507:. Other materials have been used as aggregate instead of sand. The theory is that the voids of empty space between the sand particles account for a 1/3 of the volume of the sand. The lime putty when mixed at a 1 to 3 ratio, fill these voids to create a compact mortar. Analysis of mortar samples from historic buildings typically indicates a higher ratio of around 1 part lime putty to 1.5 part aggregate/sand was commonly used. This equates to approximately 1 part dry quicklime to 3 parts sand. A traditional coarse plaster mix also had horse hair added for reinforcing and control of shrinkage, important when plastering to wooden laths and for base (or dubbing) coats onto uneven surfaces such as stone walls where the mortar is often applied in thicker coats to compensate for the irregular surface levels.
112:), lime mortar's effectiveness as a building material has not been well understood; time-honoured practices were based on tradition, folklore and trade knowledge, vindicated by the vast number of old buildings that remain standing. Empirical testing in the late 20th century provided a scientific understanding of its remarkable durability. Both professionals and do-it-yourself home owners can purchase lime putty mortar (and have their historical mortar matched for both color and content) by companies that specialize in historical preservation and sell pre-mixed mortar in small batches.
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proven to be incompatible with lime mortar because it is harder, less flexible, and impermeable. These qualities lead to premature deterioration of soft, historic bricks so traditionally, low-temperature-fired lime mortars are recommended for use with existing mortar of a similar type or reconstruction of buildings using historically correct methods. In the past, lime mortar tended to be mixed on site with whatever sand was locally available. Since the sand influences the colour of the lime mortar, colours of pointing mortar can vary dramatically from district to district.
365:) as to the comparative quality of putty formed from dry hydrated lime compared with that produced as putty at the time of slaking. It is generally agreed that the latter is preferable. A hydrated lime will produce a material which is not as "fatty”, being a common trade term for compounds have a smoother buttery texture when worked. Often, due to lengthy and poor storage, the resulting lime produced by hydrated lime will exhibit longer carbonatation periods as well as lower compressive strengths.
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202:. the ancient Egyptians were the first to use lime mortars about 6,000 years ago ,they used lime to plaster the Giza pyramids. In addition, the Egyptians also incorporated various limes into their religious temples as well as their homes.. Indian traditional structures were built with lime mortar, some of which are more than 4,000 years old (such as
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site in a pit) was mixed with sand by a labourer who would "beat and ram" the mix with a "larry" (a wide hoe with large holes). This was then covered with sand and allowed to sit for a while (from days to weeks) - a process known as "banking". This lump was then remixed and used as necessary. This process cannot be done with
Portland cement.
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In restoration work of pre-20th century structures, there should be a high ratio of lime and aggregate to
Portland. This reduces the compressive strength of the mortar but allows the wall system to function better. The lime mortar acts as a wick that helps to pull water from the brick. This can help
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should be done with a similar or weaker mortar. Therefore, a straight lime mortar joint should be repointed in kind. Due to the popularity of
Portland cement, this often is not the case. A wall system needs a balance between the mortar and brick that allows the mortar to be the weak part of the unit.
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A load of mixed lime mortar may be allowed to sit as a lump for some time, without it drying out (it may get a thin crust). When ready to use, this lump may be remixed ('knocked up') again and then used. Traditionally on building sites, prior to the use of mechanical mixers, the lime putty (slaked on
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Add the reserved dry ingredients and/or the remaining water to get a mix you like. It takes time to know what works well, and the recipe can change depending on the temperature, humidity, moisture in the sand, type of brick, and task at hand (laying brick may warrant a wetter mix, while pointing may
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have had to develop from conjecture and in-the-field learning. The rick that they constructed consists of logs set up in a circle that burn slowly, converting oysters that are contained in the wood pile to an ashy powder. An explanatory video of how the rick was built for the Ferry Farm can be found
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Non-hydraulic lime takes longer to set and is weaker than hydraulic lime, and should not be allowed to freeze before it is well set. Although the setting process can be slow, the drying time of a lime mortar must be regulated at a slow rate to ensure a good final set. A rapidly dried lime mortar will
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Hydrated, non-hydraulic lime powder can be mixed with water to form lime putty. Before use putty is usually left in the absence of carbon dioxide (usually under water) to mature. Putty can be matured for as little as 24 hours or for many years; an increased maturation time improves the quality of the
