Ancient Egypt - Knowledge

4804: 2590: 5770:, p. 2: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term "Sea Peoples" encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). Footnote: The modern term "Sea Peoples" refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from "islands"... The use of quotation marks in association with the term "Sea Peoples" in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation "of the sea" appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III." 1741: 4864: 3578: 3636: 3485: 777: 3616: 2340: 4824: 2153: 1080: 5776:, pp. 48–61: "The thesis that a great "migration of the Sea Peoples" occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, "eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun." Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation." 3508: 3658: 2087: 3394: 3175: 4784: 3412: 605: 3690: 3432: 3847: 14466: 14332: 13491: 13424: 13293: 12676: 12278: 62: 3776: 3456: 1265: 2357: 4554: 3285: 1094: 3155: 4500: 4242: 1532: 1404: 1006:

Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the

1060: 2188:, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference. 3596: 2242: 3219: 4051: 4283:'s Punt, expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles. In 2013, a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Khufu, on the Red Sea coast, near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of 11686: 3714:

brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of

917: 11638: 11675: 3935: 11706: 2934: 4669: 3878: 2226: 853: 11716: 4302: 960: 4850: 11696: 3013: 4569:. Archaeological and historical evidence support interactions between Egyptian and Nubian populations more than 5000 years ago, with socio-political dynamics between Egyptians and Nubians ranging from peaceful coexistence to variably successful attempts of conquest. A study on sixty-six ancient Nubian individuals revealed significant contact with ancient Egyptians, characterized by the presence of 2551:, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were used in the Late Period. High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the Eastern Desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as 1982: 1850: 4630:, caution that a wider sampling area is needed and argue that the current data is inconclusive on the origin of ancient Egyptians. They also point out issues with the previously used methodology such as the sampling size, comparative approach and a "biased interpretation" of the genetic data. They argue in favor for a link between Ancient Egypt and the northern 3989:, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as 1897:, under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome. 975:, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the kings diminished, regional governors called 3347:, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, 2127:

the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices, legal rights, and opportunities for achievement. Women such as

3741:. The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his 717:, which continued into the early dynastic period and beyond. Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power center at 3794:. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the 4000:

The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they

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and his sons, did do so. However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops". Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush,

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lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The

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The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These artistic standards—simple

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with the addition of some Demotic signs. Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly

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system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference

1246:, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty and, in the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the kings, who sought to expand Egypt's borders and attempted to gain mastery of the 3311:

retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular

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has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.

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served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables

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growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that

1207:. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos ('foreign rulers') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the 1168:

later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to assume greater control of the Delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as

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Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god

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played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgement by choosing one or the other, moving forward

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in the workplace. Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated

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introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed. As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak

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collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars.

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The currently most advanced full genome analyses was made on three ancient specimens recovered from the Nile River Valley, Abusir el-Meleq, Egypt. Two of the individuals were dated to the Pre-Ptolemaic Period (New Kingdom to Late Period), and one individual to the Ptolemaic Period, spanning around

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Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white).

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BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual

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Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent

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Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and

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was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively.

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parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the

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With the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in

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D’Atanasio, Eugenia; Risi, Flavia; Ravasini, Francesco; Montinaro, Francesco; Hajiesmaeil, Mogge; Bonucci, Biancamaria; Pistacchia, Letizia; Amoako-Sakyi, Daniel; Bonito, Maria; Onidi, Sara; Colombo, Giulia; Semino, Ornella; Destro Bisol, Giovanni; Anagnostou, Paolo; Metspalu, Mait (18 December

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is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs. The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal

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and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments,

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tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified king after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient

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was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this

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The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom

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The genetic history of Ancient Egypt remains a developing field, and is relevant for the understanding of population demographic events connecting Africa and Eurasia. To date, the amount of genome-wide aDNA analyses on ancient specimens from Egypt and Sudan remain scarce, although studies on

4321:. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain. Texts such as the 1804:

did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and

4261:. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship", which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination. 3825:

statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife. Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.

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from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. Local councils of elders, known as

3862:. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of 10589:

Skoglund, Pontus; Thompson, Jessica C.; Prendergast, Mary E.; Mittnik, Alissa; Sirak, Kendra; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Salie, Tasneem; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Peltzer, Alexander; Heinze, Anja; Olalde, Iñigo; Ferry, Matthew; Harney, Eadaoin; Michel, Megan (September 2017).

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to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whether

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BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in

4077:, remained famous long after their deaths. Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists. Training of physicians took place at the 1834:

took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.

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and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and

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Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or

1427:, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the 2974:, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, 3504:, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity. 1821:

forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of

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By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called

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did not often take part in official roles in the administration, aside from the royal high priestesses, apparently served only secondary roles in the temples (not much data for many dynasties), and were not so probably to be as educated as men.

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With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt, a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services. Kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local

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lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used

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The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality

1570:'s. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built, or restored, temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. During this period, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of 3905:

that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the

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resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.

3191:. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's 864:

The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the king

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who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this

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Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period,

769:, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of 1511:, who recognized Smendes in name only. During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under 4576:% Neolithic/Bronze Age Levantine ancestry in these individuals. Such geneflow of Levantine-like ancestry corresponds with archaeological and botanic evidence, pointing to a Neolithic movement around 7,000 years ago. 2608:, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian 2445:

observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses. During the Late Period, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess

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in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the

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Estimates of the size of the population range from 1–1.5 million in the 3rd millennium BC to possibly 2–3 million by the 1st millennium BC, before growing significantly towards the end of that millennium.

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institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the

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and his court for redress. Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by

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that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.

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to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.

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The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as

2414:, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the 1164:

into the Delta region to provide a sufficient labor force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe

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administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of

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to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of

2287:(harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the 1101:

The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability and prosperity, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his

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plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of

3790:, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by 2066: sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 1601:, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians, against whom Egypt enjoyed several victories. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and 13271: 9307: 4693:

with both adopting Egyptian religious and architectural norms (hundreds of pyramids (6–30 meters high) were built in Egypt/Sudan), as well as using Egyptian writing as the basis of the

3810:. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted 3358:

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the

4120:. Moldy bread, honey, and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve 3786:

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by

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was adopted from Asiatic soldiers. The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as

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mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.

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The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th.–3rd. Millennium B.C.: Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Cairo, 21–24 October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies

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in nominal and adverbial sentences. The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun. Verbs and nouns are negated by the

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unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by periods of relative instability known as "Intermediate Periods". The various kingdoms fall into one of three categories: the

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for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone

1033:, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 586: 3615: 4333:, and division—use fractions, calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles and compute the volumes of boxes, columns and pyramids. They understood basic concepts of 2395:, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. 12972: 3166:

designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.

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hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the

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in present-day Gaza was established as an Egyptian settlement in the late 4th millennium BC, and is theorised to have been the main Egyptian colonial site in the region.

3411: 375:. After this period, it entered an era of slow decline. During the course of its history, ancient Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the 2986:

lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by

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Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the

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took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the pagan

3798:, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in 2399:, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of 1307:, a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions to 4116:

were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess

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at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from

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In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. Since the 2010s, the

4697:. Meroitic is the oldest written language in Africa, other than Egyptian, and was used from the 2nd century BC until the early 5th century AD. The cult of the goddess 3635: 1357:

BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to

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Modern Egyptians, like modern Nubians, underwent subsequent admixture events, contributing both "Sub-Saharan" African-like and West Asian-like ancestries, since the

588: 581: 10002: 4740:. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of 4043:. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Adult 3866:

on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the

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and stories into a coherent system. These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.

590: 529:

of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians has led to the

9157: 4128:, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred. 11204: 1989:

The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme

12195: 10439: 5819:

Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered (

2343:

A tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields, harvesting the crops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer, painting in the tomb of

577:

period, the arid climate of Northern Africa had become increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.

4530:

uniparental haplogroups in ancient individuals have been carried out several times, pointing broadly to affinities with other African and Eurasian groups.

2861:. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine. The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a 1993:

and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the

8806: 3393: 3115:

BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the

1350:. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built. 1226:, to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 13681: 13597: 1508: 3455: 2589: 10533: 10242:

Porat, Naomi (1992). "An Egyptian colony in southern Palestine during the Late Predynastic/Early Dynastic period". In Edwin C. M. van den Brink (ed.).

5691: 4253:

Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially

2978:, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone. 11000:

Mallory-Greenough, Leanne M. (December 2002). "The Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels".

3757:". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form. If they were not deemed worthy, their heart was eaten by 2038:, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator. Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 13475: 3817:

Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased.

2787:. Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes. 10416: 4810: 1916:

religions and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of

1469:, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and 585: 555:

has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled

11274:

In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt's priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German.

3547:, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife. 2257:

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich

1280:

established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the

1141:

expressions of personal piety. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style. The

1041:

finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the

4019:

The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from

3111:. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 3682:

changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting

2114:

The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest

13824: 13686: 12999: 12947: 11332: 10516: 3669:

Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the

2422:. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that 14852: 8565: 3238:" also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient Egypt. The first complete set of this game was discovered from a 5645: 3259: 1933:

slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to

1577:

Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen under the

10365: 4650:

sources of evidence which broadly indicate that the earliest Egyptians and Nubians were the descendants of populations in northeast Africa.

3942:

In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional

1740: 1477:

in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.

10385: 4597:, point to the widespread presence of an (Western) Eurasian ancestry component distributed throughout Northern Africa, the Sahara, and the 3162:

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of

2379:

was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Animals, both

4522:

According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as the

4104:

Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while

3858:

The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the

2563:

dotted the Eastern Desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of

2098:

was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or

587: 583: 13691: 11752: 11358: 5676: 4774: 3543:

depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the

3230:, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was 11229: 8895: 14234: 14214: 10819: 4685:

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. Egyptian civilization significantly influenced the

4306: 1782:. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a centre of learning and culture, that included the famous 1218:

After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos'

936:

and resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the

12150: 11261:

Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.

10734: 8879: 3595: 14302: 13347: 11430: 11179: 10079: 8979: 3753:, or "effective one". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a " 1384:. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs, 987:

BC, is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.

8661: 2102:

that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a

13480: 9202:

Eltis, David; Bradley, Keith R.; Engerman, Stanley L.; Perry, Craig; Cartledge, Paul; Richardson, David; Drescher, Seymour (2021).

5638: 4741: 2995: 2949: 526: 10581: 4047:

was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.

1997:, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the 13890: 13384: 11659: 11487: 9544: 4359: 4183:

stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to

2701: 14224: 2696: 2685: 1145:

and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.

655:

and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the

647:, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and 3182:

The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from

2865:

or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the

2693: 2690: 16018: 15805: 15187: 13751: 13470: 11160: 11136: 11064: 11040: 10990: 10966: 10942: 10920: 10896: 10869: 10801: 10774: 10716: 10692: 10673: 10652: 10556: 10506: 10485: 10404: 10339: 10320: 10296: 10275: 10251: 10202: 10181: 10153: 10119: 10098: 10061: 9978: 9954: 9933: 9914: 9892: 9856: 9835: 9816: 9792: 9771: 9747: 9726: 9665: 9641: 9615: 9587: 9566: 9459: 9317: 9286: 9253: 9232: 9213: 9192: 9147: 9126: 9105: 9084: 9063: 8946: 8925: 8861: 8837: 8773: 8754: 8730: 8711: 8690: 8651: 8630: 8599: 8575: 8554: 7186: 3188: 2699: 2687: 2009:, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they 10742:

Vittman, Günther (1991). "Zum koptischen Sprachgut im Ägyptisch-Arabisch" [the Coptic language in Egyptian Arabic].

8605: 14172: 11605: 11055: 9693:

Ancient Egyptian 'Origins and "Identity"'. In Ancient Egyptian society : challenging assumptions, exploring approaches

4195:

BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early as

2508:

and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive

84: 15711: 4526:

royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.

4407:

Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write

16013: 14219: 14123: 13362: 11719: 11477: 11472: 11353: 5671: 5172: 4149: 3770: 1182: 1671:. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a 15857: 14857: 11325: 9700: 5314: 5032: 4539: 2981:

Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified

2635:

provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. Egypt relied on trade with

1486: 1133:

that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "

1087: 996: 8744: 15998: 15988: 14501: 14229: 13619: 11442: 9867: 9165: 4494: 3484: 2601: 1436: 1129:

and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in

510: 450:

sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent

11171: 10212:

Pećanac, Marija; Janjić, Zlata; Komarcević, Aleksandar; et al. (May 2013). "Burns treatment in ancient times".

8830:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II, Part 2. History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380–1000 B.C

8821: 8640:

Aston, Barbara G.; Harrell, James A.; Shaw, Ian (2000). "Stone: Obsidian". In Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (eds.).

14254: 14161: 13121: 11595: 11363: 11289: 11267: 10192: 3539:

statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom,

2196:

the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family. Beginning in the New Kingdom,

321: 10233:

Porat, Naomi (1986). "Local Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period".

3123:

period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as

16003: 15993: 15483: 13981: 13332: 12957: 12099: 11745: 11627: 11573: 11425: 11002: 10173:

Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs

9394: 9392:(October 1964). "Most Ancient Egypt: Chapter III. The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Communities of Northern Egypt". 5424: 4752:. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities. 4749: 4330: 3818: 2467: 897:. The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate 474: 14645: 12020: 9156: 7192: 4191:

BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000

2152: 2024:

Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use

1767:

and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the

1013:

Free from their loyalties to the king, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and

525:

were widely copied, and its antiquities were carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have

13971: 13378: 13357: 11699: 11600: 5706: 5626: 5440: 5362: 5336: 4879: 4073:

Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as

2434:, dogs, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as 2339: 2323:, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. 1372:, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day 776: 632:. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs, and the Nile region supported large populations of 14272: 9452:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II part I: History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c. 1800–1380

8625:. Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens. Vol. 5. Heidelberger Orientverlag. pp. 23–26. 2074:

BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of

559:

and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.

15921: 14315: 14297: 13945: 12977: 11386: 11381: 11318: 11303: 5526: 5480: 5453: 5410: 5379: 5375: 5349: 5323: 4906: 4659: 4534:

1300 years of Egyptian history. These results point to a genetic continuity of Ancient Egyptians with modern

4246: 3442: 3321: 1624: 1536: 808: 617: 522: 458:

intended to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite

454:, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and 123: 24: 10957: 9377: 8957: 4766: 4677: 4427:, however, were written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right. 4329:

show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction,

3531:

to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of

2387:, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. 1635:

was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first

1097:

Coffin of Khnumnakht in 12th dynasty style, with palace facade, columns of inscriptions, and two Wedjat eyes

430:

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the

15916: 15800: 14239: 13836: 13455: 13394: 13224: 13034: 11533: 11408: 11376: 10108:

Nicholson, Paul T.; Peltenburg, Edgar (2000). "Egyptian faience". In Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (eds.).

10014: 5726: 5696: 5401: 5237: 4296: 3479: 2472:

Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These

2214: 2029: 1614: 1079: 556: 431: 190: 11076:"Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods" 3997:) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment. 3312:

basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.

2991: 1702:

BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, the

15926: 14963: 14292: 13669: 13572: 13111: 12870: 11617: 11580: 11528: 11447: 10910: 9041: 8847: 5280: 5267: 5181: 5151: 4488: 4326: 3929: 3007: 2814: 2807: 2070:

deben. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list. During the fifth century

1968:

in 639–641, marking the end of both Byzantine rule and of the period typically considered Ancient Egypt.

1083: 714: 636:. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first 546: 506: 447: 388: 9826:

Loprieno, Antonio (1995b). "Ancient Egyptian and other Afroasiatic Languages". In Jack M. Sasson (ed.).

4275:

In 2011, archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt, excavating a dried-up lagoon known as

3977:, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of 2767:

BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are

2312:

from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

466:, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of 14148: 13411: 13254: 13126: 13016: 11774: 11738: 11467: 10010: 9361: 9312:. Published on behalf of the Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, by Oxford University Press. 8665: 5701: 5466: 5293: 5212: 5194: 4883: 4594: 4322: 3902: 3422: 2419: 2269:

Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons:

1953: 1874: 1703: 1590: 9577: 8789: 4434:

as an empirical formula. They were aware, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the

4218:", a 43.6-metre (143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the 3657: 2078:

rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.

1623:

The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the

686:). These brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic 15884: 15032: 14596: 14381: 14310: 13885: 13741: 13674: 12900: 12843: 11590: 11558: 11543: 11538: 11437: 11391: 11223: 10827: 9710: 8887: 5686: 5125: 5094: 4014: 3886: 3835: 3652: 3174: 3141: 2266:

was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

1909: 1798:

made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.

1102: 933: 881:

BC, the first of the Dynastic kings solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at

563: 498: 467: 455: 13802: 10524: 9118:

The Tomb in Ancient Egypt: Royal and Private Sepulchres from the Early Dynastic Period to the Romans

3507: 3044:, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 2086: 16008: 15842: 15817: 15667: 15326: 15321: 14422: 14142: 13927: 13634: 13161: 13156: 12962: 12693: 12243: 11896: 11761: 11709: 11585: 11506: 11457: 5681: 5138: 5041: 4517: 3679: 3279: 3167: 3096: 2987: 2845:

Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include

2463: 2271: 2220: 1961: 1801: 1791: 1618: 1110: 1075:; the divine kilt, suggests that the statuette was not merely a representation of the living ruler. 652: 542: 337: 20: 14029: 15909: 15790: 15331: 15284: 15227: 14926: 14870: 14618: 14371: 14244: 13900: 13848: 13551: 13342: 13249: 13136: 12771: 12122: 11282: 5115: 5054: 4985: 4942: 4647: 4269: 4223: 4187:, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 3870:. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer 3446: 2631:

yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with

2388: 2277: 1470: 1199:, who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at 1054: 1042: 754: 349: 158: 14287: 12711: 10859: 10377: 4167:

were constructed of wooden planks "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of

3326:

The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the

3099:

is considered a masterpiece of Near Eastern literature. Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the

2001:. At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called 604: 15983: 15931: 15832: 15827: 15515: 15463: 15383: 15316: 15220: 15205: 15098: 14865: 14819: 14660: 14547: 14409: 14277: 13922: 13731: 13726: 13656: 13546: 13389: 13261: 12994: 12424: 12375: 12318: 12263: 12117: 11689: 11622: 11462: 10845: 10355: 9327:

Grajetzki, W. (2007). "Box Coffins in the Late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period".

5080: 5067: 5011: 4998: 4972: 4926: 3145: 2830: 2746: 2584: 2423: 2164: 2140: 2119: 1994: 1695: 945: 870: 660: 420: 416: 10785: 9477:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 83–95. 9435: 9203: 8678: 3721:

The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or

2403:. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax. 2391:

were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular

1242:

to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose's successor,

15862: 15822: 15635: 15510: 14574: 14564: 14523: 14494: 14400: 14282: 13956: 13932: 13787: 13266: 13151: 13049: 13024: 12616: 12495: 12449: 12380: 12345: 11654: 10548: 10145: 9989: 9470: 9137: 9053: 9049: 4403: 4219: 3841: 3670: 3066:('instructions') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the 2431: 2283: 2136: 2111:

as understood today existed in ancient Egypt; there is difference of opinions among authors.

2090:

Painted limestone relief of a noble member of Ancient Egyptian society during the New Kingdom

1854: 1823: 1783: 1745: 1640: 1636: 1558:

invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, which established the

1324: 1269: 742: 501:, irrigation systems, and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, 325: 15750: 12581: 12089: 10811: 10764: 10437:

Shea, William H. (April 1977). "A Date for the Recently Discovered Eastern Canal of Egypt".

10310: 10265: 10171: 10109: 10088: 9968: 9944: 9846: 9782: 9761: 9737: 9629: 9605: 9556: 9264: 9182: 9116: 9095: 9074: 8911: 8641: 4732:, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as 3973:

Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as

3559:. The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the 1465:

these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern

15955: 15785: 15755: 15630: 15561: 15532: 15451: 14785: 14623: 14613: 14376: 14249: 14189: 14042: 13976: 13819: 13807: 13651: 13460: 13219: 13214: 13116: 13076: 12880: 12776: 12766: 12759: 12313: 11679: 11637: 11494: 11403: 11396: 11146: 11087: 10726: 10496: 8997: 8871: 5258: 4963: 4869: 4855: 4834: 4383: 4342: 4028:

body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to

3475: 3462: 3359: 3327: 3239: 3149: 2956: 2922: 2911: 2846: 2818: 2721: 2013:, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the kingdom's wealth in a system of 1930: 1913: 1567: 1259: 1165: 941: 921: 911: 770: 621: 518: 494: 451: 442:

of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and

435: 357: 341: 173: 143: 15735: 13406: 10840: 10642: 10350: 10071: 8971: 3846: 3775: 3226:

The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music.

8: 15647: 15527: 15493: 15395: 15215: 15210: 15022: 14741: 14677: 14552: 14537: 14438: 14366: 14194: 14184: 14155: 14023: 13856: 13797: 13367: 13276: 13176: 13166: 13106: 13101: 13096: 13086: 13081: 13066: 13061: 12982: 12838: 12716: 12661: 12586: 12010: 11974: 11499: 11420: 10312:

The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C.

9357: 8962: 8669: 5753:

With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. (

4616: 4431: 4257:(on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the 4168: 4055: 3947: 3552: 2858: 2854: 2547:

ore mined in the Sinai. Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in

1775: 1768: 1760: 1723: 1706:, proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship of 1651:

became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of

1474: 1264: 1022: 695: 396: 15363: 15353: 11091: 9001: 8988:

2023). "The genomic echoes of the last Green Sahara on the Fulani and Sahelian people".

8544: 2356: 2052: sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 15760: 15740: 15723: 15674: 15539: 15348: 15299: 15232: 15150: 15091: 15086: 15081: 15037: 15007: 14899: 14797: 14665: 14640: 14135: 13792: 13592: 13577: 13372: 13327: 13322: 13171: 12721: 12333: 11553: 11516: 11415: 11150: 11108: 11075: 11019: 10751: 10706: 10663: 10624: 10591: 10573: 10464: 10456: 10425: 10286: 9882: 9806: 9518: 9483: 9419: 9336: 9029: 8907: 7193:

Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine (2000)

5504: 4705:, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported 4098: 3683: 3571:, was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms. 3235: 3212: 3116: 3108: 2975: 2925:

falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).

2866: 2850: 2791: 2780: 2552: 2447: 2435: 1965: 1810: 1806: 1668: 1134: 1002: 980: 424: 367:

Ancient Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, ruling much of

9482:

Hodgson, Jason A.; Mulligan, Connie J.; Al-Meeri, Ali; Raaum, Ryan L. (12 June 2014).

