:The so-called "Temple of Mercury" in
92:where available (particularly in the
1482:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
938:Seymour, Linda; et al. (2023).
622:
620:
568:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
1899:Institution of Structural Engineers
24:
1183:Patrick, Neil (6 September 2016).
511:. Florence: Taylor & Francis.
25:
4018:
3972:Concrete buildings and structures
1281:
1209:, Volume 98, pp. 1669–1687, 2013.
915:Wayman, Erin (16 November 2011).
617:
564:MacDonald, William Lloyd (1982).
1979:
1978:
443:
261:was often used as an aggregate.
76:, Roman concrete was based on a
1251:
1212:
1195:
1176:
1154:
1145:
1105:
1079:
931:
908:
883:
874:
864:
843:
388:For an environment as prone to
1397:Roman architectural revolution
787:
755:
730:
711:Moore, David (February 1993).
644:
530:. Cambridge University Press.
207:For rebuilding Rome after the
165:, writing around 25 BC in his
68:, was used in construction in
13:
1:
1086:McGrath, Matt (4 July 2017).
763:"Baiae, historic site, Italy"
584:
499:
459:Energetically modified cement
422:
154:, and largest one before the
2589:Frontiers and fortifications
1374:
1016:Guarino, Ben (4 July 2017).
526:Lancaster, Lynne C. (2009).
7:
2648:Decorations and punishments
1914:Portland Cement Association
1889:American Concrete Institute
1326:Wayman, Erin (2011-11-16).
1307:Preuss, Paul (2013-06-04).
737:Henig, Martin, ed. (1983).
664:Yale/Pelican history of art
436:
10:
4023:
3962:Ancient Roman architecture
3555:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
2130:historiography of the fall
1392:Ancient Roman architecture
1288:Hunt, Katie (2023-01-06).
858:, Book II:v,1; Book V:xii2
368:The Roman concrete at the
3936:External wars and battles
3803:
3697:
3510:
3102:
3095:
3017:
2929:
2834:
2709:
2661:
2539:
2489:
2428:
2419:
2301:
2253:
2173:
2090:
2060:
2051:
2033:
1974:
1958:
1927:
1904:Indian Concrete Institute
1881:
1818:
1690:
1644:
1563:
1500:
1420:
1382:
1263:constructionspecifier.com
838:Lechtman & Hobbs 1986
547:Ceramics and Civilization
241:Roman concrete, like any
228:on a tomb on the ancient
168:Ten Books on Architecture
1313:Berkeley Lab News Center
1064:10.2138/am-2017-5993CCBY
370:Tomb of Caecilia Metella
291:rather than traditional
78:hydraulic-setting cement
3931:Roman–Iranian relations
2406:Optimates and populares
891:"Rome's Invisible City"
768:Encyclopedia Britannica
741:. Phaidon. p. 30.
739:A Handbook of Roman Art
3941:Civil wars and revolts
3207:Sextus Pompeius Festus
2854:Conflict of the Orders
2213:Legislative assemblies
1682:Alkali–silica reaction
1440:Energetically modified
964:10.1126/sciadv.add1602
385:
319:
318:: elementary unit cell
300:rheological plasticity
233:
224:
181:
159:
140:
63:
54:
43:
4007:Architectural history
4002:Architecture in Italy
3650:Simplicius of Cilicia
3402:Quintus Curtius Rufus
2631:Siege in Ancient Rome
2240:Executive magistrates
1207:American Mineralogist
1043:American Mineralogist
383:
314:Crystal structure of
313:
221:
133:
49:
33:
3660:Stephanus Byzantinus
3565:Eusebius of Caesaria
3427:Sidonius Apollinaris
3117:Ammianus Marcellinus
2456:Tribune of the plebs
1667:Environmental impact
1525:Reversing drum mixer
1332:Smithsonian Magazine
3992:Sculpture materials
3836:Distinguished women
3487:Velleius Paterculus
3327:Nicolaus Damascenus
3307:Marcellus Empiricus
2696:Republican currency
1055:2017AmMin.102.1435J
1023:The Washington Post
956:2023SciA....9D1602S
692:romanaqueducts.info
487:Pozzolanic activity
451:Ancient Rome portal
342:have been added.