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It may not be advisable for all consumers to use a straight lime mortar. With no
Portland in the mix, there is less control over the setting of the mortar. In some cases, a freeze thaw cycle will be enough to create failure in the mortar joint. Straight lime mortar can also take a long time to fully
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Mortars using oyster shells can sometimes be identified by the presence of small bits of shell in the exposed mortar joint. In restoration masonry, the bits of shell are sometimes exaggerated to give the viewer the impression of authenticity. Unfortunately, these modern attempts often contain higher
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and so needs exposure to carbon dioxide in the air; the material cannot set underwater or inside a thick wall. For natural hydraulic lime (NHL) mortars, the lime is obtained from limestone naturally containing a sufficient percentage of silica and/or alumina. Artificial hydraulic lime is produced by
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For preservation purposes, Type N and Type O mortars are often used. A Type N mortar is 1 part
Portland, 1 part Lime and 6 parts sand or other aggregate (1:1:6). A Type O mortar is 1 part Portland, 2 parts Lime and 9 parts sand or other aggregate (1:2:9). Straight lime mortar has no Portland, and 1
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The combination of
Portland cement and lime is used for stabilization and solidification of the ground through establishing of lime cement columns or stabilization of the entire upper mass volume. The method provides an increase in strength when it comes to vibrations, stability and settling. When
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in the 1830s from the older system of water limes and feebly, moderately and eminently. Vicat published his work following research of the use of lime mortars whilst building bridges and roads in his work. The French company Vicat still currently produce natural cements and lime mortars. Names of
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during the 19th century, the use of lime mortar in new constructions gradually declined. This was largely due to the ease of use of
Portland cement, its quick setting, and high compressive strength. However, the soft and porous properties of lime mortar provide certain advantages when working with
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Usually any dampness in the wall will cause the lime mortar to change colour, indicating the presence of moisture. The effect will create an often mottled appearance of a limewashed wall. As the moisture levels within a wall alter, so will the shade of a limewash. The darker the shade of limewash,
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Lime mortar is more porous than cement mortars, and it wicks any dampness in the wall to the surface where it evaporates. Thus any salt content in the water crystallises on the lime, damaging the lime and thus saving the masonry. Cement, on the other hand, evaporates water less than soft brick, so
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Lime mortar does not adhere as strongly to masonry as
Portland cement. This is an advantage with softer types of masonry, where use of cement in many cases eventually results in cement pulling away some masonry material when it reaches the end of its life. The mortar is a sacrificial element which
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Historic buildings are frequently constructed with relatively soft masonry units (e.g. soft brick and many types of stone), and minor movement in such buildings is quite common due to the nature of the foundations. This movement breaks the weakest part of the wall, and with
Portland cement mortar
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Lime mortar today is primarily used in the conservation of buildings originally built using it, but may be used as an alternative to ordinary portland cement. It is made principally of lime (hydraulic, or non hydraulic as explained below), water, and an aggregate such as sand. Portland cement has
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In the tidewater region of
Maryland and Virginia, oyster shells were used to produce quicklime during the colonial period. Similar to other materials used to produce lime, the oyster shells are burned. This can be done in a lime rick instead of a kiln. Burning shells in a rick is something that
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per square millimeter (N/mm). For example, the NHL 3.5 strength ranges from 3.5 N/mm (510 psi) to 10 N/mm (1,450 psi). These are similar to the old classification of feebly hydraulic, moderately hydraulic and eminently hydraulic, and although different, some people continue to refer to them
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The presence of Portland allows for a more stable mortar. The stability and predictability make the mixed mortar more user friendly, particularly in applications where entire wall sections are being laid. Contractors and designers may prefer mixes that contain Portland due to the increased
296:: hydrated by being thoroughly mixed with enough water to form a slurry (lime putty), or with less water to produce dry powder. This hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) naturally turns back into calcium carbonate by reacting with carbon dioxide in the air, the entire process being called the
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compressive strength over a straight lime mortar. As many pre-Portland mix buildings are still standing and have original mortar, the arguments for greater compressive strength and ease of use may be more a result of current practice and a lack of understanding of older techniques.
