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reduced. For most routine uses, 20 to 32 MPa (2,900 to 4,600 psi) concrete is often used. 40 MPa (5,800 psi) concrete is readily commercially available as a more durable, although more expensive, option. Higher-strength concrete is often used for larger civil projects. Strengths above 40 MPa (5,800 psi) are often used for specific building elements. For example, the lower floor columns of high-rise concrete buildings may use concrete of 80 MPa (11,600 psi) or more, to keep the size of the columns small. Bridges may use long beams of high-strength concrete to lower the number of spans required. Occasionally, other structural needs may require high-strength concrete. If a structure must be very rigid, concrete of very high strength may be specified, even much stronger than is required to bear the service loads. Strengths as high as 130 MPa (18,900 psi) have been used commercially for these reasons.
1969:(when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. Changes in gradation can also affect workability of the concrete, although a wide range of gradation can be used for various applications. An undesirable gradation can mean using a large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any combination of these factors and others may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e., which does not flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and which is difficult to surface finish.
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shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that increases shrinkage and cracking. The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It depends on cross-section dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation. Addition of short-cut polymer fibers can improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced stresses during curing and increase early and ultimate compression strength.
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1984:" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount, owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm) out of one foot (300 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as eight inches. Workability can also be measured by the
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residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature swings inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs. While insulation reduces energy loss through the building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern concrete wall systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient building. Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either insulating foam or
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and full hardening by the next day. Bagwork concrete will generally reach full strength within 28 days. Each bag must be pierced by at least one, and preferably up to four pins. Bagwork is a simple and convenient method of underwater concrete placement which does not require pumps, plant, or formwork, and which can minimise environmental effects from dispersing cement in the water. Prefilled bags are available, which are sealed to prevent premature hydration if stored in suitable dry conditions. The bags may be biodegradable.
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3154:(OSHA) has placed more stringent regulations on companies whose workers regularly come into contact with silica dust. An updated silica rule, which OSHA put into effect 23 September 2017 for construction companies, restricted the amount of breathable crystalline silica workers could legally come into contact with to 50 micro grams per cubic meter of air per 8-hour workday. That same rule went into effect 23 June 2018 for general industry,
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hardened concrete contains interconnected air voids totaling approximately 15 to 25 percent. Water runs through the voids in the pavement to the soil underneath. Air entrainment admixtures are often used in freeze-thaw climates to minimize the possibility of frost damage. Pervious concrete also permits rainwater to filter through roads and parking lots, to recharge aquifers, instead of contributing to runoff and flooding.
2328:(also spelled "nano concrete"' or "nano-concrete") is a class of materials that contains Portland cement particles that are no greater than 100 μm and particles of silica no greater than 500 μm, which fill voids that would otherwise occur in normal concrete, thereby substantially increasing the material's strength. It is widely used in foot and highway bridges where high flexural and compressive strength are indicated.
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549:(a specific and complex calcium aluminosilicate hydrate) and the coalescence of this and similar calcium–aluminium-silicate–hydrate cementing binders helped give the concrete a greater degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments. Roman concrete is significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al-
977:. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels. The five major compounds of calcium silicates and aluminates comprising Portland cement range from 5 to 50% in weight.
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requirements of the site and conditions, setting material ratios and often designing an admixture package to fine-tune the properties or increase the performance envelope of the mix. Design-mix concrete can have very broad specifications that cannot be met with more basic nominal mixes, but the involvement of the engineer often increases the cost of the concrete mix.
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tension. Plain, unreinforced concrete is unsuitable for many structures as it is relatively poor at withstanding stresses induced by vibrations, wind loading, and so on. Hence, to increase its overall strength, steel rods, wires, mesh or cables can be embedded in concrete before it is set. This reinforcement, often known as rebar, resists tensile forces.
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clinker for large amounts of slag or fly ash was investigated based on conventional concrete technology. This could lead to a waste of scarce raw materials such as slag and fly ash. The aim of other research activities is the efficient use of cement and reactive materials like slag and fly ash in concrete based on a modified mix design approach.
829:, are sometimes added—either pre-blended with the cement or directly as a concrete component—and become a part of the binder for the aggregate. Fly ash and slag can enhance some properties of concrete such as fresh properties and durability. Alternatively, other materials can also be used as a concrete binder: the most prevalent substitute is
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access, the elements are cast on or adjacent to the construction site. Precasting offers considerable advantages because it is carried out in a controlled environment, protected from the elements, but the downside of this is the contribution to greenhouse gas emission from transportation to the construction site.
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for building applications. For example, pumice and other volcanic glasses were added as a natural pozzolanic material for mortars and plasters during the construction of the Villa San Marco in the Roman period (89 BC – 79 AD), which remain one of the best-preserved otium villae of the Bay of Naples in Italy.
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strength development. Preventing freezing is the most important precaution, as formation of ice crystals can cause damage to the crystalline structure of the hydrated cement paste. If the surface of the concrete pour is insulated from the outside temperatures, the heat of hydration will prevent freezing.
3175:", which is produced by mixing clinker with smaller quantities of other additives such as gypsum and ground limestone. The production of clinker, the main constituent of cement, is responsible for the bulk of the sector's greenhouse gas emissions, including both energy intensity and process emissions.
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are more fuel efficient to drive on, more reflective and last significantly longer than other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern-paving methods and design practices have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a well-designed and placed
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has ducts through it. After the concrete has gained strength, tendons are pulled through the ducts and stressed. The ducts are then filled with grout. Bridges built in this way have experienced considerable corrosion of the tendons, so external post-tensioning may now be used in which the tendons run
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The use of reinforcement, in the form of iron was introduced in the 1850s by French industrialist François
Coignet, and it was not until the 1880s that German civil engineer G. A. Wayss used steel as reinforcement. Concrete is a relatively brittle material that is strong under compression but less in
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Crystalline admixtures are typically added during batching of the concrete to lower permeability. The reaction takes place when exposed to water and un-hydrated cement particles to form insoluble needle-shaped crystals, which fill capillary pores and micro-cracks in the concrete to block pathways for
1191:. However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries, so that nitrates may be favored, even though they are less effective than the chloride salt. Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.
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by pouring 32,100 cubic metres of concrete in 24 hours. The world record for the largest continuously poured concrete raft was achieved in August 2007 in Abu Dhabi by contracting firm Al
Habtoor-CCC Joint Venture and the concrete supplier is Unibeton Ready Mix. The pour (a part of the foundation for
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near the road, and reducing the need for slightly sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater through use of drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise needed in the water-distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted
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is the manual placement by divers of woven cloth bags containing dry mix, followed by piercing the bags with steel rebar pins to tie the bags together after every two or three layers, and create a path for hydration to induce curing, which can typically take about 6 to 12 hours for initial hardening
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Pyroclastic materials, such as pumice, scoria, and ashes are formed from cooling magma during explosive volcanic eruptions. They are used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) or as aggregates for cements and concretes. They have been extensively used since ancient times to produce materials
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Volcanic concrete substitutes volcanic rock for the limestone that is burned to form clinker. It consumes a similar amount of energy, but does not directly emit carbon as a byproduct. Volcanic rock/ash are used as supplementary cementitious materials in concrete to improve the resistance to sulfate,
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Traditional conditions for curing involve spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water. The adjacent picture shows one of many ways to achieve this, ponding—submerging setting concrete in water and wrapping in plastic to prevent dehydration. Additional common curing methods include wet burlap
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During the curing period, concrete is ideally maintained at controlled temperature and humidity. To ensure full hydration during curing, concrete slabs are often sprayed with "curing compounds" that create a water-retaining film over the concrete. Typical films are made of wax or related hydrophobic
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Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (pouring, pumping, spreading, tamping, vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious
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The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required. Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps between the aggregate as well as paste the surfaces
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that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water through a process called concrete hydration that hardens it over several hours to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. This time allows concrete to not
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Izzo, Francesco; Arizzi, Anna; Cappelletti, Piergiulio; Cultrone, Giuseppe; De Bonis, Alberto; Germinario, Chiara; Graziano, Sossio Fabio; Grifa, Celestino; Guarino, Vincenza; Mercurio, Mariano; Morra, Vincenzo; Langella, Alessio (August 2016). "The art of building in the Roman period (89 B.C. – 79
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The record for the largest continuously placed underwater concrete pour was completed 18 October 2010, in New
Orleans, Louisiana by contractor C. J. Mahan Construction Company, LLC of Grove City, Ohio. The placement consisted of 10,251 cubic yards of concrete placed in 58.5 hours using two concrete
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High-performance building materials will be particularly important for enhancing resilience, including for flood defenses and critical-infrastructure protection. Risks to infrastructure and cities posed by extreme weather events are especially serious for those places exposed to flood and hurricane
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and maritime. That deadline was extended to 23 June 2021 for engineering controls in the hydraulic fracturing industry. Companies which fail to meet the tightened safety regulations can face financial charges and extensive penalties. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and
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Reinforced concrete can be precast or cast-in-place (in situ) concrete, and is used in a wide range of applications such as; slab, wall, beam, column, foundation, and frame construction. Reinforcement is generally placed in areas of the concrete that are likely to be subject to tension, such as the
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The strengths of concrete is dictated by its function. Very low-strength—14 MPa (2,000 psi) or less—concrete may be used when the concrete must be lightweight. Lightweight concrete is often achieved by adding air, foams, or lightweight aggregates, with the side effect that the strength is
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Waste light is a form of polymer modified concrete. The specific polymer admixture allows the replacement of all the traditional aggregates (gravel, sand, stone) by any mixture of solid waste materials in the grain size of 3–10 mm to form a low-compressive-strength (3–20 N/mm) product for
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Concrete plants come in two main types, ready-mix plants and central mix plants. A ready-mix plant blends all of the solid ingredients, while a central mix does the same but adds water. A central-mix plant offers more precise control of the concrete quality. Central mix plants must be close to the
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Once mixed, concrete is typically transported to the place where it is intended to become a structural item. Various methods of transportation and placement are used depending on the distances involve, quantity needed, and other details of application. Large amounts are often transported by truck,
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is commonly applied during construction. An early example at Hoover Dam used a network of pipes between vertical concrete placements to circulate cooling water during the curing process to avoid damaging overheating. Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the pour, the concrete mix
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As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension. Larger earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear loads subject the structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures without reinforcement, like other unreinforced
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Once in place, concrete offers a great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building. Concrete walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames. Air leakage accounts for a large percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the efficiency of both
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Pervious concrete is a mix of specially graded coarse aggregate, cement, water, and little-to-no fine aggregates. This concrete is also known as "no-fines" or porous concrete. Mixing the ingredients in a carefully controlled process creates a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate particles. The
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are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial installations. Of the various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker
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Reducing the cement clinker content might have positive effects on the environmental life-cycle assessment of concrete. Some research work on reducing the cement clinker content in concrete has already been carried out. However, there exist different research strategies. Often replacement of some
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Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire resistance compared with wooden construction and gains strength over time. Structures made of concrete can have a long service life. Concrete is used more than any other artificial material in the world. As of 2006,
599:(1240) describes the making of mortar. In an English translation from 1397, it reads "lyme ... is a stone brent; by medlynge thereof with sonde and water sement is made". From the 14th century, the quality of mortar was again excellent, but only from the 17th century was pozzolana commonly added.
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during construction to oppose tensile stresses experienced in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the reinforcement. For example, a horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement along the
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is a versatile composite and one of the most widely used materials in modern construction. It is made up of different constituent materials with very different properties that complement each other. In the case of reinforced concrete, the component materials are almost always concrete and steel.
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Concrete also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high winds, hurricanes, and tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in minimal horizontal movement. However, this stiffness can work against certain types of concrete structures, particularly where a
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Polymer concretes are mixtures of aggregate and any of various polymers and may be reinforced. The cement is costlier than lime-based cements, but polymer concretes nevertheless have advantages; they have significant tensile strength even without reinforcement, and they are largely impervious to
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Akerman, Patrick; Cazzola, Pierpaolo; Christiansen, Emma Skov; Heusden, Renée Van; Iperen, Joanna
Kolomanska-van; Christensen, Johannah; Crone, Kilian; Dawe, Keith; Smedt, Guillaume De; Keynes, Alex; Laporte, Anaïs; Gonsolin, Florie; Mensink, Marko; Hebebrand, Charlotte; Hoenig, Volker; Malins,
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Precast concrete is concrete which is cast in one place for use elsewhere and is a mobile material. The largest part of precast production is carried out in the works of specialist suppliers, although in some instances, due to economic and geographical factors, scale of product or difficulty of
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Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed using steel frames, since concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last longer under the same fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel frames, for the same effect as above.
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ratios are decided by an engineer after analyzing the properties of the specific ingredients being used. Instead of using a 'nominal mix' of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts aggregate (the second example from above), a civil engineer will custom-design a concrete mix to exactly meet the
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After the Roman Empire, the use of burned lime and pozzolana was greatly reduced. Low kiln temperatures in the burning of lime, lack of pozzolana, and poor mixing all contributed to a decline in the quality of concrete and mortar. From the 11th century, the increased use of stone in church and
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conditions (extreme heat or cold; windy conditions, and humidity variations) can significantly alter the quality of concrete. Many precautions are observed in cold weather placement. Low temperatures significantly slow the chemical reactions involved in hydration of cement, thus affecting the
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Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in greater
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A concrete plant consists of large hoppers for storage of various ingredients like cement, storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those ingredients, and
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Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage, most
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eq per tonne of cement produced. The emissions are due to combustion and calcination processes, which roughly account for 40% and 60% of the greenhouse gases, respectively. Considering that cement is only a fraction of the constituents of concrete, it is estimated that a tonne of concrete is
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Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of
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increase the workability of plastic, or "fresh", concrete, allowing it to be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer is lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete while maintaining workability and are sometimes called
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Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. Admixtures are defined as additions "made as the concrete mix is being prepared". The most common admixtures are retarders and
1716:, and also to improve the electrical properties required for strain monitoring, damage evaluation and self-health monitoring of concrete. Carbon fiber has many advantages in terms of mechanical and electrical properties (e.g., higher strength) and self-monitoring behavior due to the high
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A tremie is a vertical, or near-vertical, pipe with a hopper at the top used to pour concrete underwater in a way that avoids washout of cement from the mix due to turbulent water contact with the concrete while it is flowing. This produces a more reliable strength of the product.
355:. "The roof is flat and had been covered with cement". "The floors were cement, in some places hard, but, by long exposure, broken, and now crumbling under the feet." "But throughout the wall was solid, and consisting of large stones imbedded in mortar, almost as hard as rock."
1241:(also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers that have fewer deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more than is practical with traditional plasticizers. Superplasticizers are used to increase compressive strength. It increases the
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masonry structures, can fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced masonry structures constitute one of the largest earthquake risks globally. These risks can be reduced through seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school buildings in
Istanbul, Turkey).
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of the aggregate together, and is typically the most expensive component. Thus, variation in sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of concrete. The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder, so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete.
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eq/m when the mineral admixture replacement ratio was increased by 10%. This study also compared the compressive strength properties of binary blended low-carbon concrete according to the replacement ratios, and the applicable range of mixing proportions was derived.
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Dalal, Sejal P.; Desai, Kandarp; Shah, Dhairya; Prajapati, Sanjay; Dalal, Purvang; Gandhi, Vimal; Shukla, Atindra; Vithlani, Ravi (January 2022). "Strength and feasibility aspects of concrete mixes induced with low-cost surfactant functionalized graphene powder".
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between the two batches. Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation, various technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product.
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3331:...) Other damaging processes can also involve calcium leaching by water infiltration, physical phenomena initiating cracks formation and propagation, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea water effects, leaching, and erosion by fast-flowing water.
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are available, determined by the formulations of binders and the types of aggregate used to suit the application of the engineered material. These variables determine strength and density, as well as chemical and thermal resistance of the finished product.
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through a pipe. Smaller amounts may be carried in a skip (a metal container which can be tilted or opened to release the contents, usually transported by crane or hoist), or wheelbarrow, or carried in toggle bags for manual placement underwater.
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techniques may be applied to the concrete. A common technique involves heating the poured concrete with steam, which serves to both keep it damp and raise the temperature so that the hydration process proceeds more quickly and more thoroughly.
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construction led to an increased demand for mortar. Quality began to improve in the 12th century through better grinding and sieving. Medieval lime mortars and concretes were non-hydraulic and were used for binding masonry, "hearting" (binding
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lower portion of beams. Usually, there is a minimum of 50 mm cover, both above and below the steel reinforcement, to resist spalling and corrosion which can lead to structural instability. Other types of non-steel reinforcement, such as
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are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled
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similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high-reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is
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bottom of the beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned concrete, after casting.
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The cement industry is one of the three primary producers of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas – the other two being energy production and transportation industries. On average, every tonne of cement produced releases one tonne of
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method is generally used for placing small quantities and for repairs. Wet concrete is loaded into a reusable canvas bag and squeezed out at the required place by the diver. Care must be taken to avoid washout of the cement and fines.
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increase the compression strength of concrete through their biomass. However some forms of bacteria can also be concrete-destroying. Bacillus sp. CT-5. can reduce corrosion of reinforcement in reinforced concrete by up to four times.
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Veretennykov, Vitaliy I.; Yugov, Anatoliy M.; Dolmatov, Andriy O.; Bulavytskyi, Maksym S.; Kukharev, Dmytro I.; Bulavytskyi, Artem S. (2008). "Concrete
Inhomogeneity of Vertical Cast-in-Place Elements in Skeleton-Type Buildings".