4538:. The results further point to a close genetic affinity between ancient Egyptians and 877:

in a symbolic act of unification. In the Early Dynastic Period, which began about 3000

15869: 15765: 15701: 15696: 15625: 15522: 15237: 15165: 15160: 15002: 14931: 14914: 14909: 14904: 14704: 14655: 14055: 13716: 13664: 13646: 13587: 13209: 13146: 13141: 13071: 12967: 12927: 12922: 12905: 12875: 12541: 12485: 12479: 12328: 12305: 12127: 12057: 12015: 11511: 11452: 11297: 11196: 11172:"Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state" 11156: 11132: 11126: 11113: 11060: 11050: 11036: 10986: 10980: 10962: 10938: 10916: 10892: 10865: 10797: 10770: 10712: 10688: 10669: 10648: 10629: 10611: 10552: 10502: 10481: 10468: 10400: 10394: 10335: 10316: 10292: 10271: 10261: 10247: 10221: 10198: 10177: 10149: 10115: 10094: 10057: 9974: 9950: 9929: 9910: 9888: 9852: 9831: 9812: 9788: 9767: 9743: 9722: 9696: 9661: 9655: 9637: 9611: 9583: 9562: 9523: 9505: 9455: 9423: 9411: 9313: 9282: 9249: 9228: 9209: 9188: 9143: 9122: 9101: 9080: 9059: 9033: 9021: 9013: 8942: 8936: 8921: 8857: 8833: 8769: 8750: 8726: 8707: 8686: 8647: 8626: 8595: 8571: 8550: 5730: 5620: 5591: 4915: 4830: 4815: 4790: 4745: 4733: 4706: 4672: 4627: 4553: 4408: 4338: 4318: 4235: 4230:

BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a

4113: 3859: 3674: 3540: 3524:

as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.

3512: 3379: 3374:, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground 2799: 2795: 2754: 2742: 2664: 2605: 2156: 1934: 1926: 1795: 1771: 1735: 1711: 1691: 1446:

Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the

1247: 1153: 644: 599: 482: 400: 353: 310: 258: 205: 31: 9845:

Loprieno, Antonio (2004). "Ancient Egyptian and Coptic". In Roger D. Woodard (ed.).

4313:

The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic

3284: 3154: 2970:

works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called

2454:, and these animals were kept in large numbers for the purpose of ritual sacrifice. 1920:

starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out. In 391, the Christian emperor

1093: 15718: 15505: 15500: 15456: 15443: 15373: 15341: 15336: 15200: 15195: 15177: 15138: 15071: 15054: 14995: 14985: 14980: 14921: 14877: 14847: 14807: 14790: 14773: 14736: 14487: 14361: 14096: 13812: 13556: 13465: 13186: 13181: 12989: 12932: 12915: 12885: 12816: 12591: 12370: 12248: 12175: 11995: 11871: 11568: 11482: 11237: 11188: 11103: 11095: 11011: 10619: 10603: 10544: 10448: 10141: 9902: 9802: 9757: 9675: 9625: 9513: 9495: 9447: 9439: 9431: 9403: 9389: 9272: 9045: 9005: 8958:"Egypt's Ancient Fleet: Lost for Thousands of Years, Discovered in a Desolate Cave" 8825: 4717:

studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.

4714: 4709:

from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus,

4663: 4547: 4334: 3974: 3911: 3662: 3418: 3332: 3308: 3104: 3071: 3049: 2750: 2473: 2201:

or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an

2032:, they did use a type of money-barter system, with standard sacks of grain and the 2010: 1941: 1890: 1462: 1428: 1231: 1126: 889:

and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical

766: 758: 675: 656: 648: 502: 345: 298: 14048: 13917: 11243: 9679: 9158:"Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine" 8851: 8424: 4279:, unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages, such as 4241: 2476:

allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and

1342:

The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god

1300:

extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.

15936: 15904: 15777: 15745: 15728: 15684: 15679: 15657: 15652: 15610: 15603: 15578: 15438: 15433: 15274: 15155: 15049: 15044: 15012: 14837: 14827: 14721: 14714: 14709: 14694: 14650: 14532: 14518: 13777: 13131: 13091: 13029: 12132: 12067: 11921: 11271: 10906: 10702: 10129:

Prendergast, Mary E.; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Sirak, Kendra A. (19 October 2022).

9715: 9500: 8784: 8740: 8589: 8585: 8364: 5581: 4761: 4728:, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later 4694: 4686: 4620: 4601:, having arrived via back migration(s) from the Middle East starting as early as 4424: 4176: 4044: 4024: 3978: 3871: 3795: 3384: 3352: 3088: 3087:, might be the classic of Egyptian literature. Also written at this time was the 3084: 3079: 2834: 2826: 2784: 2772: 2477: 2263: 2250: 1571: 1540: 1223: 1014: 972: 937: 818: 566: 486: 361: 95: 15358: 13829: 11074:

Schuenemann, Verena J.; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix; et al. (2017).

8081: 4797:

from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple.

4499: 4234:. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with 3782:, the god associated with mummification and burial rituals, attending to a mummy 1655:

witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525

1403: 30:"Ancient Egyptian" and "Ancient Egyptians" redirect here. For the language, see 15879: 15874: 15837: 15812: 15795: 15706: 15691: 15662: 15620: 15468: 15428: 15423: 15378: 15304: 15264: 15254: 15244: 15059: 14938: 14832: 14699: 14581: 14083: 14017: 13772: 13531: 13399: 13204: 13199: 12910: 12863: 12781: 12726: 12454: 12360: 12323: 12170: 12032: 11866: 11548: 10952: 10930: 10607: 9651: 9139:

The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C.

8920:

originally published by Oxford University Press ed.). Dover Publications.

5513: 5225: 4635: 4631: 4598: 4587: 4438:

when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio. They were able to estimate the area of a

4094: 3689: 3501: 3266: 3067: 3057: 3048:

BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in

2982: 2898: 2648: 2505: 2497: 2485: 2411: 2368: 2288: 2075: 1949: 1945: 1794:

lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the

1602: 1531: 1316: 1059: 882: 857: 679: 671: 9277: 9009: 7622: 4760:

when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's

1940:

In the fourth century, as the Roman Empire divided, Egypt found itself in the

948:, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve 15977: 15960: 15847: 15642: 15615: 15588: 15566: 15544: 15311: 15294: 15279: 15123: 15076: 15064: 14990: 14882: 14756: 14751: 14726: 14431: 14116: 14076: 14062: 13721: 13536: 13311: 12858: 12853: 12826: 12651: 12185: 12107: 11856: 11836: 11799: 10789: 10615: 10532:

Sirak, Kendra A.; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Prendergast, Mary E. (18 May 2022).

9509: 9415: 9303: 9184:

Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings

9017: 8903: 8822:"Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty" 5557: 4896: 4276: 4207: 4164: 4086: 4040: 4033: 3990: 3982: 3951: 3821:

were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so were

3560: 3100: 3037: 2938: 2776: 2617: 2517: 2380: 2246: 2241: 2234: 2132: 2095: 1886: 1878: 1818: 1450: 1447: 1397: 1219: 1208: 1204: 1149: 1038: 1026: 762: 738: 722: 637: 443: 66:

Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (

15388: 15368: 14069: 12392: 11222: 9634:

The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook

9475:

Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)

9243: 8376: 8311: 8309: 8307: 8305: 3961:), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and 3218: 2896:

Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call

2885:, 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb: 2757:. It has the longest known history of any language having been written from 533:

of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.

15852: 15593: 15583: 15549: 15478: 15473: 15400: 15190: 15172: 15133: 15128: 15108: 15103: 14975: 14968: 14958: 14953: 14948: 14842: 14780: 14761: 14746: 14682: 14177: 13867: 13861: 13767: 13762: 13701: 13582: 12937: 12811: 12786: 12738: 12731: 12656: 12571: 12207: 12142: 12000: 11938: 11861: 11819: 11610: 11200: 11117: 10633: 10225: 9964: 9552: 9527: 9025: 8567:

Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs

8340: 6863: 6034: 4794: 4702: 4612: 4258: 4231: 4160: 4153: 4141: 4125: 4002: 3986: 3894: 3626: 3532: 3375: 3247: 3243: 3231: 3041: 2862: 2768: 2640: 2632: 2594: 2572: 2392: 2258: 2034: 2002: 1921: 1905: 1894: 1862: 1831: 1827: 1707: 1559: 1544: 1504: 1503:

assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of

1435:) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded 1389: 1308: 1297: 1192: 1176: 1122: 1072: 1068: 1064: 979:

began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king. This, coupled with

953: 699: 633: 412: 14102: 4557:

The preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is a model of Egyptian architecture.

3254:

were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at

3178:

Egyptians celebrated feasts and festivals, accompanied by music and dance.

2426:

were briefly used in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of

1268:

Pharaohs' tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth, such as the

15571: 15556: 15405: 15118: 15027: 15017: 14943: 14591: 14586: 14416: 13999: 13938: 13757: 13711: 13696: 13624: 13352: 12831: 12636: 12531: 12338: 12074: 12005: 11911: 11829: 11814: 11264: 10976: 9536: 8701: 8330: 8328: 8326: 8324: 8302: 6774: 5742: 5547: 4725: 4721: 4411:

as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction

4265: 4184: 4137: 4090: 4050: 3799: 3791: 3124: 3120: 3119:

script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the

2644: 2509: 1870: 1844: 1664: 1660: 1652: 1521: 1492: 1454: 1424: 1408: 1385: 1362: 1125:. From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted 1106: 929: 928:

Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the

924:

are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.

890: 886: 846: 842: 822: 574: 570: 317: 271: 14454: 12511: 11240: – provides a reliable general overview and further links 11099: 10755: 10429: 9436:"Egypt: Internal affairs from Tuthmosis I to the death of Amenophis III" 9340: 6086: 2529:

purpose. Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as

2516:, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The 481:, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental 15598: 15415: 15289: 15249: 15182: 13951: 13782: 13641: 13629: 13541: 13450: 13039: 12791: 12459: 12434: 12413: 12355: 12217: 12190: 11906: 11786: 11649: 11310: 11192: 11033:

The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs

11023: 10460: 10306: 9872: 9443: 9352:. By International Geological Congress. Pretoria: Wallach. p. 123. 8807:"4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt" 5807: 5666: 4757: 4737: 4643: 4435: 4280: 4215: 3943: 3811: 3622: 3568: 3521: 3255: 3183: 2810: 2375:

The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and

2193: 2175: 2128: 2018: 1917: 1779: 1512: 1458: 1412: 1381: 1304: 1293: 952:, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a 949: 730: 726: 664: 530: 439: 302: 13706: 11290:"Full-length account of Ancient Egypt as part of history of the world" 11258: 8768:. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. 8388: 8321: 8259: 6074: 4272:

by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.

1985:

The pharaoh was usually depicted wearing symbols of royalty and power.

1675:. A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century 1396:, worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the 944:, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the 813:

The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early

15488: 15259: 15143: 15113: 14894: 14768: 14559: 13961: 13874: 12890: 12848: 12821: 12631: 12576: 12560: 12418: 12258: 12212: 12137: 12112: 12079: 11933: 11876: 11851: 11249:

Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt

10794:

The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume VII, Part 1, The Hellenic World

10036: 9970:

Object Worlds in Ancient Egypt: Material Biographies Past and Present

7090: 4535: 3994: 3934: 3754: 3564: 3544: 3367: 3363: 3289: 3251: 2652: 2560: 2556: 2544: 2521: 2481: 2442: 2360: 2305: 2297: 2123: 1990: 1957: 1687: 1648: 1632: 1598: 1358: 1331:, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as 1161: 916: 746: 687: 683: 629: 609: 478: 408: 11730: 11015: 10452: 10366:"4,000-Year-Old Board Game Called 58 Holes Discovered in Azerbaijan" 9924:

Manuelian, Peter Der (1998). Regine Schulz; Matthias Seidel (eds.).

7646: 4668: 4442:

by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:

4264:

In 1977, an ancient north–south canal was discovered extending from

4081:

or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered in

2933: 2825:, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic 2624:

had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.

2103: 1679:

BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.

1585:

BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667

761:, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a 419:. Egypt remained under Roman control until the 640s AD, when it was 14889: 14672: 14630: 14569: 14109: 12611: 12606: 12474: 12429: 12350: 12238: 12233: 12202: 11959: 11916: 11881: 11846: 11794: 11521: 11244:

Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989

10007:

The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land

9543:. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. 9407: 9309:

Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs

8811: 8746:

Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt 2675–332 B.C.E.

7853: 7534: 6269: 4753: 4639: 4590: 4211: 4203: 4082: 4059: 3307:

Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the

3163: 2971: 2822: 2798:

later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite

2636: 2568: 2548: 2384: 2202: 2171: 2099: 2025: 1998: 1893:. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the 1882: 1787: 1393: 1243: 1007: 691: 514: 12556: 10864:. Translated by Raymond Faulkner. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. 10685:

The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization

10588: 8370: 7462: 4690: 4001:

did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding

3901:

over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using

3877: 2877:

is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is

2225: 1694:. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the 1663:, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh 14802: 14731: 14687: 14542: 14394: 13841: 13337: 13229: 12626: 12596: 12551: 12536: 12521: 12516: 12469: 12439: 12162: 11969: 11964: 11901: 11841: 11804: 11563: 10725: 9579:

The Mummy in Ancient Egypt : equipping the dead for eternity

9348:

Greaves, R. H.; Little, O. H. (1930). "Gold Resources of Egypt".

8175: 7628: 7598: 7030: 6976: 6058: 5998: 5877: 4562: 4196: 4180: 4074: 4029: 4020: 3962: 3907: 3898: 3882: 3851: 3822: 3602: 3536: 3371: 3340: 3208: 3053: 2564: 2427: 2396: 2332: 2160: 2115: 2108: 2014: 2006: 1814: 1749: 1594: 1578: 1563: 1500: 1377: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1239: 1212: 1118: 1030: 1025:

controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in

976: 898: 852: 834: 625: 560: 490: 463: 459: 392: 384: 380: 14603: 9205:

The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 2, AD 500–AD 1420

8853:

The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great

7546: 7162: 6452: 6158: 4503:

The halls of Karnak Temple are built with rows of large columns.

4301: 959: 14635: 14510: 14445: 14090: 13911: 12895: 12801: 12646: 12601: 12546: 12506: 12490: 12464: 12408: 12253: 12180: 12084: 12052: 12042: 11990: 11891: 11824: 11073: 10572: 8986: 8886: 8679:"Egyptian Connections with the Larger World: Ancient Near East" 8382: 8223: 8211: 8199: 7258: 6869: 6040: 5198: 4710: 4543: 4523: 4439: 4314: 4254: 4121: 3867: 3807: 3779: 3715: 3698: 3694: 3556: 3528: 3438: 3348: 3344: 3192: 3062: 3017: 2803: 2628: 2621: 2613: 2609: 2540: 2530: 2493: 2415: 2376: 2320: 2293: 2197: 1764: 1683: 1672: 1466: 1373: 1347: 1332: 1289: 1235: 1200: 1196: 1170: 1157: 1142: 963: 894: 866: 781: 718: 703: 462:, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a 376: 372: 333: 4579:

Genetic data on other Northern African specimens, such as the

4202:

Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with

4175:

were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and

3335:

with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.

3012: 2887: 2879: 2871: 1710:. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the 580: 403:, formed in the aftermath of Alexander's death, ruled until 30 15269: 12806: 12796: 12641: 12621: 12566: 12526: 12500: 12444: 11943: 10861:

The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day

10826: 10521:

An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt

9739:

The Philistines and Other Sea Peoples in Text and Archaeology

8832:(third ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 606–. 8292: 8290: 8159: 7985: 7973: 7961: 7949: 7901: 7829: 7694: 7586: 7522: 7318: 7114: 7054: 6780: 4729: 4566: 4172: 4109: 4105: 4039:

The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted

3863: 3787: 3758: 3702: 3227: 3092: 2627:

By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with

2525: 2513: 2489: 2451: 2328: 2316: 2309: 2301: 1644: 1525: 1432: 1328: 1320: 1130: 1063:

A figure wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, most probably

838: 814: 734: 729:

leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the

368: 329: 306: 11277: 10211: 9481: 8970: 8346: 8087: 8057: 7126: 7078: 7018: 6964: 6952: 6940: 6092: 4634:. This latter view has been attributed to the corresponding 3718:

to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.

3103:

was more often employed to write popular pieces such as the

12403: 12062: 12047: 12027: 11928: 11809: 10792:; Astin, A. E.; Fredericksen, M. W.; Ogilvie, R.M. (eds.). 9946:

Village Life in Ancient Egypt: Laundry Lists and Love Songs

9848:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages

9265:"Paleogenomics of the Neolithic Transition in North Africa" 7817: 7366: 7270: 7042: 7008: 7006: 6805: 6803: 6801: 6752: 6750: 6748: 6746: 4698: 4284: 4156: 4136:

Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a

4117: 3706: 3293: 3204: 3200: 3095:

by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests. The

2537: 2501: 2438: 2407: 2400: 2364: 2344: 2324: 2230: 1956:(618–628). It was then recaptured by the Byzantine emperor 1849: 1555: 1365: 1343: 1336: 990: 826: 552: 473:

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the

305:, situated within the contemporary territory of modern-day 14479: 10414:

Shaw, Garry J. (2009). "The Death of King Seqenenre Tao".

10031: 9227:. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. 8352: 8287: 7841: 7330: 7222: 6993: 6991: 6904: 6560: 6536: 6464: 6404: 6281: 4593:, but also specimens from the "last Green Sahara" and the 3258:. The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed 2651:

and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of

1981: 1682:

Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with

1480: 795: 12037: 10796:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 125. 10592:"Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure" 9990:"16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games" 9454:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 380. 9381: 9201: 8394: 8137: 8135: 7562: 7510: 7498: 7486: 7474: 7450: 7210: 7174: 7150: 6548: 6524: 6428: 5938: 5853: 4245:

Seagoing ship of an expedition to Punt, from a relief of

4124:

symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set

3993:, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or 2902:

because of its similarity with Arabic. The word order is

1369: 1191:

BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, a

10766:

Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant

9763:

Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms

9657:

The British Museum Concise Introduction to Ancient Egypt

9484:"Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa" 8496: 8247: 8235: 8120: 8110: 8108: 8069: 8045: 7711: 7709: 7438: 7426: 7390: 7342: 7306: 7294: 7282: 7246: 7234: 7003: 6928: 6827: 6798: 6762: 6743: 6370: 6368: 6134: 5725:

Depending on the definition, 332 BC with the end of the

4777:

has overseen excavations and the recovery of artifacts.

3488:

Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna,

2604:

to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the

1830:

relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the

1177:

Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos

10531: 10128: 9610:. Princeton University Press. pp. 82–90, 97, 167. 9356: 8520: 8484: 8472: 8460: 8436: 8334: 8315: 8187: 8009: 7781: 7402: 6988: 6916: 6719: 6707: 6329: 6275: 6194: 6022: 4471: 3918: 3665:

was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife.

3567:'s revolutionary religious ideas. This style, known as 3215:

that was especially important in religious ceremonies.

1948:. In the waning years of the Empire, Egypt fell to the 1473:. After regaining their power, the high priests at the 569:

began living in the Nile valley through the end of the

10070: 8448: 8132: 7913: 7757: 7745: 7540: 6882: 6880: 6878: 6851: 6685: 6683: 6247: 6245: 6010: 3897:, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching 3749:

and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an

2229:

Measuring and recording the harvest, from the tomb of

1774:, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new 1203:, forcing the former central government to retreat to 12294: 10440:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

8105: 7877: 7793: 7769: 7721: 7706: 7682: 7670: 7658: 7634: 7610: 7574: 7102: 7066: 6815: 6786: 6500: 6440: 6365: 6305: 6257: 6218: 5914: 5865: 5841: 4058:

describes anatomy and medical treatments, written in

3881:

Wooden figures of soldiers, from the tomb of nomarch

3761:

the Devourer and they were erased from the Universe.

3563:, where figures were radically altered to conform to 2647:. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included 1857:

epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.

1109:, upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the 301:. It was concentrated along the lower reaches of the 10810: 8660: 8508: 8181: 8093: 8033: 8021: 7997: 7937: 7889: 7865: 7805: 7733: 7354: 7198: 6839: 6488: 6341: 6164: 6122: 6110: 5974: 4845: 2135:

even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as

1457:, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the 622:

Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today

10107: 10000: 9040: 8623:

Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels: Materials and Forms

8275: 7468: 7414: 7378: 7168: 7138: 6892: 6875: 6731: 6695: 6680: 6668: 6656: 6644: 6632: 6620: 6608: 6596: 6584: 6572: 6512: 6476: 6416: 6392: 6380: 6353: 6317: 6293: 6242: 6230: 6182: 6170: 6080: 5789:life expectancy and do not reflect life expectancy 5692:

