Natural History (Pliny)

2321: 1062: 40: 508: 944:, not for luck but from his love of study, long before dawn; in winter he would commence at the seventh hour... He could sleep at call, and it would come upon him and leave him in the middle of his work. Before daybreak he would go to Vespasian – for he too was a night-worker – and then set about his official duties. On his return home he would again give to study any time that he had free. Often in summer after taking a meal, which with him, as in the old days, was always a simple and light one, he would lie in the sun if he had any time to spare, and a book would be read aloud, from which he would take notes and extracts. 5573: 1240: 2253: 432: 371: 2160: 1432: 2523: 428:(animal, vegetable, mineral) to recreate the natural world in literary form. Rather than presenting compartmentalised, stand-alone entries arranged alphabetically, Pliny's ordered natural landscape is a coherent whole, offering the reader a guided tour: "a brief excursion under our direction among the whole of the works of nature ..." The work is unified but varied: "My subject is the world of nature ... or in other words, life," he tells Titus. 2390:, c. 1235–1264) also used Pliny as a source for his own work. In this regard, Pliny's influence over the medieval period has been argued to be quite extensive. For example, one twentieth-century historian has argued that Pliny's reliance on book-based knowledge, and not direct observation, shaped intellectual life to the degree that it "stymie the progress of western science". This sentiment can be observed in the early modern period when 2849: 1984: 1517: 4880: 1894: 2649:, powering at least sixteen overshot water wheels arranged in two parallel sets of eight down the hillside. It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down in the set, and so on to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were known to the Romans, being described by 2415:

Now what is very strange, there is scarce a popular error passant in our days, which is not either directly expressed, or diductively contained in this Work; which being in the hands of most men, hath proved a powerful occasion of their propagation. Wherein notwithstanding the credulity of the Reader

952:

After dinner a book would be read aloud, and he would take notes in a cursory way. I remember that one of his friends, when the reader pronounced a word wrongly, checked him and made him read it again, and my uncle said to him, "Did you not catch the meaning?" When his friend said "yes," he remarked,

830:

My subject is a barren one – the world of nature, or in other words life; and that subject in its least elevated department, and employing either rustic terms or foreign, nay barbarian words that actually have to be introduced with an apology. Moreover, the path is not a beaten highway of authorship,

2183:

and in his other galleries (XXXIV:84), but much of his information about the position of such works in Rome is from books, not personal observation. The main merit of his account of ancient art, the only classical work of its kind, is that it is a compilation ultimately founded on the lost textbooks

542:

was always producing something new. Nature's variety and versatility were claimed to be infinite: "When I have observed nature she has always induced me to deem no statement about her incredible." This led Pliny to recount rumours of strange peoples on the edges of the world. These monstrous races –

2463:

to show how Pliny in his encyclopedic work – which is the result of adaptations from many earlier writers and according to Pliny himself was intended as a reference work – nevertheless throughout expresses a basic attitude to Man and his relationship with Nature; how he understands Man's role as an

2425:

Grundy Steiner of Northwestern University, in a 1955 judgement considered by Thomas R. Laehn to represent the collective opinion of Pliny's critics, wrote of Pliny that "He was not an original, creative thinker, nor a pioneer of research to be compared either with Aristotle and Theophrastus or with

2509:

has regained its status to a greater extent than at any time since the advent of Humanism. Work by those with scientific as well as philological expertise has resulted in improvements both to Pliny's text and to his reputation as a scientist. The essential coherence of his enterprise has also been

848:

In the preface, the author claims to have stated 20,000 facts gathered from some 2,000 books and from 100 select authors. The extant lists of his authorities cover more than 400, including 146 Roman and 327 Greek and other sources of information. The lists generally follow the order of the subject

844:

sometimes list the authorities he actually consulted, though not exhaustively; in other cases, they cover the principal writers on the subject, whose names are borrowed second-hand from his immediate authorities. He acknowledges his obligations to his predecessors: "To own up to those who were the

1574:

of pine trees. Evidence cited includes the fact that some samples exhibit encapsulated insects, a feature readily explained by the presence of a viscous resin. Pliny refers to the way in which it exerts a charge when rubbed, a property well known to Theophrastus. He devotes considerable space to

1450:

The first topic covered is Astronomy, in Book II. Pliny starts with the known universe, roundly criticising attempts at cosmology as madness, including the view that there are countless other worlds than the Earth. He concurs with the four (Aristotelian) elements, fire, earth, air and water, and

2441:

for facts and curiosities, he is an author who "deserves an extended read, for the measured movement of his prose, which is enlivened by his admiration for everything that exists and his respect for the infinite diversity of all phenomena". Calvino notes that while Pliny is eclectic, he was not

2116:. The anecdotic element has been ascribed to Duris (XXXIV:61); the notices of the successive developments of art and the list of workers in bronze and painters to Xenocrates; and a large amount of miscellaneous information to Antigonus. Both Xenocrates and Antigonus are named in connection with 2066:

Pliny returns to the problem of fraud and the detection of false gems using several tests, including the scratch test, where counterfeit gems can be marked by a steel file, and genuine ones not. Perhaps it refers to glass imitations of jewellery gemstones. He refers to using one hard mineral to

1744: 1466:

Book II continues with natural meteorological events lower in the sky, including the winds, weather, whirlwinds, lightning, and rainbows. He returns to astronomical facts such as the effect of longitude on time of sunrise and sunset, the variation of the Sun's elevation with latitude (affecting

1830:

He is critical of greed for gold, such as the absurdity of using the metal for coins in the early Republic. He gives examples of the way rulers proclaimed their prowess by exhibiting gold looted from their campaigns, such as that by Claudius after conquering Britain, and tells the stories of

2481:

offered an expansive definition of this subject. broadly described all entities found in nature, or derived from nature, that could be seen in the Roman world and read about in its books: art, artifacts, and peoples as well as animals, plants, and minerals were included in his project.

1415:

is generally divided into the organic plants and animals and the inorganic matter, although there are frequent digressions in each section. The encyclopedia also notes the uses made of all of these by the Romans. Its description of metals and minerals is valued for its detail in the

2486:

Findlen contrasts Pliny's approach with that of his intellectual predecessors Aristotle and Theophrastus, who sought general causes of natural phenomena, while Pliny was more interested in cataloguing natural wonders, and his contemporary Dioscorides explored nature for its uses in

1027:

Pliny wrote the first ten books in AD 77, and was engaged on revising the rest during the two remaining years of his life. The work was probably published with little revision by the author's nephew Pliny the Younger, who, when telling the story of a tame dolphin and describing the

1451:

records the seven "planets" including the Sun and Moon. The Earth is a sphere, suspended in the middle of space. He considers it a weakness to try to find the shape and form of God, or to suppose that such a being would care about human affairs. He mentions eclipses, but considers

4883: 1775:, which he uses as a primary source. Pliny's work includes discussion of all known cultivated crops and vegetables, as well as herbs and remedies derived from them. He describes machines used in cultivation and processing the crops. For example, he describes a simple mechanical 2450:

it is impossible to force that variable which is destiny into the natural history of man: this is the sense of the pages that Pliny devotes to the vicissitudes of fortune, to the unpredictability of the length of any life, to the pointlessness of astrology, to disease and

484:. The components of nature are not just described in and for themselves, but also with a view to their role in human life. Pliny devotes a number of the books to plants, with a focus on their medicinal value; the books on minerals include descriptions of their uses in 1614:

and the various grades of papyrus available to Romans are described. Different types of trees and the properties of their wood are explained in Books XII to XIII. The vine, viticulture and varieties of grape are discussed in Book XIV, while Book XV covers the

2468:

More specifically, Isager writes that "the guiding principle in Pliny's treatment of Greek and Roman art is the function of art in society", while Pliny "uses his art history to express opinions about the ideology of the state". Paula Findlen, writing in the

1649:: "Perfumes are the most pointless of luxuries, for pearls and jewels are at least passed on to one's heirs, and clothes last for a time, but perfumes lose their fragrance and perish as soon as they are used." He gives a summary of their ingredients, such as 1475:

In Books III to VI, Pliny moves to the Earth itself. In Book III he covers the geography of the Iberian peninsula and Italy; Book IV covers Europe; Book V looks at Africa and Asia, while Book VI looks eastwards to the Black Sea, India and the Far East.