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For historic restoration purposes, and restoration work involving repointing or brick replacement, masons must discover the original brick and mortar and repair it with a similar material. The National Park Service provides guidance for proper masonry repointing through
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Remember to thoroughly wet your brick prior to using lime mortar. Old brick can be extremely porous, a 4lb brick can hold a pint of water. The bricks should be saturated, but dry on the surface prior to laying or pointing. Excess water can cause the lime to run and leave
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cure and therefore work needs to be performed at a time of year where the weather conditions are conducive to the mortar setting properly. Those conditions are not only above freezing temperatures but also drier seasons. To protect the slow curing mortar from damp, a
668:, the process by which the outer face of a brick degrades and can flake off or turn to powder. There is also a natural movement of water through a masonry wall. A strong Portland cement mix will prevent a free flow of water from a moist to dry area. This can cause
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If the quicklime is slaked with an excess of water then putty or slurry is produced. If just the right quantity of water is used, the result is a dry material (any excess water escaping as steam during heating). This is ground to make hydrated lime powder.
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Lime mortar should not be used below temperatures of 5 °C (41 °F) and takes longer to set so it should be protected from freezing for three months. Because of its faster set, hydraulic lime may not need as much time before freezing temperatures
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This can also assist in creating more regulated setting times of the mortar as the pozzolan will create a hydraulic set, which can be of benefit in restoration projects when time scales and ultimately costs need to be monitored and maintained.
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Under cracking conditions, Portland cement breaks, whereas lime often produces numerous microcracks if the amount of movement is small. These microcracks recrystallise through the action of 'free lime' effectively self-healing the affected
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and many types of hair and other organic fibres can be found in historic plasters. However, organic material in lime will degrade in damp environments particularly on damp external renders. This problem has given rise to the use of
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Reserve some portion of the dry ingredients by removing it from your mixing vessel. The amount reserved can vary, but a safe starting point is about 1/4 of the batch. This will be added in later to fine tune the dryness of the
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sheeting or sprayed with water to control the drying rates. But it also has the quality of autogenous healing (self healing) where some free lime dissolves in water and is redeposited in any tiny cracks which form.
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reaction which initially creates a liquid of a creamy consistency. This is then matured for 2 to 3 months—depending upon environmental conditions—to allow time for it to condense and mature into a lime putty.
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this is usually the masonry. When lime mortar is used, the lime is the weaker element, and the mortar cracks in preference to the masonry. This results in much less damage, and is relatively simple to repair.
23:
A stone wall in France with lime mortar grouting being applied. Right: unapplied. Centre: lime mortar applied with a trowel. Left: lime mortar applied and then beaten back and brushed with a churn brush.
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to be trapped within the wall and create system failures. If moisture can not escape into the air, it will cause damage to a wall structure. Water freezing in the wall is another cause of spalling.
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Hydraulic lime can be considered, in terms both of properties and manufacture, as part-way between non-hydraulic lime and Portland cement. The limestone used contains sufficient quantities of
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damp issues are liable to cause salt formation and spalling on brick surfaces and consequent disintegration of bricks. This damp evaporation ability is widely referred to as 'breathability'.
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There are three strength grades for natural hydraulic lime, laid down in the European Norm EN459; NHL2, NHL3.5 and NHL5. The numbers stand for the minimum compressive strength at 28 days in
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such as brick dust or volcanic ash. These mortars were intended to be used in applications where the presence of water would otherwise not allow the mortar to harden (carbonate) properly.
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The large flakes of oyster shell are a signal that this is a faux shell mortar. In fact it was a very hard Portland replacement which luckily had not done much harm to the brick.
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Spalling of brick in an 18th century chimney. The lower section is older than the upper. Note that the while the lower mortar is deteriorated, it is not as bad as the brick.
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result in a low-strength, poor-quality final mortar often displaying shrinkage cracks. In practice, lime mortars are often protected from direct sunlight and wind with damp
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to prevent the older brick from spalling. Even when the brick is a modern, harder element, repointing with a higher ratio lime mortar may help to reduce rising damp.
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Measure out water. How much depends on how wet you want your mix to be, and how damp/wet your sand is. A good starting point is 1 quart of water per gallon of sand.
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Lime mortar is not as strong in compression as Portland cement based mortar, but both are sufficiently strong for construction of non-high-rise domestic properties.
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lime mortars were so varied and conflicting across the European continent that the reclassification has greatly improved the understanding and use of lime mortars.
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When mortar is stronger than the brick, it prevents any natural movement in the wall and the faces of the brick will begin to deteriorate, a process known as
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putty. There is an argument that a lime putty which has been matured for an extended period (over 12 months) becomes so stiff that it is difficult to work.
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can be added, which improves its compressive strength and helps to protect it from weathering damage. Pozzolans include powdered brick, heat treated clay,
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can be added to the surface. With historic structures, this may be a controversial strategy as it could have a detrimental effect to the historic fabric.