List of Ancient Egyptian inventions and discoveries

4744:across Europe, as evident in symbolism such as the 4423:. Standard tables of values facilitated this. Some 1722:BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to 10534:"Ancient Human DNA and African Population History" 9714: 9350:Compte Rendu of the XV Session, South Africa, 1929 8412: 8400: 8147: 6206: 6146: 6098: 6046: 5986: 5962: 5950: 5926: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5898: 5896: 2853:consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless 2600:The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their 10999: 10744:Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 10641:Stiebing, William H. Jr; Helft, Susan N. (2023). 10190: 9736:Killebrew, Ann E.; Lehmann, Gunnar, eds. (2013). 9164:. University College London. 2000. Archived from 8706:. Vol. III. University of California Press. 7925: 6458: 1117:BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city of 15975: 11152:The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt 10912:Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt 10417:Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 10267:The Oxford Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology 10237:. Vol. 8. Scholars Press. pp. 109–129. 10114:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 177–194. 9851:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–192. 9742:. Vol. 15. Society of Biblical Literature. 9735: 8639: 6004: 5767: 4811:Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners 4542:populations, especially ancient groups from the 4101:of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments. 3641:Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30 BC 3288:Hunting game birds and plowing a field, tomb of 2921:is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. 1838: 1763:conquered Egypt with little resistance from the 1048: 612:jar decorated with gazelles (Predynastic Period) 10138:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History 9907:Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400) 9784:Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings 9695:. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 111–122. 9468: 8902: 8229: 8217: 8205: 7604: 7036: 5893: 4681:, published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829 4561:Ancient Egyptians also displayed affinities to 2249:planted round with date palms and fruit trees, 1729: 624:. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed 517:. Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its 10951: 10291:(revised ed.). Harvard University Press. 10056:. California: University of California Press. 10032:"Egypt recovers 16 historic artifacts from US" 9868:"Most Ancient Port, Hieroglyphic Papyri Found" 8913:Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture 8646:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. 3461:Illustration of various types of capitals, by 1976: 1507:. The south was effectively controlled by the 1311:and the Sinai. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 698:, used to shape blades and other objects from 663:; it was known for its high-quality ceramics, 14495: 11746: 11326: 11030: 10640: 10197:. University of Michigan Press. p. 273. 10086: 10001:de Miroschedji, Pierre; Sadeq, Moain (2008). 9830:. Vol. 4. Scribner. pp. 2137–2150. 9558:Choice Cuts: Meat Production in Ancient Egypt 9347: 8296: 7991: 7979: 7967: 7955: 7700: 7132: 7120: 7084: 7060: 7024: 6982: 6970: 6958: 6946: 5646: 3725:. In addition to the body, each person had a 2829:. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the 1253: 1105:successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier 1071:. It functioned as a divine guardian for the 905: 15952:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 11292:. Archived from the original on 24 May 2021. 10541:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology 10087:Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian, eds. (2000). 9142:Princeton University Press. pp. 48–61. 9097:The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt 9093: 8918:Ancient Egyptian Masonry: The Building Craft 8433:, pp. 62–67, 299–314, 500–510, 516–527. 5859: 2616:dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. 2094:Egyptian society was highly stratified, and 1148:The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, 10886: 10169: 9808:Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction 9607:Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE 9575: 9208:. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. 9114: 8685:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 423–446. 7859: 7847: 7652: 7048: 6910: 2869:. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton 1608: 773:for writing the ancient Egyptian language. 14502: 14488: 14288:Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle 14235:International Congress of Maritime Museums 14215:Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology 13507: 11753: 11739: 11333: 11319: 11169: 10647:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 209–212. 10349:Schuster, Angela M.H. (11 December 2000). 9539:. In A. Jorgensen; C.J. Cleveland (eds.). 9058:. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. 8870: 5847: 5653: 5639: 4468:a reasonable approximation of the formula 3265:The excavation of the workers' village of 3074:and social upheaval, is a famous example. 446:and culture. With resources to spare, the 14348: 14303:National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology 11180:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 11145: 11124: 11107: 10857: 10762: 10701: 10623: 10494: 10111:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology 10090:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology 9923: 9901: 9884:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries 9825: 9801: 9780: 9756: 9517: 9499: 9326: 9276: 9222: 8643:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology 8126: 7907: 7835: 7592: 7568: 7528: 7516: 7504: 7492: 7480: 7456: 7444: 7372: 7336: 7300: 7288: 7264: 7228: 7216: 7012: 6934: 6833: 6809: 6768: 6756: 6725: 6566: 6554: 6470: 6287: 5887: 4430:Ancient Egyptian mathematicians knew the 4268:to the Ballah Lakes. It was dated to the 3915:and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt. 3673:. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by 3355:supports in the papyrus and lotus motif. 2669: 2643:, which had to be imported from far-away 1971: 1566:created an empire nearly as large as the 1270:golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun 860:depicts the unification of the Two Lands. 713:); this period was also the beginning of 309:. Ancient Egyptian civilization followed 11340: 11056:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt 10668:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 10661: 10644:Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture 10475: 10348: 10194:Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign 10191:O'Connor, David; Cline, Eric H. (2001). 9987: 9942: 9844: 9717:Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization 9624: 9302: 8856:. Oxford University Press. p. 373. 8846: 8739: 8723:Ancient Egypt, Discovering Its Splendors 8584: 8526: 8502: 8490: 8466: 8454: 8269: 8265: 8253: 8241: 8193: 8114: 8075: 8063: 8051: 7629:Types of temples in ancient Egypt (2003) 7552: 7432: 7396: 7348: 7312: 7252: 7240: 6997: 6922: 6713: 6434: 5820: 4667: 4552: 4498: 4300: 4240: 4049: 3933: 3876: 3845: 3774: 3688: 3656: 3506: 3483: 3283: 3217: 3173: 3153: 3011: 2932: 2906:in verbal and adjectival sentences, and 2802:, which replaced the older inflectional 2588: 2355: 2338: 2296:to harvest their crops, which were then 2240: 2224: 2151: 2085: 1980: 1848: 1739: 1530: 1402: 1263: 1092: 1078: 1058: 991:First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC) 958: 915: 851: 775: 721:(in Greek, Hierakonpolis), and later at 603: 15776: 14273:Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology 11049: 10741: 10515: 10376: 10363: 10260: 10051: 10029: 9963: 9887:(4th ed.). London: Edward Arnold. 9865: 9680:"Women's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt" 9674: 9469:Heptner, V.G.; Sludskii, A.A. (1992) . 9180: 8934: 8720: 8514: 8478: 8335:Prendergast, Sawchuk & Sirak (2022) 8316:Sirak, Sawchuk & Prendergast (2022) 8169: 7919: 7871: 7787: 7556: 7408: 7276: 6898: 6886: 6857: 6792: 6542: 6410: 6311: 6263: 6224: 6140: 6116: 5920: 5871: 5754: 5677:Index of ancient Egypt–related articles 3938:Glassmaking was a highly developed art. 3437:The well preserved Temple of Isis from 3399:Model of a household porch and garden, 2833:, and traces of it are found in modern 2593:Hatshepsut's trading expedition to the 2406:The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and 1481:Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC) 1315:BC, Egypt had an empire extending from 15976: 14225:European Association of Archaeologists 10975: 10929: 10783: 10584:from the original on 13 December 2007. 10549:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.484 10329: 10305: 10284: 10146:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.143 9828:Civilizations of the ancient Near East 9561:. University of Cambridge. p. 5. 9375: 9262: 9072: 8782: 8763: 8699: 8542: 8358: 8281: 7763: 7751: 7727: 7688: 7676: 7664: 7640: 7616: 7108: 6870:Social classes in ancient Egypt (2003) 6821: 6530: 6506: 6446: 6374: 6347: 6212: 6128: 6041:Chronology of the Naqada Period (2001) 5621:List of pharaohs by period and dynasty 4131: 3234:, which had a circular gaming board. " 2304:to separate the straw from the grain. 1461:. Initially, the military was able to 14483: 14347: 13506: 13481:Pompey's campaign against the pirates 13439: 13309: 13308: 12691: 12293: 11772: 11760: 11734: 11314: 11128:The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt 10887:Baines, John; Málek, Jaromír (2000). 10711:. Penguin Books Ltd. pp. 76–77. 10682: 10501:. New York: Oxford University Press. 10241: 10235:Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 10232: 10009:. Vol. 5: Supplementary Volume. 9909:. Yale University Press. p. 63. 9880: 9690: 9650: 9603: 9576:Ikram, Salima; Dodson, Aidan (1998). 9551: 9547:from the original on 28 October 2012. 9534: 9430: 9388: 9269:Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity 9241: 9135: 9115:Dodson, Aidan; Ikram, Salima (2008). 8955: 8819: 8804: 8620: 8563: 8442: 8430: 8418: 8406: 8165: 8153: 8099: 8039: 8027: 8015: 8003: 7883: 7823: 7799: 7775: 7715: 7580: 7420: 7384: 7360: 7324: 7180: 7156: 7096: 7072: 6845: 6662: 6650: 6494: 6482: 6422: 6176: 6104: 6016: 5980: 5968: 5932: 5883: 5794: 5773: 4701:, for example, became popular in the 4565:to the south of Egypt, in modern-day 2840: 2536:The Egyptians worked deposits of the 2021:, who redistributed grain and goods. 1137:", to defend against foreign attack. 741:to the west, and the cultures of the 593: 11695: 11233:. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911. 11210:from the original on 9 October 2022. 10955:; Otto, Eberhard, eds. (1972–1992). 10905: 10838: 10436: 10413: 10392: 10170:Oakes, Lorna; Gahlin, Lucia (2003). 10030:Mohamed, Gobran (8 September 2022). 9709: 9094:Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). 8676: 8141: 7943: 7931: 7895: 7811: 7739: 7204: 7144: 6781:Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies (2002) 6737: 6701: 6689: 6674: 6638: 6626: 6614: 6602: 6590: 6578: 6518: 6398: 6386: 6359: 6335: 6323: 6299: 6251: 6236: 6200: 6188: 6152: 6068: 6064: 6052: 6028: 5992: 5956: 5944: 5908: 4307:Astronomical chart in Senemut's tomb 4163:. A group of 14 discovered ships in 3968: 3919:Technology, medicine and mathematics 3893:Typical military equipment included 3850:Tutankhamun charging enemies on his 3646: 3070:, a poem of lamentations describing 2950:deciphering ancient Egyptian scripts 2806:. There was a change from the older 2500:were found in distant, inhospitable 2496:needed to make plaster. Ore-bearing 2457: 2245:Rectangular fishpond with ducks and 1037:BC the northern Theban forces under 837:grouped the long line of kings from 573:some 120,000 years ago. By the late 324:) with the political unification of 85:List of historical capitals of Egypt 14220:Archaeological Institute of America 11715: 11283:Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women 10818:. University College London. 2001. 10737:from the original on 19 March 2008. 10733:. University College London. 2003. 10727:"Types of temples in ancient Egypt" 10580:. University College London. 2003. 10399:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10396:The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt 10388:from the original on 24 March 2008. 10384:. University College London. 2001. 10082:from the original on 28 March 2008. 10078:. University College London. 2003. 9866:Lorenzi, Rossella (12 April 2013). 8982:from the original on 30 March 2008. 8978:. University College London. 2000. 8898:from the original on 28 March 2008. 8894:. University College London. 2001. 8882:from the original on 16 March 2008. 8878:. University College London. 2000. 8783:Bowman, Alan K. (22 October 2020). 8683:A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art 8608:from the original on 7 October 2019 7469:Day, Gordon & Williamson (1995) 6093:Faience in different Periods (2000) 5672:Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts 4775:Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities 4317:period, and show a fully developed 4150:Archaeological Institute of America 4140:and had mastered advanced forms of 3771:Ancient Egyptian funerary practices 1562:. During the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh 1535:Statues of two pharaohs of Egypt's 1361:, he touted the previously obscure 1238:were ultimately able to defeat the 1183:Second Intermediate Period of Egypt 659:, which probably originated in the 505:and glass technology, new forms of 13: 10880: 10834:. University College London. 2002. 10822:from the original on 4 March 2008. 10769:. Texas A&M University Press. 10708:Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh 10364:Seaburn, Paul (21 November 2018). 9988:Metcalfe, Tom (10 December 2018). 9787:. University of California Press. 9766:. University of California Press. 9376:Hassan, Fekri (17 February 2011). 8956:Curry, Andrew (5 September 2011). 8703:A History of Egyptian Architecture 4511: 3583:Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; 1659:BC, the powerful Persians, led by 1487:Third Intermediate Period of Egypt 1346:, whose growing cult was based in 997:First Intermediate Period of Egypt 885:, from which he could control the 706:was established during Naqada II ( 628:and traversed by herds of grazing 14: 16030: 14230:Institute of Nautical Archaeology 13620:Coastal defence and fortification 12995:Roman circumnavigation of Britain 12295:Navigation, and ports and harbors 11443:Ancient Egyptian race controversy 11215: 10574:"Social classes in ancient Egypt" 9263:Fregel, Rosa (17 November 2021). 9225:Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa 8888:"Chronology of the Naqada Period" 7169:de Miroschedji & Sadeq (2008) 6081:Nicholson & Peltenburg (2000) 4495:Ancient Egyptian race controversy 3764: 3150:Music of Egypt § Old Kingdom 2520:was a notable source of granite, 2315:The ancient Egyptians cultivated 1411:flank the entrance of his temple 1292:. Military campaigns waged under 791:, Naqada, possibly Gerzeh culture 432:Nile River valley for agriculture 16:Northeastern African civilization 14464: 14330: 14255:Society for American Archaeology 13489: 13422: 13291: 12674: 12276: 11714: 11704: 11694: 11685: 11684: 11673: 11636: 9926:Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs 9660:. University of Michigan Press. 8681:. In Hartwig, Melinda K. (ed.). 6005:Aston, Harrell & Shaw (2000) 5813: 5800: 5779: 4862: 4848: 4822: 4802: 4782: 3634: 3614: 3594: 3576: 3454: 3430: 3410: 3392: 2749:language closely related to the 2081: 1813:into composite deities, such as 322:conventional Egyptian chronology 276: 251: 60: 13687:Phoenician discovery of America 11705: 11278:UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology 11259:Digital Egypt for Universities. 11031:Midant-Reynes, Beatrix (2000). 11003:Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 10985:. London: Thames & Hudson. 10889:Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt 10828:"Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies" 10480:. Edison, NJ: Book Sales, Inc. 10332:Egyptian Metalworking and Tools 10131:"Genetics and the African Past" 9582:. London: Thames & Hudson. 9395:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 8725:. National Geographic Society. 5760: 5747: 4750:Great Seal of the United States 4206:to fasten them together, using 3315: 2948:BC) enabled linguists to begin 2468:Stone quarries of ancient Egypt 2147: 2017:and treasuries administered by 1904:From the mid-first century AD, 1861:Egypt became a province of the 1581:sphere of influence, and by 700 1572:pyramids (many in modern Sudan) 1010:and originality of the period. 737:to the south, the oases of the 670:The Badari was followed by the 13379:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 10858:Wasserman, James, ed. (1994). 10841:"World's Oldest Planked Boats" 10832:Digital Egypt for Universities 10816:Digital Egypt for Universities 10731:Digital Egypt for Universities 10578:Digital Egypt for Universities 10478:The Discovery of Ancient Egypt 10382:Digital Egypt for Universities 10093:. Cambridge University Press. 10076:Digital Egypt for Universities 9811:. Cambridge University Press. 9636:. Princeton University Press. 9162:Digital Egypt for Universities 8976:Digital Egypt for Universities 8972:"Faience in different Periods" 8892:Digital Egypt for Universities 8876:Digital Egypt for Universities 8570:. Cambridge University Press. 8535: 6276:Guardian Figure 14.3.17 (2022) 5768:Killebrew & Lehmann (2013) 5735: 5719: 5707:British school of diffusionism 5627:Periodization of ancient Egypt 4756:arranged the first studies in 4290: 4085:during the New Kingdom and at 3555:-style frescoes were found in 2208: 1509:High Priests of Amun at Thebes 956:to maintain peace and order. 297:was a civilization of ancient 1: 14298:Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa 12973:Phoenician maritime expansion 11224:"Egypt/2 Ancient Egypt" 11155:. London: Thames and Hudson. 11131:. London: Thames and Hudson. 9378:"The Fall of the Old Kingdom" 9248:. University of Texas Press. 8941:. London: Thames and Hudson. 8805:Boyle, Alan (15 April 2013). 8230:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 8218:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 8206:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 7605:Clarke & Engelbach (1990) 7541:Music in Ancient Egypt (2003) 7037:Heptner & Sludskii (1992) 5830: 4934: 4764:, which was published in the 4660:Egyptian Revival architecture 4602: 4580: 4570: 4482: 4063: 3955: 3923: 3606: 3584: 3489: 3400: 3351:'s mortuary complex, include 3331:architects could build large 3322:Ancient Egyptian architecture 3297: 3135: 3021: 3001: 2960: 2942: 2758: 2441:, were reserved for royalty. 2118:was entitled to petition the 1839:Roman period (30 BC – AD 641) 1718:BC, but shortly after, in 332 1376:). He was devoted to his new 1049:Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC) 809:Early Dynastic Period (Egypt) 797: 785: 707: 371:and a sizable portion of the 129: 111: 67: 49: 25:Ancient Egyptians (TV series) 16019:History of the Mediterranean 14240:Nautical Archaeology Society 10015:Biblical Archaeology Society 9501:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393 5835: 5729:, 30 BC with the end of the 5697:Archaeology of Ancient Egypt 4297:Ancient Egyptian mathematics 4247:Hatshepsut's Mortuary temple 4056:Edwin Smith surgical papyrus 3709:) in the Valley of the Kings 3480:Portraiture in ancient Egypt 2888: 2880: 2872: 2215:Ancient Egyptian agriculture 1937:or abandoned to the desert. 1869:BC, following the defeat of 1730:Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC) 1690:in the sixth satrapy of the 1615:Late Period of ancient Egypt 1603:sacked the temples of Thebes 651:, and identifiable by their 497:, a practical and effective 7: 14509: 14293:Museum of Ancient Seafaring 13670:Temple of Poseidon, Sounion 13476:Kidnapping of Julius Caesar 13333:Indus–Mesopotamia relations 12692: 11773: 11628:Egypt–Mesopotamia relations 11448:Population history of Egypt 11059:. Oxford University Press. 10763:Wachsmann, Shelley (2009). 10246:. Brink. pp. 433–440. 9949:. Oxford University Press. 9632:. In Victor J. Katz (ed.). 9604:Ehret, Christopher (2023). 