305:slaked lime mortars
237:Material properties
126:Historic references
112:concrete revolution
3997:Ancient inventions
3977:Building materials
3610:Phlegon of Tralles
3417:Seneca the Younger
2891:Naming conventions
2621:Personal equipment
2154:Later Roman Empire
1770:Self-consolidating
1462:Water–cement ratio
1265:. 29 December 2016
1238:10.1111/jace.12407
386:
376:Seismic technology
349:with a mixture of
324:pozzolanic cements
320:
234:
160:
55:
44:
3949:
3948:
3911:Pontifices maximi
3693:
3692:
3550:Diogenes Laërtius
3372:Pliny the Younger
3127:Asconius Pedianus
3087:Romance languages
2959:Civil engineering
2701:Imperial currency
2574:Political control
2535:
2534:
2169:
2168:
1992:
1991:
1984:Category:Concrete
1765:Roller-compacting
1586:Climbing formwork
1435:Calcium aluminate
1407:Roman engineering
919:. Smithsonian.com
394:Italian peninsula
245:, consists of an
225:opus caementicium
182:pulvis puteolanus
74:modern equivalent
64:opus caementicium
18:Opus caementicium
16:(Redirected from
4014:
3901:Magistri equitum
3816:Cities and towns
3809:
3735:Constantinopolis
3545:Diodorus Siculus
3477:Valerius Maximus
3412:Seneca the Elder
3332:Nonius Marcellus
3100:
3099:
2653:Hippika gymnasia
2616:Infantry tactics
2522:Consular tribune
2512:Magister equitum
2461:Military tribune
2426:
2425:
2386:Pontifex maximus
2381:Princeps senatus
2371:Magister militum
2137:Byzantine Empire
2058:
2057:
2019:
2012:
2005:
1996:
1995:
1982:
1981:
1894:Concrete Society
1705:Fiber-reinforced
1520:Volumetric mixer
1412:Roman technology
1369:
1362:
1355:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1275:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1232:(8): 2598–2606.
1216:
1210:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1189:The Vintage News
1180:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1158:
1152:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1066:
1049:(7): 1435–1450.
1034:
1028:
1027:
1013:
1004:
1003:
985:
975:
944:Science Advances
935:
929:
928:
926:
924:
912:
906:
905:
903:
901:
887:
881:
878:
872:
868:
862:
861:
847:
841:
835:
820:
819:
796:The Art Bulletin
791:
785:
779:
773:
772:
759:
753:
752:
734:
728:
727:
725:
723:
708:
702:
701:
699:
698:
684:
678:
677:
648:
642:
641:
639:
638:
624:
615:
614:
598:
579:
560:
541:
522:
464:
453:
448:
447:
446:
227:
184:
145:
66:
21:
4022:
4021:
4017:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4012:
4011:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3807:
3805:
3799:
3689:
3525:AĂ«tius of Amida
3506:
3492:Verrius Flaccus
3472:Valerius Antias
3432:Silius Italicus
3367:Pliny the Elder
3312:Marcus Aurelius
3187:Cornelius Nepos
3137:Aurelius Victor
3091:
3013:
2925:
2859:Secessio plebis
2830:
2705:
2657:
2531:
2485:
2415:
2297:
2249:
2165:
2086:
2047:
2029:
2023:
1993:
1988:
1970:
1954:
1923:
1877:
1814:
1686:
1640:
1559:
1535:Flow table test
1496:
1416:
1378:
1373:
1336:
1334:
1325:
1317:
1315:
1306:
1298:
1296:
1287:
1284:
1279:
1278:
1268:
1266:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1242:
1240:
1217:
1213:
1200:
1196:
1181:
1177:
1167:
1165:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1122:
1110:
1106:
1096:
1094:
1084:
1080:
1035:
1031:
1014:
1007:
950:(1): eadd1602.