2232:

At Rome indeed the works of art are legion; besides, one effaces another from the memory and, however beautiful they may be, we are distracted by the overpowering claims of duty and business; for to admire art we need leisure and profound stillness

1944:. The dust is very toxic, so workers handling the material wear face masks of bladder skin. Copper and bronze are, says Pliny, most famous for their use in statues including colossi, gigantic statues as tall as towers, the most famous being the 1889:

operated by treadmill and found in Roman mines. Britain, he says, is very rich in lead, which is found on the surface at many places, and thus very easy to extract; production was so high that a law was passed attempting to restrict mining.

1730:

all travelled abroad to learn magic, remarking that it was surprising anyone accepted the doctrines they brought back, and that medicine (of Hippocrates) and magic (of Democritus) should have flourished simultaneously at the time of the

2750:"...est namque terra ex quodam argillae genere glarea mixta – 'gangadiam' vocant – prope inexpugnabilis. cuneis eam ferreis adgrediuntur et isdem malleis nihilque durius putant, nisi quod inter omnia auri fames durissima est " 1905:

by mixing copper with silver, or even admixture with iron. Tests had been developed for counterfeit coins and proved very popular with the victims, mostly ordinary people. He deals with the liquid metal mercury, also found in

408:, "to be alive is to be watchful", in a military metaphor of a sentry keeping watch in the night. Pliny claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work, in his prayer for the blessing of the universal mother: 4040: 529:

Pliny's work frequently reflects Rome's imperial expansion, which brought new and exciting things to the capital: exotic eastern spices, strange animals to be put on display or herded into the arena, even the alleged

404:, with whom he had served in the army (and to whom the work is dedicated). As for the nocturnal hours spent writing, these were seen not as a loss of sleep but as an addition to life, for as he states in the preface, 468:, which underlies much of his thought, but the deity in question was a goddess whose main purpose was to serve the human race: "nature, that is life" is human life in a natural landscape. After an initial survey of 3530: 2446:, in that God is prevented by logic from conflicting with reason, even though (in Calvino's view) Pliny makes a pantheistic identification of God as being immanent in nature. As for destiny, Calvino writes: 2416:

is more condemnable then the curiosity of the Author: for commonly he nameth the Authors from whom he received those accounts, and writes but as he reads, as in his Preface to Vespasian he acknowledgeth.

2147:

of Naples, the author of a work in five volumes on famous works of art (XXXVI:40), probably incorporating the substance of the earlier Greek treatises; but Pliny's indebtedness to Pasiteles is denied by

4841: 412:

Hail to thee, Nature, thou parent of all things! and do thou deign to show thy favour unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, in thy every department, thus made known thy praise.

2156:, as well as a current catalogue of artists. Pliny's knowledge of the Greek authorities was probably mainly due to Varro, whom he often quotes (e.g. XXXIV:56, XXXV:113, 156, XXXVI:17, 39, 41). 1049:

The absence of the author's final revision may explain many errors, including why the text is as John Healy writes "disjointed, discontinuous and not in a logical order"; and as early as 1350,

2059:

is valuable for its transparency and hardness, and can be carved into vessels and implements. He relates the story of a woman who owned a ladle made of the mineral, paying the sum of 150,000

4831: 4674: 831:

nor one in which the mind is eager to range: there is not one of us who has made the same venture, nor yet one among the Greeks who has tackled single-handed all departments of the subject.

268:. It is the only work by Pliny to have survived, and the last that he published. He published the first 10 books in AD 77, but had not made a final revision of the remainder at the time of 2320: 400:. Much of his writing was done at night; daytime hours were spent working for the emperor, as he explains in the dedicatory preface addressed to Vespasian's elder son, the future emperor 4037: 1881:, he writes, does not occur in native form and has to be mined, usually occurring with lead ores. Spain produced the most silver in his time, many of the mines having been started by 613:

or list of contents, at the beginning of the work that was later interpreted by modern printers as a table of contents. The table below is a summary based on modern names for topics.