8749:Vol. 1. Thomson/Gale. 8297:Stiebing & Helft (2023) 8182:Astronomical Ceiling (2020) 7992:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7980:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7968:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7956:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7701:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7133:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7121:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7085:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 7061:Greaves & Little (1930) 7025:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6983:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6971:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6959:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6947:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 6459:O'Connor & Cline (2001) 6165:Early Dynastic Egypt (2001) 4841: 4615:, with significance on the 4489:Population history of Egypt 4327:Moscow Mathematical Papyrus 4008: 3930:Ancient Egyptian technology 3829: 3520:Paints could be mixed with 3091:, a set of stories told to 3008:Ancient Egyptian literature 2658: 1977:Administration and commerce 1589:BC the Assyrians began the 1528:threatened from the south. 1084:Pyramidion of Amenemhat III 547:Population history of Egypt 511:earliest known peace treaty 10: 16035: 16014:History of Egypt by period 14149:Phoenician Ship Expedition 13440: 12990:Pytheas' voyage to Britain 12983:Circumnavigation of Africa 11170:Zakrzewski, Sonia (2007). 10935:A History of Ancient Egypt 10608:10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049 10476:Siliotti, Alberto (1998). 10011:Israel Exploration Society 9781:Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). 9362:Metropolitan Museum of Art 8935:Clayton, Peter A. (1994). 8721:Billard, Jules B. (1978). 8700:Badawy, Alexander (1968). 8666:Metropolitan Museum of Art 8621:Aston, Barbara G. (1994). 5860:Dodson & Hilton (2004) 5702:Archeological Map of Egypt 4657: 4648:biological anthropological 4595:Savanna Pastoral Neolithic 4515: 4492: 4486: 4351: 4323:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus 4294: 4012: 3927: 3839: 3833: 3768: 3650: 3473: 3423:Metropolitan Museum of Art 3339:palaces, such as those in 3319: 3277: 3273: 3139: 3130: 3005: 2928: 2677: 2662: 2582: 2492:, which also provided the 2461: 2420:Second Intermediate Period 2351: 2218: 2212: 2139:. Despite these freedoms, 1954:Sasanian conquest of Egypt 1842: 1733: 1612: 1591:Assyrian conquest of Egypt 1574:since the Middle Kingdom. 1484: 1257: 1254:New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC) 1180: 1052: 994: 932:, fueled by the increased 909: 906:Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) 869:, who is depicted wearing 806: 597: 540: 536: 29: 18: 15945: 15897: 15414: 14818: 14517: 14462: 14354: 14343: 14328: 14263: 14205: 14008: 13992: 13740: 13675:Samothrace temple complex 13610: 13565: 13524: 13517: 13513: 13502: 13487: 13446: 13435: 13420: 13318: 13304: 13289: 13242: 13195: 13048: 13015: 13008: 12946: 12747: 12704: 12700: 12687: 12672: 12391: 12304: 12300: 12289: 12274: 12226: 12161: 12098: 11983: 11952: 11785: 11781: 11768: 11668: 11645: 11634: 11372: 11349: 11302:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 10839:Ward, Cheryl (May 2001). 10495:Silverman, David (1997). 10315:Museum Tusculanum Press. 10054:General History of Africa 9535:Hogan, C.Michael (2011). 9450:; Sollberger, E. (eds.). 9278:10.1163/9789004500228_009 9223:Emberling, Geoff (2011). 9010:10.1016/j.cub.2023.10.075 8938:Chronicle of the Pharaohs 8677:Ataç, Mehmet-Ali (2014). 7860:Ikram & Dodson (1998) 7848:Ikram & Dodson (1998) 7653:Dodson & Ikram (2008) 7049:Oakes & Gahlin (2003) 6911:Oakes & Gahlin (2003) 5687:List of ancient Egyptians 4831:pyramid complex of Khafre 4653: 4015:Ancient Egyptian medicine 3874:and parts of the Levant. 3836:Military of ancient Egypt 3733:(personality or soul), a 3705:in the tomb of Horemheb ( 3653:Ancient Egyptian religion 3621:Portrait head of pharaoh 3171:comprised the furniture. 3142:Clothing in ancient Egypt 2992:Jean-François Champollion 2857:and voiced and voiceless 1692:Achaemenid Persian Empire 1407:Four colossal statues of 934:agricultural productivity 780:Early tomb painting from 667:, and its use of copper. 527:inspired the imaginations 313:and coalesced around 3100 230: 226: 216: 201: 186: 169: 154: 139: 120: 105: 101: 91: 78: 59: 48: 41: 15999:Former empires in Africa 15989:Bronze Age civilizations 12963:Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul 11680:Ancient Egypt portal 11265:Priests of Ancient Egypt 11125:Wilkinson, R.H. (2000). 10662:Strouhal, Eugen (1989). 10288:The Art of Ancient Egypt 10072:"Music in Ancient Egypt" 10025:– via BAS Library. 9943:McDowell, A. G. (1999). 9691:Keita, Shomarka (2022). 9686:. University of Chicago. 9181:El-Daly, Okasha (2005). 9055:Wisdom in Ancient Israel 8764:Bonnet, Charles (2006). 8594:. Melbourne: Macmillan. 8564:Allen, James P. (2000). 8546:Akhenaten, King of Egypt 8383:D’Atanasio et al. (2023) 7655:, pp. 218, 275–276. 5712: 5682:Outline of ancient Egypt 4518:Genetic history of Egypt 4152:reports that the oldest 3280:Ancient Egyptian cuisine 3242:of the Egyptian pharaoh 3097:Instruction of Amenemope 3016:Hieroglyphs on stela in 2996:substantially deciphered 2831:Egyptian Orthodox Church 2578: 2533:as cosmetic substances. 2464:Mining industry of Egypt 2221:Gardens of ancient Egypt 1792:Lighthouse of Alexandria 1643:expanded greatly as the 1619:History of Persian Egypt 1609:Late Period (653–332 BC) 1039:Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II 733:. They also traded with 702:. Mutual trade with the 543:History of ancient Egypt 531:scientific investigation 338:history of ancient Egypt 21:Ancient Egypt (magazine) 19:Not to be confused with 14245:RPM Nautical Foundation 13982:Surviving ancient ships 13901:Marsala Punic shipwreck 11230:Encyclopædia Britannica 10958:Lexikon der Ägyptologie 10393:Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). 9329:Egitto e Vicino Oriente 9121:. Thames & Hudson. 9100:. Thames & Hudson. 9076:Egyptian Rock-cut Tombs 8916:(Unabridged reprint of 8790:Encyclopædia Britannica 7862:, pp. 40, 51, 138. 7327:, pp. 67, 70, 109. 5772: • From 4793:is integrated into the 4767:Description de l'Égypte 4678:Description de l'Égypte 4626:Some scholars, such as 4270:Middle Kingdom of Egypt 3447:architectural sculpture 3309:cuisine of modern Egypt 3262:, and boating as well. 3222:Ruins of Deir el-Medina 3158:Lower-class occupations 2790:Ancient Egyptian was a 1491:Following the death of 1055:Middle Kingdom of Egypt 902:Egyptian civilization. 796:Early Dynastic Period ( 332:(often identified with 16004:Former empires in Asia 15994:Cradle of civilization 14278:Giza Solar boat museum 13732:Underwater exploration 13727:Underwater archaeology 13692:Pre-Columbian theories 13547:John Sinclair Morrison 13508:Research and education 12958:Austronesian Expansion 11238:BBC History: Egyptians 10812:"Early Dynastic Egypt" 10784:Turner, E.G. (1984) . 10683:Török, László (1998). 10334:. Shire Publications. 10330:Scheel, Bernd (1989). 10176:. Barnes & Noble. 9881:Lucas, Alfred (1962). 9630:"Egyptian Mathematics" 9136:Drews, Robert (1993). 9073:Dodson, Aidan (1991). 8662:"Astronomical Ceiling" 8543:Aldred, Cyril (1988). 8371:Skoglund et al. (2017) 5785:Figures are given for 5425:Twenty-seventh Dynasty 4682: 4558: 4504: 4310: 4250: 4070: 3946:, as evidenced by the 3939: 3890: 3855: 3783: 3710: 3666: 3516: 3496: 3469: 3421:, completed by 10 BC, 3380:step pyramid of Djoser 3328:Great Pyramids of Giza 3304: 3223: 3179: 3159: 3146:Dance in ancient Egypt 3028: 2953: 2775:(Classical Egyptian), 2670:Historical development 2612:stationed in southern 2597: 2585:Ancient Egyptian trade 2372: 2348: 2331:and to make clothing. 2254: 2253:, Thebes, 18th Dynasty 2238: 2167: 2141:ancient Egyptian women 2091: 1986: 1972:Government and economy 1929:, the ability to read 1858: 1752: 1696:Twenty-Seventh Dynasty 1547: 1416: 1303:Between their reigns, 1273: 1098: 1090: 1076: 967: 925: 861: 792: 755:decorative stone vases 715:trade with Mesopotamia 613: 218:• Disestablished 15922:Medieval great powers 14349:Legend and literature 14307:Viking ship museums: 14283:Grand Egyptian Museum 14043:Austronesian replicas 14018:Heyerdahl expeditions 13928:Caligula's Giant Ship 13788:Dover Bronze Age Boat 12450:Berenice Troglodytica 11354:Glossary of artifacts 11270:22 March 2022 at the 11080:Nature Communications 10982:The Complete Pyramids 10665:Life in Ancient Egypt 9928:. Cologne: Könemann. 9721:. London: Routledge. 9541:Encyclopedia of Earth 9242:Filer, Joyce (1995). 8549:. Thames and Hudson. 8347:Hodgson et al. (2014) 8088:Pećanac et al. (2013) 7826:, pp. 79, 94–95. 7267:, pp. 2137–2138. 5947:, pp. 17, 67–69. 5558:Thirty-fourth Dynasty 5514:Thirty-second Dynasty 5441:Twenty-eighth Dynasty 5363:Twenty-fourth Dynasty 5337:Twenty-second Dynasty 4671: 4556: 4502: 4487:Further information: 4404:Mathematical notation 4304: 4244: 4220:Great Pyramid of Giza 4053: 3937: 3880: 3849: 3842:Ancient Egyptian navy 3840:Further information: 3778: 3692: 3671:divine right of kings 3660: 3601:Fresco which depicts 3541:wooden or clay models 3510: 3487: 3443:Egyptian architecture 3287: 3221: 3177: 3157: 3140:Further information: 3060:. The genre known as 3015: 2936: 2893:, 'the woman hears'. 2794:, but it became more 2592: 2462:Further information: 2367:with a pair of oxen, 2359: 2342: 2336:were made into wine. 2244: 2228: 2155: 2089: 1984: 1855:Fayum mummy portraits 1852: 1784:Library of Alexandria 1750:double crown of Egypt 1746:Ptolemy VI Philometor 1743: 1593:. The reigns of both 1534: 1453:to the west, and the 1406: 1267: 1096: 1082: 1062: 983:between 2200 and 2150 962: 919: 855: 779: 743:eastern Mediterranean 607: 326:Upper and Lower Egypt 124:Early Dynastic Period 15932:European colonialism 15917:Ancient great powers 14250:Sea Research Society 13652:Maritime archaeology 13461:Ameinias the Phocian 13456:Mediterranean piracy 11285:by Dr Joann Fletcher 10285:Robins, Gay (2008). 10052:Mokhtar, G. (1990). 8996:(24): 5495–5504.e4. 6985:, pp. 577, 630. 5592:Thirty-fifth Dynasty 5527:Thirty-third Dynasty 5483:(2nd Persian Period) 5481:Thirty-first Dynasty 5454:Twenty-ninth Dynasty 5427:(1st Persian Period) 5411:Twenty-sixth Dynasty 5376:Twenty-fifth Dynasty 5350:Twenty-third Dynasty 5324:Twenty-first Dynasty 4870:Civilizations portal 4856:Ancient Egypt portal 4835:Great Sphinx of Giza 4343:systems of equations 4093:in the Late period. 3737:(life-force), and a 3476:Art of ancient Egypt 3463:Karl Richard Lepsius 2957:Hieroglyphic writing 2718:'Egyptian language' 2484:used salts from the 2363:plows his fields in 2237:(Eighteenth Dynasty) 2137:Divine Wives of Amun 1966:Muslim Rashidun army 1944:with its capital at 1931:hieroglyphic writing 1712:Thirty-First Dynasty 1625:Twenty-Sixth Dynasty 1554:BC the Kushite king 1537:Twenty-Fifth Dynasty 1260:New Kingdom of Egypt 1211:and the horse-drawn 912:Old Kingdom of Egypt 557:agricultural economy 181:1549 BC – 1078/77 BC 15927:Modern great powers 13343:Maritime Jade Route 12496:Kaveri Poompattinam 11500:Cursive hieroglyphs 11100:10.1038/ncomms15694 11092:2017NatCo...815694S 10961:. O. Harrassowitz. 10891:. Checkmark Books. 10370:Mysterious Universe 9002:2023CBio...33E5495D 8908:Engelbach, Reginald 8766:The Nubian Pharaohs 8591:Tiepolo's Cleopatra 8395:Eltis et al. (2021) 8090:, pp. 263–267. 8066:, pp. 244–246. 7910:, pp. 366–367. 7838:, pp. 150–153. 7595:, pp. 399–400. 7531:, pp. 406–407. 7279:, pp. 197–227. 7183:, pp. 109–129. 7159:, pp. 433–440. 6545:, pp. 161–163. 6533:, pp. 142–154. 6413:, pp. 104–107. 6338:, pp. 179–182. 6203:, pp. 116–117. 6083:, pp. 178–179. 6071:, pp. 424–425. 6031:, pp. 424–425. 5238:Seventeenth Dynasty 5173:Second Intermediate 4916:Pre-dynastic period 4617:African Slave Trade 4432:Pythagorean theorem 4185:Pharaoh Khasekhemwy 4169:New York University 4132:Maritime technology 4099:empirical knowledge 4041:periodontal disease 3981:, small amounts of 3404: 1981–1975 BC 3366:, and the enclosed 3101:vernacular language 2994:, were hieroglyphs 2815:subject–verb–object 2808:verb–subject–object 2567:in Wadi Sikait and 2436:Sub-Saharan African 2005:each governed by a 1960:(629–639), and was 1802:Hellenistic culture 1761:Alexander the Great 1724:Alexander the Great 1631:BC, the Saite king 1597:and his successor, 833:BC Egyptian priest 829:. The third-century 711: 3600–3350 BC 682:), and Naqada III ( 616:In Predynastic and 397:Alexander the Great 389:Achaemenid Persians 107:• Established 13891:Bajo de la Campana 13593:Peter Throckmorton 13578:Jean-Yves Empereur 13552:William L. Rodgers 13373:Maritime Silk Road 11473:Funerary practices 11193:10.1002/ajpa.20569 11051:Redford, Donald B. 10527:on 30 August 2012. 10262:Redford, Donald B. 10214:Medicinski Pregled 9304:Gardiner, Sir Alan 9271:. Brill: 213–235. 9050:Williamson, H.G.M. 8820:Cerny, J. (1975). 8361:, p. 214-216. 5741:With the death of 5315:Third Intermediate 5281:Nineteenth Dynasty 5268:Eighteenth Dynasty 5182:Fourteenth Dynasty 5152:Thirteenth Dynasty 5033:First Intermediate 4707:building materials 4683: 4559: 4505: 4341:, and could solve 4311: 4251: 4071: 3940: 3891: 3856: 3784: 3711: 3667: 3517: 3497: 3305: 3246:that dates to the 3236:Hounds and Jackals 3224: 3213:musical instrument 3211:was a rattle-like 3180: 3160: 3109:Instruction of Any 3029: 2954: 2841:Sounds and grammar 2792:synthetic language 2606:Predynastic Period 2598: 2373: 2349: 2255: 2239: 2168: 2092: 1991:military commander 1987: 1859: 1826:. In addition, as 1753: 1669:Battle of Pelusium 1548: 1539:and several other 1417: 1274: 1195:people called the 1160:settlers from the 1135:Walls of the Ruler 1099: 1091: 1086:, capstone of the 1077: 1003:central government 968: 926: 873:on the ceremonial 862: 793: 678:), the Naqada II ( 614: 594:Predynastic period 571:Middle Pleistocene 499:system of medicine 444:social development 434:. The predictable 425:Rashidun Caliphate 15971: 15970: 15893: 15892: 15858:Polish–Lithuanian 15033:Gurjara-Pratihara 14477: 14476: 14473: 14472: 14339: 14338: 14326: 14325: 13946:Madrague de Giens 13665:Temple of Isthmia 13661:Maritime temples 13647:Marine navigation 13606: 13605: 13598:Shelley Wachsmann 13588:J. Richard Steffy 13498: 13497: 13431: 13430: 13300: 13299: 13287: 13286: 13238: 13237: 12968:Ocean exploration 12683: 12682: 12670: 12669: 12329:Rutter (nautical) 12285: 12284: 12272: 12271: 12128:Mortise and tenon 11762:Ancient seafaring 11728: 11727: 11483:Great Royal Wives 11453:Prehistoric Egypt 11162:978-0-500-05120-7 11138:978-0-500-05100-9 11066:978-0-19-510234-5 11042:978-0-631-21787-9 10992:978-0-500-05084-2 10968:978-3-447-01441-0 10944:978-0-631-19396-8 10922:978-1-134-66525-9 10898:978-0-8160-4036-0 10871:978-0-8118-0767-8 10803:978-0-521-23445-0 10786:"Ptolemaic Egypt" 10776:978-1-60344-080-6 10718:978-0-14-194978-9 10694:978-90-04-10448-8 10687:. Leiden: Brill. 10675:978-0-8061-2475-9 10654:978-1-000-88066-3 10558:978-0-19-085458-4 10508:978-0-19-521270-9 10487:978-0-7858-1360-6 10406:978-0-19-280458-7 10341:978-0-7478-0001-9 10322:978-87-7289-421-8 10298:978-0-674-03065-7 10277:978-0-425-19096-8 10253:978-965-221-015-9 10204:978-0-472-08833-1 10183:978-0-7607-4943-2 10155:978-0-19-027773-4 10121:978-0-521-45257-1 10100:978-0-521-45257-1 10063:978-0-520-06697-7 10003:"Sakan, Tell es-" 9980:978-1-85973-867-2 9956:978-0-19-924753-0 9935:978-3-89508-913-8 9916:978-0-300-03642-8 9903:MacMullen, Ramsay 9894:978-1-85417-046-0 9858:978-0-521-56256-0 9837:978-0-684-19723-4 9818:978-0-521-44849-9 9803:Loprieno, Antonio 9794:978-0-520-04020-5 9773:978-0-520-02899-9 9758:Lichtheim, Miriam 9749:978-1-58983-721-8 9728:978-0-415-06346-3 9676:Johnson, Janet H. 9667:978-0-472-03137-5 9643:978-0-691-11485-9 9626:Imhausen, Annette 9617:978-0-691-24409-9 9589:978-0-500-05088-0 9568:978-90-6831-745-9 9461:978-0-521-08230-3 9432:Hayes, William C. 9390:Hayes, William C. 9358:"Guardian Figure" 9319:978-0-900416-35-4 9288:978-90-04-50022-8 9255:978-0-292-72498-3 9234:978-0-615-48102-9 9215:978-0-521-84067-5 9194:978-1-315-42976-2 9149:978-0-691-02591-9 9128:978-0-500-05139-9 9107:978-0-500-05128-3 9086:978-0-7478-0128-3 9065:978-0-521-62489-3 9046:Gordon, Robert P. 8948:978-0-500-05074-3 8927:978-0-486-26485-1 8863:978-0-19-152995-5 8839:978-0-521-08691-2 8775:978-977-416-010-3 8756:978-0-7876-5698-0 8732:978-0-87044-220-9 8713:978-0-520-00057-5 8692:978-1-4443-3350-3 8653:978-0-521-45257-1 8632:978-3-927552-12-8 8601:978-1-876832-44-5 8577:978-0-521-77483-3 8556:978-0-500-05048-4 8445:, pp. 62–65. 8144:, pp. 31–38. 8018:, pp. 78–80. 7607:, pp. 94–97. 7375:, pp. 10–26. 7039:, pp. 83–95. 6569:, pp. 36–37. 6473:, pp. 76–77. 6290:, pp. 41–54. 6143:, pp. 12–13. 6019:, pp. 23–26. 6007:, pp. 46–47. 5848:Chronology (2000) 5731:Ptolemaic Kingdom 5663: 5662: 5610: 5609: 5572: 5571: 5538: 5537: 5505:Hellenistic Egypt 5495: 5494: 5467:Thirtieth Dynasty 5392: 5391: 5305: 5304: 5294:Twentieth Dynasty 5249: 5248: 5213:Sixteenth Dynasty 5195:Fifteenth Dynasty 5163: 5162: 5106: 5105: 5023: 5022: 4954: 4953: 4816:Alexandre Cabanel 4791:Abu Haggag Mosque 4746:Eye of Providence 4734:Dhul-Nun al-Misri 4628:Christopher Ehret 4401: 4400: 4367: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4305:Facsimile of the 4236:mortise and tenon 4023:and debilitating 3969:Faience and glass 3860:ancient Near East 3647:Religious beliefs 3515:as funerary goods 3441:is an example of 3385:pyramids of Nubia 3072:natural disasters 2908:subject–predicate 2904:predicate–subject 2755:Semitic languages 2743:Egyptian language 2739: 2738: 2709: 2708: 2705: 2704: 2665:Egyptian language 2602:foreign neighbors 2549:alluvial deposits 2474:natural resources 2458:Natural resources 2450:and the ibis god 2157:The Seated Scribe 2011:places of worship 1889:Augustus) in the 1772:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1736:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1726:without a fight. 1296:and his grandson 759:cosmetic palettes 600:Predynastic Egypt 468:religious beliefs 411:, it fell to the 401:Ptolemaic Kingdom 354:Middle Bronze Age 311:prehistoric Egypt 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 264: 263: 259:Predynastic Egypt 206:Ptolemaic Kingdom 165:2134 BC – 1690 BC 150:2686 BC – 2181 BC 32:Egyptian language 16026: 15774: 15773: 15439:Austro-Hungarian 15139:Chagatai Khanate 14504: 14497: 14490: 14481: 14480: 14468: 14467: 14362:Ark of bulrushes 14345: 14344: 14334: 14333: 13972:Oldest surviving 13682:Nusantao network 13557:Chester G. Starr 13522: 13521: 13515: 13514: 13504: 13503: 13493: 13492: 13466:Cilician pirates 13437: 13436: 13426: 13425: 13363:Sa Huynh-Kalanay 13358:Iron Age Britain 13306: 13305: 13295: 13294: 13013: 13012: 12702: 12701: 12689: 12688: 12678: 12677: 12592:Ptolemais Theron 12302: 12301: 12291: 12290: 12280: 12279: 11872:Single-outrigger 11783: 11782: 11770: 11769: 11755: 11748: 11741: 11732: 11731: 11718: 11717: 11708: 11707: 11698: 11697: 11688: 11687: 11678: 11677: 11676: 11640: 11335: 11328: 11321: 11312: 11311: 11307: 11301: 11293: 11234: 11226: 11211: 11209: 11176: 11166: 11142: 11121: 11111: 11070: 11046: 11027: 10996: 10972: 10948: 10926: 10907:Bard, Kathryn A. 10902: 10875: 10854: 10835: 10823: 10807: 10780: 10759: 10738: 10722: 10703:Tyldesley, Joyce 10698: 10679: 10658: 10637: 10627: 10602:(1): 59–71.e21. 10585: 10569: 10567: 10565: 10538: 10528: 10523:. Archived from 10512: 10491: 10472: 10433: 10410: 10389: 10373: 10360: 10345: 10326: 10302: 10281: 10257: 10238: 10229: 10220:(5–6): 263–267. 10208: 10187: 10166: 10164: 10162: 10135: 10125: 10104: 10083: 10067: 10048: 10046: 10044: 10026: 10024: 10022: 9997: 9984: 9960: 9939: 9920: 9898: 9877: 9862: 9841: 9822: 9798: 9777: 9753: 9732: 9720: 9706: 9687: 9671: 9647: 9621: 9600: 9598: 9596: 9572: 9548: 9531: 9521: 9503: 9478: 9465: 9427: 9385: 9372: 9370: 9368: 9353: 9344: 9323: 9299: 9297: 9295: 9280: 9259: 9238: 9219: 9198: 9177: 9175: 9173: 9153: 9132: 9111: 9090: 9069: 9037: 8983: 8967: 8952: 8931: 8899: 8883: 8867: 8843: 8816: 8801: 8799: 8797: 8779: 8760: 8741:Bleiberg, Edward 8736: 8717: 8696: 8673: 8668:. Archived from 8657: 8636: 8617: 8615: 8613: 8586:Anderson, Jaynie 8581: 8560: 8530: 8524: 8518: 8512: 8506: 8500: 8494: 8488: 8482: 8476: 8470: 8464: 8458: 8452: 8446: 8440: 8434: 8428: 8422: 8416: 8410: 8404: 8398: 8392: 8386: 8380: 8374: 8368: 8362: 8356: 8350: 8344: 8338: 8332: 8319: 8318:, p. 20-22. 