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pumps and two dedicated concrete batch plants. Upon curing, this placement allows the 50,180-square-foot (4,662 m) cofferdam to be dewatered approximately 26 feet (7.9 m) below sea level to allow the construction of the
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in Hubei
Province, China by the Three Gorges Corporation. The amount of concrete used in the construction of the dam is estimated at 16 million cubic meters over 17 years. The previous record was 12.3 million cubic meters held by
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with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low
208:) are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet mix, delay or accelerate the curing time, or otherwise change the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as steel
2565:(ICFs) are additional options. ICFs are hollow blocks or panels made of fireproof insulating foam that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.
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The ingredients affect the strengths of the material. Concrete strength values are usually specified as the lower-bound compressive strength of either a cylindrical or cubic specimen as determined by standard test procedures.
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chloride and alkali silica reaction due to pore refinement. Also, they are generally cost effective in comparison to other aggregates, good for semi and light weight concretes, and good for thermal and acoustic insulation.
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crystals over time. The use of hot mixing and the presence of lime clasts are thought to give the concrete a self-healing ability, where cracks that form become filled with calcite that prevents the crack from spreading.
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Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous and have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many finishes can be applied to improve the appearance and preserve the surface against staining, water penetration, and freezing.
279:, and is used to fill gaps between masonry components or coarse aggregate which has already been put in place. Some methods of concrete manufacture and repair involve pumping grout into the gaps to make up a solid mass
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New research from Japan's
University of Kitakyushu shows that a washed and dried recycled mix of used diapers can be an environmental solution to producing less landfill and using less sand in concrete production. A
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into the mix, are being tested and used. These developments are ever growing in relevance to minimize the impacts caused by cement use, notorious for being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to 10%) of global
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occurs, allowing calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to form. Over 90% of a mix's final strength is typically reached within four weeks, with the remaining 10% achieved over years or even decades. The conversion of
1965:) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or
3242:(LCA) of low-carbon concrete was investigated according to the ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash (FA) replacement ratios. Global warming potential (GWP) of GGBS decreased by 1.1 kg CO
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water and waterborne contaminates. Concrete with crystalline admixture can expect to self-seal as constant exposure to water will continuously initiate crystallization to ensure permanent waterproof protection.
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Major savings in time result from manufacture of structural elements apart from the series of events which determine overall duration of the construction, known by planning engineers as the 'critical path'.
1008:, the interlinking of the silicates and aluminate components as well as their bonding to sand and gravel particles to form a solid mass. One illustrative conversion is the hydration of tricalcium silicate:
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Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing or overheating due to the
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where the wet concrete has a pattern impressed on the surface, to give a paved, cobbled or brick-like effect, and may be accompanied with coloration. Another popular effect for flooring and table tops is
3443:, Kentucky by design-build firm EXXCEL Project Management. The monolithic placement consisted of 225,000 square feet (20,900 m) of concrete placed in 30 hours, finished to a flatness tolerance of F
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is an alternative method of forming a concrete mass underwater, where the forms are filled with coarse aggregate and the voids then completely filled from the bottom by displacing the water with pumped
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The minimum strength before exposing concrete to extreme cold is 500 psi (3.4 MPa). CSA A 23.1 specified a compressive strength of 7.0 MPa to be considered safe for exposure to freezing.
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1205:. However, entrained air entails a tradeoff with strength, as each 1% of air may decrease compressive strength by 5%. If too much air becomes trapped in the concrete as a result of the mixing process,
3412:) was 16,000 cubic meters of concrete poured within a two-day period. The previous record, 13,200 cubic meters poured in 54 hours despite a severe tropical storm requiring the site to be covered with
7084:
Lee, Jaehyun; Lee, Taegyu; Jeong, Jaewook; Jeong, Jaemin (January 2021). "Sustainability and performance assessment of binary blended low-carbon concrete using supplementary cementitious materials".
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Proske, Tilo; Hainer, Stefan; Rezvani, Moien; Graubner, Carl-Alexander (September 2013). "Eco-friendly concretes with reduced water and cement contents – Mix design principles and laboratory tests".
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used, and ambient air temperature, the cooling process may last for many months after the concrete is placed. Various methods also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix in mass concrete structures.
813:
is mixed with the dry cement powder and aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid slurry (paste) that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a
537:. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension.
3159:
unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh concrete (before curing is complete) is highly alkaline and must be handled with proper protective equipment.
3363:, retaining walls, landscaping gravel, or raw material for new concrete. Large pieces can be used as bricks or slabs, or incorporated with new concrete into structures, a material called urbanite.
9496:
7453:
362:
traders who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan from the 4th century BC. They discovered the advantages of
3260:
damage, but also where residents need protection from extreme summer temperatures. Traditional concrete can come under strain when exposed to humidity and higher concentrations of atmospheric CO
1861:
4111:
Jackson, Marie D.; Landis, Eric N.; Brune, Philip F.; Vitti, Massimo; Chen, Heng; Li, Qinfei; Kunz, Martin; Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Monteiro, Paulo J. M.; Ingraffea, Anthony R. (30 December 2014).
6018:
Lemougna, Patrick N.; Wang, Kai-tuo; Tang, Qing; Nzeukou, A.N.; Billong, N.; Melo, U. Chinje; Cui, Xue-min (October 2018). "Review on the use of volcanic ashes for engineering applications".
4228:
4575:
Askarian, Mahya; Fakhretaha Aval, Siavash; Joshaghani, Alireza (22 January 2019). "A comprehensive experimental study on the performance of pumice powder in self-compacting concrete (SCC)".
3235:
The embodied carbon of a precast concrete facade can be reduced by 50% when using the presented fiber reinforced high performance concrete in place of typical reinforced concrete cladding.
2006:, is tested by other flow-measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.
6391:
5540:
6951:
1818:
Interruption in pouring the concrete can cause the initially placed material to begin to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness called a
989:
with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.
5615:
Polaczyk, Pawel; Huang, Baoshan; Shu, Xiang; Gong, Hongren (September 2019). "Investigation into
Locking Point of Asphalt Mixtures Utilizing Superpave and Marshall Compactors".
2561:
Options for non-combustible construction include floors, ceilings and roofs made of cast-in-place and hollow-core precast concrete. For walls, concrete masonry technology and
7402:
6334:
4805:
6174:
3192:. Every year more than 10 billion tonnes of concrete are used worldwide. In the coming years, large quantities of concrete will continue to be used, and the mitigation of CO
7600:
6993:
7549:
2787:
The proper treatment of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is an important stage in the construction and renovation of architectural structures.
2684:
Equipment with capability suited to specific types of production such as stressing beds with appropriate capacity, moulds and machinery dedicated to particular products.
4685:
2249:
Graphene enhanced concretes are standard designs of concrete mixes, except that during the cement-mixing or production process, a small amount of chemically engineered
9481:
1643:, it is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, siliceous fly ash is
5509:
2742:, which uses a dry mix which has a much lower cooling requirement than conventional wet placement. It is deposited in thick layers as a semi-dry material then roller
2431:
and shrinks as it matures. All concrete structures crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to
7435:
1159:, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers.
2973:
Concrete may be placed and cured underwater. Care must be taken in the placement method to prevent washing out the cement. Underwater placement methods include the
7289:
3264:. While concrete is likely to remain important in applications where the environment is challenging, novel, smarter and more adaptable materials are also needed.
2518:
is also lower because it is produced nearby the construction site from local resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job site. The overall
1059:
446:
exposed in a characteristic Roman arch. In contrast to modern concrete structures, the concrete used in Roman buildings was usually covered with brick or stone.
5379:
Cook, Marllon Daniel; Ghaeezadah, Ashkan; Ley, M. Tyler (1 February 2018). "Impacts of Coarse-Aggregate
Gradation on the Workability of Slip-Formed Concrete".
3150:
in the United States recommends attaching local exhaust ventilation shrouds to electric concrete grinders to control the spread of this dust. In addition, the
1799:
Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms. The forms are containers that define the desired shape. Concrete
512:, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or brick.
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3594:
4905:
3147:
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Availability of Laboratory facilities capable of the required control tests, many being certified for specific testing in accordance with National Standards.
1212:
Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically a type of polymer) with wide temperature tolerance and corrosion resistance.
821:. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust, stone-like material. Other cementitious materials, such as
7057:
O'Hegarty, Richard; Kinnane, Oliver; Newell, John; West, Roger (November 2021). "High performance, low carbon concrete for building cladding applications".
6148:
1926:. The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.
6914:
5432:
Ferrari, L.; Kaufmann, J.; Winnefeld, F.; Plank, J. (October 2011). "Multi-method approach to study influence of superplasticizers on cement suspensions".
4622:
7641:
6365:
4648:
1620:. The use of alternative materials also is capable of lowering costs, improving concrete properties, and recycling wastes, the latest being relevant for
7449:
1863:. Nominal mixes are a simple, fast way of getting a basic idea of the properties of the finished concrete without having to perform testing in advance.
5944:
2710:(Missouri) pumped storage facility in late November 2009. After the original reservoir failed, the new reservoir was made of roller-compacted concrete.
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These two materials form a strong bond together and are able to resist a variety of applied forces, effectively acting as a single structural element.
7500:
5260:
5308:
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3311:
paste or chloride attack under wet conditions. Chemical damage is caused by the formation of expansive products produced by chemical reactions (from
1168:
accelerators. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. (See
7350:"Concrete Pumping to 715 m Vertical – A New World Record Parbati Hydroelectric Project Inclined Pressure Shaft Himachal Pradesh – A case Study"
6968:
5968:"High-volume natural volcanic pozzolan and limestone powder as partial replacements for portland cement in self-compacting and sustainable concrete"
3171:, a fine powder used mainly to bind sand and coarser aggregates together in concrete. Although a variety of cement types exist, the most common is "
1254:
slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours where partial setting is undesirable before completion of the pour. Typical
1152:
Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates non-homogeneity due to the influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.
546:
10086:
2225:
and construction documents, which define concrete as any composite material composed of mineral aggregate adhered with a binder. The abbreviation,
1682:. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher surface-to-volume ratio and a much faster
488:
from the restrictions of stone and brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension. The
180:, and is the most widely used building material. Its usage worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminium combined.
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had as much compressive strength as modern Portland-cement concrete (c. 200 kg/cm ). However, due to the absence of reinforcement, its
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4926:
688:. and the first reinforced concrete house was built by François Coignet in 1853. The first concrete reinforced bridge was designed and built by
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concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and significantly less expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that
5090:
3151:
6839:
5184:
5124:
714:. Concrete components or structures are compressed by tendon cables during, or after, their fabrication in order to strengthen them against
5677:
Dalal, Sejal P.; Dalal, Purvang (March 2021). "Experimental Investigation on Strength and Durability of Graphene Nanoengineered Concrete".
5154:
2400:
road and building construction. One cubic meter of waste light concrete contains 1.1–1.3 m of shredded waste and no other aggregates.
6754:
4442:
7016:
2830:
is almost always precast, and contains steel wires (tendons) that are held in tension while the concrete is placed and sets around them.
10107:
6202:
5589:
5012:. Silica Fume Association and United States Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Technical Report FHWA-IF-05-016
3670:
378:. They kept the cisterns secret as these enabled the Nabataeans to thrive in the desert. Some of these structures survive to this day.
3203:, which can cause heavy soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding, but conversely can be used to divert, dam, and control flooding.
9824:
9534:
3576:
2784:
Other finishes can be achieved with chiseling, or more conventional techniques such as painting or covering it with other materials.
2031:
1687:
1202:
997:
6462:
5210:
Mullapudi, Taraka Ravi Shankar; Gao, Di; Ayoub, Ashraf (September 2013). "Non-destructive evaluation of carbon nanofibre concrete".
4813:
10187:
9491:
7736:
6326:
3981:
1914:(water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as accelerators or retarders,
899:
depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.
6185:
9486:
7266:
6986:
3925:
2687:
High-quality finishes achieved direct from the mould eliminate the need for interior decoration and ensure low maintenance costs.
275:
is another material associated with concrete and cement. It does not contain coarse aggregates and is usually either pourable or
7128:
6499:
4750:
2530:
that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.
2522:
of concrete at roughly 1 to 1.5 megajoules per kilogram is therefore lower than for many structural and construction materials.
332:, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400 to 1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, such as in Crete and Cyprus, in 800 BC. The
9975:
9092:
7844:
7789:
7349:
6778:
Sadowski, Łukasz; Mathia, Thomas (2016). "Multi-scale Metrology of Concrete Surface Morphology: Fundamentals and specificity".
6480:
6243:
4172:"Phillipsite and Al-tobermorite mineral cements produced through low-temperature water-rock reactions in Roman marine concrete"
3839:
2924:
A period when for more than three successive days the average daily air temperature drops below 40 °F (~ 4.5 °C), and
2586:
4400:
3707:
6735:
6693:
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5844:
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Engineering under Uncertainty: Safety Assessment and Management (ISEUSAM-2012)
3537:
Gagg, Colin R. (May 2014). "Cement and concrete as an engineering material: An historic appraisal and case study analysis".
1595:
materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for
9649:
7674:
5516:
1654:
1608:
853:
200:, which means ambient temperature plays a significant role in how long it takes concrete to set. Often, additives (such as
7427:
4370:
4242:
Seymour, Linda M.; Maragh, Janille; Sabatini, Paolo; Di Tommaso, Michel; Weaver, James C.; Masic, Admir (6 January 2023).
2702:
10066:
6881:
4170:
Marie D. Jackson; Sean R. Mulcahy; Heng Chen; Yao Li; Qinfei Li; Piergiulio Cappelletti; Hans-Rudolf Wenk (3 July 2017).
3757:
2091:
compounds. After the concrete is sufficiently cured, the film is allowed to abrade from the concrete through normal use.
5410:
3183:
into the atmosphere. Pioneer cement manufacturers have claimed to reach lower carbon intensities, with 590 kg of CO
2183:. Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the twentieth century. It consists of
1844:
7297:
7161:
5653:
Roads Were Not Built for Cars: How Cyclists Were the First to Push for Good Roads & Became the Pioneers of Motoring
115:
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6929:
Chris; Neuenhahn, Thomas; Pyc, Ireneusz; Purvis, Andrew; Saygin, Deger; Xiao, Carol; Yang, Yufeng (1 September 2020).
6865:
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952:(a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called
134:
87:
7583:
4953:
3105:
2602:
about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, more than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.
2358:
water. Polymer concretes are frequently used for the repair and construction of other applications, such as drains.
9834:
9054:
3385:
3043:
2438:
Tests can be performed to ensure that the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the application.
2428:
699:
4018:
The master builders: a history of structural and environmental design from ancient Egypt to the nineteenth century
2946:
When there is a probability that the temperature may fall below 5 °C within 24 hours of placing the concrete.
1209:
can be used to encourage the air bubble to agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet concrete and then disperse.
9336:
8184:
8149:
7615:
7153:
Concrete Durability: Cementitious Materials and Reinforced Concrete Properties, Behavior and Corrosion Resistance
6590:
6152:
2781:
where the concrete is polished optically flat with diamond abrasives and sealed with polymers or other sealants.
756:(typically a rocky material, loose stones, and sand). The binder "glues" the filler together to form a synthetic
6910:
4611:
678:
continued developments into the 1840s, earning him recognition for the development of "modern" Portland cement.
94:
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1811:. Alternatively, concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture
481:
72:
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6357:
4655:
10040:
9607:
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9036:
9026:
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8154:
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6122:
5966:
Celik, K.; Jackson, M.D.; Mancio, M.; Meral, C.; Emwas, A.-H.; Mehta, P.K.; Monteiro, P.J.M. (January 2014).
2286:
2194:, laid in layers, and compacted. The process was refined and enhanced by Belgian inventor and U.S. immigrant
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473:
7749:
6481:"Unreinforced Masonry Buildings and Earthquakes: Developing Successful Risk Reduction Programs FEMA P-774"
924:
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete,
557:
The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures ensured that many survive to the present day. The
196:
only be cast in forms, but also to have a variety of tooled processes performed. The hydration process is
101:
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4510:« Château de Chazelet » , notice no PA00097319, base Mérimée, ministère français de la Culture.
4084:
Kwan, Stephen; Larosa, Judith; Grutzeck, Michael W. (1995). "29Si and27Al MASNMR Study of Stratlingite".
2917:
2591:
2372:
Sulfur concrete is a special concrete that uses sulfur as a binder and does not require cement or water.
2003:
7490:
National Geographic Channel International / Caroline Anstey (2005), Megastructures: Petronas Twin Towers
6617:
3096:
The manufacture and use of concrete produce a wide range of environmental, economic and social impacts.
2675:
Preferred dimension schemes exist, with elements of tried and tested designs available from a catalogue.
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9849:
9559:
9246:
9120:
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More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are paved with this material.
6622:
6586:
6414:
5487:
2935:, where temperatures tend to be much lower during the cold season, the following criteria are used by
2738:
Another approach to mass concrete structures that minimizes cement's thermal by-product is the use of
1940:
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reaction, however, lowers the pH of the cement pore solution and can corrode the reinforcement bars.
1883:
1759:
1717:
1628:, whose demand is ever growing with greater impacts on raw material extraction, waste generation and
521:
232:
83:
68:
20:
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water-reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability characteristics.
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8747:
8742:
8717:
7834:
7754:
7667:
7474:
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4464:
3409:
3392:, India, when the concrete mix was pumped through a vertical height of 715 m (2,346 ft).