3531:"https://catalogue.leidenuniv.nl/discovery/fulldisplay?vid=31UKB_LEU:UBL_V1&tab=Everything&docid=alma9938427964202711&searchScope=All_Content&context=L&lang=en" 2477:

Natural history was an ancient form of scientific knowledge, most closely associated with the writings of the Roman encyclopedist Pliny the Elder ... His loquacious and witty

1885:. One of the largest had galleries running up to two miles into the mountain, while men worked day and night draining the mine in shifts. Pliny is probably referring to the 2020:, building on works by Theophrastus and other authors. The topic concentrates on the most valuable gemstones, and he criticises the obsession with luxury products such as 3480: 2398:("On Pliny's Errors") attacked Pliny for lacking a proper scientific method, unlike Theophrastus or Dioscorides, and for lacking knowledge of philosophy or medicine. 1952:

in Rome, which was removed after the emperor's death. The face of the statue was modified shortly after Nero's death during Vespasian's reign, to make it a statue of

940:

Does it surprise you that a busy man found time to finish so many volumes, many of which deal with such minute details?... He used to begin to study at night on the

2280:

in detail, with large-scale use of water to scour alluvial gold deposits. The description probably refers to mining in Northern Spain, especially at the large

3176:

Kleine Schriften Gesammelt Von Hermann Brunn Und Heinrich Bulle...: Bd. Zur Griechischen Kunstgeschichte. Mit 69 Abbildungen Im Text Und Auf Einer Doppeltafel

1010:

In one thing Apelles stood out, namely, knowing when he had put enough work into a painting, a salutary warning that too much effort can be counterproductive.

1642:. He mentions different varieties of pepper, whose values are comparable with that of gold and silver, while sugar is noted only for its medicinal value. 4904:(vols. 1–5, 9) and W.H.S. Jones (vols. 6–8) and D.E. Eichholz (vol. 10) Harvard University Press, Massachusetts and William Heinemann, London; 1949–1954. 2510:

rediscovered, and his ambitious portrayal, in all its manifestations, of 'nature, that is, life'.. is recognized as a unique cultural record of its time.

4771: 2864: 1677:, Books XX to XXIX, discusses matters related to medicine, especially plants that yield useful drugs. Pliny lists over 900 drugs, compared to 600 in 4901: 4666: 4620: 4811: 260:

compiles information gleaned from other ancient authors. Despite the work's title, its subject area is not limited to what is today understood by

5280: 4864: 4614: 3455: 3220: 264:; Pliny himself defines his scope as "the natural world, or life". It is encyclopedic in scope, but its structure is not like that of a modern 2063:

for the item. Nero deliberately broke two crystal cups when he realised that he was about to be deposed, so denying their use to anyone else.

5668: 4688: 4661: 1061: 2205:) to all the pictures and bronzes in the world (XXXVI:37). The statue is attributed by Pliny to three sculptors from the island of Rhodes: 998:

phrases are often appended in a kind of vague "apposition" to express the author's own opinion of an immediately previous statement, e.g.,

953:"Why then did you make him turn back? We have lost more than ten lines through your interruption." So jealous was he of every moment lost. 3598: 3579: 2120:(XXXV:68), while Antigonus is named in the indexes of XXXIII–XXXIV as a writer on the art of embossing metal, or working it in ornamental 476:, Pliny starts his treatment of animals with the human race, "for whose sake great Nature appears to have created all other things". This 5502: 2464:

inventor ("scientist and artist"); and finally his attitude to the use and abuse of Nature's and Man's creations, to progress and decay.

2873: 582:. Pliny had gone to investigate the strange cloud – "shaped like an umbrella pine", according to his nephew – rising from the mountain. 1563:

was a popular pastime of the rich, and Pliny provides anecdotes of the problems of owners becoming too closely attached to their fish.

3429: 4971: 1002:

dixit (Apelles) ... uno se praestare, quod manum de tabula sciret tollere, memorabili praecepto nocere saepe nimiam diligentiam.

5572: 2299:

Book XXXIV covers the base metals, their uses and their extraction. Copper mining is mentioned, using a variety of ores including

2195:

In several passages, he gives proof of independent observation (XXXIV:38, 46, 63, XXXV:17, 20, 116 seq.). He prefers the marble

39: 5258: 5024: 2051:

shape of the diamond and recording that diamond dust is used by gem engravers to cut and polish other gems, owing to its great

5673: 4487: 4449: 4331: 4136: 3412: 2135:

contribute their share in Pliny's descriptions of pictures and statues. One of the minor authorities for books XXXIV–XXXV is

1695:

are mentioned; Pliny notes that opium induces sleep and can be fatal. Diseases and their treatment are covered in book XXVI.

1053:

complained about the corrupt state of the text, referring to copying errors made between the ninth and eleventh centuries.