8313: 8300: 8294: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8263: 8257: 8251: 8245: 8239: 8233: 8227: 8221: 8215: 8209: 8203: 8197: 8191: 8185: 8179: 8173: 8163: 8157: 8151: 8145: 8139: 8130: 8127:Wachsmann (2009) 8124: 8118: 8112: 8103: 8097: 8091: 8085: 8079: 8073: 8067: 8061: 8055: 8049: 8043: 8037: 8031: 8025: 8019: 8013: 8007: 8001: 7995: 7989: 7983: 7977: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7908:Manuelian (1998) 7905: 7899: 7893: 7887: 7881: 7875: 7869: 7863: 7857: 7851: 7845: 7839: 7836:Wasserman (1994) 7833: 7827: 7821: 7815: 7809: 7803: 7797: 7791: 7785: 7779: 7773: 7767: 7761: 7755: 7749: 7743: 7737: 7731: 7725: 7719: 7713: 7704: 7698: 7692: 7686: 7680: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7650: 7644: 7638: 7632: 7626: 7620: 7614: 7608: 7602: 7596: 7593:Manuelian (1998) 7590: 7584: 7578: 7572: 7569:Manuelian (1998) 7566: 7560: 7550: 7544: 7538: 7532: 7529:Manuelian (1998) 7526: 7520: 7517:Manuelian (1998) 7514: 7508: 7505:Manuelian (1998) 7502: 7496: 7493:Manuelian (1998) 7490: 7484: 7481:Lichtheim (1980) 7478: 7472: 7466: 7460: 7457:Lichtheim (1975) 7454: 7448: 7445:Lichtheim (1975) 7442: 7436: 7430: 7424: 7418: 7412: 7406: 7400: 7394: 7388: 7382: 7376: 7373:Loprieno (1995a) 7370: 7364: 7358: 7352: 7346: 7340: 7337:Loprieno (1995b) 7334: 7328: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7301:Loprieno (1995a) 7298: 7292: 7289:Loprieno (1995a) 7286: 7280: 7274: 7268: 7265:Loprieno (1995b) 7262: 7256: 7250: 7244: 7238: 7232: 7229:Loprieno (1995b) 7226: 7220: 7217:Manuelian (1998) 7214: 7208: 7202: 7196: 7190: 7184: 7178: 7172: 7166: 7160: 7154: 7148: 7142: 7136: 7130: 7124: 7118: 7112: 7106: 7100: 7094: 7088: 7082: 7076: 7070: 7064: 7058: 7052: 7046: 7040: 7034: 7028: 7022: 7016: 7013:Manuelian (1998) 7010: 7001: 6995: 6986: 6980: 6974: 6968: 6962: 6956: 6950: 6944: 6938: 6935:Manuelian (1998) 6932: 6926: 6920: 6914: 6908: 6902: 6896: 6890: 6884: 6873: 6867: 6861: 6855: 6849: 6843: 6837: 6834:Manuelian (1998) 6831: 6825: 6819: 6813: 6810:Manuelian (1998) 6807: 6796: 6790: 6784: 6778: 6772: 6769:Manuelian (1998) 6766: 6760: 6757:Manuelian (1998) 6754: 6741: 6735: 6729: 6726:MacMullen (1984) 6723: 6717: 6711: 6705: 6699: 6693: 6687: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6612: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6588: 6582: 6576: 6570: 6567:Silverman (1997) 6564: 6558: 6557:, pp. 9–11. 6555:Emberling (2011) 6552: 6546: 6540: 6534: 6528: 6522: 6516: 6510: 6504: 6498: 6492: 6486: 6480: 6474: 6471:Tyldesley (2001) 6468: 6462: 6456: 6450: 6444: 6438: 6437:, p. 49-50. 6432: 6426: 6420: 6414: 6408: 6402: 6396: 6390: 6384: 6378: 6372: 6363: 6357: 6351: 6345: 6339: 6333: 6327: 6321: 6315: 6309: 6303: 6297: 6291: 6285: 6279: 6273: 6267: 6261: 6255: 6249: 6240: 6234: 6228: 6222: 6216: 6210: 6204: 6198: 6192: 6186: 6180: 6174: 6168: 6162: 6156: 6150: 6144: 6138: 6132: 6126: 6120: 6114: 6108: 6102: 6096: 6090: 6084: 6078: 6072: 6062: 6056: 6050: 6044: 6038: 6032: 6026: 6020: 6014: 6008: 6002: 5996: 5990: 5984: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5960: 5954: 5948: 5942: 5936: 5930: 5924: 5918: 5912: 5906: 5891: 5888:Manuelian (1998) 5881: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5845: 5824: 5817: 5811: 5804: 5798: 5783: 5777: 5764: 5758: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5733: 5723: 5655: 5648: 5641: 5587: 5586: 5560:(Roman Pharaohs) 5553: 5552: 5510: 5509: 5407: 5406: 5320: 5319: 5264: 5263: 5178: 5177: 5126:Eleventh Dynasty 5121: 5120: 5095:Eleventh Dynasty 5038: 5037: 4969: 4968: 4936: 4912: 4911: 4876: 4875: 4872: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4858: 4853: 4852: 4851: 4829:Tourists at the 4826: 4806: 4786: 4715:Diodorus Siculus 4664:Tourism in Egypt 4607: 4604: 4585: 4582: 4575: 4572: 4548:Natufian culture 4478: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4425:common fractions 4415:into the sum of 4380: 4379: 4375: 4356: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4347: 4249:, Deir el-Bahari 4229: 4214:the seams. The " 4194: 4190: 4147: 4144:as early as 3000 4068: 4065: 3960: 3957: 3912:Seqenenre Tao II 3755:feather of truth 3663:Book of the Dead 3638: 3618: 3608: 3598: 3589: 3586: 3580: 3494: 3491: 3458: 3434: 3419:Temple of Dendur 3414: 3405: 3402: 3396: 3333:stone structures 3302: 3299: 3260:hunting, fishing 3114: 3105:Story of Wenamun 3047: 3026: 3023: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2947: 2944: 2909: 2905: 2891: 2883: 2875: 2766: 2763: 2760: 2682: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2673: 2412:beasts of burden 2281:(planting), and 2073: 2069: 2065: 2064: 2060: 2057: 2051: 2050: 2046: 2043: 1962:finally captured 1950:Sasanian Persian 1891:Battle of Actium 1868: 1758: 1721: 1717: 1701: 1678: 1658: 1630: 1588: 1584: 1553: 1518: 1498: 1442: 1429:Battle of Kadesh 1422: 1356: 1314: 1276:The New Kingdom 1232:Seqenenre Tao II 1229: 1190: 1127:land reclamation 1116: 1103:Eleventh Dynasty 1036: 1020: 986: 922:pyramids of Giza 880: 832: 821:civilization of 802: 801: 3150–2686 799: 790: 787: 712: 709: 674:: the Naqada I ( 657:Badarian culture 649:animal husbandry 567:hunter-gatherers 513:, made with the 503:Egyptian faience 417:a Roman province 407:BC, when, under 406: 346:Early Bronze Age 316: 299:Northeast Africa 280: 279: 268: 267: 255: 254: 248: 247: 232: 231: 208: 193: 182: 176: 161: 146: 134: 131: 116: 113: 72: 69: 64: 54: 51: 39: 38: 16034: 16033: 16029: 16028: 16027: 16025: 16024: 16023: 16009:Ancient peoples 15974: 15973: 15972: 15967: 15956:American Empire 15941: 15937:African empires 15889: 15772: 15464:Central African 15410: 15228:Romano-Germanic 14814: 14548:Middle Assyrian 14521: 14513: 14508: 14478: 14469: 14465: 14460: 14350: 14335: 14331: 14322: 14265: 14259: 14207: 14206:Institutes and 14201: 14156:Viking replicas 14097:Balangay Voyage 14010: 14004: 13988: 13743: 13736: 13612: 13602: 13561: 13509: 13494: 13490: 13485: 13442: 13427: 13423: 13418: 13314: 13296: 13292: 13283: 13234: 13191: 13044: 13004: 12949: 12942: 12743: 12696: 12679: 12675: 12666: 12542:Mueang Phra Rot 12396: 12387: 12296: 12281: 12277: 12268: 12222: 12196:Triangular sail 12157: 12094: 12068:Sail components 11979: 11948: 11922:Tessarakonteres 11777: 11764: 11759: 11729: 11724: 11674: 11672: 11664: 11641: 11632: 11368: 11345: 11339: 11295: 11294: 11288: 11272:Wayback Machine 11221: 11218: 11207: 11174: 11163: 11147:Wilkinson, R.H. 11139: 11067: 11043: 11016:10.2307/3822337 10993: 10969: 10953:Helck, Wolfgang 10945: 10931:Grimal, Nicolas 10923: 10899: 10883: 10881:Further reading 10878: 10872: 10804: 10777: 10719: 10695: 10676: 10655: 10563: 10561: 10559: 10536: 10509: 10488: 10453:10.2307/1356573 10407: 10351:"This Old Boat" 10342: 10323: 10299: 10278: 10254: 10205: 10184: 10160: 10158: 10156: 10133: 10122: 10101: 10064: 10042: 10040: 10020: 10018: 9981: 9957: 9936: 9917: 9895: 9859: 9838: 9819: 9795: 9774: 9750: 9729: 9703: 9668: 9644: 9618: 9594: 9592: 9590: 9569: 9494:(6): e1004393. 9462: 9448:Hammond, N.G.L. 9440:Edwards, I.E.S. 9366: 9364: 9320: 9293: 9291: 9289: 9256: 9235: 9216: 9195: 9171: 9169: 9150: 9129: 9108: 9087: 9066: 9052:, eds. (1995). 8990:Current Biology 8949: 8928: 8864: 8848:Chadwick, Henry 8840: 8795: 8793: 8785:"Ancient Egypt" 8776: 8757: 8733: 8714: 8693: 8672:on 17 May 2020. 8654: 8633: 8611: 8609: 8602: 8578: 8557: 8538: 8533: 8527:Anderson (2003) 8525: 8521: 8513: 8509: 8503:Siliotti (1998) 8501: 8497: 8491:Siliotti (1998) 8489: 8485: 8477: 8473: 8467:Siliotti (1998) 8465: 8461: 8455:Siliotti (1998) 8453: 8449: 8441: 8437: 8429: 8425: 8417: 8413: 8405: 8401: 8393: 8389: 8381: 8377: 8369: 8365: 8357: 8353: 8345: 8341: 8333: 8322: 8314: 8303: 8295: 8288: 8280: 8276: 8270:Imhausen (2007) 8268:, p. 241; 8266:Strouhal (1989) 8264: 8260: 8254:Strouhal (1989) 8252: 8248: 8242:Gardiner (1957) 8240: 8236: 8228: 8224: 8216: 8212: 8204: 8200: 8194:Imhausen (2007) 8192: 8188: 8180: 8176: 8164: 8160: 8152: 8148: 8140: 8133: 8125: 8121: 8115:Schuster (2000) 8113: 8106: 8098: 8094: 8086: 8082: 8076:Strouhal (1989) 8074: 8070: 8064:Strouhal (1989) 8062: 8058: 8052:Strouhal (1989) 8050: 8046: 8038: 8034: 8026: 8022: 8014: 8010: 8002: 7998: 7990: 7986: 7978: 7974: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7930: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7906: 7902: 7894: 7890: 7882: 7878: 7870: 7866: 7858: 7854: 7846: 7842: 7834: 7830: 7822: 7818: 7810: 7806: 7798: 7794: 7786: 7782: 7774: 7770: 7762: 7758: 7750: 7746: 7738: 7734: 7726: 7722: 7714: 7707: 7699: 7695: 7687: 7683: 7675: 7671: 7663: 7659: 7651: 7647: 7639: 7635: 7627: 7623: 7615: 7611: 7603: 7599: 7591: 7587: 7579: 7575: 7567: 7563: 7553:Metcalfe (2018) 7551: 7547: 7539: 7535: 7527: 7523: 7515: 7511: 7503: 7499: 7491: 7487: 7479: 7475: 7467: 7463: 7455: 7451: 7443: 7439: 7433:Strouhal (1989) 7431: 7427: 7419: 7415: 7407: 7403: 7397:Loprieno (2004) 7395: 7391: 7383: 7379: 7371: 7367: 7359: 7355: 7349:Loprieno (2004) 7347: 7343: 7339:, p. 2147. 7335: 7331: 7323: 7319: 7313:Loprieno (2004) 7311: 7307: 7299: 7295: 7287: 7283: 7275: 7271: 7263: 7259: 7253:Loprieno (2004) 7251: 7247: 7241:Loprieno (2004) 7239: 7235: 7231:, p. 2137. 7227: 7223: 7215: 7211: 7203: 7199: 7191: 7187: 7179: 7175: 7167: 7163: 7155: 7151: 7143: 7139: 7131: 7127: 7119: 7115: 7107: 7103: 7095: 7091: 7083: 7079: 7071: 7067: 7059: 7055: 7047: 7043: 7035: 7031: 7023: 7019: 7011: 7004: 6998:Strouhal (1989) 6996: 6989: 6981: 6977: 6969: 6965: 6957: 6953: 6945: 6941: 6933: 6929: 6923:McDowell (1999) 6921: 6917: 6909: 6905: 6897: 6893: 6885: 6876: 6868: 6864: 6856: 6852: 6844: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6820: 6816: 6808: 6799: 6791: 6787: 6779: 6775: 6767: 6763: 6755: 6744: 6736: 6732: 6724: 6720: 6714:Chadwick (2001) 6712: 6708: 6700: 6696: 6688: 6681: 6673: 6669: 6661: 6657: 6649: 6645: 6637: 6633: 6625: 6621: 6613: 6609: 6601: 6597: 6589: 6585: 6577: 6573: 6565: 6561: 6553: 6549: 6541: 6537: 6529: 6525: 6517: 6513: 6505: 6501: 6493: 6489: 6481: 6477: 6469: 6465: 6457: 6453: 6445: 6441: 6435:Bleiberg (2005) 6433: 6429: 6421: 6417: 6409: 6405: 6397: 6393: 6385: 6381: 6373: 6366: 6358: 6354: 6346: 6342: 6334: 6330: 6322: 6318: 6310: 6306: 6298: 6294: 6286: 6282: 6274: 6270: 6262: 6258: 6250: 6243: 6235: 6231: 6223: 6219: 6211: 6207: 6199: 6195: 6187: 6183: 6175: 6171: 6163: 6159: 6151: 6147: 6139: 6135: 6127: 6123: 6115: 6111: 6103: 6099: 6091: 6087: 6079: 6075: 6063: 6059: 6051: 6047: 6039: 6035: 6027: 6023: 6015: 6011: 6003: 5999: 5991: 5987: 5979: 5975: 5967: 5963: 5955: 5951: 5943: 5939: 5931: 5927: 5919: 5915: 5907: 5894: 5890:, pp. 6–7. 5882: 5878: 5870: 5866: 5858: 5854: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5827: 5821:Imhausen (2007) 5818: 5814: 5805: 5801: 5784: 5780: 5771: 5765: 5761: 5752: 5748: 5740: 5736: 5724: 5720: 5715: 5659: 5630: 5624: 5612: 5611: 5606:379 AD – 641 AD 5600: 5594: 5584: 5582:Byzantine Egypt 5574: 5573: 5562: 5559: 5550: 5540: 5539: 5507: 5497: 5496: 5485: 5482: 5429: 5426: 5404: 5394: 5393: 5317: 5307: 5306: 5261: 5251: 5250: 5175: 5165: 5164: 5139:Twelfth Dynasty 5118: 5108: 5107: 5042:Seventh Dynasty 5035: 5025: 5024: 4966: 4956: 4955: 4909: 4899: 4868: 4863: 4861: 4854: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4837: 4827: 4818: 4807: 4798: 4787: 4762:natural history 4695:Meroitic script 4687:Kingdom of Kush 4666: 4656: 4621:Spread of Islam 4605: 4583: 4573: 4520: 4514: 4512:Archaeogenetics 4497: 4491: 4485: 4469: 4452: 4448: 4447: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4372: 4299: 4293: 4227: 4192: 4188: 4145: 4134: 4066: 4045:life expectancy 4025:schistosomiasis 4017: 4011: 3971: 3958: 3932: 3926: 3921: 3895:bows and arrows 3844: 3838: 3832: 3796:internal organs 3773: 3767: 3655: 3649: 3642: 3639: 3630: 3619: 3610: 3605:hunting birds; 3599: 3590: 3587: 3581: 3492: 3482: 3474:Main articles: 3472: 3465: 3459: 3450: 3435: 3426: 3425:(New York City) 3415: 3406: 3403: 3397: 3353:post and lintel 3324: 3318: 3300: 3282: 3276: 3250:. Juggling and 3207:from Asia. The 3152: 3138: 3133: 3112: 3089:Westcar Papyrus 3085:Middle Egyptian 3080:Story of Sinuhe 3045: 3024: 3010: 3004: 2966: 2963: 2945: 2931: 2907: 2903: 2843: 2835:Egyptian Arabic 2827:Coptic alphabet 2817:. The Egyptian 2773:Middle Egyptian 2764: 2761: 2719: 2717: 2700: 2686: 2672: 2667: 2661: 2587: 2581: 2498:rock formations 2478:fashion jewelry 2470: 2460: 2354: 2264:Land management 2251:Tomb of Nebamun 2223: 2217: 2211: 2150: 2084: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2055: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2041: 2039: 1979: 1974: 1866: 1847: 1841: 1819:classical Greek 1786:as part of the 1756: 1738: 1732: 1719: 1715: 1699: 1676: 1656: 1641:Greek influence 1628: 1621: 1613:Main articles: 1611: 1586: 1582: 1551: 1516: 1496: 1489: 1483: 1440: 1420: 1354: 1327:of the Nile in 1325:Fourth Cataract 1312: 1262: 1256: 1227: 1188: 1185: 1179: 1114: 1111:Twelfth Dynasty 1057: 1051: 1034: 1018: 1015:political power 999: 993: 984: 981:severe droughts 914: 908: 878: 875:Narmer Palette, 830: 825:and of ancient 811: 805: 800: 788: 710: 602: 596: 591: 589: 549: 541:Main articles: 539: 438:and controlled 404: 362:Late Bronze Age 314: 277: 252: 219: 209: 204: 197:664 BC – 332 BC 194: 189: 180: 177: 172: 162: 157: 147: 142: 132: 126: 114: 108: 96:Ancient history 74: 70: 52: 44: 35: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 16032: 16022: 16021: 16016: 16011: 16006: 16001: 15996: 15991: 15986: 15969: 15968: 15966: 15965: 15964: 15963: 15958: 15949: 15947: 15943: 15942: 15940: 15939: 15934: 15929: 15924: 15919: 15914: 15913: 15912: 15901: 15899: 15895: 15894: 15891: 15890: 15888: 15887: 15882: 15877: 15872: 15867: 15866: 15865: 15855: 15850: 15845: 15840: 15835: 15830: 15825: 15820: 15815: 15810: 15809: 15808: 15803: 15793: 15788: 15782: 15780: 15771: 15770: 15769: 15768: 15763: 15758: 15753: 15748: 15738: 15733: 15732: 15731: 15721: 15716: 15715: 15714: 15709: 15704: 15694: 15689: 15688: 15687: 15682: 15672: 15671: 15670: 15665: 15660: 15655: 15650: 15640: 15639: 15638: 15633: 15623: 15618: 15613: 15608: 15607: 15606: 15601: 15596: 15591: 15586: 15576: 15575: 15574: 15569: 15559: 15554: 15553: 15552: 15547: 15537: 15536: 15535: 15530: 15520: 15519: 15518: 15513: 15503: 15498: 15497: 15496: 15491: 15486: 15481: 15476: 15466: 15461: 15460: 15459: 15454: 15446: 15441: 15436: 15431: 15426: 15420: 15418: 15412: 15411: 15409: 15408: 15403: 15398: 15393: 15392: 15391: 15386: 15381: 15376: 15371: 15366: 15361: 15351: 15346: 15345: 15344: 15339: 15334: 15329: 15324: 15319: 15309: 15308: 15307: 15302: 15297: 15292: 15282: 15277: 15272: 15267: 15262: 15257: 15252: 15247: 15242: 15241: 15240: 15235: 15225: 15224: 15223: 15218: 15213: 15208: 15203: 15198: 15185: 15180: 15175: 15170: 15169: 15168: 15163: 15158: 15148: 15147: 15146: 15141: 15136: 15131: 15121: 15116: 15111: 15106: 15101: 15096: 15095: 15094: 15089: 15084: 15079: 15069: 15068: 15067: 15062: 15057: 15052: 15042: 15041: 15040: 15035: 15030: 15020: 15015: 15010: 15005: 15000: 14999: 14998: 14993: 14988: 14978: 14973: 14972: 14971: 14966: 14961: 14956: 14951: 14946: 14936: 14935: 14934: 14929: 14919: 14918: 14917: 14912: 14907: 14902: 14892: 14887: 14886: 14885: 14875: 14874: 14873: 14868: 14860: 14855: 14850: 14845: 14840: 14835: 14830: 14824: 14822: 14820:Post-classical 14816: 14815: 14813: 14812: 14811: 14810: 14800: 14795: 14794: 14793: 14788: 14778: 14777: 14776: 14766: 14765: 14764: 14759: 14754: 14749: 14744: 14739: 14729: 14724: 14719: 14718: 14717: 14712: 14707: 14702: 14692: 14691: 14690: 14685: 14675: 14670: 14669: 14668: 14663: 14658: 14653: 14648: 14638: 14633: 14628: 14627: 14626: 14621: 14619:Middle Kingdom 14616: 14606: 14601: 14600: 14599: 14594: 14589: 14579: 14578: 14577: 14575:Neo-Babylonian 14572: 14567: 14565:Old Babylonian 14557: 14556: 14555: 14550: 14540: 14535: 14529: 14527: 14515: 14514: 14507: 14506: 14499: 14492: 14484: 14475: 14474: 14471: 14470: 14463: 14461: 14459: 14458: 14451: 14450: 14449: 14442: 14435: 14428: 14420: 14413: 14406: 14398: 14388: 14387: 14386: 14385: 14384: 14379: 14374: 14364: 14355: 14352: 14351: 14341: 14340: 14337: 14336: 14329: 14327: 14324: 14323: 14321: 14320: 14319: 14318: 14313: 14305: 14300: 14295: 14290: 14285: 14280: 14275: 14269: 14267: 14261: 14260: 14258: 14257: 14252: 14247: 14242: 14237: 14232: 14227: 14222: 14217: 14211: 14209: 14203: 14202: 14200: 14199: 14198: 14197: 14192: 14187: 14182: 14175: 14167: 14166: 14165: 14153: 14152: 14151: 14146: 14139: 14131:Mediterranean 14129: 14128: 14127: 14120: 14113: 14106: 14099: 14094: 14087: 14084:Alingano Maisu 14080: 14073: 14066: 14059: 14052: 14040: 14039: 14038: 14027: 14014: 14012: 14006: 14005: 14003: 14002: 13996: 13994: 13990: 13989: 13987: 13986: 13985: 13984: 13979: 13974: 13966: 13965: 13964: 13959: 13954: 13949: 13942: 13935: 13933:De Meern ships 13930: 13925: 13920: 13915: 13905: 13904: 13903: 13895: 13894: 13893: 13888: 13880: 13879: 13878: 13871: 13864: 13859: 13851: 13846: 13845: 13844: 13834: 13833: 13832: 13827: 13817: 13816: 13815: 13810: 13805: 13803:Cape Gelidonya 13800: 13795: 13790: 13785: 13780: 13775: 13770: 13765: 13760: 13748: 13746: 13738: 13737: 13735: 13734: 13729: 13724: 13719: 13714: 13709: 13704: 13699: 13694: 13689: 13684: 13679: 13678: 13677: 13672: 13667: 13659: 13654: 13649: 13644: 13639: 13638: 13637: 13627: 13622: 13616: 13614: 13608: 13607: 13604: 13603: 13601: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13569: 13567: 13566:Archaeologists 13563: 13562: 13560: 13559: 13554: 13549: 13544: 13539: 13534: 13532:David Blackman 13528: 13526: 13519: 13511: 13510: 13500: 13499: 13496: 13495: 13488: 13486: 13484: 13483: 13478: 13473: 13471:Jewish pirates 13468: 13463: 13458: 13453: 13447: 13444: 13443: 13433: 13432: 13429: 13428: 13421: 13419: 13417: 13416: 13415: 13414: 13404: 13403: 13402: 13392: 13387: 13382: 13375: 13370: 13365: 13360: 13355: 13350: 13345: 13340: 13335: 13330: 13325: 13319: 13316: 13315: 13302: 13301: 13298: 13297: 13290: 13288: 13285: 13284: 13282: 13281: 13280: 13279: 13269: 13264: 13259: 13258: 13257: 13246: 13244: 13240: 13239: 13236: 13235: 13233: 13232: 13227: 13222: 13217: 13212: 13207: 13202: 13196: 13193: 13192: 13190: 13189: 13184: 13179: 13174: 13169: 13164: 13159: 13157:Lake Trasimene 13154: 13149: 13144: 13139: 13134: 13129: 13124: 13119: 13114: 13109: 13104: 13099: 13094: 13089: 13084: 13079: 13074: 13069: 13064: 13058:Mediterranean: 13054: 13052: 13046: 13045: 13043: 13042: 13037: 13032: 13027: 13021: 13019: 13010: 13006: 13005: 13003: 13002: 12997: 12992: 12987: 12986: 12985: 12980: 12970: 12965: 12960: 12954: 12952: 12944: 12943: 12941: 12940: 12935: 12930: 12925: 12920: 12919: 12918: 12913: 12903: 12898: 12893: 12888: 12883: 12878: 12873: 12868: 12867: 12866: 12861: 12856: 12846: 12841: 12836: 12835: 12834: 12829: 12824: 12819: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12779: 12774: 12764: 12763: 12762: 12751: 12749: 12745: 12744: 12742: 12741: 12736: 12735: 12734: 12729: 12719: 12714: 12708: 12706: 12698: 12697: 12685: 12684: 12681: 12680: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12667: 12665: 12664: 12659: 12654: 12649: 12644: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12619: 12614: 12609: 12604: 12599: 12594: 12589: 12584: 12579: 12574: 12569: 12564: 12554: 12549: 12544: 12539: 12534: 12529: 12524: 12519: 12514: 12509: 12504: 12498: 12493: 12488: 12483: 12477: 12472: 12467: 12462: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12416: 12411: 12406: 12400: 12398: 12389: 12388: 12386: 12385: 12384: 12383: 12378: 12373: 12365: 12364: 12363: 12361:Maritime pilot 12358: 12348: 12343: 12342: 12341: 12331: 12326: 12324:Portolan chart 12321: 12316: 12310: 12308: 12298: 12297: 12287: 12286: 12283: 12282: 12275: 12273: 12270: 12269: 12267: 12266: 12261: 12256: 12251: 12246: 12241: 12236: 12230: 12228: 12224: 12223: 12221: 12220: 12215: 12210: 12205: 12200: 12199: 12198: 12193: 12188: 12183: 12173: 12167: 12165: 12159: 12158: 12156: 12155: 12154: 12153: 12145: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12125: 12120: 12115: 12110: 12104: 12102: 12096: 12095: 12093: 12092: 12087: 12082: 12077: 12072: 12071: 12070: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12024: 12023: 12013: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11987: 11985: 11981: 11980: 11978: 11977: 11972: 11967: 11962: 11956: 11954: 11950: 11949: 11947: 11946: 11941: 11936: 11931: 11926: 11925: 11924: 11919: 11914: 11909: 11904: 11899: 11897:Oared warships 11894: 11886: 11885: 11884: 11879: 11874: 11864: 11859: 11854: 11849: 11844: 11839: 11834: 11833: 11832: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11791: 11789: 11779: 11778: 11766: 11765: 11758: 11757: 11750: 11743: 11735: 11726: 11725: 11723: 11722: 11712: 11702: 11692: 11682: 11669: 11666: 11665: 11663: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11646: 11643: 11642: 11635: 11633: 11631: 11630: 11625: 11620: 11615: 11614: 11613: 11608: 11598: 11593: 11588: 11583: 11578: 11577: 11576: 11571: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11525: 11524: 11519: 11509: 11504: 11503: 11502: 11492: 11491: 11490: 11480: 11475: 11470: 11465: 11460: 11455: 11450: 11445: 11440: 11435: 11434: 11433: 11423: 11418: 11413: 11412: 11411: 11401: 11400: 11399: 11394: 11389: 11379: 11373: 11370: 11369: 11367: 11366: 11361: 11356: 11350: 11347: 11346: 11338: 11337: 11330: 11323: 11315: 11309: 11308: 11286: 11280: 11275: 11262: 11256: 11246: 11241: 11235: 11217: 11216:External links 11214: 11213: 11212: 11187:(4): 501–509. 