1808:
1617:
948:—compounds, which will react with water. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating
772:
3439:
The world record for largest continuously poured concrete floor was completed 8 November 1997, in
2054:
over several decades further strengthens the concrete and makes it more resistant to damage. This
398:
9844:
9256:
6835:
5338:
5188:
5128:
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are produced by the cement manufacturing process, arising from (1) the decarbonation reaction of
1966:
1898:
has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with
1721:
1012:
849:
477:
263:. Whereas concrete is itself a building material, mortar is a bonding agent that typically holds
61:
9589:
6562:
6556:
5875:
Thanmanaselvi, M; Ramasamy, V (2023). "A study on durability characteristics of nano-concrete".
5339:"ACI 304R-00: Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete (Reapproved 2009)"
5158:
895:
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4428:
Concrete planet: the strange and fascinating story of the world's most common man-made material
3416:
to allow work to continue, was achieved in 1992 by joint Japanese and South Korean consortiums
3404:
2858:
2727:
2499:
2409:
2184:
1999:. Some other admixtures, especially air-entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.
1899:
1727:
Carbon products have been added to make concrete electrically conductive, for deicing purposes.
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that cures to a solid over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in the world after
169:
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5839:
5748:
Falkow, Stanley; Rosenberg, Eugene; Schleifer, Karl-Heinz; Stackebrandt, Erko (13 July 2006).
5651:
4426:
3384:
The world record for concrete pumping was set on 7 August 2009 during the construction of the
2730:
generate excessive heat during hydration and associated expansion. To mitigate these effects,
2309:
induce calcium carbonate precipitation in the surface of cracks, adding compression strength.
1732:
235:
or with Portland cement to form Portland cement concrete (named for its visual resemblance to
10025:
9768:
9170:
9078:
8916:
8637:
8253:
8144:
7744:
7403:"Andhra Pradesh: Polavaram project enters Guinness Book of World Record for concrete pouring"
5046:
Gamble, William. "Cement, Mortar, and Concrete". In Baumeister; Avallone; Baumeister (eds.).
4339:
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3239:
3034:
as it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the ground.
2927:
Temperature stays below 50 °F (10 °C) for more than one-half of any 24-hour period.
2272:
2075:
1698:
1625:
1572:
Specific surface measurements for silica fume by nitrogen adsorption (BET) method, others by
541:
The long-term durability of Roman concrete structures has been found to be due to its use of
7151:
6206:
5593:
5006:
4772:
Beaudoin, James; Odler, Ivan (2019). "Hydration, Setting and Hardening of Portland Cement".
3790:
3786:
Tiryns: The Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns, the Results of the Latest Excavations
500:
Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of
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883:. Therefore, it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically
876:
865:
695:
644:
505:
7353:
3134:
Recycled crushed concrete, to be reused as granular fill, is loaded into a semi-dump truck
2256:
is added. These enhanced graphene concretes are designed around the concrete application.
703:
8:
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7703:
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4341:
Cities for Smart Environmental and Energy Futures: Impacts on Architecture and Technology
4113:"Mechanical resilience and cementitious processes in Imperial Roman architectural mortar"
3451:
43.83. This surpassed the previous record by 50% in total volume and 7.5% in total area.
3277:
2842:
2806:
2755:
2653:
are used for specialized applications, predominately as a means of controlling cracking.
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in the kiln. The energy required for extracting, crushing, and mixing the raw materials (
2432:
2423:
2160:
1973:
1935:
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1612:
1215:
707:
681:
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Metwally, Gehad A. M.; Mahdy, Mohamed; Abd El-Raheem, Ahmed El-Raheem H. (August 2020).
5238:
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4187:
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3973:
3924:. Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
2629:, Brazil. It is made of reinforced concrete clad in a mosaic of thousands of triangular
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6043:
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5239:"Evaluation of Electrically Conductive Concrete Containing Carbon Products for Deicing"
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4276:
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4147:
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3315:, chlorides, sulfates and distillate water), by aggressive chemical species present in
2816:
2515:
2301:
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2099:
1996:
1962:
1911:
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1248:
Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and bleeding.
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558:
197:
165:
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to higher compressive strength. The grades usually indicate the 28-day cube strength.
569:
in southern France, have masonry cladding on a concrete core, as does the dome of the
108:
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9907:
9902:
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5846:. Cakrabartī, Subrata; Bhattacharya, Gautam. New Delhi: Springer India. p. 485.
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3952:
3739:
3729:
3649:
3468:
3396:
3300:
3216:
3026:
2854:
2778:
2595:
2337:
2187:
2112:
2044:
2040:
1867:
917:
Several tons of bagged cement, about two minutes of output from a 10,000 ton per day
818:
814:
761:
715:
485:
456:
450:
The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to AD 476. During the Roman Empire,
442:
240:
10030:
7043:
6501:
Seismic Retrofit Design Of Historic Century-Old School Buildings In Istanbul, Turkey
6484:
6232:
6039:
5445:
5098:
4205:
3696:
3021:
1838:
Concrete mixes are primarily divided into nominal mix, standard mix and design mix.
1744:
227:-based cement binders, such as lime putty, were often used but sometimes with other
10192:
10003:
9912:
9778:
9738:
9617:
9579:
9341:
9263:
9191:
8732:
8707:
8494:
8410:
8405:
8320:
8123:
8078:
7920:
7726:
7721:
7101:
7066:
7039:
6787:
6723:
6681:
6104:
6066:
6035:
5987:
5979:
5884:
5788:
5722:
5686:
5624:
5441:
5388:
5219:
4877:
4844:
4777:
4584:
4393:
4271:
4263:
4191:
4142:
4132:
4093:
3546:
3456:
3389:
3373:
3220:
2850:
2773:
2662:
2542:
2419:
2352:
2123:
2030:
Concrete must be kept moist during curing in order to achieve optimal strength and
1992:
1812:
1709:
1621:
1573:
1267:
1238:
1180:
1004:. The hydration of cement involves many concurrent reactions. The process involves
954:
925:
880:
834:
667:
542:
260:
256:
244:
228:
213:
205:
35:
7584:"The world's growing problem with concrete, the world's most destructive material"
7105:
6552:
6268:
6095:
A.D.): Mortars, plasters and mosaic floors from ancient Stabiae (Naples, Italy)".
4872:
Gerry Bye; Paul Livesey; Leslie Struble (2011). "Admixtures and Special Cements".
4588:
3784:
3072:
2009:
After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed.
1784:, which holds the mix in shape until it has set enough to hold its shape unaided.
9947:
9798:
9702:
9612:
9455:
9211:
9175:
9165:
8969:
8929:
8840:
8830:
8800:
8790:
8775:
8737:
8693:
8519:
8509:
8440:
8056:
7759:
7536:
6805:
6526:
6308:
5353:
3425:
3172:
3130:
2909:
2723:
2519:
2367:
2195:
1991:
Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or
1985:
1690:
of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers for workability.
1662:
1596:
1194:
1184:
806:
745:
655:
394:
224:
184:
5967:
5888:
5294:
4301:"We Finally Know How Ancient Roman Concrete Was Able to Last Thousands of Years"
4244:"Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete"
4221:"Secret of how Roman concrete survived tidal battering for 2,000 years revealed"
3865:
1976:, a simple measure of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the
1870:) define nominal mix ratios into a number of grades, usually ranging from lower
1788:
work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant.
1776:
concrete production takes place in a large type of industrial facility called a
10020:
9952:
9793:
9712:
9682:
9677:
9569:
9402:
9331:
9160:
9135:
8939:
8901:
8870:
8850:
8835:
8647:
8529:
8071:
7999:
7870:
7865:
7804:
7794:
7686:
7557:
7070:
6300:
5793:
5776:
5726:
4366:
3489:
3474:
3400:
3200:
3139:
2626:
2569:
relatively higher flexing structure is required to resist more extreme forces.
2495:
2441:
2180:
2156:
2048:
2021:
A concrete slab being kept hydrated during water curing by submersion (ponding)
1945:
1887:
1793:
1777:
1752:
1748:
1188:
1179:
speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials used are
1005:
993:
711:
675:
663:
648:
588:
570:
562:
493:
451:
414:
371:
363:
236:
154:
7630:
4169:
3782:
3761:
3513: – Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth's atmosphere
1980:
C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "
1197:
add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces damage during
1028:
844:
use recycled materials as concrete ingredients. Conspicuous materials include
10166:
9993:
9892:
9882:
9788:
9465:
9367:
9321:
9301:
9125:
8949:
8906:
8855:
8795:
8760:
8727:
8594:
8544:
8534:
8435:
8365:
8355:
8248:
8218:
8107:
8066:
7984:
7860:
7694:
5896:
5861:
5840:"An over view of the application of nanotechnology in construction materials"
5406:
4848:
4196:
3743:
3312:
3304:
3280:
in northeastern Pennsylvania opened in 1915 and is still in regular use today
3238:
Studies have been conducted about commercialization of low-carbon concretes.
3212:
3076:
3064:
2875:
2697:
2471:
2462:
The cement produced for making concrete accounts for about 8% of worldwide CO
1640:
1279:
1138:
1133:
689:
685:
659:
604:
382:
7378:. NBM&CW (New Building Materials and Construction World). October 2009.
7149:
4137:
2977:, pumping, skip placement, manual placement using toggle bags, and bagwork.
840:
Admixtures are added to modify the cure rate or properties of the material.
9897:
9783:
9758:
9397:
9351:
9285:
9101:
8974:
8964:
8865:
8820:
8780:
8770:
8765:
8722:
8604:
8599:
8524:
8450:
8420:
8312:
8293:
8223:
8061:
7969:
7711:
7550:"Contractors Prepare to Set Gates to Close New Orleans Storm Surge Barrier"
7501:"Continuous cast: Exxcel Contract Management oversees record concrete pour"
7473:. Al Habtoor Engineering. September–October 2007. p. 7. Archived from
4369:. The International Association of Certified Home Inspectors (InterNACHI).
4285:
4267:
4171:
4156:
4035:
3510:
3498: – Loosely defined subset of elements that exhibit metallic properties
3495:
3429:
2325:
2168:
1804:
1712:
can be added to concrete to enhance compressive strength and gain a higher
1676:
809:, is the most prevalent kind of concrete binder. For cementitious binders,
776:
735:
636:
616:
566:
386:
252:
7450:"The world record Concrete Supplier for Landmark Tower Unibeton Ready Mix"
5223:
4654:. IEA ETSAP – Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme. Archived from
3477: – Device that combines cement, aggregate, and water to form concrete
3372:
The world record for the largest concrete pour in a single project is the
2887:
1000:
concrete, whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher
786:
consist of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse
9998:
9717:
9654:
9306:
9241:
8944:
8589:
8579:
8554:
8479:
8390:
8338:
8288:
8093:
8025:
7994:
7225:
4957:
4881:
4833:
4831:
3316:
3030:
2899:
2511:
2487:
2483:
2317:
2222:
2172:
2055:
1981:
1923:
1915:
1668:
1658:
1592:
1275:
1231:
1001:
974:
969:
918:
861:
857:
826:
550:
276:
6860:(3rd ed.). Newton Abbott, UK: David and Charles. pp. 297–308.
4647:
Evelien Cochez; Wouter Nijs; Giorgio Simbolotti & Giancarlo Tosato.
4070:
Robert Mark, Paul Hutchinson: "On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon",
3471: – Process to level concrete by levelling its underlying foundation
1892:
Thorough mixing is essential to produce uniform, high-quality concrete.
10102:
9887:
9867:
9659:
9460:
9387:
9216:
9201:
8934:
8810:
8683:
8619:
8584:
8564:
8445:
8415:
8385:
8325:
8273:
7925:
7200:
5991:
3378:
3208:
2715:
2555:
2085:
2067:
1735:
to test the strength and durability of the new diaper-cement composite.
1702:
1694:
1648:
1218:
are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.
1198:
1176:
1142:
429:
Interior of the Pantheon dome, seen from beneath. The concrete for the
358:
Small-scale production of concrete-like materials was pioneered by the
7642:
Release of ultrafine particles from three simulated building processes
7017:"Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete"
6327:"Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete"
4828:
3949:
Concrete Vaulted Construction in Imperial Rome. Innovations in Context
2760:
2718:
chemical reaction while setting up, large concrete structures such as
2558:, can also be used in extreme environments like a missile launch pad.
2025:
1956:
Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades Park in Washington, DC
1780:, or often a batch plant. The usual method of placement is casting in
913:
10133:
9444:
9440:
9407:
9392:
9372:
9268:
9221:
9130:
8805:
8652:
8539:
8499:
8489:
8484:
8375:
8243:
8238:
8088:
8007:
7964:
7915:
7905:
7900:
7890:
7610:
7420:
7143:
6558:
The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World
6498:
Simsir, C.C.; Jain, A.; Hart, G.C.; Levy, M.P. (12–17 October 2008).
6388:"Concrete and Embodied Energy – Can using concrete be carbon neutral"
6304:
3504:
3413:
3360:
3352:
3296:
3143:
2801:
2743:
2630:
2546:
2503:
2491:
2479:
2241:, referring to the liquid asphalt portion of the composite material.
1600:
1156:
949:
791:
489:
465:
461:
297:" (meaning compact or condensed), the perfect passive participle of "
19:
This article is about the construction material. For other uses, see
7185:
6455:
5747:
5030:
4837:
4610:
Melander, John M.; Farny, James A.; Isberner, Albert W. Jr. (2003).
3492: – Equipment that combines various ingredients to form concrete
2616:
2321:
Decorative plate made of Nano concrete with High-Energy Mixing (HEM)
1545:
Values shown are approximate: those of a specific material may vary.
631:
Perhaps the greatest step forward in the modern use of concrete was
50:
10117:
10112:
9748:
9377:
8998:
8993:
8825:
8574:
8569:
8430:
8395:
8333:
7979:
7954:
7779:
6856:
Larn, Richard; Whistler, Rex (1993). "17 – Underwater concreting".
5119:
4921:
4871:
3824:
Jacobsen T and Lloyd S, (1935) "Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan,"
3516:
3433:
3356:
3324:
3320:
2965:
2549:
design constructed largely of precast and poured in place concrete.
2250:
2079:
1800:
1781:
1629:
1588:
1206:
1128:
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture.
390:
359:
201:
149:
9497:
Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association
6126:
5777:"Performance of Bio Concrete by Using Bacillus Pasteurii Bacteria"
3810:
3595:"Concrete Matters: A Primer on the Most Popular Man-Made Material"
3507: – Biocomposite material used for construction and insulation
3295:
may have many different causes. Concrete is mostly damaged by the
2017:
425:
243:
exist with other methods of binding aggregate together, including
10076:
9644:
9231:
9140:
8896:
8880:
8549:
8400:
7910:
7885:
7722:
Dual carriageway / Divided highway / Expressway
7652:
6927:
6718:
Richardson, John (2003). "Precast concrete structural elements".
6507:. 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Archived from
4708:"Chapter 9: Designing and Proportioning Normal Concrete Mixtures"
4574:
2903:
2895:
2191:
2176:
2035:
1952:
1919:
1768:
1672:
1636:
1604:
1271:
1263:
1225:
959:
929:
845:
830:
822:
795:
749:
375:
340:. Concrete was used for construction in many ancient structures.
333:
248:
39:
6882:
Prefilled lined underwater hand-placed bagwork product datasheet
6415:"Energy Use of Single-Family Houses with Various Exterior Walls"
5937:"Stanford's low-carbon cement swaps limestone for volcanic rock"
5592:. International Water Power and Dam Construction. Archived from
3891:
3146:, kidney disease, skin irritation and similar effects. The U.S.
1245:
of the concrete and lowers the need for water content by 15–30%.
1117:
409:
9803:
9763:
9597:
9450:
9430:
9316:
9251:
9226:
9115:
9070:
9003:
8673:
8083:
8046:
7376:"SCHWING Stetter Launches New Truck mounted Concrete Pump S-36"
6149:"Relation Between Compressive and Tensile Strength of Concrete"
5179:
5149:
4241:
3728:(Sixth ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. p. 314.
3308:
3168:
2974:
2932:
2871:
2857:
functional extensions in modern days. For more information see
2527:
1255:
963:
937:
908:
787:
719:
671:
583:
534:
469:
430:
329:
192:
173:
27:
7056:
3804:
Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina (2011). "Ancient concrete works".
871:
Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include
9722:
9624:
9412:
9280:
9236:
9196:
7530:
Exxcel Project Management – Design Build, General Contractors
6093:
5431:
5035:(14 ed.). Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois.
3328:
3323:(chlorides, sulfates, magnesium ions), or by microorganisms (
3010:
1906:
of the resulting concrete. The paste is generally mixed in a
1679:
1259:
986:
933:
887:
884:
810:
640:
624:
366:, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built
344:
272:
264:
209:
188:
177:
31:
7320:"Concrete Pouring of Three Gorges Project Sets World Record"
5911:"Ground Water Recharging Through Pervious Concrete Pavement"
5060:
3726:
Fundamentals of building construction: materials and methods
3668:
3199:
Concrete is used to create hard surfaces that contribute to
2894:, an office building made of concrete in the city center of
1228:
can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
651:
in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate.
9512:
7683:
7029:
6806:"Winter is Coming! Precautions for Cold Weather Concreting"
4338:
Rassia, Stamatina Th; Pardalos, Panos M. (15 August 2013).
3870:
International Association of Certified Home Inspectors, Inc
3783:
Heinrich Schliemann; Wilhelm Dörpfeld; Felix Adler (1885).