1014:

Everything from "a salutary warning" onwards represents the ablative absolute phrase starting with "memorabili praecepto".

4936: 538:

in AD 47 – although, as Pliny admits, this was generally acknowledged to be a fake. Pliny repeated Aristotle's maxim that

5633: 5380: 2097:

are especially valuable because his work is virtually the only available classical source of information on the subject.

273: 3130: 826:

was to cover all learning and art so far as they are connected with nature or draw their materials from nature. He says:

65: 5607: 17: 4801: 2777:

Healy, 2004. p. xix, citing Pliny's Preface, 6: "It is written for the masses, for the horde of farmers and artisans".

1531:

Zoology is discussed in Books VIII to XI. The encyclopedia mentions different sources of purple dye, particularly the

896:

is also named in his Indices, and Pliny had translated Theophrastus's Greek into Latin. Another work by Theophrastus,

396:). Pliny (AD 23–79) combined his scholarly activities with a busy career as an imperial administrator for the emperor 5123: 4591: 4506: 4468: 4366: 4229: 3159: 2442:

uncritical, though his evaluations of sources are inconsistent and unpredictable. Further, Calvino compares Pliny to

4791: 2741:

This probably refers to opencast rather than underground mining, given the dangers to the miners in confined spaces.

1791:

from the later Roman period. He also describes how grain is ground using a pestle, a hand-mill, or a mill driven by

5449: 5270: 579: 2032:, noting that it is carved into vases and other decorative objects. The account of magnetism includes the myth of 1855:

can be woven into cloth, although imperial clothes usually combined it with natural fibres like wool. He once saw

555:, who lived on scents – were not strictly new. They had been mentioned in the fifth century BC by Greek historian 5653: 5638: 5612: 5591: 4060: 2493: 2292:

to gain access to the veins. Pliny was scathing about the search for precious metals and gemstones: "Gangadia or

1807:

Pliny extensively discusses metals starting with gold and silver (Book XXXIII), and then the base metals copper,

4894: 2288:

to attack the gold-bearing rock and so extract the ore. In another part of his work, Pliny describes the use of

5663: 5514: 4656: 2612: 2307:, some of the mining being underground, some on the surface. Iron mining is covered, followed by lead and tin. 987: 507: 4733: 4727: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4516:

Jones, R. F. J.; Bird, D. G. (1972). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna".

1077:

About the middle of the 3rd century, an abstract of the geographical portions of Pliny's work was produced by

5658: 5251: 4964: 1373: 1036:

thirty years later, has apparently forgotten that both are to be found in his uncle's work. He describes the

354:

became a model for later encyclopedias and scholarly works as a result of its breadth of subject matter, its

59: 2455:

The art historian Jacob Isager writes in the introduction to his analysis of Pliny's chapters on art in the

2296:

is considered the hardest of all things – except for the greed for gold, which is even more stubborn."

840:

Pliny studied the original authorities on each subject and took care to make excerpts from their pages. His

1886: 173: 5322: 5135: 2372:–625) quotes from Pliny 45 times in Book XII alone; Books XII, XIII and XIV are all based largely on the 2289: 1706:, and suggesting that magic originated in medicine, creeping in by pretending to offer health. He names 5601: 5292: 4402:

Beagon, Mary (2010). "Pliny the Elder". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.).

3606: 2625: 2598:

Cf. Pliny's consideration of Aristotle, as well as modern criticism of Pliny's work, in Trevor Murphy,

1046:

and characterises it as a "work that is learned and full of matter, and as varied as nature herself."

5346: 5327: 5236: 1029: 4388: 3564: 3217: 5356: 4957: 4868: 2860: 1796: 1760: 1396: 869: 745: 203: 4920: 2349:; perhaps because Pliny's name was attached to it, it enjoyed huge popularity in the Middle Ages. 2004: 1971:

Pliny gives a special place to iron, distinguishing the hardness of steel from what is now called

1863:

involving a naval battle, wearing a military cloak made of gold. He rejects Herodotus's claims of

1610:

is handled in Books XII to XVIII, with Theophrastus as one of Pliny's sources. The manufacture of

5497: 5189: 4701: 2084: 2071:. Diamond sits at the top of the series because, Pliny says, it will scratch all other minerals. 1505: 1190: 1162: 425: 2700:, saw the operations of gold extraction himself, since the sections in Book XXXIII read like an 2578: 2197: 2175:

and in the adjacent islands, Pliny was indebted to the general, statesman, orator and historian