11167: 11161: 11143: 11137: 11122: 11071: 11065: 11053:, ed. (2001). 11047: 11041: 11028: 10997: 10991: 10973: 10967: 10949: 10943: 10927: 10921: 10909:, ed. (1999). 10903: 10897: 10882: 10879: 10877: 10876: 10870: 10855: 10836: 10824: 10808: 10802: 10790:Walbank, F. W. 10781: 10775: 10760: 10739: 10723: 10717: 10699: 10693: 10680: 10674: 10659: 10653: 10638: 10586: 10570: 10557: 10529: 10513: 10507: 10492: 10486: 10473: 10434: 10411: 10405: 10390: 10374: 10361: 10346: 10340: 10327: 10321: 10307:Ryholt, K.S.B. 10303: 10297: 10282: 10276: 10258: 10252: 10239: 10230: 10209: 10203: 10188: 10182: 10167: 10154: 10126: 10120: 10105: 10099: 10084: 10068: 10062: 10049: 10027: 9998: 9985: 9979: 9961: 9955: 9940: 9934: 9921: 9915: 9899: 9893: 9878: 9863: 9857: 9842: 9836: 9823: 9817: 9799: 9793: 9778: 9772: 9754: 9748: 9733: 9727: 9711:Kemp, Barry J. 9707: 9702:978-0367434632 9701: 9688: 9684:Fathom Archive 9672: 9666: 9648: 9642: 9622: 9616: 9601: 9588: 9573: 9567: 9549: 9532: 9479: 9466: 9460: 9428: 9408:10.1086/371778 9402:(4): 217–272. 9386: 9373: 9354: 9345: 9324: 9318: 9300: 9287: 9260: 9254: 9239: 9233: 9220: 9214: 9199: 9193: 9178: 9168:on 31 May 2013 9154: 9148: 9133: 9127: 9112: 9106: 9091: 9085: 9070: 9064: 9038: 8984: 8968: 8953: 8947: 8932: 8926: 8904:Clarke, Somers 8900: 8884: 8868: 8862: 8844: 8838: 8826:I.E.S. Edwards 8817: 8802: 8780: 8774: 8761: 8755: 8737: 8731: 8718: 8712: 8697: 8691: 8674: 8658: 8652: 8637: 8631: 8618: 8600: 8582: 8576: 8561: 8555: 8539: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8531: 8519: 8515:Mohamed (2022) 8507: 8505:, p. 100. 8495: 8483: 8481:, p. 112. 8479:El-Daly (2005) 8471: 8459: 8447: 8435: 8423: 8411: 8399: 8387: 8375: 8363: 8351: 8339: 8320: 8301: 8286: 8274: 8258: 8256:, p. 241. 8246: 8244:, p. 197. 8234: 8232:, p. 218. 8222: 8220:, p. 217. 8210: 8208:, p. 222. 8198: 8186: 8174: 8170:Lorenzi (2013) 8158: 8146: 8131: 8119: 8104: 8092: 8080: 8078:, p. 250. 8068: 8056: 8054:, p. 243. 8044: 8032: 8020: 8008: 7996: 7994:, p. 215. 7984: 7982:, p. 195. 7972: 7970:, p. 109. 7960: 7958:, p. 177. 7948: 7946:, p. 400. 7936: 7924: 7920:Clayton (1994) 7912: 7900: 7898:, p. 245. 7888: 7886:, p. 124. 7876: 7872:Shabtis (2001) 7864: 7852: 7840: 7828: 7816: 7814:, p. 313. 7804: 7802:, p. 117. 7792: 7790:, p. 106. 7788:Redford (2003) 7780: 7778:, p. 102. 7768: 7766:, p. 158. 7756: 7754:, p. 149. 7744: 7742:, p. 216. 7732: 7720: 7718:, p. 122. 7705: 7703:, p. 105. 7693: 7681: 7669: 7657: 7645: 7633: 7621: 7609: 7597: 7585: 7583:, p. 380. 7573: 7571:, p. 126. 7561: 7557:Seaburn (2018) 7545: 7533: 7521: 7519:, p. 405. 7509: 7507:, p. 403. 7497: 7495:, p. 401. 7485: 7483:, p. 159. 7473: 7461: 7459:, p. 215. 7449: 7437: 7435:, p. 235. 7425: 7413: 7411:, p. 164. 7409:El-Daly (2005) 7401: 7399:, p. 166. 7389: 7377: 7365: 7353: 7351:, p. 173. 7341: 7329: 7317: 7315:, p. 175. 7305: 7293: 7281: 7277:Vittman (1991) 7269: 7257: 7255:, p. 162. 7245: 7243:, p. 161. 7233: 7221: 7219:, p. 145. 7209: 7207:, p. 322. 7197: 7185: 7173: 7161: 7149: 7137: 7125: 7123:, p. 166. 7113: 7101: 7089: 7077: 7075:, p. 413. 7065: 7063:, p. 123. 7053: 7051:, p. 229. 7041: 7029: 7027:, p. 409. 7017: 7015:, p. 381. 7002: 7000:, p. 117. 6987: 6975: 6973:, p. 510. 6963: 6961:, p. 506. 6951: 6949:, p. 514. 6939: 6937:, p. 361. 6927: 6925:, p. 168. 6915: 6913:, p. 472. 6903: 6899:Slavery (2012) 6891: 6887:Johnson (2002) 6874: 6862: 6860:, p. 109. 6858:Billard (1978) 6850: 6848:, p. 136. 6838: 6836:, p. 383. 6826: 6824:, p. 125. 6814: 6812:, p. 372. 6797: 6793:Meskell (2004) 6785: 6773: 6771:, p. 363. 6761: 6759:, p. 358. 6742: 6740:, p. 445. 6730: 6718: 6716:, p. 373. 6706: 6704:, p. 431. 6694: 6692:, p. 422. 6679: 6677:, p. 426. 6667: 6655: 6643: 6641:, p. 418. 6631: 6629:, p. 411. 6619: 6617:, p. 405. 6607: 6605:, p. 385. 6595: 6593:, p. 383. 6583: 6581:, p. 358. 6571: 6559: 6547: 6543:Mokhtar (1990) 6535: 6523: 6521:, p. 345. 6511: 6509:, p. 128. 6499: 6497:, p. 645. 6487: 6475: 6463: 6461:, p. 273. 6451: 6449:, p. 259. 6439: 6427: 6415: 6411:Clayton (1994) 6403: 6401:, p. 224. 6391: 6389:, p. 189. 6379: 6377:, p. 310. 6364: 6362:, p. 188. 6352: 6340: 6328: 6326:, p. 158. 6316: 6312:Clayton (1994) 6304: 6302:, p. 148. 6292: 6288:Grajetzki 2007 6280: 6268: 6264:Clayton (1994) 6256: 6254:, p. 146. 6241: 6239:, p. 120. 6229: 6225:Clayton (1994) 6217: 6205: 6193: 6191:, p. 102. 6181: 6169: 6157: 6145: 6141:Clayton (1994) 6133: 6121: 6117:Clayton (1994) 6109: 6097: 6085: 6073: 6067:, p. 61; 6057: 6045: 6033: 6021: 6009: 5997: 5985: 5983:, p. 220. 5973: 5961: 5949: 5937: 5925: 5923:, p. 153. 5921:Clayton (1994) 5913: 5892: 5876: 5874:, p. 217. 5872:Clayton (1994) 5864: 5852: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5826: 5825: 5823:, p. 13). 5812: 5799: 5778: 5759: 5757:, p. 146) 5755:Clayton (1994) 5746: 5734: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5657: 5650: 5643: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5608: 5607: 5604: 5601: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5570: 5569: 5568:30 BC – 313 AD 5566: 5563: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5536: 5535: 5532: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5519: 5516: 5508: 5503: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5493: 5492: 5489: 5486: 5479: 5476: 5475: 5472: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5459: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5446: 5443: 5437: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5416: 5413: 5405: 5400: 5399: 5396: 5395: 5390: 5389: 5386: 5383: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5365: 5359: 5358: 5355: 5352: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5333: 5332: 5329: 5326: 5318: 5313: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5286: 5283: 5277: 5276: 5273: 5270: 5262: 5257: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5247: 5246: 5243: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5226:Abydos Dynasty 5222: 5221: 5218: 5215: 5209: 5208: 5205: 5202: 5191: 5190: 5187: 5184: 5176: 5171: 5170: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5160: 5157: 5154: 5148: 5147: 5144: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5131: 5128: 5119: 5116:Middle Kingdom 5114: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5103: 5100: 5097: 5090: 5089: 5086: 5083: 5077: 5076: 5073: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5060: 5057: 5055:Eighth Dynasty 5051: 5050: 5047: 5044: 5036: 5031: 5030: 5027: 5026: 5021: 5020: 5017: 5014: 5008: 5007: 5004: 5001: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4988: 4986:Fourth Dynasty 4982: 4981: 4978: 4975: 4967: 4962: 4961: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4951: 4948: 4945: 4943:Second Dynasty 4939: 4938: 4932: 4929: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4918: 4910: 4905: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4895:All years are 4894: 4891: 4890: 4874: 4873: 4859: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4828: 4821: 4819: 4808: 4801: 4799: 4788: 4781: 4655: 4652: 4636:archaeological 4632:Horn of Africa 4599:Horn of Africa 4588:Iberomaurusian 4540:Middle Eastern 4516:Main article: 4513: 4510: 4484: 4481: 4466: 4465: 4399: 4398: 4395: 4394: 4391: 4390: 4387: 4386: 4369: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4331:multiplication 4319:numeral system 4309:, 18th dynasty 4295:Main article: 4292: 4289: 4224:Fourth Dynasty 4159:known are the 4133: 4130: 4095:Medical papyri 4067: 1550 BC 4013:Main article: 4010: 4007: 4003:trace elements 3970: 3967: 3963:decimal system 3959: 1600 BC 3928:Main article: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3854:, 18th dynasty 3834:Main article: 3831: 3828: 3819:Funerary texts 3769:Main article: 3766: 3765:Burial customs 3763: 3651:Main article: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3643: 3640: 3633: 3631: 3629:; 1480–1425 BC 3620: 3613: 3611: 3600: 3593: 3591: 3588: 1500 BC 3582: 3575: 3527:Pharaohs used 3502:Narmer Palette 3471: 3468: 3467: 3466: 3460: 3453: 3451: 3436: 3429: 3427: 3416: 3409: 3407: 3398: 3391: 3376:burial chamber 3320:Main article: 3317: 3314: 3301: 2700 BC 3278:Main article: 3275: 3272: 3267:Deir el-Medina 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3068:Ipuwer papyrus 3006:Main article: 3003: 3000: 2983:Greek alphabet 2930: 2927: 2842: 2839: 2745:is a northern 2737: 2736: 2733: 2732: 2729: 2728: 2725: 2724: 2711: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2703: 2702: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2671: 2668: 2663:Main article: 2660: 2657: 2583:Main article: 2580: 2577: 2506:Eastern Desert 2459: 2456: 2369:Deir el-Medina 2353: 2350: 2289:growing season 2213:Main article: 2210: 2207: 2174:. Although no 2149: 2146: 2083: 2080: 2076:precious metal 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1946:Constantinople 1942:Eastern Empire 1927:their language 1843:Main article: 1840: 1837: 1734:Main article: 1731: 1728: 1714:, began in 343 1698:, ended in 402 1610: 1607: 1485:Main article: 1482: 1479: 1475:temple of Amun 1382:artistic style 1319:in north west 1258:Main article: 1255: 1252: 1230:BC. The kings 1181:Main article: 1178: 1175: 1053:Main article: 1050: 1047: 1043:Middle Kingdom 1021:BC, rulers in 1001:After Egypt's 995:Main article: 992: 989: 954:justice system 910:Main article: 907: 904: 858:Narmer Palette 807:Main article: 804: 794: 789: 3500 BC 739:western desert 672:Naqada culture 661:Western Desert 618:Early Dynastic 598:Main article: 595: 592: 579: 538: 535: 493:; a system of 452:writing system 448:administration 350:Middle Kingdom 320:(according to 290: 289: 286: 285: 282: 281: 274: 265: 262: 261: 256: 244: 243: 238: 228: 227: 224: 223: 220: 217: 214: 213: 212:332 BC – 30 BC 210: 202: 199: 198: 195: 187: 184: 183: 178: 170: 167: 166: 163: 159:Middle Kingdom 155: 152: 151: 148: 140: 137: 136: 133: 3150 BC 127: 121: 118: 117: 115: 3150 BC 109: 106: 103: 102: 99: 98: 93: 92:Historical era 89: 88: 80: 76: 75: 65: 57: 56: 53: 3150 BC 46: 45: 42: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16031: 16020: 16017: 16015: 16012: 16010: 16007: 16005: 16002: 16000: 15997: 15995: 15992: 15990: 15987: 15985: 15984:Ancient Egypt 15982: 15981: 15979: 15962: 15961:Soviet empire 15959: 15957: 15954: 15953: 15951: 15950: 15948: 15946:Miscellaneous 15944: 15938: 15935: 15933: 15930: 15928: 15925: 15923: 15920: 15918: 15915: 15911: 15908: 15907: 15906: 15903: 15902: 15900: 15896: 15886: 15883: 15881: 15878: 15876: 15873: 15871: 15868: 15864: 15861: 15860: 15859: 15856: 15854: 15851: 15849: 15846: 15844: 15841: 15839: 15836: 15834: 15831: 15829: 15826: 15824: 15821: 15819: 15816: 15814: 15811: 15807: 15804: 15802: 15799: 15798: 15797: 15794: 15792: 15789: 15787: 15784: 15783: 15781: 15779: 15775: 15767: 15764: 15762: 15759: 15757: 15754: 15752: 15749: 15747: 15744: 15743: 15742: 15739: 15737: 15734: 15730: 15727: 15726: 15725: 15722: 15720: 15717: 15713: 15710: 15708: 15705: 15703: 15700: 15699: 15698: 15695: 15693: 15690: 15686: 15683: 15681: 15678: 15677: 15676: 15673: 15669: 15666: 15664: 15661: 15659: 15656: 15654: 15651: 15649: 15646: 15645: 15644: 15641: 15637: 15634: 15632: 15629: 15628: 15627: 15624: 15622: 15619: 15617: 15614: 15612: 15609: 15605: 15602: 15600: 15597: 15595: 15592: 15590: 15587: 15585: 15582: 15581: 15580: 15577: 15573: 15570: 15568: 15565: 15564: 15563: 15560: 15558: 15555: 15551: 15548: 15546: 15545:German Empire 15543: 15542: 15541: 15538: 15534: 15531: 15529: 15526: 15525: 15524: 15521: 15517: 15514: 15512: 15509: 15508: 15507: 15504: 15502: 15499: 15495: 15492: 15490: 15487: 15485: 15482: 15480: 15477: 15475: 15472: 15471: 15470: 15467: 15465: 15462: 15458: 15455: 15453: 15450: 15449: 15447: 15445: 15442: 15440: 15437: 15435: 15432: 15430: 15427: 15425: 15422: 15421: 15419: 15417: 15413: 15407: 15404: 15402: 15399: 15397: 15394: 15390: 15387: 15385: 15382: 15380: 15377: 15375: 15372: 15370: 15367: 15365: 15362: 15360: 15357: 15356: 15355: 15352: 15350: 15347: 15343: 15340: 15338: 15335: 15333: 15330: 15328: 15325: 15323: 15320: 15318: 15315: 15314: 15313: 15310: 15306: 15303: 15301: 15298: 15296: 15293: 15291: 15288: 15287: 15286: 15285:Turco-Persian 15283: 15281: 15278: 15276: 15273: 15271: 15268: 15266: 15263: 15261: 15258: 15256: 15253: 15251: 15248: 15246: 15243: 15239: 15236: 15234: 15231: 15230: 15229: 15226: 15222: 15219: 15217: 15214: 15212: 15209: 15207: 15204: 15202: 15199: 15197: 15194: 15193: 15192: 15189: 15186: 15184: 15181: 15179: 15176: 15174: 15171: 15167: 15164: 15162: 15159: 15157: 15154: 15153: 15152: 15149: 15145: 15142: 15140: 15137: 15135: 15132: 15130: 15127: 15126: 15125: 15122: 15120: 15117: 15115: 15112: 15110: 15107: 15105: 15102: 15100: 15097: 15093: 15090: 15088: 15085: 15083: 15080: 15078: 15075: 15074: 15073: 15070: 15066: 15063: 15061: 15058: 15056: 15053: 15051: 15048: 15047: 15046: 15043: 15039: 15036: 15034: 15031: 15029: 15026: 15025: 15024: 15021: 15019: 15016: 15014: 15011: 15009: 15006: 15004: 15001: 14997: 14994: 14992: 14989: 14987: 14984: 14983: 14982: 14979: 14977: 14974: 14970: 14967: 14965: 14962: 14960: 14957: 14955: 14952: 14950: 14947: 14945: 14942: 14941: 14940: 14937: 14933: 14930: 14928: 14925: 14924: 14923: 14920: 14916: 14913: 14911: 14908: 14906: 14903: 14901: 14898: 14897: 14896: 14893: 14891: 14888: 14884: 14881: 14880: 14879: 14876: 14872: 14869: 14867: 14864: 14863: 14861: 14859: 14856: 14854: 14851: 14849: 14846: 14844: 14841: 14839: 14836: 14834: 14831: 14829: 14826: 14825: 14823: 14821: 14817: 14809: 14806: 14805: 14804: 14801: 14799: 14796: 14792: 14789: 14787: 14784: 14783: 14782: 14779: 14775: 14772: 14771: 14770: 14767: 14763: 14760: 14758: 14755: 14753: 14750: 14748: 14745: 14743: 14740: 14738: 14735: 14734: 14733: 14730: 14728: 14725: 14723: 14720: 14716: 14713: 14711: 14708: 14706: 14703: 14701: 14698: 14697: 14696: 14693: 14689: 14686: 14684: 14681: 14680: 14679: 14676: 14674: 14671: 14667: 14664: 14662: 14659: 14657: 14654: 14652: 14649: 14647: 14644: 14643: 14642: 14639: 14637: 14634: 14632: 14629: 14625: 14622: 14620: 14617: 14615: 14612: 14611: 14610: 14607: 14605: 14602: 14598: 14595: 14593: 14590: 14588: 14585: 14584: 14583: 14580: 14576: 14573: 14571: 14568: 14566: 14563: 14562: 14561: 14558: 14554: 14551: 14549: 14546: 14545: 14544: 14541: 14539: 14536: 14534: 14531: 14530: 14528: 14525: 14520: 14516: 14512: 14505: 14500: 14498: 14493: 14491: 14486: 14485: 14482: 14457: 14456: 14452: 14448: 14447: 14443: 14441: 14440: 14436: 14434: 14433: 14432:Metamorphoses 14429: 14427: 14425: 14424:The Histories 14421: 14419: 14418: 14414: 14412: 14411: 14407: 14405: 14403: 14402:The Histories 14399: 14397: 14396: 14392: 14391: 14389: 14383: 14380: 14378: 14375: 14373: 14370: 14369: 14368: 14365: 14363: 14360: 14359: 14357: 14356: 14353: 14346: 14342: 14317: 14314: 14312: 14309: 14308: 14306: 14304: 14301: 14299: 14296: 14294: 14291: 14289: 14286: 14284: 14281: 14279: 14276: 14274: 14271: 14270: 14268: 14262: 14256: 14253: 14251: 14248: 14246: 14243: 14241: 14238: 14236: 14233: 14231: 14228: 14226: 14223: 14221: 14218: 14216: 14213: 14212: 14210: 14204: 14196: 14193: 14191: 14188: 14186: 14183: 14181: 14180: 14176: 14174: 14171: 14170: 14168: 14164: 14163: 14159: 14158: 14157: 14154: 14150: 14147: 14145: 14144: 14140: 14138: 14137: 14133: 14132: 14130: 14126: 14125: 14121: 14119: 14118: 14117:Marumaru Atua 14114: 14112: 14111: 14107: 14105: 14104: 14100: 14098: 14095: 14093: 14092: 14088: 14086: 14085: 14081: 14079: 14078: 14077:Samudra Raksa 14074: 14072: 14071: 14067: 14065: 14064: 14063:Te Au o Tonga 14060: 14058: 14057: 14053: 14051: 14050: 14046: 14045: 14044: 14041: 14037: 14036: 14032: 14028: 14026: 14025: 14021: 14020: 14019: 14016: 14015: 14013: 14007: 14001: 13998: 13997: 13995: 13991: 13983: 13980: 13978: 13975: 13973: 13970: 13969: 13967: 13963: 13960: 13958: 13955: 13953: 13950: 13948: 13947: 13943: 13941: 13940: 13936: 13934: 13931: 13929: 13926: 13924: 13923:Blackfriars I 13921: 13919: 13918:Arles Rhône 3 13916: 13914: 13913: 13909: 13908: 13906: 13902: 13899: 13898: 13896: 13892: 13889: 13887: 13884: 13883: 13881: 13877: 13876: 13872: 13870: 13869: 13865: 13863: 13860: 13858: 13855: 13854: 13852: 13850: 13847: 13843: 13840: 13839: 13838: 13835: 13831: 13828: 13826: 13823: 13822: 13821: 13818: 13814: 13811: 13809: 13806: 13804: 13801: 13799: 13796: 13794: 13791: 13789: 13786: 13784: 13781: 13779: 13776: 13774: 13771: 13769: 13766: 13764: 13761: 13759: 13756: 13755: 13753: 13750: 13749: 13747: 13745: 13739: 13733: 13730: 13728: 13725: 13723: 13722:Thalassocracy 13720: 13718: 13715: 13713: 13710: 13708: 13707:Shell middens 13705: 13703: 13700: 13698: 13695: 13693: 13690: 13688: 13685: 13683: 13680: 13676: 13673: 13671: 13668: 13666: 13663: 13662: 13660: 13658: 13657:Naval warfare 13655: 13653: 13650: 13648: 13645: 13643: 13640: 13636: 13633: 13632: 13631: 13628: 13626: 13623: 13621: 13618: 13617: 13615: 13609: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13571: 13570: 13568: 13564: 13558: 13555: 13553: 13550: 13548: 13545: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13537:Lionel Casson 13535: 13533: 13530: 13529: 13527: 13523: 13520: 13516: 13512: 13505: 13501: 13482: 13479: 13477: 13474: 13472: 13469: 13467: 13464: 13462: 13459: 13457: 13454: 13452: 13449: 13448: 13445: 13438: 13434: 13413: 13410: 13409: 13408: 13405: 13401: 13398: 13397: 13396: 13393: 13391: 13388: 13386: 13383: 13381: 13380: 13376: 13374: 13371: 13369: 13368:Incense trade 13366: 13364: 13361: 13359: 13356: 13354: 13351: 13349: 13346: 13344: 13341: 13339: 13336: 13334: 13331: 13329: 13326: 13324: 13321: 13320: 13317: 13313: 13307: 13303: 13278: 13275: 13274: 13273: 13272:South America 13270: 13268: 13265: 13263: 13260: 13256: 13253: 13252: 13251: 13248: 13247: 13245: 13241: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13220:Sailing ships 13218: 13216: 13215:Oared vessels 13213: 13211: 13208: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13197: 13194: 13188: 13185: 13183: 13180: 13178: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13168: 13165: 13163: 13160: 13158: 13155: 13153: 13150: 13148: 13145: 13143: 13140: 13138: 13137:Cape Hermaeum 13135: 13133: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13123: 13120: 13118: 13115: 13113: 13110: 13108: 13105: 13103: 13100: 13098: 13095: 13093: 13090: 13088: 13085: 13083: 13080: 13078: 13075: 13073: 13070: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13059: 13056: 13055: 13053: 13051: 13047: 13041: 13038: 13036: 13033: 13031: 13028: 13026: 13023: 13022: 13020: 13018: 13014: 13011: 13007: 13001: 12998: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12984: 12981: 12979: 12976: 12975: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12961: 12959: 12956: 12955: 12953: 12951: 12948:Migration and 12945: 12939: 12936: 12934: 12931: 12929: 12926: 12924: 12921: 12917: 12914: 12912: 12909: 12908: 12907: 12904: 12902: 12899: 12897: 12894: 12892: 12889: 12887: 12884: 12882: 12879: 12877: 12874: 12872: 12869: 12865: 12862: 12860: 12857: 12855: 12852: 12851: 12850: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12840: 12837: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12825: 12823: 12820: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12785: 12783: 12780: 12778: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12769: 12768: 12765: 12761: 12758: 12757: 12756: 12755:Ancient Egypt 12753: 12752: 12750: 12748:Civilizations 12746: 12740: 12737: 12733: 12730: 12728: 12725: 12724: 12723: 12720: 12718: 12715: 12713: 12710: 12709: 12707: 12703: 12699: 12695: 12690: 12686: 12663: 12660: 12658: 12655: 12653: 12650: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12625: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12608: 12605: 12603: 12600: 12598: 12595: 12593: 12590: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12573: 12570: 12568: 12565: 12562: 12558: 12555: 12553: 12550: 12548: 12545: 12543: 12540: 12538: 12535: 12533: 12530: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12520: 12518: 12515: 12513: 12510: 12508: 12505: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12481: 12478: 12476: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12461: 12458: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12443: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12420: 12417: 12415: 12412: 12410: 12407: 12405: 12402: 12401: 12399: 12394: 12390: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12368: 12366: 12362: 12359: 12357: 