2507:
1977:
1665:(by up to 80% by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties.
1129:
841:
799:
731:
501:
418:
367:
268:
9482:
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers
6851:
6849:
5774:
3351:
is the use of rubble from demolished concrete structures.
875:
because this type of concrete can be formulated with high
433:
dome was laid on moulds, mounted on temporary scaffolding.
8514:
7529:
6969:"Cement Clinker Calcination in Cement Production Process"
3355:
is cheaper and more ecological than trucking rubble to a
3211:
and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous
2920:(ACI) definition of cold weather placement, ACI 306, is:
2719:
2671:
Advantages to be achieved by employing precast concrete:
1286:
259:
that use polymers as a binder. Concrete is distinct from
7208:"Urbanite - Reusing Old Concrete - The Concrete Network"
5568:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2011. p. 106.
5566:
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
4951:
3459:
Sill & Monolith Project to be completed in the dry.
996:, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more
744:, comprising a matrix of cementitious binder (typically
545:(volcanic) rock and ash, whereby the crystallization of
7468:"Abu Dhabi – Landmark Tower has a record-breaking pour"
7281:
7150:
Luis Emilio Rendon Diaz Miron; Dessi A. Koleva (2017).
6846:
6017:
5965:
5754:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 1005.
5751:
The Prokaryotes: Vol. 2: Ecophysiology and Biochemistry
5711:
4364:
4110:
3500:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
3485:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1172:
below.) The common types of admixtures are as follows:
397:
allowed the mix to set underwater. They discovered the
6642:
6640:
3694:
3196:
emissions from the sector will be even more critical.
1792:
facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a
5874:
4609:
4344:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 58.
3267:
3148:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
3142:. Exposure to cement dust can lead to issues such as
2514:) is lower. Energy requirement for transportation of
1847:
662:
in 1824. Aspdin chose the name for its similarity to
417:, finished 128 AD, the largest unreinforced concrete
7611:"Skeptoid #813: Why You Need to Care About Concrete"
6618:"Christ the Redeemer (last updated 13 January 2014)"
5614:
5050:(Eighth ed.). McGraw Hill. Section 6, page 177.
3188:
responsible for emitting about 100–200 kg of CO
2086:
Curing techniques avoiding water loss by evaporation
1294:
comparison of chemical and physical characteristics
496:
has the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.
374:
houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof
6713:
6711:
6637:
6274:. NRMCA-National Ready Mixed Concrete Association.
3593:Manager, Samsung C&T Global PR (27 June 2018).
2026:
Maintaining optimal conditions for cement hydration
75:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
7632:Getting Buried in Concrete to Explain How It Works
6497:
6299:
6061:Brown, R.J.; Calder, E.S. (2005). "Pyroclastics".
5458:"Curing Concrete" Peter C. Taylor CRC Press 2013.
4917:
4915:
4083:
3388:Hydroelectric Project, near the village of Suind,
2805:Stylized cacti decorate a sound/retaining wall in
2486:(T ≈ 950 °C), and (2) from the combustion of
2095:and plastic sheeting covering the fresh concrete.
1856:{\displaystyle {\text{Cement : Sand : Aggregate}}}
1855:
1103:The hydration (curing) of cement is irreversible.
932:. It consists of a mixture of calcium silicates (
718:forces developing when put in service. Freyssinet
328:Concrete floors were found in the royal palace of
5378:
5209:
5031:Kosmatka, S.; Kerkhoff, B.; Panerese, W. (2002).
4904:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
4328:, 5th ed. (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2019), pp. 3–4.
3837:
3483: – Standard-sized block used in construction
3037:
10164:
10087:International Federation for Structural Concrete
7083:
6708:
6667:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6184:. The Aberdeen Group. March 1981. Archived from
5295:"Grades of Concrete with Proportion (Mix Ratio)"
5237:Tuan, Christopher; Yehia, Sherif (1 July 2004).
5095:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology
4981:"Effect of Air Entrainment on Concrete Strength"
4812:. Engr.psu.edu. 25 December 2012. Archived from
4806:"The Effect of Aggregate Properties on Concrete"
3859:
3857:
3029:can be used, which eliminates the need to place
2815:is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in
1242:
7015:Lehne, Johanna; Preston, Felix (13 June 2018).
6230:
5837:
4912:
3863:
1686:. Silica fume is used to increase strength and
492:in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the
7010:
7008:
7006:
6777:
5407:"Aggregate in Concrete – the Concrete Network"
4513:
4337:
3789:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp.
3359:. Crushed rubble can be used for road gravel,
3106:Occupational dust exposure § Construction
1929:
1599:(blended cements). Products which incorporate
1091:(approximately as the exact ratios of CaO, SiO
9528:
9086:
7668:
6658:
6319:
5510:""Admixtures for Cementitious Applications.""
5091:"Paving the way to greenhouse gas reductions"
4771:
4577:Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
3854:
3152:Occupational Safety and Health Administration
2581:
2244:
2070:setting of cement. Improper curing can cause
643:, England, between 1756 and 1759. This third
528:, and its mode of application also differed:
291:The word concrete comes from the Latin word "
7014:
6855:
6587:"Minerals commodity summary – cement – 2007"
5590:"Asphalt concrete cores for embankment dams"
4741:
4739:
3254:
3226:
2969:Assembled tremie placing concrete underwater
2943:When the air temperature is ≤ 5 °C, and
2823:There are two different systems being used:
7003:
6269:"Concrete in Practice: What, Why, and How?"
6167:
6060:
6013:
6011:
6009:
4979:Hamakareem, Madeh Izat (14 November 2013).
3246:eq/m, while FA decreased by 17.3 kg CO
1591:or latent hydraulic properties, these very
310:
304:
298:
292:
9535:
9521:
9093:
9079:
7675:
7661:
7290:"China's Three Gorges Dam, by the Numbers"
6836:"306R-16 Guide to Cold Weather Concreting"
6749:
6747:
6717:
6528:Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook
6355:
5676:
4978:
4519:
4358:
3803:
2502:used in the concrete production, and also
2445:Compression testing of a concrete cylinder
1841:Nominal mix ratios are given in volume of
7539:. Exxcel.com. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
7129:"Global Concrete Industry Sustainability"
6226:
6224:
5792:
5617:Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
5381:Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
5236:
4736:
4570:
4568:
4526:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
4491:"Francois Coignet – French house builder"
4483:
4275:
4195:
4146:
4136:
3946:
3809:
3723:
2882:
2790:
2295:reduces water and chloride permeability.
1803:can be prepared in several ways, such as
1697:(HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with
658:was developed in England and patented by
370:to supply mortar for the construction of
135:Learn how and when to remove this message
9492:Mason Contractors Association of America
6798:
6545:
6364:. Earth Institute, Columbia University.
6195:
6006:
5048:Mark's Handbook for Mechanical Engineers
4424:
3864:Gromicko, Nick; Shepard, Kenton (2016).
3271:
3129:
3109:
2964:
2886:
2837:along the outer surface of the concrete.
2800:
2772:Examples of improved appearance include
2759:
2701:
2615:
2585:
2537:
2440:
2316:
2016:
1951:
1939:
1758:
1743:
1651:fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.
1116:
912:
767:
615:
436:
424:
408:
148:
9487:Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland
7605:
7400:
7287:
6950:. HeidelbergCement. 24 September 2020.
6842:from the original on 15 September 2017.
6744:
6671:
6551:
5838:Tiwari, AK; Chowdhury, Subrato (2013).
5817:. McGraw-Hill Education. p. 1131.
5806:
5804:
5351:
5063:Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
5061:Kosmatka, S.H.; Panarese, W.C. (1988).
5033:Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
5024:
5004:
4998:
4612:"Portland Cement Plaster/Stucco Manual"
4324:Peter Hewlett and Martin Liska (eds.),
4218:
4086:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
3592:
2954:
2870:poured free under gravity or through a
2554:Concrete as a fire shield, for example
752:) and a dispersed phase or "filler" of
10165:
7601:Advantage and Disadvantage of Concrete
7456:from the original on 24 November 2012.
7428:"Concrete Supplier for Landmark Tower"
6945:"Leading the way to carbon neutrality"
6561:. Cambridge University Press. p.
6261:
6221:
5934:
5358:. Craftsman Book Company. p. 74.
5355:Construction Estimating Reference Data
5155:"Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag"
4774:Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete
4565:
4406:from the original on 15 September 2012
4326:Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete
2605:
1287:Mineral admixtures and blended cements
389:eras, builders discovered that adding
9516:
9074:
8771:Median / Central reservation
7656:
7401:Janyala, Sreenivas (7 January 2019).
7126:
6609:
6597:from the original on 13 December 2007
6463:"Features and Usage of Foam Concrete"
6412:
6368:from the original on 22 December 2016
6337:from the original on 19 December 2018
6020:Resources, Conservation and Recycling
4540:
4298:
4074:, Vol. 68, No. 1 (1986), p. 26, fn. 5
4015:
3971:
3928:from the original on 27 November 2012
3889:
3669:Industrial Resources Council (2008).
1515:
1495:
1473:
1328:
1298:
798:, along with finer materials such as
565:and bridges, such as the magnificent
336:Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of
251:binder, which is frequently used for
9650:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
7288:Sources, Other News (14 July 2009).
7269:from the original on 9 February 2012
6999:from the original on 9 October 2022.
6957:from the original on 9 October 2022.
6917:from the original on 2 January 2015.
6911:"Mapping of Excess Fuel Consumption"
6816:from the original on 13 January 2017
6524:
6441:. Taylor & Francis Group. 2015.
6427:from the original on 9 October 2022.
6394:from the original on 16 January 2017
6358:"Emissions from the Cement Industry"
6356:Rubenstein, Madeleine (9 May 2012).
6233:"Why Use High Performance Concrete?"
5810:
5801:
5649:
5546:from the original on 8 December 2015
5413:from the original on 2 February 2017
4865:
4753:from the original on 17 October 2012
4465:"The History of Concrete and Cement"
4445:from the original on 4 November 2015
4373:from the original on 15 January 2013
4365:Nick Gromicko & Kenton Shepard.
3914:
3838:Stella L. Marusin (1 January 1996).
3724:Allen, Edward; Iano, Joseph (2013).
3713:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3697:"Portland Cement Concrete Materials"
3582:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3563:
3536:
3447:54.60 and a levelness tolerance of F
3099:
3047:
2764:Black basalt polished concrete floor
2572:
2470:, global aviation at 1.9%). The two
2457:
2106:
1671:: A by-product of the production of
1655:Ground granulated blast furnace slag
854:ground granulated blast furnace slag
805:Cement paste, most commonly made of
73:adding citations to reliable sources
44:
10067:Institution of Structural Engineers
7352:. The Masterbuilder. Archived from
7127:Mehta, P. Kumar (1 February 2009).
6780:Construction and Building Materials
6205:. American Concrete. Archived from
6097:Construction and Building Materials
5679:Construction and Building Materials
5181:U.S. Federal Highway Administration
5151:U.S. Federal Highway Administration
5121:U.S. Federal Highway Administration
5083:
4923:U.S. Federal Highway Administration
4679:
4391:
4299:Starr, Michelle (1 February 2024).
3984:from the original on 1 October 2011
3902:from the original on 6 October 2014
3564:Crow, James Mitchell (March 2008).
3215:. Concrete is a contributor to the
3126:emission from the use of power tool
2749:
2726:, large mat foundations, and large
2656:
1972:Workability can be measured by the
561:in Rome are just one example. Many
13:
8689:Risk compensation (road transport)
7682:
7648:The Quest for Greener Alternatives
7576:
6686:10.1016/b978-0-08-100275-9.00038-3
6615:
6309:"CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions"
6281:from the original on 4 August 2012
5715:Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
5629:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002839
5393:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002126
5045:
4782:10.1016/B978-0-08-100773-0.00005-8
4628:from the original on 12 April 2021
4098:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1995.tb08910.x
3675:www.industrialresourcescouncil.org
3643:
3519: – Synthetic form of concrete
3341:This paragraph is an excerpt from
3285:This paragraph is an excerpt from
3268:End-of-life: degradation and waste
2706:Aerial photo of reconstruction at
2691:
2494:temperature (T ≈ 1450 °C) of
2361:
2098:For higher-strength applications,
1866:Various governing bodies (such as
1755:being filled from ingredient silos
1611:, and other useful materials with
872:
608:was built using concrete in 1670.
349:Incidents of Travel in the Yucatán
271:and other masonry units together.
14:
10219:
7594:
7438:from the original on 15 May 2013.
7382:from the original on 14 July 2011
6792:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.099
6175:"Structural lightweight concrete"
6109:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.101
5947:from the original on 10 June 2021
5691:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122236
5315:. 1 November 1989. Archived from
4717:. Portland Concrete Association.
4548:"Concrete: Scientific Principles"
4431:. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
4231:from the original on 4 July 2017.
3551:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.02.004
3167:A major component of concrete is
3138:Grinding of concrete can produce
2466:emissions per year (compared to,
1733:model home was built in Indonesia
1657:(GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product of
833:, which is used as the binder in
722:the technique on 2 October 1928.
611:
183:When aggregate is mixed with dry
10147:
10146:
9100:
9055:Glossary of road transport terms
7542:
7523:
7493:
7484:
7460:
7394:
7368:
7342:
7330:from the original on 27 May 2010
7312:
7255:
7170:
7120:
7077:
7050:
7023:
6979:
6961:
6937:
6921:
6903:
6874:
6828:
6771:
6728:10.1016/B978-075065686-3/50307-4
6579:
6518:
6491:
6473:
6431:
6406:
6380:
6349:
6293:
6249:from the original on 15 May 2013
5984:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.09.003
5097:. 28 August 2011. Archived from
4724:from the original on 26 May 2012
4688:from the original on 11 May 2013
3367:
3052:
3044:Environmental impact of concrete
2429:coefficient of thermal expansion
404:
323:
49:
10188:Heterogeneous chemical mixtures
9669:
9337:Non-explosive demolition agents
7059:Journal of Building Engineering
7044:10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.04.011
6992:. Portland Cement Association.
6931:"Reaching Zero with Renewables"
6591:United States Geological Survey
6315:– via ourworldindata.org.
6307:; Rosado, Pablo (11 May 2020).
6141:
6115:
6087:
6054:
6040:10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.05.031
5959:
5928:
5903:
5868:
5831:
5768:
5741:
5705:
5670:
5643:
5608:
5582:
5558:
5526:
5502:
5476:
5452:
5446:10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.06.010
5425:
5399:
5372:
5345:
5331:
5301:
5287:
5253:
5230:
5203:
5173:
5143:
5113:
5054:
5039:
4972:
4945:
4798:
4765:
4700:
4673:
4640:
4603:
4504:
4457:
4418:
4394:"The Secrets of Roman Concrete"
4385:
4331:
4318:
4292:
4235:
4212:
4163:
4104:
4077:
4064:
4042:
4009:
3996:
3965:
3940:
3890:Moore, David (6 October 2014).
3883:
3831:
3826:Oriental Institute Publications
3818:
3797:
3776:
2312:
2299:increases resistance to acid.
2254:(typically < 0.5% by weight)
1566:
1557:
1548:
1539:
1169:
753:
343:Mayan concrete at the ruins of
239:). Many other non-cementitious
60:needs additional citations for
16:Composite construction material
9565:Roman architectural revolution
7507:. 1 March 1998. Archived from
6680:, Elsevier, pp. 431–435,
6071:10.1016/b0-12-369396-9/00153-2
5972:Cement and Concrete Composites
4952:Cement Admixture Association.
4884:(inactive 11 September 2024).
4874:Portland Cement: Third edition
4219:Knapton, Sarah (3 July 2017).
3951:. Cambridge University Press.
3760:. Latin Lookup. Archived from
3750:
3717:
3704:Federal Highway Administration
3688:
3662:
3637:
3612:
3586:
3557:
3530:
3403:on 6 January 2019 entered the
3038:Environment, health and safety
2533:
2388:
1587:Inorganic materials that have
725:
576:
482:Roman architectural revolution
347:(AD 850–925) is referenced in
231:, (water resistant) such as a
1:
9037:Pavement performance modeling
9027:International roughness index
7556:. 12 May 2011. Archived from
7237:www.ecodesignarchitects.co.za
7106:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124373
7086:Journal of Cleaner Production
5935:Lavars, Nick (10 June 2021).
5656:. Island Press. p. 120.
5212:Magazine of Concrete Research
4682:"Measuring Water in Concrete"
4589:10.1080/21650373.2018.1511486
3840:"Ancient Concrete Structures"
3523:
3457:Inner Harbor Navigation Canal
2414:Concrete has relatively high
2403:
2287:Arthrobacter crystallopoietes
1826:
1739:
1661:is used to partially replace
1639:: A by-product of coal-fired
1162:
1106:
864:, a by-product of industrial
472:. Its widespread use in many
172:bonded together with a fluid
9551:
9542:
9502:Worshipful Company of Masons
9032:Present serviceability index
8826:Sidewalk / Pavement
8371:Diamond grinding of pavement
7032:Cement and Concrete Research
6720:Advanced Concrete Technology
6652:www.designingbuildings.co.uk
6439:Green Building with Concrete
5877:Materials Today: Proceedings
5434:Cement and Concrete Research
5069:. pp. 17, 42, 70, 184.
5005:Holland, Terence C. (2005).
4004:Greek and Roman Architecture
3828:24, Chicago University Press
3695:National Highway Institute.