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To test the mix as you are making it, you can use a trowel, or pat the mortar with your hand to see how much moisture and "cream" come to the surface.
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It is slaked enough to convert the calcium oxide to calcium hydroxide but not with sufficient water to react with the dicalcium silicate. It is this
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as it makes a mortar easier to work with. If left to stand following agitation a lime putty will slowly revert from a thick liquid to a putty state.
342:
lime is any lime other than quicklime, and can refer to either hydraulic (hardens under water) or non-hydraulic (does not harden under water) lime.
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building e.g. roads and railways, the method is more common and widespread (Queen Eufemias street in Central Oslo, E18 at Tønsberg etc.).
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should be weaker than the bricks so it will crack before the bricks. It is less expensive to replace cracked mortar than cracked bricks.
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Lime putty is always non-hydraulic and will keep indefinitely stored under water. As the name suggests, lime putty is in the form of a
280:. Non-hydraulic lime is produced by first heating sufficiently pure calcium carbonate to between 954° and 1066 °C, driving off
221:, a Roman architect, provided basic guidelines for lime mortar mixes. The Romans created hydraulic mortars that contained lime and a
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to decrease cure times is referred to as “gauging”. Other than Portland, ash and brick dust have been used to gauge mortars.
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Mix the dry ingredients thoroughly so all the sand is coated with lime, and there are neither chunks of sand or lime visible.
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A frequent source of confusion regarding lime mortar stems from the similarity of the terms hydraulic and hydrated.
317:, meaning that when a lime putty is agitated it changes from a putty into a more liquid state. This aids its use for
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introducing specific types and quantities of additives to the source of lime during the burning process, or adding a
1237:
Lime Mortar & Cement : Their Characteristics and Analyses. With an Account of Artificial Stone and Asphalt
445:, and volcanic materials. The chemical set imparted ranges from very weak to almost as strong as Portland cement.
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The mortar being applied too thickly (Thicker coats increase the possibility of shrinkage, cracking and slumping)
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interchangeably. The terminology for hydraulic lime mortars was improved by the skilled French civil engineer
1219:
Lime Mortar & Cement: Their Characteristics and Analyses. With an Account of Artificial Stone and Asphalt
1185:
697:
653:
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Measure out your ratio of sand to lime, for example 3 buckets of sand, and 1 bucket of lime for a 3:1 ratio.
503:(usually sand). A typical modern lime mortar mix would be 1 part lime putty to 3 parts washed, well graded,
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Concrete, Cements, Mortars, Artificial Marbles, Plasters and Stucco: How to Use and How to Prepare Them
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910:"Study on the performance enhancement of lime mortar used in ancient temples and monuments in India".
889:"Study on the performance enhancement of lime mortar used in ancient temples and monuments in India".
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958:. D. Throop and R.E. Klingner, Eds., ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002. p. 3, 9. Print.
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Aluminium and magnesium also produce a hydraulic set, and some pozzolans contain these elements.
416:. This can cause failures in the brick if the mortar joint is stronger than the brick elements.
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Sickels-Taves, L. B. and Sheehan, M. S., "Specifying Historic Materials: The Use of Lime".
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If shrinkage and cracking of the lime mortar does occur this can be as a result of either
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1091:--~~~~Stafford Holmes and Michael Wingate, 1997, Building with Lime, P86, IT Publications.
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8:
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Bennett, B., 2002, Lime Plaster and Render Reinforcement, Building Conservation Directory
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When a stronger lime mortar is required, such as for external or structural purposes, a
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Rudimentary Treatise on Limes, Cements, Mortars, Concretes, Mastics, Plastering, Etc.
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which in combination with water provides the setting properties of hydraulic lime.
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to non-hydraulic lime. Non-hydraulic lime is produced from a high purity source of
38:
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The following are mid-19th-century technical articles on the respective subjects:
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Add about 2/3 of the water to your dry ingredients and mix until even consistency.
143:('builder's mortar, plaster; bowl for mixing') in the late 13th century and Latin
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127:('sticky substance, birdlime, mortar, cement, gluten'), and is related to Latin
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109:
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1186:"Preservation Brief 2: Repointing Mortar Joints in Historic Masonry Buildings"
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part Lime to 3 parts sand or other aggregate. The addition of cement or other
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93:. For this reason, while Portland cement continues to be commonly used in new
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53:, mixed with water. It is one of the oldest known types of mortar, used in
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A common method for mixing lime mortar with powdered lime is as follows:
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Non-hydraulic lime is primarily composed of (generally greater than 95%)
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of brick and stone-built structures originally built using lime mortar.