12354: 12353: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12340: 12337: 12336: 12335: 12332: 12330: 12327: 12325: 12322: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12311: 12309: 12307: 12303: 12299: 12292: 12288: 12265: 12262: 12260: 12257: 12255: 12252: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12231: 12229: 12225: 12219: 12216: 12214: 12211: 12209: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12197: 12194: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12178: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12169: 12168: 12166: 12164: 12160: 12152: 12149: 12148: 12146: 12144: 12141: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12126: 12124: 12123:Clinker built 12121: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12108:Boat building 12106: 12105: 12103: 12101: 12097: 12091: 12088: 12086: 12083: 12081: 12078: 12076: 12073: 12069: 12066: 12065: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12022: 12019: 12018: 12017: 12014: 12012: 12009: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11988: 11986: 11982: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11963: 11961: 11958: 11957: 11955: 11951: 11945: 11942: 11940: 11937: 11935: 11932: 11930: 11927: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11913: 11910: 11908: 11905: 11903: 11900: 11898: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11889: 11887: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11875: 11873: 11870: 11869: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11858: 11857:Navis lusoria 11855: 11853: 11850: 11848: 11845: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11835: 11831: 11828: 11827: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11792: 11790: 11788: 11784: 11780: 11776: 11771: 11767: 11763: 11756: 11751: 11749: 11744: 11742: 11737: 11736: 11733: 11721: 11713: 11711: 11703: 11701: 11693: 11691: 11683: 11681: 11671: 11670: 11667: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11655:Egyptologists 11653: 11651: 11648: 11647: 11644: 11639: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11619: 11616: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11604: 11603: 11602: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11587: 11584: 11582: 11579: 11575: 11572: 11570: 11567: 11566: 11565: 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11550: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11514: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11501: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11493: 11489: 11486: 11485: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11476: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11456: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11439: 11436: 11432: 11429: 11428: 11427: 11424: 11422: 11419: 11417: 11414: 11410: 11407: 11406: 11405: 11402: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11384: 11383: 11380: 11378: 11375: 11374: 11371: 11365: 11362: 11360: 11357: 11355: 11352: 11351: 11348: 11343: 11342:Ancient Egypt 11336: 11331: 11329: 11324: 11322: 11317: 11316: 11313: 11305: 11299: 11291: 11287: 11284: 11281: 11279: 11276: 11273: 11269: 11266: 11263: 11260: 11257: 11254: 11250: 11247: 11245: 11242: 11239: 11236: 11232: 11231: 11225: 11220: 11219: 11206: 11202: 11198: 11194: 11190: 11186: 11182: 11181: 11173: 11168: 11164: 11158: 11154: 11153: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11134: 11130: 11129: 11123: 11119: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11101: 11097: 11093: 11089: 11085: 11081: 11077: 11072: 11068: 11062: 11058: 11057: 11052: 11048: 11044: 11038: 11034: 11029: 11025: 11021: 11017: 11013: 11009: 11005: 11004: 10998: 10994: 10988: 10984: 10983: 10978: 10974: 10970: 10964: 10960: 10959: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10918: 10915:. Routledge. 10914: 10913: 10908: 10904: 10900: 10894: 10890: 10885: 10884: 10873: 10867: 10863: 10862: 10856: 10852: 10848: 10847: 10842: 10837: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10821: 10817: 10813: 10809: 10805: 10799: 10795: 10791: 10787: 10782: 10778: 10772: 10768: 10767: 10761: 10757: 10753: 10749: 10746:(in German). 10745: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10724: 10720: 10714: 10710: 10709: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10690: 10686: 10681: 10677: 10671: 10667: 10666: 10660: 10656: 10650: 10646: 10645: 10639: 10635: 10631: 10626: 10621: 10617: 10613: 10609: 10605: 10601: 10597: 10593: 10587: 10583: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10560: 10554: 10550: 10546: 10542: 10535: 10530: 10526: 10522: 10518: 10514: 10510: 10504: 10500: 10499: 10498:Ancient Egypt 10493: 10489: 10483: 10479: 10474: 10470: 10466: 10462: 10458: 10454: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10441: 10435: 10431: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10418: 10412: 10408: 10402: 10398: 10397: 10391: 10387: 10383: 10379: 10375: 10371: 10367: 10362: 10358: 10357: 10352: 10347: 10343: 10337: 10333: 10328: 10324: 10318: 10314: 10313: 10308: 10304: 10300: 10294: 10290: 10289: 10283: 10279: 10273: 10269: 10268: 10263: 10259: 10255: 10249: 10245: 10240: 10236: 10231: 10227: 10223: 10219: 10215: 10210: 10206: 10200: 10196: 10195: 10189: 10185: 10179: 10175: 10174: 10168: 10157: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10139: 10132: 10127: 10123: 10117: 10113: 10112: 10106: 10102: 10096: 10092: 10091: 10085: 10081: 10077: 10073: 10069: 10065: 10059: 10055: 10050: 10039: 10038: 10033: 10028: 10016: 10012: 10008: 10004: 9999: 9995: 9991: 9986: 9982: 9976: 9972: 9971: 9966: 9965:Meskell, Lynn 9962: 9958: 9952: 9948: 9947: 9941: 9937: 9931: 9927: 9922: 9918: 9912: 9908: 9904: 9900: 9896: 9890: 9886: 9885: 9879: 9875: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9860: 9854: 9850: 9849: 9843: 9839: 9833: 9829: 9824: 9820: 9814: 9810: 9809: 9804: 9800: 9796: 9790: 9786: 9785: 9779: 9775: 9769: 9765: 9764: 9759: 9755: 9751: 9745: 9741: 9740: 9734: 9730: 9724: 9719: 9718: 9712: 9708: 9704: 9698: 9694: 9689: 9685: 9681: 9677: 9673: 9669: 9663: 9659: 9658: 9653: 9652:James, T.G.H. 9649: 9645: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9627: 9623: 9619: 9613: 9609: 9608: 9602: 9591: 9585: 9581: 9580: 9574: 9570: 9564: 9560: 9559: 9554: 9553:Ikram, Salima 9550: 9546: 9542: 9538: 9533: 9529: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9511: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9488:PLOS Genetics 9485: 9480: 9476: 9472: 9467: 9463: 9457: 9453: 9449: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9433: 9429: 9425: 9421: 9417: 9413: 9409: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9396: 9391: 9387: 9383: 9379: 9374: 9363: 9359: 9355: 9351: 9346: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9325: 9321: 9315: 9311: 9310: 9305: 9301: 9290: 9284: 9279: 9274: 9270: 9266: 9261: 9257: 9251: 9247: 9246: 9240: 9236: 9230: 9226: 9221: 9217: 9211: 9207: 9206: 9200: 9196: 9190: 9187:. Routledge. 9186: 9185: 9179: 9167: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9145: 9141: 9140: 9134: 9130: 9124: 9120: 9119: 9113: 9109: 9103: 9099: 9098: 9092: 9088: 9082: 9078: 9077: 9071: 9067: 9061: 9057: 9056: 9051: 9047: 9043: 9039: 9035: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9015: 9011: 9007: 9003: 8999: 8995: 8991: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8969: 8965: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8950: 8944: 8940: 8939: 8933: 8929: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8914: 8909: 8905: 8901: 8897: 8893: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8877: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8859: 8855: 8854: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8818: 8814: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8792: 8791: 8786: 8781: 8777: 8771: 8767: 8762: 8758: 8752: 8748: 8747: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8728: 8724: 8719: 8715: 8709: 8705: 8704: 8698: 8694: 8688: 8684: 8680: 8675: 8671: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8649: 8645: 8644: 8638: 8634: 8628: 8624: 8619: 8607: 8603: 8597: 8593: 8592: 8587: 8583: 8579: 8573: 8569: 8568: 8562: 8558: 8552: 8548: 8547: 8541: 8540: 8529:, p. 36. 8528: 8523: 8516: 8511: 8504: 8499: 8493:, p. 13. 8492: 8487: 8480: 8475: 8469:, p. 10. 8468: 8463: 8456: 8451: 8444: 8439: 8432: 8427: 8420: 8415: 8408: 8403: 8396: 8391: 8384: 8379: 8373:, p. 65. 8372: 8367: 8360: 8359:Fregel (2021) 8355: 8349:, p. 13. 8348: 8343: 8337:, p. 13. 8336: 8331: 8329: 8327: 8325: 8317: 8312: 8310: 8308: 8306: 8298: 8293: 8291: 8283: 8282:Bowman (2020) 8278: 8272:, p. 31. 8271: 8267: 8262: 8255: 8250: 8243: 8238: 8231: 8226: 8219: 8214: 8207: 8202: 8196:, p. 11. 8195: 8190: 8183: 8178: 8171: 8167: 8162: 8155: 8150: 8143: 8138: 8136: 8129:, p. 19. 8128: 8123: 8116: 8111: 8109: 8102:, p. 38. 8101: 8096: 8089: 8084: 8077: 8072: 8065: 8060: 8053: 8048: 8042:, p. 39. 8041: 8036: 8030:, p. 21. 8029: 8024: 8017: 8012: 8006:, p. 94. 8005: 8000: 7993: 7988: 7981: 7976: 7969: 7964: 7957: 7952: 7945: 7940: 7933: 7928: 7922:, p. 96. 7921: 7916: 7909: 7904: 7897: 7892: 7885: 7880: 7873: 7868: 7861: 7856: 7850:, p. 29. 7849: 7844: 7837: 7832: 7825: 7820: 7813: 7808: 7801: 7796: 7789: 7784: 7777: 7772: 7765: 7764:Robins (2008) 7760: 7753: 7752:Robins (2008) 7748: 7741: 7736: 7730:, p. 74. 7729: 7728:Robins (2008) 7724: 7717: 7712: 7710: 7702: 7697: 7691:, p. 12. 7690: 7689:Robins (2008) 7685: 7679:, p. 21. 7678: 7677:Robins (2008) 7673: 7667:, p. 29. 7666: 7665:Robins (2008) 7661: 7654: 7649: 7643:, p. 23. 7642: 7641:Dodson (1991) 7637: 7630: 7625: 7619:, p. 50. 7618: 7617:Badawy (1968) 7613: 7606: 7601: 7594: 7589: 7582: 7577: 7570: 7565: 7558: 7554: 7549: 7542: 7537: 7530: 7525: 7518: 7513: 7506: 7501: 7494: 7489: 7482: 7477: 7471:, p. 23. 7470: 7465: 7458: 7453: 7447:, p. 11. 7446: 7441: 7434: 7429: 7422: 7417: 7410: 7405: 7398: 7393: 7386: 7381: 7374: 7369: 7363:, p. 13. 7362: 7357: 7350: 7345: 7338: 7333: 7326: 7321: 7314: 7309: 7303:, p. 74. 7302: 7297: 7291:, p. 46. 7290: 7285: 7278: 7273: 7266: 7261: 7254: 7249: 7242: 7237: 7230: 7225: 7218: 7213: 7206: 7201: 7194: 7189: 7182: 7177: 7170: 7165: 7158: 7153: 7147:, p. 72. 7146: 7141: 7135:, p. 51. 7134: 7129: 7122: 7117: 7111:, p. 14. 7110: 7109:Scheel (1989) 7105: 7098: 7093: 7087:, p. 28. 7086: 7081: 7074: 7069: 7062: 7057: 7050: 7045: 7038: 7033: 7026: 7021: 7014: 7009: 7007: 6999: 6994: 6992: 6984: 6979: 6972: 6967: 6960: 6955: 6948: 6943: 6936: 6931: 6924: 6919: 6912: 6907: 6900: 6895: 6888: 6883: 6881: 6879: 6871: 6866: 6859: 6854: 6847: 6842: 6835: 6830: 6823: 6822:Turner (1984) 6818: 6811: 6806: 6804: 6802: 6795:, p. 23. 6794: 6789: 6782: 6777: 6770: 6765: 6758: 6753: 6751: 6749: 6747: 6739: 6734: 6728:, p. 63. 6727: 6722: 6715: 6710: 6703: 6698: 6691: 6686: 6684: 6676: 6671: 6665:, p. 63. 6664: 6659: 6653:, p. 62. 6652: 6647: 6640: 6635: 6628: 6623: 6616: 6611: 6604: 6599: 6592: 6587: 6580: 6575: 6568: 6563: 6556: 6551: 6544: 6539: 6532: 6531:Bonnet (2006) 6527: 6520: 6515: 6508: 6507:Bonnet (2006) 6503: 6496: 6491: 6485:, p. 54. 6484: 6479: 6472: 6467: 6460: 6455: 6448: 6447:Aldred (1988) 6443: 6436: 6431: 6425:, p. 48. 6424: 6419: 6412: 6407: 6400: 6395: 6388: 6383: 6376: 6375:Ryholt (1997) 6371: 6369: 6361: 6356: 6350:, p. 90. 6349: 6348:Robins (2008) 6344: 6337: 6332: 6325: 6320: 6314:, p. 79. 6313: 6308: 6301: 6296: 6289: 6284: 6277: 6272: 6266:, p. 29. 6265: 6260: 6253: 6248: 6246: 6238: 6233: 6227:, p. 69. 6226: 6221: 6214: 6213:Hassan (2011) 6209: 6202: 6197: 6190: 6185: 6179:, p. 40. 6178: 6173: 6166: 6161: 6155:, p. 70. 6154: 6149: 6142: 6137: 6131:, p. 32. 6130: 6129:Robins (2008) 6125: 6118: 6113: 6106: 6101: 6094: 6089: 6082: 6077: 6070: 6066: 6061: 6055:, p. 61. 6054: 6049: 6042: 6037: 6030: 6025: 6018: 6013: 6006: 6001: 5995:, p. 14. 5994: 5989: 5982: 5977: 5970: 5965: 5959:, p. 17. 5958: 5953: 5946: 5941: 5935:, p. 84. 5934: 5929: 5922: 5917: 5910: 5905: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5897: 5889: 5886:, p. 8; 5885: 5880: 5873: 5868: 5862:, p. 46. 5861: 5856: 5849: 5844: 5840: 5822: 5816: 5809: 5803: 5797:, p. 25) 5796: 5792: 5788: 5782: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5756: 5750: 5744: 5738: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5664: 5656: 5651: 5649: 5644: 5642: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5629: 5628: 5623: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5605: 5602: 5598: 5593: 5589: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5577: 5567: 5564: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5543: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5524: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5500: 5490: 5487: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5438: 5434: 5431: 5428: 5422: 5421: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5397: 5387: 5384: 5381: 5377: 5374: 5373: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5360: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5347: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5310: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5254: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5210: 5206: 5203: 5200: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5174: 5169: 5168: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5136: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5123: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5111: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5092: 5091: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5081:Tenth Dynasty 5079: 5078: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5068:Ninth Dynasty 5066: 5065: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5028: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5012:Sixth Dynasty 5010: 5009: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4999:Fifth Dynasty 4997: 4996: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4983: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4973:Third Dynasty 4971: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4959: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4940: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4927:First Dynasty 4925: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4892: 4889: 4888:ancient Egypt 4885: 4881: 4878: 4877: 4871: 4860: 4857: 4846: 4836: 4832: 4825: 4820: 4817: 4813: 4812: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4785: 4780: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4771: 4769: 4768: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4718: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4680: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4661: 4651: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4624: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4606: 23,000 4600: 4596: 4592: 4589: 4584: 15,000 4577: 4568: 4564: 4555: 4551: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4531: 4527: 4525: 4519: 4509: 4501: 4496: 4490: 4480: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4463: 4459: 4445: 4444: 4443: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4421:one-fifteenth 4418: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4397: 4396: 4393: 4392: 4389: 4388: 4385: 4371: 4370: 4358: 4357: 4354: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4288: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4277:Mersa Gawasis 4273: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4260: 4256: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4198: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4155: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4129: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4048: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4006: 4004: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3991:Egyptian blue 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3966: 3964: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3936: 3931: 3916: 3913: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3837: 3827: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3813: 3809: 3803: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3788:mummification 3781: 3777: 3772: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3719: 3717: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3687: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3612: 3604: 3597: 3592: 3579: 3574: 3573: 3572: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3561:Amarna Period 3558: 3554: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3525: 3523: 3514: 3509: 3505: 3503: 3486: 3481: 3477: 3464: 3457: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3408: 3395: 3390: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3336: 3334: 3329: 3323: 3313: 3310: 3295: 3292:and his wife 3291: 3286: 3281: 3271: 3268: 3263: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3220: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3196: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3176: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3128: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3083:, written in 3082: 3081: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3019: 3014: 3009: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2977: 2973: 2958: 2951: 2940: 2939:Rosetta Stone 2935: 2926: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2913: 2901: 2900: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2884: 2882: 2876: 2874: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2777:Late Egyptian 2774: 2770: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2735: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2727: 2726: 2723: 2716: 2713: 2712: 2698: 2695: 2692: 2689: 2684: 2683: 2680: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2666: 2656: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2618:Tell es-Sakan 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2576: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2555:, greywacke, 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2539: 2534: 2532: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2518:Wadi Hammamat 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2490:mummification 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2469: 2465: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2444: 2440: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2346: 2341: 2337: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2286: 2285: 2280: 2279: 2274: 2273: 2267: 2265: 2260: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2216: 2206: 2204: 2199: 2195: 2189: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2173: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2145: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2133:Cleopatra VII 2130: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2112: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2096:social status 2088: 2082:Social status 2079: 2077: 2037: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1983: 1969: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1898: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1879:Cleopatra VII 1876: 1872: 1864: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1807:Egyptian gods 1803: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1751: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1727: 1725: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1680: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1626: 1620: 1616: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1580: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1529: 1527: 1523: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1494: 1488: 1478: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1449: 1444: 1439:, around 1258 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1401: 1399: 1398:Amarna Period 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1370:supreme deity 1367: 1364: 1360: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1298:Tuthmosis III 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1209:composite bow 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1193:Western Asian 1184: 1174: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1150:Amenemhat III 1146: 1144: 1138: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1121:, located in 1120: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1095: 1089: 1088:Black Pyramid 1085: 1081: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1023:Herakleopolis 1016: 1011: 1009: 1004: 998: 988: 982: 978: 974: 965: 961: 957: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 938:Giza pyramids 935: 931: 923: 918: 913: 903: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 876: 872: 871:royal regalia 868: 859: 854: 850: 848: 844: 840: 836: 828: 824: 820: 816: 810: 783: 778: 774: 772: 768: 764: 763:ceramic glaze 760: 756: 750: 749:to the east. 