2164: 1376:, but J.F. Healy described the translation as "distinctly imperfect". A copy printed in 1472 by 5587: 5439: 5387: 5304: 4740: 3657: 2904: 2697: 1960:

moved it, with the help of the architect Decrianus and 24 elephants, to a position next to the

1086: 865: 1847:, far greater than any other metal. The examples given are its ability to be beaten into fine 1104:

There are about 200 extant manuscripts, but the best of the more ancient manuscripts, that at

5464: 5368: 5363: 5299: 5226: 4257: 3151: 2546: 2407: 2180: 2153: 2117: 2113: 1953: 1856: 1423:

Book I serves as Pliny's preface, explaining his approach and providing a table of contents.

1105: 948:

Pliny the Younger told the following anecdote illustrating his uncle's enthusiasm for study:

916: 2854:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

1290:

Ch: New York, Pierpont Morgan Library M.871 (formerly Phillipps 8297). 9th cent (first half)

5444: 5397: 5164: 5053: 4821: 4781: 4761: 4751: 2136: 2125: 2109: 2012:

In the last two books of the work (Books XXXVI and XXXVII), Pliny describes many different

1990: 1961: 1239: 1078: 283:

The work is divided into 37 books, organised into 10 volumes. These cover topics including

3635:"The Historie of the World, Commonly called, The Naturall Historie of C. Plinius Secundus" 2391: 1914:

with gold, so is used for refining and extracting that metal. He says mercury is used for

8: 5648: 5492: 4997: 4584:

Anecdotes artistiques chez Pline l'Ancien: La constitution d'un discours romain sur l'art

2377: 2206: 2068: 2033: 1911: 1902: 1109: 975: 531: 521: 445: 4601:

Parejko, Ken (2009). "Pliny the Elder – Rampant Credulist, Rational Skeptic, or Both?".

3584:

Writing in Context: Insular Manuscript Culture 500-1200 (ed.) Erik Kwakkel (Leiden 2013)

868:. In the geographical books, Varro is supplemented by the topographical commentaries of 5643: 5521: 5429: 5392: 5375: 5263: 5012: 4872: 4570: 4541: 4533: 4376: 4301: 4190: 2352: 2328: 1945: 1783:

without the straw and was pushed by oxen (Book XVIII, chapter 72). It is depicted on a

1699: 1417: 1158: 963: 780: 762: 548: 393: 359: 328: 269: 220: 5339: 2252: 1174: 910:. Pliny strove to use all the Greek histories available to him, such as Herodotus and 431: 5597: 5184: 5078: 5058: 5031: 4587: 4545: 4502: 4483: 4464: 4445: 4362: 4327: 4225: 4194: 4132: 3999: 3549: 3408: 3335: 3297: 3155: 3144: 3008: 2989: 2025: 1808: 1756: 1732: 1683: 1251: 1170: 1154: 1120: 1085:, who admired Pliny's work, had access to a partial manuscript which he used in his " 991: 571: 277: 2179:, who died before 77. Pliny mentions the works of art collected by Vespasian in the 370: 5471: 5419: 5404: 5209: 5103: 4858: 4562: 4525: 4293: 4182: 3619: 3615: 3505: 2559: 2426:

any of the great moderns. He was, rather, the compiler of a secondary sourcebook."

2213: 1864: 1619:

tree in detail, followed by other trees including the apple and pear, fig, cherry,

1392: 921: 800: 792: 594: 184: 4854: 3634: 2159: 1149:

Later Medieval Recentiores: 11th-12th centuries & up to 1469 printed editions.

990:. His sentence structure is often loose and straggling. There is heavy use of the 480:

view of nature was common in antiquity and is crucial to the understanding of the

5543: 5219: 5130: 5108: 5098: 5041: 4980: 4682: 4678: 4628: 4356: 4170: 4152: 4126: 4044: 3402: 3224: 2715: 2655: 2642: 2337: 2149: 2080: 2040: 1897:

Roman coins were struck, not cast, so these coin moulds were created for forgery.

1771: 1381: 932:

His nephew, Pliny the Younger, described the method that Pliny used to write the

261: 249: 145: 111: 79: 45: 4944: 4355:

Findlen, Paula (2006). Roy Porter; Katharine Park & Lorraine Daston (eds.).