3646:Advanced concrete technology
3539:Engineering Failure Analysis
3424:for the construction of the
3335:
3219:effect, though less so than
3075:or discuss the issue on the
2864:
2259:
666:, which was quarried on the
635:, built by British engineer
286:
191:, the mixture forms a fluid
7:
10082:Portland Cement Association
10057:American Concrete Institute
9707:
9004:Underpass / Tunnel
8999:Overpass / Flyover
8753:High-occupancy vehicle lane
8643:Driving under the influence
7717:Freeway / Motorway
6973:AGICO Cement Plant Supplier
6678:Civil Engineering Materials
5889:10.1016/j.matpr.2021.06.349
5067:Portland Cement Association
5007:"Silica Fume User's Manual"
4619:Portland Cement Association
3462:
3422:Samsung C&T Corporation
3162:
2918:American Concrete Institute
2746:into a dense, strong mass.
2422:. Therefore, it is usually
2375:
2331:
2221:are typically used only in
2215:bituminous asphalt concrete
2012:
2004:self-consolidating concrete
1930:Sample analysis—workability
10:
10224:
9560:Ancient Roman architecture
8343:
7931:Highway systems by country
7071:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102566
6672:Claisse, Peter A. (2016),
6203:"Ordering Concrete by PSI"
5794:10.28991/cej-2020-03091559
5727:10.1007/s42107-021-00407-7
4520:Billington, David (1985).
3671:"Portland Cement Concrete"
3340:
3284:
3103:
3067:towards certain viewpoints
3041:
2958:
2794:
2753:
2695:
2660:
2651:Fibre-reinforced concretes
2609:
2582:Construction with concrete
2407:
2392:
2365:
2350:
2346:
2335:
2245:Graphene enhanced concrete
2121:
2117:
2110:
1961:content and age (level of
1933:
1881:
1641:electric generating plants
1155:Decorative stones such as
1110:
906:
740:Concrete is an artificial
729:
524:was far lower than modern
318:
157:, as used for construction
25:
18:
10142:
10126:
10095:
10072:Indian Concrete Institute
10049:
9986:
9858:
9812:
9731:
9668:
9588:
9550:
9474:
9423:
9360:
9327:Lewis (lifting appliance)
9294:
9184:
9108:
9050:
9042:Granular base equivalency
9012:
8983:
8889:
8861:Traffic signal preemption
8706:
8666:
8628:
8470:
8459:
8311:
8269:Right-in/right-out (RIRO)
8198:
8175:Single-point urban (SPUI)
8115:
8106:
8034:
7939:
7853:
7735:
7702:
7693:
7589:. BBC Reel. 6 March 2023.
7156:. Springer. pp. 2–.
5811:Raju, N. Krishna (2018).
5781:Civil Engineering Journal
4684:. Concrete Construction.
4552:matse1.matse.illinois.edu
4425:Courland, Robert (2011).
4367:"the History of Concrete"
3947:Lancaster, Lynne (2005).
3922:"The History of Concrete"
3892:"Roman Concrete Research"
3866:"The History of Concrete"
3648:. John Wiley & Sons.
3624:matse1.matse.illinois.edu
3379:Itaipu hydropower station
3255:Climate change adaptation
3227:Climate change mitigation
2853:are the most widely used
2740:roller-compacted concrete
2563:Insulating Concrete Forms
2179:, as well as the core of
2167:commonly used to surface
2074:, reduced strength, poor
2002:High-flow concrete, like
1967:segregation of aggregates
1884:Volumetric concrete mixer
1877:
1850:Cement : Sand : Aggregate
1763:Concrete mixing plant in
1535:
1450:
1430:
1410:
1383:
1356:
1333:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1023:S + H → C-S-H + CH + heat
980:
902:
790:or crushed rocks such as
21:Concrete (disambiguation)
9022:Pavement condition index
8748:High-occupancy toll lane
8743:Contraflow lane reversal
8718:Barrier transfer machine
7432:Construction Week Online
6858:Commercial Diving Manual
6525:Nawy, Edward G. (2008).
5814:Prestressed Concrete, 6e
5309:"Concrete International"
4749:. Understanding Cement.
4523:The Tower and the Bridge
4197:10.2138/am-2017-5993CCBY
4016:Cowan, Henry J. (1977).
3599:Samsung C&T Newsroom
3566:"The concrete conundrum"
3016:
2642:Reinforced concrete (RC)
2229:, is sometimes used for
1910:, shear-type mixer at a
1809:steel plate construction
1618:greenhouse gas emissions
1474:Specific surface (m/kg)
684:was invented in 1849 by
591:cores) and foundations.
233:calcium aluminate cement
26:Not to be confused with
7876:Express-collector setup
7233:"Urbanite Construction"
6623:Encyclopædia Britannica
6123:"MASUKO light concrete"
6063:Encyclopedia of Geology
4138:10.1073/pnas.1417456111
4002:D.S. Robertson (1969).
3620:"Scientific Principles"
2961:Underwater construction
2834:Post-tensioned concrete
2500:construction aggregates
1722:electrical conductivity
1013:Cement chemist notation
879:, but always has lower
850:coal-fired power plants
784:Construction aggregates
700:post-tensioned concrete
654:A method for producing
597:De proprietatibus rerum
516:Modern tests show that
478:history of architecture
9850:Alkali–silica reaction
9608:Energetically modified
9060:Road types by features
8955:Raised pavement marker
8922:Constant-slope barrier
8846:Traffic directionality
8836:Street running railway
8259:Protected intersection
7535:28 August 2009 at the
7133:Concrete International
5650:Reid, Carlton (2015).
4268:10.1126/sciadv.add1602
3844:Concrete International
3405:Guinness World Records
3281:
3135:
3127:
2970:
2906:
2883:Cold weather placement
2859:Brutalist architecture
2809:
2791:Prestressed structures
2765:
2711:
2634:
2598:
2550:
2446:
2410:Properties of concrete
2322:
2293:Sporosarcina pasteurii
2143:in North America, and
2022:
1957:
1949:
1857:
1772:
1756:
1330:Proportion by mass (%)
1292:Components of cement:
1132:, natural gravel, and
1125:
1113:Construction aggregate
921:
780:
628:
593:Bartholomaeus Anglicus
539:
514:
447:
434:
422:
311:
305:
299:
293:
212:) embedded to provide
158:
8917:Concrete step barrier
8254:Offset T-intersection
7182:ConcreteRecycling.org
6767:on 27 September 2011.
6648:"Reinforced concrete"
6487:on 12 September 2011.
6231:Henry G. Russel, PE.
6182:Concrete Construction
5243:ACI Materials Journal
5224:10.1680/macr.12.00187
4399:. Romanconcrete.com.
4176:American Mineralogist
3972:Moore, David (1999).
3481:Concrete masonry unit
3275:
3240:Life cycle assessment
3207:released by building
3133:
3122:
2968:
2890:
2828:Pretensioned concrete
2804:
2763:
2705:
2619:
2589:
2541:
2444:
2320:
2282:Sporosarcina pasteuri
2273:Bacillus pseudofirmus
2043:in the concrete into
2020:
1995:without changing the
1955:
1943:
1896:Separate paste mixing
1858:
1762:
1747:
1626:construction industry
1613:pozzolanic properties
1195:Air entraining agents
1120:
916:
866:electric arc furnaces
771:
647:pioneered the use of
619:
530:
498:
476:, a key event in the
440:
428:
412:
152:
9835:Environmental impact
9693:Reversing drum mixer
9151:Massive precut stone
9146:Post-tensioned stone
8960:Road surface marking
8658:Single-vehicle crash
8381:Full depth recycling
8279:Seagull intersection
7554:www.construction.com
7505:concreteproducts.com
6812:. 14 November 2016.
6469:on 29 November 2012.
6413:Gajda, John (2001).
6390:. 22 February 2013.
6065:. pp. 386–397.
5352:Sarviel, Ed (1993).
5319:on 28 September 2007
5269:The Concrete Society
4882:10.1680/pc.36116.185
4849:10.1061/41002(328)17
4776:. pp. 157–250.
4060:on 27 February 2017.
3644:Li, Zongjin (2011).
3293:Concrete degradation
3287:Concrete degradation
3156:hydraulic fracturing
2955:Underwater placement
2847:prestressed concrete
2817:compressive stresses
2813:Prestressed concrete
2797:Prestressed concrete
2416:compressive strength
2395:Waste light concrete
2233:but can also denote
1944:Concrete floor of a
1904:compressive strength
1872:compressive strength
1845:
1216:Corrosion inhibitors
1145:are also permitted.
1099:O in C-S-H can vary)
975:grind it into cement
877:compressive strength
696:Prestressed concrete
645:Eddystone Lighthouse
468:and an aggregate of
69:improve this article
10208:Sculpture materials
10183:Composite materials
9347:Stonemason's hammer
9312:Ceramic tile cutter
8786:Pedestrian crossing
8349:Reinforced concrete
8185:Three-level diamond
7896:Two-lane expressway
7881:Farm-to-market road
7294:Probe International
7212:ConcreteNetwork.com
7098:2021JCPro.28024373L
6514:on 11 January 2012.
6362:State of the Planet
6129:on 15 November 2020
6032:2018RCR...137..177L
5522:on 17 October 2016.
5265:www.concrete.org.uk
4960:on 3 September 2011
4816:on 25 December 2012
4649:"Cement Production"
4392:Herring, Benjamin.
4260:2023SciA....9D1602S
4188:2017AmMin.102.1435J
4129:2014PNAS..11118484J
4123:(52): 18484–18489.
4020:. New York: Wiley.
4006:, Cambridge, p. 233
3278:Tunkhannock Viaduct
3073:improve the article
2843:Reinforced concrete
2807:Scottsdale, Arizona
2756:Decorative concrete
2622:Christ the Redeemer
2612:Reinforced concrete
2606:Reinforced concrete
2592:City Court Building
2161:Republic of Ireland
2047:from absorption of
1974:concrete slump test
1936:Concrete slump test
1684:pozzolanic reaction
1528:Cement replacement
1525:Cement replacement
1522:Cement replacement
1295:
1201:cycles, increasing
1026:Standard notation:
958:) with a source of
873:steel reinforcement
682:Reinforced concrete
674:, England. His son
526:reinforced concrete
399:pozzolanic reaction
338:waterproof concrete
309:-" (together) and "
218:reinforced concrete
10178:Building materials
9938:Self-consolidating
9630:Water–cement ratio
8816:Runaway truck ramp
8638:Driver's education
8426:Rubberized asphalt
8361:Crocodile cracking
8284:Split intersection
8052:Hierarchy of roads
8013:Single carriageway
7609:(4 January 2022).
7560:on 13 January 2013
7326:. 4 January 2001.
7265:. 2 January 2012.
6987:"Carbon footprint"
6891:(Report). Soluform
6889:www.soluform.co.uk
6616:Murray, Lorraine.
5490:on 24 October 2008
5484:"Concrete Testing"
5191:on 22 January 2007
5161:on 22 January 2007
5101:on 31 October 2012
4933:on 27 January 2007
4747:"Cement hydration"
4661:on 24 January 2013
4054:www.ce.memphis.edu
3418:Hazama Corporation
3349:Concrete recycling
3343:Concrete recycling
3301:reinforcement bars
3282:
3136:
3128:
2996:Underwater bagwork
2971:
2907:
2810:
2766:
2712:
2635:
2599:
2551:
2516:ready-mix concrete
2447:
2323:
2302:Bacillus pasteurii
2267:Bacillus pasteurii
2219:bituminous mixture
2165:composite material
2100:accelerated curing
2023:
1997:water-cement ratio
1958:
1950:
1853:
1773:
1757:
1609:blast furnace slag
1531:Property enhancer
1291:
1126:
1081:O (gel) + 3 Ca(OH)
922:
856:, a by-product of
848:, a by-product of
842:Mineral admixtures
781:
742:composite material
702:were pioneered by
629:
559:Baths of Caracalla
486:Roman construction
448:
435:
423:
166:composite material
159:
10203:Roofing materials
10160:
10159:
10152:Category:Concrete
9933:Roller-compacting
9754:Climbing formwork
9603:Calcium aluminate
9575:Roman engineering
9510:
9509:
9436:Hardstone carving
9383:Polygonal masonry
9207:Decorative stones
9068:
9067:
8876:Wide outside lane
8702:
8701:
8679:Automotive safety
8560:Road slipperiness
8307:
8306:
8155:Diverging diamond
8102:
8101:
8018:Single-track road
7960:Bicycle boulevard
7434:. 19 April 2011.
7407:The India Express
7263:"Itaipu Web-site"
6810:FPrimeC Solutions
6737:978-0-7506-5686-3
6722:. pp. 3–46.
6695:978-0-08-100275-9
6572:978-0-521-80447-9
6538:978-1-4200-0765-7
6448:978-1-4987-0411-3
6313:Our World in Data
6155:on 6 January 2019
6080:978-0-12-369396-9
5853:978-81-322-0757-3
5824:978-93-87886-25-4
5761:978-0-387-25492-0
5663:978-1-61091-689-9
5575:978-0-547-04101-8
5472:978-0-203-86613-9
5464:978-0-415-77952-4
5440:(10): 1058–1066.
5365:978-0-934041-84-3
5218:(18): 1081–1091.
5076:978-0-89312-087-0
4954:"Admixture Types"
4891:978-0-7277-3611-6
4858:978-0-7844-1002-8
4843:. pp. 1–10.
4791:978-0-08-100773-0
4438:978-1-61614-481-4
4351:978-3-642-37661-0
3978:romanconcrete.com
3958:978-0-511-16068-4
3896:Romanconcrete.com
3735:978-1-118-42086-7
3655:978-0-470-90243-1
3469:Concrete leveling
3217:urban heat island
3120:
3100:Health and safety
3094:
3093:
3027:pervious concrete
3005:Grouted aggregate
2855:types of concrete
2779:polished concrete
2596:Buffalo, New York
2573:Earthquake safety
2458:Energy efficiency
2418:, but much lower
2338:Pervious concrete
2264:Bacteria such as
2185:mineral aggregate
2131:(commonly called
2113:Types of concrete
2107:Alternative types
2045:calcium carbonate
2041:calcium hydroxide
1916:superplasticizers
1902:can increase the
1868:British Standards
1851:
1710:Carbon nanofibers
1585:
1584:
1563:ASTM C618 Class C
1554:ASTM C618 Class F
1496:Specific gravity
1239:Superplasticizers
1170:§ Production
762:types of concrete
704:Eugène Freyssinet
518:opus caementicium
457:opus caementicium
443:Opus caementicium
257:polymer concretes
241:types of concrete
229:hydraulic cements
206:superplasticizers
145:
144:
137:
119:
10215:
10150:
10149:
10062:Concrete Society
9873:Fiber-reinforced
9688:Volumetric mixer
9580:Roman technology
9537:
9530:
9523:
9514:
9513:
9342:Plug and feather
9192:Artificial stone
9095:
9088:
9081:
9072:
9071:
8912:Cat's eye (road)
8733:Complete streets
8505:Dead Man's Curve
8468:
8467:
8406:Pavement milling
8321:Asphalt concrete
8264:Quadrant roadway
8205:
8127:
8113:
8112:
8079:Street hierarchy
7727:Elevated highway
7700:
7699:
7677:
7670:
7663:
7654:
7653:
7633:
7627:
7625:
7623:
7590:
7588:
7570:
7569:
7567:
7565:
7546:
7540:
7527:
7521:
7520:
7518:
7516:
7497:
7491:
7488:
7482:
7481:
7480:on 8 March 2011.
7479:
7472:
7464:
7458:
7457:
7446:
7440:
7439:
7424:
7418:
7417:
7415:
7413:
7398:
7392:
7391:
7389:
7387:
7372:
7366:
7365:
7363:
7361:
7346:
7340:
7339:
7337:
7335:
7316:
7310:
7309:
7307:
7305:
7300:on 29 March 2017
7296:. Archived from
7285:
7279:
7278:
7276:
7274:
7259:
7253:
7252:
7250:
7248:
7239:. Archived from
7229:
7223:
7222:
7220:
7218:
7204:
7198:
7197:
7195:
7193:
7188:on 12 April 2010
7184:. Archived from
7174:
7168:
7167:
7147:
7141:
7140:
7124:
7118:
7117:
7081:
7075:
7074:
7054:
7048:
7047:
7027:
7021:
7020:
7012:
7001:
7000:
6998:
6991:
6983:
6977:
6976:
6965:
6959:
6958:
6956:
6949:
6941:
6935:
6934:
6925:
6919:
6918:
6907:
6901:
6900:
6898:
6896:
6886:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6853:
6844:
6843:
6832:
6826:
6825:
6823:
6821:
6802:
6796:
6795:
6775:
6769:
6768:
6766:
6760:. Archived from
6759:
6751:
6742:
6741:
6715:
6706:
6705:
6704:
6702:
6669:
6656:
6655:
6644:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6630:
6613:
6607:
6606:
6604:
6602:
6583:
6577:
6576:
6549:
6543:
6542:
6522:
6516:
6515:
6513:
6506:
6495:
6489:
6488:
6483:. Archived from
6477:
6471:
6470:
6465:. Archived from
6459:
6453:
6452:
6435:
6429:
6428:
6426:
6419:
6410:
6404:
6403:
6401:
6399:
6384:
6378:
6377:
6375:
6373:
6353:
6347:
6346:
6344:
6342:
6333:. 13 June 2018.