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The sand being poorly graded or with a particle size that is too small
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Gerard Lynch, 'The Myth in the Mix: The 1:3 Ratio of Lime to Sand',
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High air temperatures or direct sunlight which force dry the mortar
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98:
1703:
Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association
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35:
1162:"Lime Mortars and Renders: The Relative Merits of Adding Cement"
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Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press 2009
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Hydraulic lime sets by reaction with water called hydration.
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The slaking process involved in creating a lime putty is an
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Traditional lime mortar is a combination of lime putty and
453:
101:
construction, its use is not recommended in the repair and
62:
50:
1688:
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers
969:"Lime Mortar : Haired and Unhaired Putty Lime Mortar"
956:
Masonry: Opportunities for the 21st Century, ASTM STP 1432
838:
151:
which is a binder or glue that holds things together but
865:"Lime". Online Etymology Dictionary. Accessed 5/10/2014
251:, so it can set underwater. Non-hydraulic lime sets by
217:
The Roman Empire used lime-based mortars extensively.
1067:"The Myth in the Mix: The 1:3 ratio of lime to sand"
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1076:
239:
139:is a mixture with cement and comes from Old French
108:Despite its enduring utility over many centuries (
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1073:
1103:. Newtown, CT: Taunton Press, 1997. Print. 114.
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791:. USA: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 584.
537:Gather your ingredients, sand, lime, and water
1292:
993:"'Lime rick' burns at Great Hopes Plantation"
619:the more pronounced this effect will become.
1038:"The Use og Lime-based Mortars in New Build"
626:
264:such as chalk, limestone, or oyster shells.
1299:
1285:
915:
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825:The Analysis of Mortar: The Past 20 Years
788:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries
526:High water content in the lime mortar mix
328:limes can be produced which are based on
155:is usually reserved for Portland cement.
1698:Mason Contractors Association of America
642:
381:
18:
1693:Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland
1114:"Information about Lime - LimeWorks.us"
1101:Masonry: the best of Fine homebuilding.
1019:Building George's House: Lime Rick Burn
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932:"History of lime in mortar | Graymont"
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460:. The resultant product will contain
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812:US Park Service Preservation Brief 2
656:. In general, Brief 2 suggests that
529:Poor quality or unmatured lime putty
324:As well as calcium-based limestone,
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1270:The Building Conservation Directory
1138:"Kalksement KC | Norcem AS i Norge"
520:Too much suction from the substrate
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1225:Limes Hydraulic Cement and Mortars
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14:
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765:JDB Surveying & Architectural
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247:contains substances which set by
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573:Hair reinforcement is common in
240:Hydraulic and non-hydraulic lime
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1543:Non-explosive demolition agents
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761:"What is Roof Mortar Torching?"
464:but unlike Portland cement not
61:, when it largely replaced the
1258:cement making on a large scale
1254:cement making on a small scale
1016:TheGWFoundation (2016-10-03),
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404:. The burnt shell can then be
349:made from just lime and water.
1:
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698:Energetically modified cement
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1708:Worshipful Company of Masons
1166:www.buildingconservation.com
408:and turned into lime putty.
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330:calcium magnesium carbonate
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131:('slime, mud, mire'), and
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1533:Lewis (lifting appliance)
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877:Oxford English Dictionary
627:Lime with Portland cement
412:than necessary ratios of
206:, a heritage monument of
76:With the introduction of
1217:Dibdin, William Joseph;
1211:Burnell, George Rowdon;
311:A matured lime putty is
292:. The quicklime is then
198:Lime mortar appeared in
361:There is some dispute (
230:
123:comes from Old English
1235:Lazell, Ellis Warren;
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494:
395:and the recreation of
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284:to produce quicklime (
147:('mortar'). Lime is a
24:
875:"Cement, n." def. 1.
646:
393:Colonial Williamsburg
385:
288:). This is done in a
22:
1357:Massive precut stone
1352:Post-tensioned stone
1223:Gilmore, Quincy A.;
654:Preservation Brief 2
557:require a drier one.
1553:Stonemason's hammer
1518:Ceramic tile cutter
839:"US Heritage Group"
737:"What is torching?"