936:
932:
922:
920:
913:
909:
899:
897:
889:
888:
884:
879:
875:
869:
865:
856:De Architectura
848:
844:
836:
823:
808:10.2307/3050861
792:
788:
780:
776:
761:
760:
756:
749:
735:
731:
721:
719:
709:
705:
696:
694:
686:
685:
681:
674:
649:
645:
636:
634:
626:
625:
618:
599:
592:
587:
582:
576:
557:
538:
519:
502:
462:
449:
444:
442:
439:
425:
378:
328:Portland cement
322:The setting of
239:
128:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4020:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3947:
3946:
3944:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3812:
3810:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3516:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3377:Pomponius Mela
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3112:Aelius Donatus
3108:
3106:
3097:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3080:Ecclesiastical
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3034:
3029:
3023:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2935:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2840:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2821:Toys and games
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2545:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2361:Vigintisexviri
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2321:Cursus honorum
2318:
2313:
2307:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2179:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2151:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2120:Western Empire
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1853:Concrete block
1850:
1849:
1848:
1843:
1841:voided biaxial
1838:
1833:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1805:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1696:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1545:Concrete cover
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1515:Concrete mixer
1512:
1506:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1426:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1402:Roman concrete
1399:
1394:
1388:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1357:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1323:
1304:
1283:
1282:External links
1280:
1277:
1276:
1250:
1211:
1194:
1175:
1153:
1144:
1140:MacDonald 1982
1132:
1104:
1078:
1029:
1005:
930:
907:
882:
873:
863:
842:
821:
786:
782:Lancaster 2009
774:
754:
747:
729:
703:
679:
673:978-0300052909
672:
660:Rasmussen, Tom
652:Boëthius, Axel
643:
616:
589:
588:
586:
583:
581:
580:
574:
561:
555:
542:
536:
523:
517:
509:Roman Building
503:
501:
498:
497:
496:
490:
484:
478:
472:
466:
455:
454:
438:
435:
424:
421:
377:
374:
249:and hydraulic
238:
235:
127:
124:
90:pozzolanic ash
60:, also called
58:Roman concrete
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4019:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3802:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3267:Julius Paulus
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3202:Fabius Pictor
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2939:Amphitheatres
2937:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2928:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2676:Deforestation
2674:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2626:Siege engines
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2559:Establishment
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2538:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2490:Extraordinary
2488:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2476:Promagistrate
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2263:Twelve Tables
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2252:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2027:
2020:
2015:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1985:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1882:Organizations
1880:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1846:slab on grade
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1775:Self-leveling
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1576:Cast-in-place
1574:
1572:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1472:Reinforcement
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1358:
1356:
1351:
1350:
1347:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1285:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1208:
1204:
1198:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1163:
1157:
1148:
1141:
1136:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1108:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1010:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
984:
979:
974:
973:1721.1/147056
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
934:
918:
911:
896:
892:
886:
877:
867:
859:
857:
852:
846:
839:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
790:
784:, p. 40.