6323:
6317:
6316:
6297:
6291:
6290:
6288:
6286:
6280:
6273:
6265:
6259:
6258:
6256:
6254:
6248:
6237:
6228:
6219:
6218:
6216:
6214:
6199:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6179:
6171:
6165:
6164:
6162:
6160:
6151:. Archived from
6145:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6134:
6125:. Archived from
6119:
6113:
6112:
6091:
6085:
6084:
6058:
6052:
6051:
6015:
6004:
6003:
5963:
5957:
5956:
5954:
5952:
5932:
5926:
5925:
5923:
5921:
5907:
5901:
5900:
5872:
5866:
5865:
5835:
5829:
5828:
5808:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5787:(8): 1443–1456.
5772:
5766:
5765:
5745:
5739:
5738:
5709:
5703:
5702:
5674:
5668:
5667:
5647:
5641:
5640:
5612:
5606:
5605:
5603:
5601:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5553:
5551:
5545:
5538:
5530:
5524:
5523:
5521:
5515:. Archived from
5514:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5495:
5486:. Archived from
5480:
5474:
5456:
5450:
5449:
5429:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5403:
5397:
5396:
5376:
5370:
5369:
5349:
5343:
5342:
5335:
5329:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5305:
5299:
5298:
5297:. 26 March 2018.
5291:
5285:
5284:
5282:
5280:
5271:. Archived from
5257:
5251:
5250:
5234:
5228:
5227:
5207:
5201:
5200:
5198:
5196:
5187:. Archived from
5177:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5166:
5157:. Archived from
5147:
5141:
5140:
5138:
5136:
5127:. Archived from
5123:(14 June 1999).
5117:
5111:
5110:
5108:
5106:
5087:
5081:
5080:
5058:
5052:
5051:
5043:
5037:
5036:
5028:
5022:
5021:
5019:
5017:
5011:
5002:
4996:
4995:
4993:
4991:
4976:
4970:
4969:
4967:
4965:
4956:. Archived from
4949:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4929:. Archived from
4925:(14 June 1999).
4919:
4910:
4909:
4903:
4895:
4869:
4863:
4862:
4835:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4810:www.engr.psu.edu
4802:
4796:
4795:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4758:
4743:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4723:
4712:
4704:
4698:
4697:
4695:
4693:
4677:
4671:
4670:
4668:
4666:
4660:
4653:
4644:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4633:
4627:
4616:
4607:
4601:
4600:
4572:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4558:
4544:
4538:
4537:
4517:
4511:
4508:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4497:
4487:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4476:
4461:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4422:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4405:
4398:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4362:
4356:
4355:
4335:
4329:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4296:
4290:
4289:
4279:
4248:Science Advances
4239:
4233:
4232:
4216:
4210:
4209:
4199:
4182:(7): 1435–1450.
4167:
4161:
4160:
4150:
4140:
4108:
4102:
4101:
4092:(7): 1921–1926.
4081:
4075:
4068:
4062:
4061:
4056:. Archived from
4046:
4040:
4039:
4013:
4007:
4000:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3989:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3918:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3907:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3861:
3852:
3851:
3835:
3829:
3822:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3780:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3701:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3630:
3616:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3605:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3570:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3534:
3501:
3486:
3408:the Abu Dhabi's
3390:Himachal Pradesh
3374:Three Gorges Dam
3121:
3089:
3086:
3080:
3056:
3055:
3048:
3007:
3006:
2998:
2997:
2989:
2988:
2851:precast concrete
2774:stamped concrete
2750:Surface finishes
2724:navigation locks
2714:Due to cement's
2663:Precast concrete
2657:Precast concrete
2543:Boston City Hall
2420:tensile strength
2353:Polymer concrete
2307:B. sphaericuscan
2255:
2231:asphalt concrete
2129:Asphalt concrete
2124:Asphalt concrete
2034:. During curing
1993:superplasticizer
1862:
1860:
1859:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1813:precast concrete
1718:tensile strength
1693:High reactivity
1659:steel production
1622:circular economy
1577:
1576:method (Blaine).
1574:air permeability
1570:
1564:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1516:General purpose
1296:
1290:
1268:sodium gluconate
1181:calcium chloride
1090:
1060:
1050:O (gel) + Ca(OH)
1029:
1018:
881:tensile strength
835:asphalt concrete
815:chemical process
668:Isle of Portland
522:tensile strength
474:Roman structures
460:) was made from
413:Exterior of the
383:Ancient Egyptian
353:John L. Stephens
314:
308:
302:
296:
245:asphalt concrete
214:tensile strength
140:
133:
129:
126:
120:
118:
77:
53:
45:
10223:
10222:
10218:
10217:
10216:
10214:
10213:
10212:
10163:
10162:
10161:
10156:
10138:
10122:
10091:
10045:
9982:
9854:
9808:
9727:
9703:Flow table test
9664:
9584:
9546:
9541:
9511:
9506:
9470:
9419:
9356:
9290:
9212:Dimension stone
9180:
9104:
9099:
9069:
9064:
9046:
9014:
9008:
8979:
8970:Traffic barrier
8930:F-Shape barrier
8885:
8841:Traffic calming
8801:Reversible lane
8791:Pedestrian zone
8776:Motorcycle lane
8738:Contraflow lane
8710:time allocation
8709:
8698:
8694:Underride guard
8662:
8624:
8510:Expansion joint
8472:
8462:
8455:
8441:Stamped asphalt
8303:
8234:Continuous flow
8207:
8203:
8202:
8194:
8128:
8124:grade-separated
8121:
8120:
8098:
8057:Private highway
8030:
7935:
7849:
7731:
7689:
7681:
7631:
7621:
7619:
7597:
7586:
7582:
7579:
7577:Further reading
7574:
7573:
7563:
7561:
7548:
7547:
7543:
7537:Wayback Machine
7528:
7524:
7514:
7512:
7499:
7498:
7494:
7489:
7485:
7477:
7470:
7466:
7465:
7461:
7448:
7447:
7443:
7426:
7425:
7421:
7411:
7409:
7399:
7395:
7385:
7383:
7374:
7373:
7369:
7359:
7357:
7356:on 21 July 2011
7348:
7347:
7343:
7333:
7331:
7318:
7317:
7313:
7303:
7301:
7286:
7282:
7272:
7270:
7261:
7260:
7256:
7246:
7244:
7231:
7230:
7226:
7216:
7214:
7206:
7205:
7201:
7191:
7189:
7176:
7175:
7171:
7164:
7148:
7144:
7125:
7121:
7082:
7078:
7055:
7051:
7028:
7024:
7013:
7004:
6996:
6989:
6985:
6984:
6980:
6975:. 4 April 2019.
6967:
6966:
6962:
6954:
6947:
6943:
6942:
6938:
6926:
6922:
6909:
6908:
6904:
6894:
6892:
6884:
6880:
6879:
6875:
6868:
6854:
6847:
6834:
6833:
6829:
6819:
6817:
6804:
6803:
6799:
6776:
6772:
6764:
6757:
6753:
6752:
6745:
6738:
6716:
6709:
6700:
6698:
6696:
6670:
6659:
6646:
6645:
6638:
6628:
6626:
6614:
6610:
6600:
6598:
6593:. 1 June 2007.
6585:
6584:
6580:
6573:
6550:
6546:
6539:
6523:
6519:
6511:
6504:
6496:
6492:
6479:
6478:
6474:
6461:
6460:
6456:
6449:
6437:
6436:
6432:
6424:
6417:
6411:
6407:
6397:
6395:
6386:
6385:
6381:
6371:
6369:
6354:
6350:
6340:
6338:
6325:
6324:
6320:
6301:Ritchie, Hannah
6298:
6294:
6284:
6282:
6278:
6271:
6267:
6266:
6262:
6252:
6250:
6246:
6235:
6229:
6222:
6212:
6210:
6201:
6200:
6196:
6191:on 11 May 2013.
6188:
6177:
6173:
6172:
6168:
6158:
6156:
6147:
6146:
6142:
6132:
6130:
6121:
6120:
6116:
6092:
6088:
6081:
6059:
6055:
6016:
6007:
5964:
5960:
5950:
5948:
5933:
5929:
5919:
5917:
5909:
5908:
5904:
5873:
5869:
5854:
5836:
5832:
5825:
5809:
5802:
5773:
5769:
5762:
5746:
5742:
5710:
5706:
5675:
5671:
5664:
5648:
5644:
5613:
5609:
5599:
5597:
5588:
5587:
5583:
5576:
5564:
5563:
5559:
5549:
5547:
5543:
5536:
5532:
5531:
5527:
5519:
5512:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5493:
5491:
5482:
5481:
5477:
5457:
5453:
5430:
5426:
5416:
5414:
5405:
5404:
5400:
5377:
5373:
5366:
5350:
5346:
5337:
5336:
5332:
5322:
5320:
5307:
5306:
5302:
5293:
5292:
5288:
5278:
5276:
5275:on 4 March 2016
5259:
5258:
5254:
5235:
5231:
5208:
5204:
5194:
5192:
5178:
5174:
5164:
5162:
5148:
5144:
5134:
5132:
5131:on 21 June 2007
5118:
5114:
5104:
5102:
5089:
5088:
5084:
5077:
5059:
5055:
5044:
5040:
5029:
5025:
5015:
5013:
5009:
5003:
4999:
4989:
4987:
4985:The Constructor
4977:
4973:
4963:
4961:
4950:
4946:
4936:
4934:
4920:
4913:
4897:
4896:
4892:
4870:
4866:
4859:
4836:
4829:
4819:
4817:
4804:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4770:
4766:
4756:
4754:
4745:
4744:
4737:
4727:
4725:
4721:
4710:
4706:
4705:
4701:
4691:
4689:
4680:Gibbons, Jack.
4678:
4674:
4664:
4662:
4658:
4651:
4645:
4641:
4631:
4629:
4625:
4614:
4608:
4604:
4573:
4566:
4556:
4554:
4546:
4545:
4541:
4534:
4518:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4495:
4493:
4489:
4488:
4484:
4474:
4472:
4463:
4462:
4458:
4448:
4446:
4439:
4423:
4419:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4396:
4390:
4386:
4376:
4374:
4363:
4359:
4352:
4336:
4332:
4323:
4319:
4309:
4307:
4297:
4293:
4254:(1): eadd1602.
4240:
4236:
4217:
4213:
4168:
4164:
4109:
4105:
4082:
4078:
4069:
4065:
4048:
4047:
4043:
4028:
4014:
4010:
4001:
3997:
3987:
3985:
3970:
3966:
3959:
3945:
3941:
3931:
3929:
3920:
3919:
3915:
3905:
3903:
3888:
3884:
3874:
3872:
3862:
3855:
3836:
3832:
3823:
3819:
3802:
3798:
3793:, 203–204, 215.
3781:
3777:
3767:
3765:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3736:
3722:
3718:
3710:
3699:
3693:
3689:
3679:
3677:
3667:
3663:
3656:
3642:
3638:
3628:
3626:
3618:
3617:
3613:
3603:
3601:
3591:
3587:
3579:
3573:Chemistry World
3568:
3562:
3558:
3535:
3531:
3526:
3499:
3484:
3465:
3450:
3446:
3426:Petronas Towers
3370:
3365:
3364:
3346:
3338:
3333:
3332:
3290:
3270:
3263:
3257:
3249:
3245:
3229:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3182:
3173:Portland cement
3165:
3110:
3108:
3102:
3090:
3084:
3081:
3070:
3057:
3053:
3046:
3040:
3019:
3004:
3003:
2995:
2994:
2986:
2985:
2963:
2957:
2910:Extreme weather
2885:
2867:
2799:
2793:
2758:
2752:
2700:
2694:
2692:Mass structures
2665:
2659:
2614:
2608:
2584:
2575:
2536:
2520:embodied energy
2477:
2472:largest sources
2465:
2460:
2412:
2406:
2397:
2391:
2378:
2370:
2368:Sulfur concrete
2364:
2362:Sulfur concrete
2355:
2349:
2340:
2334:
2315:
2278:Bacillus cohnii
2262:
2253:
2247:
2235:asphalt content
2196:Edward De Smedt
2181:embankment dams
2149:bitumen macadam
2126:
2120:
2115:
2109:
2088:
2078:resistance and
2052:
2028:
2015:
1986:flow table test
1938:
1932:
1890:
1880:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1829:
1742:
1714:Young's modulus
1663:Portland cement
1624:aspects of the
1597:Portland cement
1581:
1580:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1519:Primary binder
1490:
1454:
1391:
1387:
1364:
1360:
1337:
1331:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1293:
1289:
1185:calcium nitrate
1165:
1115:
1109:
1098:
1094:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1073:O → 3 CaO・2 SiO
1072:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1027:
1022:
1016:
983:
962:(most commonly
911:
905:
807:Portland cement
777:railway sleeper
746:Portland cement
738:
728:
656:Portland cement
633:Smeaton's Tower
621:Smeaton's Tower
614:
579:
563:Roman aqueducts
407:
326:
321:
289:
185:Portland cement
141:
130:
124:
121:
78:
76:
66:
54:
43:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
10221:
10211:
10210:
10205:
10200:
10195:
10190:
10185:
10180:
10175:
10158:
10157:
10155:
10154:
10143:
10140:
10139:
10137:
10136:
10130:
10128:
10124:
10123:
10121:
10120:
10115:
10110:
10105:
10099:
10097:
10093:
10092:
10090:
10089:
10084:
10079:
10074:
10069:
10064:
10059:
10053:
10051:
10047:
10046:
10044:
10043:
10038:
10033:
10028:
10023:
10021:Concrete block
10018:
10017:
10016:
10011:
10009:voided biaxial
10006:
10001:
9990:
9988:
9984:
9983:
9981:
9980:
9979:
9978:
9973:
9965:
9960:
9955:
9950:
9945:
9940:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9920:
9915:
9910:
9905:
9900:
9895:
9890:
9885:
9880:
9875:
9870:
9864:
9862:
9856:
9855:
9853:
9852:
9847:
9842:
9837:
9832:
9827:
9822:
9816:
9814:
9810:
9809:
9807:
9806:
9801:
9796:
9791:
9786:
9781:
9776:
9771:
9766:
9761:
9756:
9751:
9746:
9741:
9735:
9733:
9729:
9728:
9726:
9725:
9720:
9715:
9713:Concrete cover
9710:
9705:
9700:
9695:
9690:
9685:
9683:Concrete mixer
9680:
9674:
9672:
9666:
9665:
9663:
9662:
9657:
9652:
9647:
9642:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9622:
9621:
9620:
9615:
9610:
9605:
9594:
9592:
9586:
9585:
9583:
9582:
9577:
9572:
9570:Roman concrete
9567:
9562:
9556:
9554:
9548:
9547:
9540:
9539:
9532:
9525:
9517:
9508:
9507:
9505:
9504:
9499:
9494:
9489:
9484:
9478:
9476:
9472:
9471:
9469:
9468:
9463:
9458:
9453:
9448:
9438:
9433:
9427:
9425:
9421:
9420:
9418:
9417:
9416:
9415:
9405:
9400:
9395:
9390:
9385:
9380:
9375:
9370:
9364:
9362:
9358:
9357:
9355:
9354:
9349:
9344:
9339:
9334:
9329:
9324:
9319:
9314:
9309:
9304:
9298:
9296:
9292:
9291:
9289:
9288:
9283:
9278:
9277:
9276:
9266:
9261:
9260:
9259:
9249:
9244:
9239:
9234:
9229:
9224:
9219:
9214:
9209:
9204:
9199:
9194:
9188:
9186:
9182:
9181:
9179:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9163:
9158:
9153:
9148:
9143:
9138:
9136:Letter cutting
9133:
9128:
9123:
9118:
9112:
9110:
9106:
9105:
9098:
9097:
9090:
9083:
9075:
9066:
9065:
9063:
9062:
9057:
9051:
9048:
9047:
9045:
9044:
9039:
9034:
9029:
9024:
9018:
9016:
9010:
9009:
9007:
9006:
9001:
8996:
8991:
8987:
8985:
8981:
8980:
8978:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8962:
8957:
8952:
8947:
8942:
8940:Jersey barrier
8937:
8932:
8927:
8924:
8919:
8914:
8909:
8904:
8899:
8893:
8891:
8887:
8886:
8884:
8883:
8878:
8873:
8871:Unused highway
8868:
8863:
8858:
8853:
8851:Traffic island
8848:
8843:
8838:
8833:
8828:
8823:
8818:
8813:
8808:
8803:
8798:
8793:
8788:
8783:
8778:
8773:
8768:
8763:
8758:
8755:
8750:
8745:
8740:
8735:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8714:
8712:
8704:
8703:
8700:
8699:
8697:
8696:
8691:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8670:
8668:
8664:
8663:
8661:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8648:Drowsy driving
8645:
8640:
8634:
8632:
8626:
8625:
8623:
8622:
8617:
8612:
8607:
8602:
8597:
8592:
8587:
8582:
8577:
8572:
8567:
8562:
8557:
8552:
8547:
8542:
8537:
8532:
8530:Level crossing
8527:
8522:
8517:
8512:
8507:
8502:
8497:
8492:
8487:
8482:
8476:
8474:
8465:
8457:
8456:
8454:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8438:
8433:
8428:
8423:
8418:
8413:
8408:
8403:
8398:
8393:
8388:
8383:
8378:
8373:
8368:
8363:
8358:
8353:
8352:
8351:
8341:
8336:
8331:
8328:
8323:
8317:
8315:
8309:
8308:
8305:
8304:
8302:
8301:
8296:
8291:
8286:
8281:
8276:
8271:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8236:
8231:
8229:Channelization
8226:
8221:
8216:
8214:3-way junction
8210:
8208:
8199:
8196:
8195:
8193:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8172:
8167:
8162:
8157:
8152:
8147:
8142:
8137:
8131:
8129:
8116:
8110:
8108:Road junctions
8104:
8103:
8100:
8099:
8097:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8081:
8076:
8075:
8074:
8072:business route
8069:
8059:
8054:
8049:
8044:
8038:
8036:
8032:
8031:
8029:
8028:
8023:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
8002:
8000:Primitive road
7997:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7977:
7972:
7967:
7962:
7957:
7952:
7947:
7943:
7941:
7937:
7936:
7934:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7918:
7913:
7908:
7903:
7898:
7893:
7888:
7883:
7878:
7873:
7871:County highway
7868:
7866:Collector road
7863:
7857:
7855:
7851:
7850:
7848:
7847:
7842:
7840:United Kingdom
7837:
7832:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7812:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7782:
7777:
7775:Czech Republic
7772:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7752:
7747:
7741:
7739:
7733:
7732:
7730:
7729:
7724:
7719:
7714:
7708:
7706:
7704:Limited-access
7697:
7691:
7690:
7680:
7679:
7672:
7665:
7657:
7651:
7650:
7644:
7639:
7628:
7607:Dunning, Brian
7603:
7596:
7595:External links
7593:
7592:
7591:
7578:
7575:
7572:
7571:
7541:
7522:
7511:on 26 May 2010
7492:
7483:
7459:
7441:
7419:
7393:
7367:
7341:
7324:People's Daily
7311:
7280:
7254:
7224:
7199:
7169:
7163:978-3319554631
7162:
7142:
7119:
7076:
7049:
7022:
7002:
6978:
6960:
6936:
6920:
6902:
6873:
6866:
6845:
6827:
6797:
6770:
6755:"Mass Concret"
6743:
6736:
6707:
6694:
6657:
6636:
6608:
6578:
6571:
6553:Lomborg, Bjørn
6544:
6537:
6517:
6490:
6472:
6454:
6447:
6430:
6405:
6379:
6348:
6318:
6292:
6260:
6240:Technical Talk
6220:
6209:on 11 May 2013
6194:
6166:
6140:
6114:
6086:
6079:
6053:
6005:
5958:
5927:
5902:
5867:
5852:
5830:
5823:
5800:
5767:
5760:
5740:
5704:
5669:
5662:
5642:
5607:
5596:on 7 July 2012
5581:
5574:
5557:
5525:
5501:
5475:
5451:
5424:
5398:
5371:
5364:
5344:
5330:
5300:
5286:
5252:
5229:
5202:
5172:
5142:
5112:
5082:
5075:
5065:. Skokie, IL:
5053:
5038:
5023:
4997:
4971:
4944:
4911:
4890:
4864:
4857:
4827:
4797:
4790:
4764:
4735:
4699:
4672:
4639:
4602:
4583:(6): 340–356.