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 668: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 641: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 611: 606: 601: 578: 576: 572: 568: 565: 562: 558: 554: 548: 544: 534: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 471: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 428: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 295:Ancient Egypt 275: 273: 270: 269: 266: 260: 257: 250: 249: 246: 245: 242: 239: 237: 234: 233: 229: 225: 221: 215: 211: 207: 200: 196: 192: 185: 179: 175: 168: 164: 160: 153: 149: 145: 138: 128: 125: 119: 110: 104: 100: 97: 94: 90: 87: 86: 81: 77: 63: 58: 47: 43:Ancient Egypt 40: 37: 33: 26: 22: 15712:Contemporary 15562:Indo-Persian 15550:Nazi Germany 15494:Contemporary 15396:Vijayanagara 15295:Great Seljuk 15206:Thessalonica 15134:Golden Horde 14774:Carthaginian 14608: 14553:Neo-Assyrian 14538:Neo-Sumerian 14453: 14444: 14437: 14430: 14423: 14415: 14410:On the Ocean 14408: 14401: 14393: 14390:Literature: 14178: 14160: 14141: 14134: 14124:Aotearoa One 14122: 14115: 14108: 14101: 14089: 14082: 14075: 14068: 14061: 14054: 14047: 14034: 14030: 14022: 14009:Experimental 13977:Museum ships 13944: 13937: 13910: 13882:Phoenician: 13873: 13868:Leontophoros 13866: 13830:Butuan boats 13825:Pontian boat 13763:Dufuna canoe 13702:Shipbuilding 13613:and theories 13583:Boris Rankov 13377: 13310:Economy and 13210:Incendiaries 13057: 12844:Indus Valley 12812:Tarumanagara 12754: 12739:Ubaid period 12657:Wadi al-Jarf 12572:Ostia Antica 12176:Fore-and-aft 12143:Shipbuilding 12118:Carvel built 12100:Construction 12058:Steering oar 11939:Sailing ship 11862:Obelisk ship 11820:Dugout canoe 11382:Architecture 11341: 11248: 11228: 11184: 11178: 11151: 11127: 11083: 11079: 11054: 11032: 11010:(1): 67–93. 11007: 11001: 10981: 10977:Lehner, Mark 10956: 10934: 10911: 10888: 10860: 10850: 10844: 10831: 10815: 10793: 10765: 10747: 10743: 10730: 10707: 10684: 10664: 10643: 10599: 10595: 10577: 10562:. Retrieved 10540: 10525:the original 10520: 10497: 10477: 10444: 10438: 10421: 10415: 10395: 10381: 10369: 10354: 10331: 10311: 10287: 10266: 10243: 10234: 10217: 10213: 10193: 10172: 10159:. Retrieved 10137: 10110: 10089: 10075: 10053: 10041:. Retrieved 10035: 10019:. Retrieved 10006: 9994:Live Science 9993: 9969: 9945: 9925: 9906: 9883: 9871: 9847: 9827: 9807: 9783: 9762: 9738: 9716: 9692: 9683: 9656: 9633: 9606: 9593:. Retrieved 9578: 9557: 9540: 9491: 9487: 9474: 9451: 9399: 9393: 9365:. Retrieved 9349: 9332: 9328: 9308: 9292:. Retrieved 9268: 9244: 9224: 9204: 9183: 9170:. Retrieved 9166:the original 9161: 9138: 9117: 9096: 9075: 9054: 8993: 8989: 8975: 8961: 8937: 8917: 8912: 8891: 8875: 8872:"Chronology" 8852: 8829: 8810: 8794:. Retrieved 8788: 8765: 8745: 8722: 8702: 8682: 8670:the original 8642: 8622: 8610:. Retrieved 8590: 8566: 8545: 8522: 8510: 8498: 8486: 8474: 8462: 8457:, p. 8. 8450: 8443:Török (1998) 8438: 8431:Török (1998) 8426: 8419:Ehret (2023) 8414: 8407:Keita (2022) 8402: 8390: 8378: 8366: 8354: 8342: 8277: 8261: 8249: 8237: 8225: 8213: 8201: 8189: 8177: 8166:Boyle (2013) 8161: 8154:Curry (2011) 8149: 8122: 8100:Filer (1995) 8095: 8083: 8071: 8059: 8047: 8040:Filer (1995) 8035: 8028:Filer (1995) 8023: 8016:Filer (1995) 8011: 8004:Filer (1995) 7999: 7987: 7975: 7963: 7951: 7939: 7927: 7915: 7903: 7891: 7884:James (2005) 7879: 7867: 7855: 7843: 7831: 7824:Allen (2000) 7819: 7807: 7800:James (2005) 7795: 7783: 7776:James (2005) 7771: 7759: 7747: 7735: 7723: 7716:James (2005) 7696: 7684: 7672: 7660: 7648: 7636: 7624: 7612: 7600: 7588: 7581:Hayes (1973) 7576: 7564: 7548: 7536: 7524: 7512: 7500: 7488: 7476: 7464: 7452: 7440: 7428: 7423:, p. 8. 7421:Allen (2000) 7416: 7404: 7392: 7387:, p. 7. 7385:Allen (2000) 7380: 7368: 7361:Allen (2000) 7356: 7344: 7332: 7325:Allen (2000) 7320: 7308: 7296: 7284: 7272: 7260: 7248: 7236: 7224: 7212: 7200: 7188: 7181:Porat (1986) 7176: 7164: 7157:Porat (1992) 7152: 7140: 7128: 7116: 7104: 7099:, "Sulphur". 7097:Hogan (2011) 7092: 7080: 7073:Lucas (1962) 7068: 7056: 7044: 7032: 7020: 6978: 6966: 6954: 6942: 6930: 6918: 6906: 6894: 6865: 6853: 6846:James (2005) 6841: 6829: 6817: 6788: 6776: 6764: 6733: 6721: 6709: 6697: 6670: 6663:James (2005) 6658: 6651:James (2005) 6646: 6634: 6622: 6610: 6598: 6586: 6574: 6562: 6550: 6538: 6526: 6514: 6502: 6495:Cerny (1975) 6490: 6483:James (2005) 6478: 6466: 6454: 6442: 6430: 6423:James (2005) 6418: 6406: 6394: 6382: 6355: 6343: 6331: 6319: 6307: 6295: 6283: 6271: 6259: 6232: 6220: 6208: 6196: 6184: 6177:James (2005) 6172: 6160: 6148: 6136: 6124: 6119:, p. 6. 6112: 6107:, p. 1. 6105:Allen (2000) 6100: 6088: 6076: 6060: 6048: 6036: 6024: 6017:Aston (1994) 6012: 6000: 5988: 5981:Hayes (1964) 5976: 5971:, p. 5. 5969:Ikram (1992) 5964: 5952: 5940: 5933:James (2005) 5928: 5916: 5884:James (2005) 5879: 5867: 5855: 5843: 5815: 5802: 5795:Filer (1995) 5790: 5786: 5781: 5774:Drews (1993) 5762: 5749: 5737: 5721: 5625: 5619: 5596: 4887: 4809: 4795:Luxor temple 4772: 4765: 4719: 4703:Roman Empire 4684: 4676: 4673:Frontispiece 4625: 4613:Roman period 4610: 4591:Taforalt man 4578: 4560: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4506: 4475: 4470: 4467: 4461: 4457: 4429: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4402: 4312: 4274: 4263: 4259:Land of Punt 4252: 4232:solar barque 4201: 4161:Abydos boats 4142:shipbuilding 4135: 4126:broken bones 4103: 4078: 4072: 4038: 4036:were rare). 4018: 3999: 3972: 3952:Ebers papyri 3941: 3892: 3887:11th dynasty 3857: 3816: 3804: 3800:canopic jars 3785: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3729:(shadow), a 3726: 3722: 3720: 3712: 3668: 3627:Thutmose III 3609:1350 BC 3549: 3533:funerary art 3526: 3518: 3498: 3357: 3337: 3325: 3316:Architecture 3306: 3264: 3248:13th Dynasty 3244:Amenemhat IV 3225: 3197: 3181: 3161: 3078: 3076: 3061: 3042:Coffin Texts 3032: 3030: 2988:Thomas Young 2980: 2955: 2918: 2914: 2897: 2895: 2886: 2878: 2870: 2844: 2819:hieroglyphic 2789: 2769:Old Egyptian 2747:Afro-Asiatic 2740: 2714: 2641:lapis lazuli 2626: 2599: 2595:Land of Punt 2573:Wadi el-Hudi 2535: 2524:, and gold. 2471: 2405: 2381:domesticated 2374: 2314: 2308:removed the 2282: 2276: 2275:(flooding), 2270: 2268: 2259:fertile soil 2256: 2190: 2186:Great Kenbet 2185: 2180: 2169: 2148:Legal system 2113: 2100:noble family 2093: 2033: 2023: 1988: 1952:army in the 1939: 1906:Christianity 1903: 1899: 1863:Roman Empire 1860: 1800: 1776:capital city 1754: 1748:wearing the 1744:Portrait of 1708:Nectanebo II 1681: 1622: 1576: 1560:25th Dynasty 1549: 1545:Kerma Museum 1490: 1471:civil unrest 1445: 1437:peace treaty 1418: 1352: 1341: 1302: 1275: 1222:allies, the 1217: 1186: 1147: 1139: 1100: 1069:Senwosret II 1065:Amenemhat II 1031:Intef family 1012: 1000: 969: 942:Great Sphinx 927: 891:trade routes 874: 863: 812: 751: 669: 645:5500 BC 642: 638:domesticated 615: 564:modern human 550: 523:architecture 472: 429: 413:Roman Empire 399:. The Greek 366: 294: 293: 241:Succeeded by 240: 235: 82: 73:BC to 30 BC) 36: 15300:Khwarezmian 15233:Carolingian 15038:Rashtrakuta 14742:Shaishunaga 14641:Hellenistic 14624:New Kingdom 14614:Old Kingdom 14417:Argonautica 14404:(Herodotus) 14367:Flood myths 14264:Museums and 14208:conferences 14173:Vital Alsar 14011:archaeology 13820:Austronesia 13813:Hjortspring 13808:Rochelongue 13758:Pesse canoe 13712:Ship burial 13697:Sea Peoples 13630:Lighthouses 13625:Grave goods 13573:George Bass 13353:Spice trade 12950:exploration 12772:Philippines 12767:Austronesia 12760:Old Kingdom 12637:Trincomalee 12587:Prosphorion 12532:Myos Hormos 12376:Micronesian 12367:By region: 12339:Lighthouses 12147:By region: 11912:Quinquereme 11837:Kunlun ship 11830:Penteconter 11815:Dragon boat 11720:WikiProject 11534:Mathematics 11495:Hieroglyphs 11409:Portraiture 11377:Agriculture 11364:Main topics 11253:Art History 10846:Archaeology 10750:: 197–227. 10424:: 159–176. 10356:Archaeology 10270:. Berkley. 9595:28 November 9172:11 February 8612:15 November 8536:Works cited 8142:Shea (1977) 7944:Shaw (2003) 7932:Shaw (2009) 7896:Shaw (2003) 7812:Shaw (2003) 7740:Shaw (2003) 7205:Shaw (2003) 7145:Shaw (2003) 6738:Shaw (2003) 6702:Shaw (2003) 6690:Shaw (2003) 6675:Shaw (2003) 6639:Shaw (2003) 6627:Shaw (2003) 6615:Shaw (2003) 6603:Shaw (2003) 6591:Shaw (2003) 6579:Shaw (2003) 6519:Shaw (2003) 6399:Shaw (2003) 6387:Shaw (2003) 6360:Shaw (2003) 6336:Shaw (2003) 6324:Shaw (2003) 6300:Shaw (2003) 6252:Shaw (2003) 6237:Shaw (2003) 6201:Shaw (2003) 6189:Shaw (2003) 6153:Shaw (2003) 6069:Ataç (2014) 6065:Shaw (2003) 6053:Shaw (2003) 6029:Ataç (2014) 5993:Kemp (1989) 5957:Shaw (2003) 5945:Shaw (2003) 5909:Ward (2001) 5743:Ramesses XI 5727:Late Period 5548:Roman Egypt 5402:Late Period 5259:New Kingdom 4964:Old Kingdom 4814:(1887), by 4742:Egyptomania 4726:Renaissance 4722:Middle Ages 4720:During the 4608:years ago. 4446:Area ≈ = ( 4384:hieroglyphs 4291:Mathematics 4266:Lake Timsah 4226:around 2500 3948:Edwin Smith 3899:animal skin 3792:desiccation 3513:tomb models 3493: 1400 3362:, the open 3240:Theban tomb 3125:Ramesses II 3121:Greco-Roman 3025: 1321 2964: 3000 2959:dates from 2762: 3200 2722:hieroglyphs 2645:Afghanistan 2486:Wadi Natrun 2209:Agriculture 2176:legal codes 2165:5th dynasty 2030:Late period 1914:Greco-Roman 1871:Mark Antony 1845:Roman Egypt 1811:syncretized 1665:Psamtik III 1661:Cambyses II 1568:New Kingdom 1522:Leontopolis 1493:Ramesses XI 1455:Sea Peoples 1431:(in modern 1425:Ramesses II 1419:Around 1279 1409:Ramesses II 1386:Tutankhamun 1353:Around 1350 1294:Tuthmosis I 1187:Around 1785 1166:Nile floods 1113:around 1985 1107:Amenemhat I 930:Old Kingdom 887:labor force 847:Lower Egypt 823:Mesopotamia 771:hieroglyphs 665:stone tools 620:times, the 575:Paleolithic 495:mathematics 415:and became 393:Macedonians 358:New Kingdom 342:Old Kingdom 272:Roman Egypt 236:Preceded by 191:Late Period 174:New Kingdom 144:Old Kingdom 71: 3150 15978:Categories 15870:Portuguese 15751:Revival Le 15741:Vietnamese 15384:Later Tran 15354:Vietnamese 15250:Singhasari 15238:Holy Roman 14862:Bulgarian 14798:Satavahana 14769:Phoenician 14705:Achaemenid 14666:Indo-Greek 14646:Macedonian 14560:Babylonian 14426:(Polybius) 14070:Hawaiʻiloa 13952:Nemi ships 13837:Black Sea‎ 13783:Khufu ship 13744:and relics 13642:Marine art 13635:Alexandria 13542:Fik Meijer 13525:Historians 13412:Indo-Roman 13225:Greek navy 13127:Salamis II 13117:Hellespont 13077:Artemisium 13067:Nile Delta 13030:Achaemenid 12923:Achaemenid 12792:Langkasuka 12787:Micronesia 12705:Prehistory 12632:Sounagoura 12460:Chittagong 12435:Barbarikon 12414:Alexandria 12356:Pilot boat 12306:Navigation 12138:Sewn-plank 12133:Lashed-lug 12011:Figurehead 11984:Components 11953:Propulsion 11907:Quadrireme 11888:Polyremes 11867:Outriggers 11650:Egyptology 11618:Technology 11581:Philosophy 11529:Literature 11421:Chronology 10043:14 January 9873:Seeker.com 9444:Gadd, C.J. 9367:9 February 5831:References 5808:Suez Canal 5667:Egyptology 5618:See also: 5597:speculated 4758:Egyptology 4738:al-Maqrizi 4658:See also: 4644:linguistic 4493:See also: 4483:Population 4436:hypotenuse 4413:two-fifths 4281:Hatshepsut 4216:Khufu ship 4083:Per-Bastet 3944:empiricism 3924:Technology 3812:cartonnage 3623:Hatshepsut 3569:Amarna art 3535:, such as 3522:gum arabic 3256:Beni Hasan 3252:ball games 3184:animal fat 3136:Daily life 3002:Literature 2946: 196 2863:triliteral 2859:affricates 2855:fricatives 2847:pharyngeal 2811:word order 2510:gold mines 2219:See also: 2129:Hatshepsut 2028:until the 1922:Theodosius 1918:Diocletian 1895:Roman army 1824:Ptolemy IV 1780:Alexandria 1769:Macedonian 1645:city-state 1550:Around 727 1513:Shoshenq I 1459:Aegean Sea 1413:Abu Simbel 1305:Hatshepsut 1156:-speaking 1152:, allowed 950:crop yield 727:Naqada III 608:A typical 509:, and the 507:literature 456:a military 440:irrigation 391:, and the 303:Nile River 55:–332/30 BC 15863:Couronian 15501:Ethiopian 15489:Manchukuo 15444:Brazilian 15290:Ghaznavid 15260:Srivijaya 15211:Trebizond 15196:Byzantine 15178:North Sea 15173:Norwegian 15161:Almoravid 15144:Ilkhanate 15114:Majapahit 15087:Muromachi 14996:Solomonic 14981:Ethiopian 14895:Caliphate 14828:Aragonese 14656:Ptolemaic 14439:Geography 14377:Gilgamesh 14266:memorials 14190:Viracocha 14103:Faʻafaite 14056:Sarimanok 13962:Yassi Ada 13875:Syracusia 13798:Canaanite 13773:Moor Sand 13243:By region 13205:Grappling 13177:Naulochus 13167:Myonessus 13122:Echinades 13107:Arginusae 13102:Cynossema 13087:Naupactus 13082:Eurymedon 12916:Classical 12891:Phoenicia 12886:Mycenaean 12849:Tamilakam 12832:Polynesia 12822:Srivijaya 12617:Satingpra 12577:Palembang 12561:Cattigara 12503:(Kadaram) 12486:Jambukola 12480:Guangzhou 12421:(Podouke) 12419:Arikamedu 12381:Polynesia 12314:Celestial 12227:Armaments 12213:Spritsail 12171:Crab claw 12113:Careening 12080:Sternpost 11934:Reed boat 11877:Catamaran 11852:Multihull 11554:Mythology 11478:Geography 11468:Dynasties 11416:Astronomy 11086:: 15694. 11035:. Wiley. 10937:. Wiley. 10933:(1994) . 10616:0092-8674 10564:9 January 10517:"Slavery" 10469:163869704 10447:: 31–38. 10378:"Shabtis" 10161:9 January 10037:Arab News 9805:(1995a). 9510:1553-7404 9424:161307683 9416:0022-2968 9335:: 41–54. 9294:9 January 9079:. Shire. 9042:Day, John 9034:265356320 9018:0960-9822 8910:(1990) . 8796:3 January 5836:Citations 5791:at birth. 5301:1189–1077 5288:1292–1189 5275:1549–1292 5245:1580–1549 5232:1650–1600 5220:1660–1600 5207:1674–1535 5189:1705–1690 5159:1803–1649 5146:1991–1803 5133:2061–1991 5102:2134–2061 5088:2130–2040 5075:2160–2130 5062:2181–2160 5019:2345–2181 5006:2498–2345 4993:2613–2498 4980:2686–2613 4950:2890–2686 4937:3150–2890 4884:dynasties 4833:near the 4586:year old 4574: 57 4536:Egyptians 4417:one-third 4409:fractions 4204:treenails 4138:ship hull 4114:belladona 4030:abscesses 3995:sintering 3693:The gods 3565:Akhenaten 3545:afterlife 3511:Egyptian 3368:hypostyle 3364:courtyard 3290:Nefermaat 3199:imported 3189:cosmetics 3050:Ramesside 2899:nisbation 2653:olive oil 2561:carnelian 2557:alabaster 2545:malachite 2522:greywacke 2482:Embalmers 2443:Herodotus 2424:elephants 2361:Sennedjem 2306:Winnowing 2019:overseers 2015:granaries 1958:Heraclius 1875:Ptolemaic 1796:Ptolemies 1704:Thirtieth 1688:Phoenicia 1649:Naucratis 1633:Psamtik I 1599:Tanutamun 1363:sun deity 1359:Akhenaten 1248:Near East 1162:Near East 1158:Canaanite 1017:. By 2160 966:enthroned 765:known as 747:Near East 690:imported 688:Egyptians 684:Semainean 643:By about 634:waterfowl 630:ungulates 610:Naqada II 479:surveying 475:quarrying 421:conquered 409:Cleopatra 385:Assyrians 356:, or the 222:332/30 BC 135:– 2686 BC 15843:Japanese 15806:Scottish 15786:American 15778:Colonial 15707:Imperial 15675:Moroccan 15611:Japanese 15589:Afsharid 15448:Burmese 15434:Austrian 15389:Later Le 15364:Early Le 15349:Venetian 15275:Tiwanaku 15188:Hellenic 15151:Moroccan 15082:Kamakura 15072:Japanese 15055:Saffarid 15008:Georgian 14922:Chalukya 14900:Rashidun 14890:Calakmul 14858:Bruneian 14737:Haryanka 14715:Sasanian 14710:Parthian 14661:Bactrian 14651:Seleucid 14631:Goguryeo 14609:Egyptian 14543:Assyrian 14533:Akkadian 14524:Colonies 14455:Tākitimu 14358:Legend: 14316:Roskilde 14195:Tangaroa 14136:Olympias 14110:Gaualofa 14049:Hōkūleʻa 14024:Kon-Tiki 13857:Ashkelon 13793:Uluburun 13752:Earliest 13518:Scholars 13400:shipping 13200:Boarding 13112:Mytilene 13097:Syracuse 13062:Alashiya 13025:Egyptian 13009:Military 13000:Timeline 12978:Sardinia 12901:Carthage 12817:Kalingga 12777:Sa Huỳnh 12712:Timeline 12662:Zanzibar 12612:Sarapion 12607:Rhacotis 12537:Martaban 12482:(Canton) 12475:Godavaya 12470:Giao Chỉ 12440:Barygaza 12430:Avalites 12351:Piloting 12239:Catapult 12234:Ballista 12208:Mast-aft 12021:Planking 11960:Paddling 11917:Hexareme 11882:Trimaran 11847:Longship 11795:Balangay 11690:Category 11611:District 11606:Capitals 11591:Religion 11574:Titulary 11564:Pharaohs 11544:Military 11539:Medicine 11522:Hieratic 11512:Language 11438:Clothing 11392:Obelisks 11298:cite web 11268:Archived 11205:Archived 11201:17295300 11149:(2003). 11118:28556824 10979:(1997). 10820:Archived 10756:23865622 10735:Archived 10705:(2001). 10634:28938123 10582:Archived 10430:25735452 10386:Archived 10309:(1997). 10264:(2003). 10226:23888738 10080:Archived 9973:. Berg. 9967:(2004). 9905:(1984). 9760:(1975). 9713:(1989). 9678:(2002). 9654:(2005). 9628:(2007). 9555:(1992). 9545:Archived 9537:"Sulfur" 9528:24921250 9434:(1973). 9341:24233566 9306:(1957). 9026:37995693 8980:Archived 8963:Discover 8896:Archived 8880:Archived 8850:(2001). 8812:NBC News 8743:(2005). 8606:Archived 8588:(2003). 5331:1069–945 5049:spurious 4842:See also 4754:Napoleon 4748:and the 4724:and the 4619:and the 4339:geometry 4325:and the 4238:joints. 4212:caulking 4171:, woven 4148:BC. The 4079:Per Ankh 4060:hieratic 4032:(though 4009:Medicine 3903:chariots 3830:Military 3680:pantheon 3168:Ceramics 3164:mudbrick 3107:and the 3033:Per Ankh 2972:hieratic 2912:particle 2851:emphatic 2823:hieratic 2804:suffixes 2800:articles 2796:analytic 2659:Language 2637:Anatolia 2569:amethyst 2565:emeralds 2553:porphyry 2538:lead ore 2393:censuses 2298:threshed 2203:ostracon 2194:impaling 1999:archives 1935:churches 1910:Egyptian 1883:Octavian 1788:Mouseion 1765:Persians 1627:. By 653 1579:Assyrian 1526:Kushites 1394:Horemheb 1378:religion 1284:Empire, 1278:pharaohs 1244:Ahmose I 1224:Kushites 1008:optimism 977:nomarchs 819:Akkadian 815:Sumerian 696:Ethiopia 692:obsidian 676:Amratian 515:Hittites 491:obelisks 483:pyramids 436:flooding 15910:largest 15905:Empires 15885:Swedish 15880:Spanish 15875:Russian 15838:Italian 15813:Chinese 15801:English 15796:British 15791:Belgian 15766:Vietnam 15756:Tay son 15702:Tsarist 15697:Russian 15692:Ottoman 15658:Dzungar 15653:Khoshut 15626:Mexican 15621:Maratha 15604:Pahlavi 15584:Safavid 15579:Iranian 15506:Haitian 15469:Chinese 15429:Ashanti 15401:Wagadou 15327:Eastern 15322:Western 15305:Timurid 15265:Tibetan 15255:Songhai 15245:Serbian 15166:Almohad 15156:Idrisid 15060:Samanid 15050:Tahirid 15045:Iranian 15023:Kannauj 15003:Genoese 14939:Chinese 14932:Eastern 14927:Western 14915:Fatimid 14910:Abbasid 14905:Umayyad 14878:Burmese 14838:Ayyubid 14833:Angevin 14803:Xianbei 14791:Eastern 14786:Western 14732:Magadha 14695:Iranian 14688:Xiongnu 14673:Hittite 14582:Chinese 14570:Kassite 14519:Ancient 14511:Empires 14395:Odyssey 14372:Genesis 14169:Others 13968:Lists: 13957:Marausa 13907:Roman: 13897:Punic: 13862:Kyrenia 13853:Greek: 13849:Marsala 13842:Sinop D 13717:Tacking 13451:History 13338:Meluhha 13328:Fishing 13323:Whaling 13230:Ramming 13152:Aegates 13147:Drepana 13142:Ecnomus 13072:Salamis 13060: 13050:Battles 12928:Nabatea 12911:Archaic 12881:Nuragic 12871:Somalia 12722:Oceania 12717:Britain 12694:History 12627:Socotra 12597:Qandala 12582:Piraeus 12552:Muziris 12522:Madurai 12517:Manthai 12455:Canopus 12425:Arsinoe 12397:harbors 12346:History 12334:Coastal 12264:Sambuca 12249:Dolphin 12163:Rigging 11975:Poling 11965:Sailing 11902:Trireme 11842:Liburna 11805:Coracle 11775:Vessels 11710:Outline 11700:Commons 11660:Museums 11596:Scribes 11586:Pottery 11517:Demotic 11507:History 11458:Cuisine 11387:Revival 11109:5459999 11088:Bibcode 11024:3822337 10625:5679310 10461:i258744 10021:23 June 9519:4055572 9245:Disease 8998:Bibcode 8828:(ed.). 5521:332–305 5491:343–332 5474:380–343 5461:398–380 5448:404–398 5435:525–404 5418:672–525 5388:732–653 5370:732–720 5357:837–728 5344:945–720 4880:Periods 4640:genetic 4563:Nubians 4451:⁄ 4376:⁄ 4335:algebra 4222:in the 4197:Hor-Aha 4154:planked 4075:Imhotep 4021:malaria 3975:faience 3908:khopesh 3883:Mesehti 3852:chariot 3723:aspects 3716:oracles 3603:Nebamun 3529:reliefs 3372:mastaba 3341:Malkata 3274:Cuisine 3209:sistrum 3131:Culture 3117:demotic 3054:Harkhuf 3038:Pyramid 2976:Demotic 2929:Writing 2889:sḏm ḥmt 2781:Demotic 2715:r n kmt 2504:in the 2428:grazing 2418:in the 2397:Poultry 2377:animals 2352:Animals 2333:Papyrus 2300:with a 2294:sickles 2198:oracles 2161:Saqqara 2124:doctors 2116:peasant 2109:slavery 2061:⁄ 2047:⁄ 2026:coinage 2007:nomarch 1887:Emperor 1885:(later 1815:Serapis 1667:at the 1595:Taharqa 1564:Taharqa 1543:kings, 1541:Kushite 1501:Smendes 1495:in 1078 1451:Berbers 1368:as the 1323:to the 1286:Assyria 1282:Mitanni 1240:Nubians 1213:chariot 1154:Semitic 1119:Itjtawy 973:temples 899:mastaba 893:to the 883:Memphis 835:Manetho 767:faience 653:pottery 626:savanna 561:Nomadic 537:History 487:temples 464:pharaoh 460:scribes 423:by the 381:Nubians 360:of the 352:of the 344:of the 336:). 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In 10752:JSTOR 10537:(PDF) 10465:S2CID 10457:JSTOR 10426:JSTOR 10134:(PDF) 10017:(BAS) 9438:. In 9420:S2CID 9337:JSTOR 9030:S2CID 8824:. 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