783:
778:
770:
769:
764:
758:
750:
744:
740:
733:
718:
714:
707:
693:
689:
683:
675:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
647:
633:
629:
623:
621:
612:
608:
604:
597:
595:
590:
577:
575:9780300034561
571:
567:
562:
558:
552:
548:
543:
539:
537:9780521842020
533:
529:
524:
520:
518:9780203984369
514:
510:
505:
504:
494:
491:
488:
485:
482:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
460:
457:
456:
452:
441:
434:
431:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
395:
391:
382:
373:
371:
366:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
343:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
317:
312:
308:
306:
301:
296:
294:
290:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
231:
226:
220:
216:
214:
210:
209:fire in 64 AD
205:
203:
199:
195:
190:
188:
183:
178:
174:
170:
169:
164:
157:
153:
152:concrete dome
149:
144:
143:
137:
132:
123:
119:
117:
113:
109:
105:
100:
97:
95:
94:Bay of Naples
91:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
65:
59:
52:
48:
41:
37:
32:
19:
3881:Institutions
3745:Leptis Magna
3698:Major cities
3605:Philostratus
3392:Quadrigarius
3212:Rufus Festus
3075:Contemporary
2963:
2796:Romanization
2719:Architecture
2326:Collegiality
2175:Constitution
2026:Ancient Rome
1858:Step barrier
1819:Applications
1730:Nanoconcrete
1616:Power trowel
1601:Power screed
1591:Slip forming
1564:Construction
1401:
1335:. Retrieved
1331:
1316:. Retrieved
1312:
1297:. Retrieved
1293:
1267:. Retrieved
1262:
1253:
1241:. Retrieved
1229:
1225:
1214:
1206:
1197:
1188:
1178:
1166:. Retrieved
1156:
1147:
1142:, fig. 131B.
1135:
1123:. Retrieved
1119:Ars Technica
1117:
1107:
1095:. Retrieved
1091:
1081:
1046:
1042:
1032:
1021:
947:
943:
933:
921:. Retrieved
910:
898:. Retrieved
894:
885:
876:
866:
854:
845:
799:
795:
789:
777:
766:
757:
738:
732:
720:. Retrieved
716:
706:
695:. Retrieved
691:
682:
663:
646:
635:. Retrieved
632:pozzolan.org
631:
606:
565:
546:
527:
508:
481:Roman cement
426:
398:
387:
367:
351:volcanic ash
344:
321:
297:
285:
263:
240:
206:
191:
173:lime mortars
167:
161:
120:
101:
98:
86:
80:added to an
70:ancient Rome
61:
57:
56:
3876:Geographers
3560:Dioscorides
3540:Cassius Dio
3162:Cassiodorus
3065:Renaissance
2671:Agriculture
2643:Auxiliaries
2584:Engineering
2421:Magistrates
2273:Citizenship
2268:Mos maiorum
2203:Late Empire
1836:hollow-core
1795:Waste light
1790:Translucent
1750:Prestressed
1677:Segregation
1662:Degradation
1550:Cover meter
1487:Silica fume
1422:Composition
1243:November 4,
656:Ling, Roger
493:Tobermorite
475:Roman brick
390:earthquakes
359:phillipsite
355:tobermorite
340:silica fume
316:tobermorite
293:slaked lime
222:Example of
142:frigidarium
72:. Like its
3956:Categories
3765:Mediolanum
3705:Alexandria
3670:Themistius
3635:Porphyrius
3462:Tertullian
3397:Quintilian
3387:Propertius
3282:Lactantius
3232:Fulgentius
3167:Censorinus
2989:Sanitation
2974:Metallurgy
2931:Technology