4564:
4539:
4532:
4512:
4503:
4482:
4471:. 9 April 2012
4456:
4437:
4417:
4384:
4357:
4350:
4330:
4317:
4291:
4234:
4211:
4162:
4103:
4076:
4063:
4041:
4026:
4008:
3995:
3974:"The Pantheon"
3964:
3957:
3939:
3913:
3882:
3853:
3830:
3817:
3796:
3775:
3764:on 12 May 2013
3749:
3734:
3716:
3687:
3661:
3654:
3636:
3611:
3585:
3556:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3502:
3493:
3490:Concrete plant
3487:
3478:
3475:Concrete mixer
3472:
3464:
3461:
3448:
3444:
3410:Landmark Tower
3401:Andhra Pradesh
3369:
3366:
3347:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3291:
3283:
3269:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3253:
3247:
3243:
3228:
3225:
3201:surface runoff
3193:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3164:
3161:
3140:hazardous dust
3101:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3060:
3058:
3051:
3042:Main article:
3039:
3036:
3022:Concrete roads
3018:
3015:
2956:
2953:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2884:
2881:
2866:
2863:
2839:
2838:
2831:
2795:Main article:
2792:
2789:
2754:Main article:
2751:
2748:
2696:Main article:
2693:
2690:
2689:
2688:
2685:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2661:Main article:
2658:
2655:
2627:Rio de Janeiro
2610:Main article:
2607:
2604:
2583:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2535:
2532:
2496:cement clinker
2475:
2463:
2459:
2456:
2408:Main article:
2405:
2402:
2393:Main article:
2390:
2387:
2377:
2374:
2366:Main article:
2363:
2360:
2351:Main article:
2348:
2345:
2336:Main article:
2333:
2330:
2314:
2311:
2261:
2258:
2246:
2243:
2239:asphalt cement
2190:together with
2157:United Kingdom
2153:rolled asphalt
2122:Main article:
2119:
2116:
2111:Main article:
2108:
2105:
2087:
2084:
2050:
2027:
2024:
2014:
2011:
1946:parking garage
1934:Main article:
1931:
1928:
1909:
1897:
1888:Concrete mixer
1879:
1876:
1828:
1825:
1794:concrete mixer
1778:concrete plant
1753:concrete mixer
1749:Concrete plant
1741:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1728:
1725:
1707:
1691:
1666:
1652:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1565:
1556:
1547:
1537:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1513:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1493:
1492:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1258:retarders are
1249:
1246:
1236:
1229:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1210:
1192:
1189:sodium nitrate
1164:
1161:
1121:Crushed stone
1111:Main article:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1024:
1020:
1006:polymerization
982:
979:
907:Main article:
904:
901:
775:of a concrete
727:
724:
712:civil engineer
664:Portland stone
649:hydraulic lime
613:
612:Industrial era
610:
589:rubble masonry
578:
575:
452:Roman concrete
415:Roman Pantheon
406:
403:
372:rubble masonry
364:hydraulic lime
325:
322:
320:
317:
288:
285:
237:Portland stone
155:concrete block
143:
142:
57:
55:
48:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10220:
10209:
10206:
10204:
10201:
10199:
10196:
10194:
10191:
10189:
10186:
10184:
10181:
10179:
10176:
10174:
10171:
10170:
10168:
10153:
10145:
10144:
10141:
10135:
10132:
10131:
10129:
10125:
10119:
10116:
10114:
10111:
10109:
10106:
10104:
10101:
10100:
10098:
10094:
10088:
10085:
10083:
10080:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10068:
10065:
10063:
10060:
10058:
10055:
10054:
10052:
10050:Organizations
10048:
10042:
10039:
10037:
10034:
10032:
10029:
10027:
10024:
10022:
10019:
10015:
10014:slab on grade
10012:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9997:
9996:
9995:
9992:
9991:
9989:
9985:
9977:
9974:
9972:
9969:
9968:
9966:
9964:
9961:
9959:
9956:
9954:
9951:
9949:
9946:
9944:
9943:Self-leveling
9941:
9939:
9936:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9919:
9916:
9914:
9911:
9909:
9906:
9904:
9901:
9899:
9896:
9894:
9891:
9889:
9886:
9884:
9881:
9879:
9876:
9874:
9871:
9869:
9866:
9865:
9863:
9861:
9857:
9851:
9848:
9846:
9843:
9841:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9831:
9828:
9826:
9823:
9821:
9818:
9817:
9815:
9811:
9805:
9802:
9800:
9797:
9795:
9792:
9790:
9787:
9785:
9782:
9780:
9777:
9775:
9772:
9770:
9767:
9765:
9762:
9760:
9757:
9755:
9752:
9750:
9747:
9745:
9744:Cast-in-place
9742:
9740:
9737:
9736:
9734:
9730:
9724:
9721:
9719:
9716:
9714:
9711:
9709:
9706:
9704:
9701:
9699:
9696:
9694:
9691:
9689:
9686:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9676:
9675:
9673:
9671:
9667:
9661:
9658:
9656:
9653:
9651:
9648:
9646:
9643:
9641:
9640:Reinforcement
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9626:
9623:
9619:
9616:
9614:
9611:
9609:
9606:
9604:
9601:
9600:
9599:
9596:
9595:
9593:
9591:
9587:
9581:
9578:
9576:
9573:
9571:
9568:
9566:
9563:
9561:
9558:
9557:
9555:
9553:
9549:
9545:
9538:
9533:
9531:
9526:
9524:
9519:
9518:
9515:
9503:
9500:
9498:
9495:
9493:
9490:
9488:
9485:
9483:
9480:
9479:
9477:
9475:Organizations
9473:
9467:
9466:Machicolation
9464:
9462:
9459:
9457:
9454:
9452:
9449:
9446:
9442:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9432:
9429:
9428:
9426:
9422:
9414:
9411:
9410:
9409:
9406:
9404:
9401:
9399:
9396:
9394:
9391:
9389:
9386:
9384:
9381:
9379:
9376:
9374:
9371:
9369:
9366:
9365:
9363:
9359:
9353:
9350:
9348:
9345:
9343:
9340:
9338:
9335:
9333:
9330:
9328:
9325:
9323:
9322:Diamond blade
9320:
9318:
9315:
9313:
9310:
9308:
9305:
9303:
9302:Angle grinder
9300:
9299:
9297:
9293:
9287:
9284:
9282:
9279:
9275:
9272:
9271:
9270:
9267:
9265:
9262:
9258:
9255:
9254:
9253:
9250:
9248:
9245:
9243:
9240:
9238:
9235:
9233:
9230:
9228:
9225:
9223:
9220:
9218:
9215:
9213:
9210:
9208:
9205:
9203:
9200:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9189:
9187:
9183:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9127:
9124:
9122:
9119:
9117:
9114:
9113:
9111:
9107:
9103:
9096:
9091:
9089:
9084:
9082:
9077:
9076:
9073:
9061:
9058:
9056:
9053:
9052:
9049:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9035:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9025:
9023:
9020:
9019:
9017:
9011:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8989:
8988:
8986:
8982:
8976:
8973:
8971:
8968:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8950:Noise barrier
8948:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8928:
8925:
8923:
8920:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8907:Cable barrier
8905:
8903:
8900:
8898:
8895:
8894:
8892:
8888:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8856:Traffic lanes
8854:
8852:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8842:
8839:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8827:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8807:
8804:
8802:
8799:
8797:
8796:Refuge island
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8769:
8767:
8764:
8762:
8761:Living street
8759:
8756:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8734:
8731:
8729:
8728:Climbing lane
8726:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8715:
8713:
8711:
8705:
8695:
8692:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8672:
8671:
8669:
8665:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8635:
8633:
8631:
8630:Human factors
8627:
8621:
8618:
8616:
8613:
8611:
8608:
8606:
8603:
8601:
8598:
8596:
8595:Traffic light
8593:
8591:
8588:
8586:
8583:
8581:
8578:
8576:
8573:
8571:
8568:
8566:
8563:
8561:
8558:
8556:
8553:
8551:
8548:
8546:
8545:Oversize load
8543:
8541:
8538:
8536:
8535:Manhole cover
8533:
8531:
8528:
8526:
8523:
8521:
8518:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8508:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8496:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8481:
8478:
8477:
8475:
8469:
8466:
8464:
8458:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8417:
8414:
8412:
8409:
8407:
8404:
8402:
8399:
8397:
8394:
8392:
8389:
8387:
8384:
8382:
8379:
8377:
8374:
8372:
8369:
8367:
8366:Crushed stone
8364:
8362:
8359:
8357:
8354:
8350:
8347:
8346:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8324:
8322:
8319:
8318:
8316:
8314:
8310:
8300:
8297:
8295:
8292:
8290:
8287:
8285:
8282:
8280:
8277:
8275:
8272:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8249:Michigan left
8247:
8245:
8242:
8240:
8237:
8235:
8232:
8230:
8227:
8225:
8222:
8220:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8201:Intersections
8197:
8191:
8188:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8173:
8171:
8168:
8166:
8163:
8161:
8158:
8156:
8153:
8151:
8150:Directional T
8148:
8146:
8143:
8141:
8138:
8136:
8133:
8132:
8130:
8125:
8119:
8114:
8111:
8109:
8105:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8080:
8077:
8073:
8070:
8068:
8067:special route
8065:
8064:
8063:
8060:
8058:
8055:
8053:
8050:
8048:
8045:
8043:
8040:
8039:
8037:
8033:
8027:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7986:
7985:Frontage road
7983:
7981:
7978:
7976:
7973:
7971:
7968:
7966:
7963:
7961:
7958:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7945:
7944:
7942:
7938:
7932:
7929:
7927:
7924:
7922:
7919:
7917:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7907:
7904:
7902:
7899:
7897:
7894:
7892:
7889:
7887:
7884:
7882:
7879:
7877:
7874:
7872:
7869:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7861:Arterial road
7859:
7858:
7856:
7852:
7846:
7845:United States
7843:
7841:
7838:
7836:
7833:
7831:
7828:
7826:
7823:
7821:
7818:
7816:
7813:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7751:
7748:
7746:
7743:
7742:
7740:
7738:
7734:
7728:
7725:
7723:
7720:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7709:
7707:
7705:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7695:Types of road
7692:
7688:
7685:
7678:
7673:
7671:
7666:
7664:
7659:
7658:
7655:
7649:
7645:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7634:
7629:
7618:
7617:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7602:
7599:
7598:
7585:
7581:
7580:
7559:
7555:
7551:
7545:
7538:
7534:
7531:
7526:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7496:
7487:
7476:
7469:
7463:
7455:
7451:
7445:
7437:
7433:
7429:
7423:
7408:
7404:
7397:
7381:
7377:
7371:
7355:
7351:
7345:
7329:
7325:
7321:
7315:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7284:
7268:
7264:
7258:
7243:on 7 May 2021
7242:
7238:
7234:
7228:
7213:
7209:
7203:
7187:
7183:
7179:
7173:
7165:
7159:
7155:
7154:
7146:
7138:
7134:
7130:
7123:
7115:
7111:
7107:
7103:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7087:
7080:
7072:
7068:
7064:
7060:
7053:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7026:
7018:
7011:
7009:
7007:
6995:
6988:
6982:
6974:
6970:
6964:
6953:
6946:
6940:
6932:
6924:
6916:
6912:
6906:
6890:
6883:
6877:
6869:
6867:0-7153-0100-4
6863:
6859:
6852:
6850:
6841:
6837:
6831:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6801:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6781:
6774:
6763:
6756:
6750:
6748:
6739:
6733:
6729:
6725:
6721:
6714:
6712:
6697:
6691:
6687:
6683:
6679:
6675:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6662:
6653:
6649:
6643:
6641:
6625:
6624:
6619:
6612:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6582:
6574:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6559:
6554:
6548:
6540:
6534:
6531:. CRC Press.
6530:
6529:
6521:
6510:
6503:
6502:
6494:
6486:
6482:
6476:
6468:
6464:
6458:
6450:
6444:
6440:
6434:
6423:
6416:
6409:
6393:
6389:
6383:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6352:
6336:
6332:
6331:Chatham House
6328:
6322:
6314:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6296:
6277:
6270:
6264:
6245:
6241:
6234:
6227:
6225:
6208:
6204:
6198:
6187:
6183:
6176:
6170:
6154:
6150:
6144:
6128:
6124:
6118:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6090:
6082:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6064:
6057:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6014:
6012:
6010:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5962:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5931:
5916:
5912:
5906:
5898:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5883:: 2360–2365.
5882:
5878:
5871:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5834:
5826:
5820:
5816:
5815:
5807:
5805:
5795:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5771:
5763:
5757:
5753:
5752:
5744:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5708:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5673:
5665:
5659:
5655:
5654:
5646:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5611:
5595:
5591:
5585:
5577:
5571:
5567:
5561:
5542:
5535:
5529:
5518:
5511:
5505:
5489:
5485:
5479:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5455:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5428:
5412:
5408:
5402:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5375:
5367:
5361:
5357:
5356:
5348:
5340:
5334:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5304:
5296:
5290:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5261:"Cold Joints"
5256:
5249:(4): 287–293.