466:tricalcium silicate
378:Oyster shell mortar
1729:Building materials
1229:Hodgson, Fred T.;
1053:2013-04-04 at the
713:Sticky rice mortar
649:
569:Hair reinforcement
473:dicalcium silicate
462:dicalcium silicate
388:
268:Non-hydraulic lime
178:. You can help by
83:building materials
69:mortars common to
25:
1716:
1715:
1642:Hardstone carving
1589:Polygonal masonry
1413:Decorative stones
843:US Heritage Group
785:Lucas, A (2003).
274:calcium hydroxide
262:calcium carbonate
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16:Building material
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1548:Plug and feather
1398:Artificial stone
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424:Main article:
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174:This section
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1604:Tuckpointing
1558:Straightedge
1492:Stone veneer
1447:
1308:Stonemasonry
1269:
1236:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1212:
1193:. Retrieved
1189:
1180:
1169:. Retrieved
1165:
1156:
1145:. Retrieved
1141:
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1121:. Retrieved
1118:limeworks.us
1117:
1108:
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1000:. Retrieved
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769:. Retrieved
767:. 2021-02-02
764:
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744:. Retrieved
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584:lime renders
575:lime plaster
572:
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208:Indus Valley
204:Mohenjo-daro
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180:adding to it
175:
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144:
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120:
119:
107:
75:
55:ancient Rome
41:composed of
31:
27:
26:
1513:Bush hammer
1448:Lime mortar
1327:Rustication
1250:lime mortar
1190:www.nps.gov
670:rising damp
488:Louis Vicat
439:silica fume
314:thixotropic
253:carbonation
103:restoration
28:Lime mortar
1723:Categories
1667:Stone wall
1594:Repointing
1567:Techniques
1423:Fieldstone
1408:Cast stone
1362:Monumental
1195:2017-12-06
1171:2017-12-06
1147:2016-04-27
1123:2016-11-02
1025:2017-12-06
1002:2017-12-06
978:2016-11-14
941:2023-07-12
848:2020-04-04
771:2022-06-12
746:2022-06-12
724:References
708:Plastering
658:repointing
589:Properties
505:sharp sand
397:Ferry Farm
305:exothermic
298:lime cycle
91:terracotta
1662:Sculpture
1651:Footstone
1647:Headstone
1614:Brickwork
1599:Scabbling
1579:Flushwork
1475:Sandstone
1453:Limestone
1428:Flagstone
1391:Materials
1372:Sculpture
1337:Dry stone
912:CiteSeerX
891:CiteSeerX
718:Whitewash
703:Hempcrete
501:aggregate
326:dolomitic
290:lime kiln
249:hydration
219:Vitruvius
200:Antiquity
187:June 2023
145:mortarium
116:Etymology
47:aggregate
1630:Products
1584:Knapping
1377:Slipform
1051:Archived
973:Mike Wye
692:See also
682:siloxane
666:spalling
638:pozzolan
564:streaks.
435:pozzolan
340:Hydrated
276:, Ca(OH)
258:pozzolan
224:pozzolan
212:Pakistan
99:concrete
85:such as
49:such as
32:torching
1739:Masonry
1574:Flaming
1438:Granite
1382:Snecked
1347:Masonry
1332:Carving
483:newtons
456:and/or
443:fly ash
371:hessian
319:mortars
159:History
141:mortier
81:softer
45:and an
36:masonry
1734:Cement
1657:Mosaic
1637:Castle
1609:Veneer
1538:Trowel
1523:Chisel
1470:Mortar
1458:Marble
1433:Gabion
1367:Rubble
1322:Ashlar
1272:, 2007
1262:mortar
914:
893:
827:, 2002
795:
614:begin.
458:silica
406:slaked
294:slaked
153:cement
149:cement
137:Mortar
133:linere
67:gypsum
59:Greece
39:mortar
1619:Wythe
1501:Tools
1487:Slate
1463:Types
1443:Grout
1403:Brick
1315:Types
602:area.
347:putty
129:limus
95:brick
34:is a
1480:List
1260:and
793:ISBN
547:mix.
454:clay
402:here
231:Uses
214:).
121:Lime
97:and
89:and
65:and
63:clay
57:and
51:sand
43:lime
495:Mix
182:.
125:lim
30:or
1725::
1256:,
1252:,
1188:.
1164:.
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995:.
971:.
934:.
857:^
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1649:(
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278:2
189:)
185:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