2896:Demography
2844:Patricians
2811:Spectacles
2769:Literature
2764:Hairstyles
2601:Technology
2351:Praefectus
2303:Government
2293:Litigation
2278:Auctoritas
2223:Centuriate
2110:Principate
2105:Pax Romana
2065:Foundation
1935:Eurocode 2
1873:Structures
1760:Reinforced
1720:Lunarcrete
1700:AstroCrete
1657:Durability
1652:Properties
1530:Slump test
1502:Production
1492:Metakaolin
1337:2023-01-07
1318:2023-01-07
1299:2023-01-07
748:0714822140
697:2023-01-24
637:2021-02-21
585:References
556:091609488X
500:Literature
469:Geopolymer
423:Modern use
417:travertine
230:Appian Way
146:pool of a
138:, a Roman
3987:Pavements
3921:Quaestors
3851:Empresses
3841:Dynasties
3831:Dictators
3806:and other
3795:Volubilis
3790:Vindobona
3750:Londinium
3675:Theodoret
3645:Procopius
3625:Polyaenus
3600:Pausanias
3502:Vitruvius
3447:Symmachus
3442:Suetonius
3352:Petronius
3337:Obsequens
3302:Macrobius
3297:Lucretius
3222:Frontinus
3197:Eutropius
3182:Columella
3132:Augustine
3122:Appuleius
3070:Neo-Latin
3045:Classical
3036:Versions
2944:Aqueducts
2886:Patronage
2806:Sexuality
2779:Mythology
2754:Education
2744:Cosmetics
2569:Campaigns
2564:Structure
2517:Decemviri
2376:Imperator
2075:overthrow
1966:Hempcrete
1928:Standards
1755:Ready-mix
1672:Recycling
1467:Aggregate
1450:Rosendale
1168:19 August
1125:5 January
1073:0003-004X
1000:255501528
851:Vitruvius
363:aluminous
289:quicklime
273:pozzolana
269:quicklime
247:aggregate
177:pozzolana
163:Vitruvius
148:bathhouse
82:aggregate
3967:Concrete
3926:Tribunes
3916:Praetors
3866:Generals
3846:Emperors
3755:Lugdunum
3740:Eboracum
3730:Carthage
3715:Aquileia
3630:Polybius
3620:Plutarch
3590:Libanius
3580:Josephus
3575:Herodian
3467:Tibullus
3382:Priscian
3357:Phaedrus
3317:Manilius
3262:Jordanes
3247:Hydatius
3177:Claudian
3157:Catullus
3147:Boëthius
3142:Ausonius
3060:Medieval
3032:Alphabet
3004:Theatres
2979:Numerals
2964:Concrete
2954:Circuses
2921:Bagaudae
2911:Adoption
2906:Marriage
2879:Assembly
2784:Religion
2759:Folklore
2739:Clothing
2734:Calendar
2691:Currency
2681:Commerce
2579:Strategy
2541:Military
2527:Triumvir
2507:Dictator
2502:Interrex
2481:Governor
2466:Quaestor
2429:Ordinary
2411:Province
2401:Tetrarch
2391:Augustus
2356:Vicarius
2346:Officium
2283:Imperium
2233:Plebeian
2193:Republic
2115:Dominate
2082:Republic
2043:Timeline
1959:See also
1950:EN 10080
1945:EN 206-1
1940:EN 197-1
1799:Aerated
1740:Polished
1735:Pervious
1710:Filigree
1606:Finisher
1581:Formwork
1445:Portland
1376:Concrete
1269:June 27,
1092:BBC News
992:36608117
923:24 April
611:Archived
607:MIT News
437:See also
405:Pantheon
401:strength
347:seawater
243:concrete
198:Caesarea
187:Pozzuoli
156:Pantheon
116:Pantheon
51:Caesarea
36:Pantheon
3982:Masonry
3896:Legions
3856:Fiction
3826:Consuls
3821:Climate
3775:Ravenna
3770:Pompeii
3760:Lutetia
3725:Bononia
3720:Berytus
3710:Antioch
3685:Zosimus
3680:Zonaras
3655:Sozomen
3640:Priscus
3615:Photius