5248:
5244:
5240:
5233:
5225:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5206:
5190:
5186:
5185:"Silica Fume"
5182:
5176:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5146:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5116:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5086:
5078:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5057:
5049:
5042:
5034:
5027:
5008:
5001:
4986:
4982:
4975:
4959:
4955:
4948:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4918:
4916:
4907:
4901:
4893:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4868:
4860:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4834:
4832:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4801:
4793:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4768:
4752:
4748:
4742:
4740:
4720:
4716:
4709:
4703:
4687:
4683:
4676:
4657:
4650:
4643:
4624:
4620:
4613:
4606:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4571:
4569:
4553:
4549:
4543:
4535:
4533:0-691-02393-X
4529:
4525:
4524:
4516:
4507:
4492:
4486:
4470:
4466:
4460:
4444:
4440:
4434:
4430:
4429:
4421:
4402:
4395:
4388:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4353:
4347:
4343:
4342:
4334:
4327:
4321:
4306:
4302:
4295:
4287:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4238:
4230:
4226:
4225:The Telegraph
4222:
4215:
4207:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4166:
4158:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4107:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4080:
4073:
4067:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4045:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4027:0-471-02740-5
4023:
4019:
4012:
4005:
3999:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3968:
3960:
3954:
3950:
3943:
3927:
3923:
3917:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3886:
3871:
3867:
3860:
3858:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3834:
3827:
3821:
3812:
3807:
3800:
3792:
3788:
3787:
3779:
3763:
3759:
3753:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3731:
3727:
3720:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3657:
3651:
3647:
3640:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3600:
3596:
3589:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3560:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3529:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3460:
3458:
3452:
3442:
3437:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3397:Polavaram dam
3393:
3391:
3387:
3382:
3380:
3375:
3368:World records
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3344:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3313:carbonatation
3310:
3306:
3305:carbonatation
3302:
3298:
3294:
3288:
3279:
3274:
3265:
3252:
3241:
3236:
3233:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3213:air pollution
3210:
3206:
3205:Concrete dust
3202:
3197:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3132:
3125:
3124:Concrete dust
3107:
3097:
3088:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3066:
3061:This section
3059:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3014:
3012:
3001:
2992:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2967:
2962:
2952:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2934:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2914:
2911:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2814:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2762:
2757:
2747:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2698:Mass concrete
2686:
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2669:
2664:
2654:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2603:
2597:
2593:
2588:
2579:
2570:
2566:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2531:
2529:
2523:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2490:to reach the
2489:
2485:
2481:
2473:
2469:
2455:
2451:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2401:
2396:
2386:
2382:
2373:
2369:
2359:
2354:
2344:
2339:
2329:
2327:
2319:
2310:
2308:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2257:
2252:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2114:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2063:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2033:
2019:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1954:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1875:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1789:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1734:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1575:
1569:
1560:
1551:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1382:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1355:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1327:
1297:
1281:
1280:tartaric acid
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1160:
1158:
1153:
1150:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1139:blast furnace
1135:
1134:crushed stone
1131:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1104:
1087:
1056:
1025:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
992:As stated by
990:
988:
978:
976:
971:
967:
965:
961:
957:
956:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
920:
915:
910:
900:
898:
897:
891:
889:
886:
882:
878:
874:
869:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
778:
774:
773:Cross section
770:
766:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
737:
733:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
691:
690:Joseph Monier
687:
686:Joseph Monier
683:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
660:Joseph Aspdin
657:
652:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
626:
622:
618:
609:
607:
606:
605:Canal du Midi
600:
598:
594:
590:
585:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
552:
548:
544:
538:
536:
529:
527:
523:
519:
513:
511:
507:
503:
497:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
458:
453:
445:
444:
439:
432:
427:
421:in the world.
420:
416:
411:
405:Classical era
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
356:
354:
350:
346:
341:
339:
335:
331:
324:Ancient times
316:
315:" (to grow).
313:
307:
301:
295:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
253:road surfaces
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
223:In the past,
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
194:
190:
186:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
156:
151:
147:
139:
136:
128:
117:
114:
110:
107:
103:
100:
96:
93:
89:
86: –
85:
81:
80:Find sources:
74:
70:
64:
63:
58:This article
56:
52:
47:
46:
41:
37:
33:
29:
22:
10026:Step barrier
9987:Applications
9898:Nanoconcrete
9784:Power trowel
9769:Power screed
9759:Slip forming
9732:Construction
9543:
9398:Tuckpointing
9352:Straightedge
9286:Stone veneer
9102:Stonemasonry
8975:Traffic cone
8965:Rumble strip
8866:Truck bypass
8821:Shared space
8781:Passing lane
8766:Managed lane
8723:Bicycle lane
8605:Washboarding
8600:Traffic sign
8525:Hairpin turn
8294:Texas U-turn
8224:Box junction
8118:Interchanges
8062:Route number
7970:Country lane
7712:Bike freeway
7620:. Retrieved
7614:
7562:. Retrieved
7558:the original
7553:
7544:
7525:
7513:. Retrieved
7509:the original
7504:
7495:
7486:
7475:the original
7462:
7444:
7431:
7422:
7410:. Retrieved
7406:
7396:
7384:. Retrieved
7370:
7358:. Retrieved
7354:the original
7344:
7332:. Retrieved
7323:
7314:
7302:. Retrieved
7298:the original
7293:
7283:
7271:. Retrieved
7257:
7245:. Retrieved
7241:the original
7236:
7227:
7215:. Retrieved
7211:
7202:
7190:. Retrieved
7186:the original
7181:
7172:
7152:
7145:
7136:
7132:
7122:
7089:
7085:
7079:
7062:
7058:
7052:
7035:
7031:
7025:
6981:
6972:
6963:
6939:
6923:
6905:
6893:. Retrieved
6888:
6876:
6857:
6830:
6818:. Retrieved
6809:
6800:
6783:
6779:
6773:
6762:the original
6719:
6699:, retrieved
6677:
6674:"Composites"
6651:
6627:. Retrieved
6621:
6611:
6599:. Retrieved
6581:
6557:
6547:
6527:
6520:
6509:the original
6500:
6493:
6485:the original
6475:
6467:the original
6457:
6438:
6433:
6408:
6396:. Retrieved
6382:
6370:. Retrieved
6361:
6351:
6339:. Retrieved
6330:
6321:
6312:
6295:
6283:. Retrieved
6263:
6251:. Retrieved
6239:
6211:. Retrieved
6207:the original
6197:
6186:the original
6181:
6169:
6157:. Retrieved
6153:the original
6143:
6131:. Retrieved
6127:the original
6117:
6100:
6096:
6089:
6062:
6056:
6023:
6019:
5975:
5971:
5961:
5949:. Retrieved
5940:
5930:
5918:. Retrieved
5915:ResearchGate
5914:
5905:
5880:
5876:
5870:
5843:
5833:
5813:
5784:
5780:
5770:
5750:
5743:
5721:(1): 39–52.
5718:
5714:
5707:
5682:
5678:
5672:
5652:
5645:
5620:
5616:
5610:
5598:. Retrieved
5594:the original
5584:
5565:
5560:
5548:. Retrieved
5528:
5517:the original
5504:
5492:. Retrieved
5488:the original
5478:
5454:
5437:
5433:
5427:
5415:. Retrieved
5401:
5384:
5380:
5374:
5354:
5347:
5333:
5321:. Retrieved
5317:the original
5313:concrete.org
5312:
5303:
5289:
5277:. Retrieved
5273:the original
5264:
5255:
5246:
5242:
5232:
5215:
5211:
5205:
5193:. Retrieved
5189:the original
5175:
5163:. Retrieved
5159:the original
5145:
5133:. Retrieved
5129:the original
5115:
5103:. Retrieved
5099:the original
5094:
5085:
5062:
5056:
5047:
5041:
5032:
5026:
5014:. Retrieved
5000:
4988:. Retrieved
4984:
4974:
4962:. Retrieved
4958:the original
4947:
4935:. Retrieved
4931:the original
4927:"Admixtures"
4873:
4867:
4840:
4818:. Retrieved
4814:the original
4809:
4800:
4773:
4767:
4755:. Retrieved
4726:. Retrieved
4714:
4702:
4690:. Retrieved
4675:
4663:. Retrieved
4656:the original
4642:
4630:. Retrieved
4618:
4605:
4580:
4576:
4555:. Retrieved
4551:
4542:
4522:
4515:
4506:
4494:. Retrieved
4485:
4473:. Retrieved
4468:
4459:
4447:. Retrieved
4427:
4420:
4408:. Retrieved
4387:
4375:. Retrieved
4360:
4340:
4333:
4325:
4320:
4308:. Retrieved
4305:ScienceAlert
4304:
4294:
4251:
4247:
4237:
4224:
4214:
4179:
4175:
4165:
4120:
4116:
4106:
4089:
4085:
4079:
4072:Art Bulletin
4071:
4066:
4058:the original
4053:
4044:
4017:
4011:
4003:
3998:
3988:26 September
3986:. Retrieved
3977:
3967:
3948:
3942:
3930:. Retrieved
3916:
3904:. Retrieved
3895:
3885:
3873:. Retrieved
3869:
3847:
3843:
3833:
3825:
3820:
3799:
3785:
3778:
3766:. Retrieved
3762:the original
3752:
3725:
3719:
3690:
3678:. Retrieved
3674:
3664:
3645:
3639:
3627:. Retrieved
3623:
3614:
3602:. Retrieved
3598:
3588:
3572:
3559:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3511:Particulates
3496:Heavy metals
3453:
3438:
3430:Kuala Lumpur
3394:
3383:
3371:
3307:of hardened
3258:
3237:
3234:
3230:
3198:
3177:
3166:
3137:
3095:
3085:January 2024
3082:
3062:
3031:storm drains
3020:
3002:
2993:
2983:
2979:
2972:
2949:
2930:
2915:
2908:
2891:
2868:
2840:
2822:
2811:
2786:
2783:
2771:
2767:
2737:
2732:post-cooling
2731:
2713:
2670:
2666:
2647:
2640:
2636:
2620:
2600:
2576:
2567:
2560:
2552:
2545:(1968) is a
2524:
2510:feeding the
2467:
2461:
2452:
2448:
2437:
2413:
2398:
2383:
2379:
2371:
2356:
2341:
2326:Nanoconcrete
2324:
2313:Nanoconcrete
2306:
2300:
2297:B. pasteurii
2296:
2292:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2263:
2248:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2200:
2173:parking lots
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2127:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2064:
2060:
2029:
2008:
2001:
1990:
1971:
1959:
1948:being placed
1894:
1891:
1865:
1840:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1819:
1817:
1805:slip forming
1798:
1790:
1786:
1774:
1677:ferrosilicon
1593:fine-grained
1586:
1568:
1559:
1550:
1541:
1232:Plasticizers
1177:Accelerators
1166:
1154:
1151:
1147:
1127:
1102:
1017:
991:
984:
970:Cement kilns
968:
953:
923:
894:
892:
870:
839:
804:
782:
779:below a rail
758:conglomerate
739:
736:Heavy metals
706:, a French
694:
680:
653:
637:John Smeaton
630:
603:
601:
596:
580:
567:Pont du Gard
556:
547:strätlingite
540:
531:
517:
515:
499:
455:
449:
441:
391:volcanic ash
380:
357:
348:
342:
327:
290:
280:
222:
182:
168:composed of
161:
160:
146:
131:
122:
112:
105:
98:
91:
79:
67:Please help
62:verification
59:
10004:hollow-core
9963:Waste light
9958:Translucent
9918:Prestressed
9845:Segregation
9830:Degradation
9718:Cover meter
9655:Silica fume
9590:Composition
9307:Bush hammer
9242:Lime mortar
9121:Rustication
9013:Performance
8945:Kassel kerb
8902:Botts' dots
8890:Demarcation
8590:Storm drain
8555:Road debris
8480:Aquaplaning
8473:environment
8461:Road safety
8339:Cobblestone
8289:Superstreet
8094:Winter road
8042:Concurrency
8035:Other terms
8026:Sunken lane
7995:Main street
7940:Local roads
7139:(2): 45–48.
6895:8 September
6786:: 613–621.
6372:13 December
6341:17 December
6133:13 November
6103:: 129–143.
6026:: 177–190.
5992:11511/37244
5978:: 136–147.
5550:12 November
5494:10 November
5279:30 December
4990:13 November
4964:25 December
4496:23 December
4050:"CIVL 1101"
3875:27 December
3850:(1): 56–58.
3758:"concretus"
3604:28 November
3545:: 114–140.
3381:in Brazil.
3317:groundwater
3303:due to the
2900:Kymenlaakso
2892:Pohjolatalo
2728:breakwaters
2534:Fire safety
2512:cement kiln
2488:fossil fuel
2484:cement kiln
2389:Waste light
2223:engineering
2056:carbonation
1982:Abrams cone
1924:silica fume
1669:Silica fume
1632:practices.
1312:Calcareous
1276:citric acid
1243:workability
1199:freeze-thaw
1042:O → CaO・SiO
994:Abrams' law
928:, and many
919:cement kiln
862:silica fume
858:steelmaking
827:slag cement
726:Composition
577:Middle Ages
551:tobermorite
543:pyroclastic
480:termed the
300:concrescere
277:thixotropic
216:, yielding
10167:Categories
10103:Eurocode 2
10041:Structures
9928:Reinforced
9888:Lunarcrete
9868:AstroCrete
9825:Durability
9820:Properties
9698:Slump test
9670:Production
9660:Metakaolin
9461:Stone wall
9388:Repointing
9361:Techniques
9217:Fieldstone
9202:Cast stone
9156:Monumental
9015:indicators
8984:Structures
8935:Guard rail
8811:Road verge
8684:Seat belts
8620:Snowsquall
8585:Speed bump
8565:Road train
8386:Glassphalt
8326:Bioasphalt
8299:Turnaround
8274:Roundabout
8204:(at-grade)
8170:Roundabout
8135:Cloverleaf
7990:Green lane
7926:Trunk road
7854:Main roads
7737:By country
7646:Concrete:
7386:21 October
7360:21 October
7092:: 124373.
7065:: 102566.
6820:11 January
6629:5 November
6601:16 January
6398:15 January
6305:Roser, Max
6285:10 January
6253:10 January
6213:10 January
5920:26 January
5685:: 122236.
5417:15 January
5195:24 January
5165:24 January
5135:24 January
5016:31 October
4937:25 January
4715:PCA manual
4310:1 February
3524:References
3441:Louisville
3414:tarpaulins
3361:revetments
3209:demolition
3104:See also:
3065:unbalanced
2987:toggle bag
2959:See also:
2716:exothermic
2625:statue in
2556:Fondu fyre
2424:reinforced
2404:Properties
2201:The terms
2068:exothermic
2032:durability
1908:high-speed
1900:aggregates
1882:See also:
1832:Design mix
1827:Design mix
1820:cold joint
1815:products.
1765:Birmingham
1751:showing a
1740:Production
1706:important.
1703:durability
1695:metakaolin
1688:durability
1649:calcareous
1645:pozzolanic
1589:pozzolanic
1307:Siliceous
1203:durability
1163:Admixtures
1143:bottom ash
1123:aggregates
1107:Aggregates
1057:Balanced:
985:Combining
942:aluminates
896:mix design
730:See also:
708:structural
385:and later
198:exothermic
95:newspapers
84:"Concrete"
10198:Pavements
10134:Hempcrete
10096:Standards
9923:Ready-mix
9840:Recycling
9635:Aggregate
9618:Rosendale
9456:Sculpture
9445:Footstone
9441:Headstone
9408:Brickwork
9393:Scabbling
9373:Flushwork
9269:Sandstone
9247:Limestone
9222:Flagstone
9185:Materials
9166:Sculpture
9131:Dry stone
8806:Road diet
8708:Space and
8653:Road rage
8540:Oil spill
8500:Crosswind
8490:Black ice
8485:Avalanche
8411:Permeable
8244:Jughandle
8239:Hook turn
8145:Free-flow
8089:Toll road
8008:Side road
7965:Boulevard
7921:Super two
7916:Ring road
7891:Link road
7790:Hong Kong
7745:Australia
7687:hierarchy
7564:13 August
7515:25 August
7412:7 January
7334:24 August
7304:13 August
7273:2 January
7114:224849505
7038:: 38–46.
6701:5 October
6159:6 January
6048:117442866
6000:138740924
5941:New Atlas
5897:2214-7853
5862:831413888
5735:257110774
5699:233663658
5637:197635732
5323:13 August
5125:"Fly Ash"
5105:13 August
4900:cite book
4820:13 August
4757:1 October
4728:1 October
4692:1 October
4665:9 January
4597:139554392
4557:6 October
4475:13 August
4469:ThoughtCo
4449:28 August
4410:1 October
4377:8 January
3932:8 January
3906:13 August
3811:1110.5230
3768:1 October
3744:835621943
3575:: 62–66.
3505:Hempcrete
3399:works in
3353:Recycling
3336:Recycling
3297:corrosion
3144:silicosis
3077:talk page
2865:Placement
2744:compacted
2708:Taum Sauk
2631:soapstone
2547:Brutalist
2504:limestone
2492:sintering
2480:limestone
2260:Microbial
2207:asphaltic
2036:hydration
1963:hydration
1771:, in 1936
1720:and high
1601:limestone
1491:– 30,000
1302:Portland
1299:Property
1252:Retarders
1207:defoamers
1157:quartzite
1141:slag and
973:and then
950:limestone
819:hydration
792:limestone
754:aggregate
748:paste or
692:in 1875.
627:, England
490:Colosseum
466:pozzolana
462:quicklime
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294:concretus
287:Etymology
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10113:EN 206-1
10108:EN 197-1
9967:Aerated
9908:Polished
9903:Pervious
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9749:Formwork
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8667:Vehicles
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8575:Rockfall
8570:Roadkill
8495:Bleeding
8471:Road and
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7906:2+2 road
7901:2+1 road
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7815:Pakistan
7616:Skeptoid
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4841:AEI 2008
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3420:and the
3357:landfill
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3321:seawater
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2177:airports
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2141:pavement
2137:blacktop
2080:cracking
2076:abrasion
2072:spalling
1920:pigments
1801:formwork
1782:formwork
1699:strength
1647:, while
1630:landfill
1314:fly ash
1309:fly ash
1226:Pigments
946:ferrites
930:plasters
720:patented
571:Pantheon
494:Pantheon
484:, freed
431:coffered
376:cisterns
360:Nabatean
334:Assyrian
312:crescere
162:Concrete
10193:Masonry
10077:Nanocem
10036:Columns
9913:Polymer
9813:Science
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9739:Precast
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9552:History
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8897:Bollard
8881:Woonerf
8610:Washout
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8463:factors
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8401:Macadam
8190:Trumpet
8140:Diamond
7911:Parkway
7886:Highway
7800:Ireland
7780:Germany
7770:Croatia
7750:Belgium
7637:YouTube
7587:(Video)
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5951:11 June
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960:sulfate
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