3457:Terence
3452:Tacitus
3437:Statius
3422:Servius
3407:Sallust
3362:Plautus
3342:Orosius
3322:Martial
3277:Juvenal
3252:Hyginus
3237:Gellius
3096:Writers
3027:History
3009:Thermae
2999:Temples
2949:Bridges
2916:Slavery
2864:Equites
2836:Society
2816:Theatre
2789:Deities
2749:Cuisine
2729:Bathing
2711:Culture
2686:Finance
2663:Economy
2554:Borders
2549:History
2451:Tribune
2446:Praetor
2336:Legatus
2331:Emperor
2218:Curiate
2188:Kingdom
2183:History
2159:History
2142:decline
2100:History
2070:Kingdom
2053:History
2038:Outline
1909:Nanocem
1868:Columns
1745:Polymer
1645:Science
1611:Grinder
1571:Precast
1477:Fly ash
1384:History
1051:Bibcode
983:9821858
952:Bibcode
895:BBC One
871:199-229
816:3050861
430:fly ash
392:as the
336:fly ash
277:alumina
255:ceramic
202:Puteoli
3906:Nomina
3891:Legacy
3871:Gentes
3808:topics
3804:Lists
3785:Smyrna
3665:Strabo
3595:Lucian
3585:Julian
3535:Arrian
3530:Appian
3520:Aelian
3497:Vergil
3272:Justin
3257:Jerome
3242:Horace
3227:Fronto
3217:Florus
3192:Ennius
3172:Cicero
3152:Caesar
3050:Vulgar
2874:Tribes
2801:Romans
2611:Legion
2594:castra
2471:Aedile
2441:Censor
2436:Consul
2396:Caesar
2366:Lictor
2288:Status
2228:Tribal
2208:Senate
2198:Empire
2092:Empire
2028:topics
1831:waffle
1780:Sulfur
1636:Tremie
1631:Sealer
1596:Screed
1540:Curing
1430:Cement
1097:6 July
1071:
998:
990:
980:
900:6 July
814:
745:
722:20 May
670:
572:
553:
534:
515:
413:pumice
281:silica
265:Gypsum
251:mortar
108:fresco
104:stucco
3570:Galen
3512:Greek
3482:Varro
3292:Lucan
3104:Latin
3019:Latin
2994:Ships
2984:Roads
2969:Domes
2901:Women
2849:Plebs
2774:Music
2316:Forum
2311:Curia
1863:Roads
1785:Tabby
1692:Types
1626:Float
1555:Rebar
1510:Plant
1457:Water
996:S2CID
812:JSTOR
338:, or
194:Baiae
136:Baiae
3886:Laws
3861:Film
3780:Roma
3347:Ovid
3287:Livy
3055:Late
2869:Gens
2826:Wine
2638:Navy
2606:Army
2245:SPQR
2147:fall
2125:fall
1826:Slab
1808:RAAC
1725:Mass
1715:Foam
1621:Pump
1271:2022
1245:2023
1170:2016
1127:2022
1099:2017
1069:ISSN
988:PMID
925:2012
902:2017
743:ISBN
724:2013
668:ISBN
570:ISBN
551:ISBN
532:ISBN
513:ISBN
411:and
409:tuff
332:slag
279:and
267:and
259:tuff
213:Nero
40:Rome
34:The
3040:Old
2724:Art
2497:Rex
2341:Dux
2255:Law
1803:AAC
1294:CNN
1234:doi
1059:doi
1047:102
978:PMC
968:hdl
960:doi
804:doi
463:EMC
283:.
84:.
38:in
3958::
1330:.
1311:.
1292:.
1261:.
1230:96
1228:.
1224:.
1205:,
1187:.
1116:.
1090:.
1067:.
1057:.
1045:.
1041:.
1020:.
1008:^
994:.
986:.
976:.
966:.
958:.
946:.
942:.
893:.
853:.
824:^
810:.
800:68
798:.
765:.
715:.
690:.
658:;
654:;
630:.
619:^
609:.
605:.
593:^
334:,
204:.
106:,
2018:e
2011:t
2004:v
1368:e
1361:t
1354:v
1340:.
1321:.
1302:.
1273:.
1247:.
1236::
1191:.
1172:.
1129:.
1101:.
1075:.
1061::
1053::
1026:.
1002:.
970::
962::
954::
948:9
927:.
904:.
860:.
840:.
818:.
806::
771:.
751:.
726:.
700:.
676:.
640:.
578:.
559:.
540:.
521:.
461:(
179:(
158:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