5553: 5351: 5334: 5204: 5194: 5118: 5113: 5083: 4907: 4553:

Lewis, P. R.; Jones, G. D. B. (1970). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain".

4006: 3253:

The Natural Histories of Pliny the Elder: An Advanced Reader and Grammar Review

2488: 2382: 2300: 2247: 2189: 2105: 2101: 1766: 1711: 1650: 1624: 1556: 1420:, being the most extensive compilation still available from the ancient world. 1377: 1283:

DGV: Vatican lat. 3861 + Paris lat. 6796, ff. 52-3 + Leiden, Voss. Lat. F. 61 (

850: 704: 237: 4566: 4186: 3580:"An Insular Copy of Pliny's Naturalis historia (Leiden UB VLF 4 fol 4-33)" 2281: 2257: 5627: 5536: 5531: 5459: 5424: 5409: 5287: 5275: 5214: 5093: 4423:

Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, his Sources and Influence

3265:

Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, his Sources and Influence

2877:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 841–844. 2868: 2855: 2693: 2566: 2443: 2430: 2402: 2263: 1653:, which he says is the most widely used base. Other substances added include 1536: 1497: 421: 141: 3309: 3305: 3016: 2683:) to be a form of this. Many later authors have copied Gerard in this error. 2201:

in the palace of Titus (widely believed to be the statue that is now in the

1936:, long used as a pigment by painters. He says that the colour is similar to 1765:

The methods used to cultivate crops are described in Book XVIII. He praises

1069:

of Pliny in a mid-12th-century manuscript from the Abbaye de Saint Vincent,

5509: 5241: 5231: 5177: 5172: 5019: 4937:

Article on Pliny by Jona Lendering, with detailed table of contents of the

3987: 3343: 2997: 2528: 2342: 2285: 2284:

site. Pliny describes methods of underground mining, including the use of

2273: 2243: 2202: 2056: 2021: 1972: 1941: 1848: 1840: 1631: 1552: 1544: 1485: 967: 893: 804: 758: 733: 675: 485: 344: 324: 320: 300: 265: 253: 165: 4499:

Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art

3964:

Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art

3348: 1467:

time-telling by sundials), and the variation of day length with latitude.

1395:

made an influential translation of much of the work into English in 1601.

5414: 5199: 5149: 5070: 4633:

The Mind of the Ancient World: A Consideration of Pliny's Natural History

2668: 2357: 2277: 1907: 1860: 1792: 1748: 1678: 1596: 1501: 1489: 1431: 1400: 1123:

of the surviving Historia Naturalis manuscripts. These are divided into:

1116:

consisting of nine books of selections taken from an ancient manuscript.

1090: 1033: 729: 665: 648: 544: 436: 316: 296: 288: 115: 2806:. Dedication to Titus: C. Plinius Secundus to his Friend Titus Vespasian 1463:, noting that only Aristotle has recorded seeing more than one at once. 4672:. Pliny the Elder. Johannes de Spira. Venice. before 18 September 1469. 4305: 3977: 3894:

A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage and the Quest for the Colour of Desire

2522: 2185: 2172: 2048: 2044: 1851:

with just one ounce producing 750 leaves four inches square. Fine gold

1784: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1639: 1588: 1493: 1456: 1452: 1436: 1132: 971: 941: 911: 885: 784: 679: 465: 332: 304: 209: 131: 4574: 4537: 3994:

new series vol. 41 (1991) pp. 539–541; D. Bowder, "Duris of Samos" in

2260:, the most important gold mine in the Roman Empire, resulted from the 5007: 4662:

Complete Latin text with translation tools at Perseus Digital Library

4623:; Jones, W. H. S.; Eichholz, D. E. Loeb Classical Library. 1938–1962. 4224:. Chicago London: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 224–225. 3229:

in "Letters of Pliny the Younger" with introduction by John B. Firth.

2956:, Books III-VII, Loeb Classical Library (rev. ed. 1989), pp. xi-xiii. 2720: 2680: 2650: 2571: 2304: 2293: 2221: 2144: 2094: 2090: 2060: 2029: 1965: 1926: 1844: 1707: 1703: 1592: 1584: 983: 898: 788: 661: 644: 597:'s English translation of 1601 has influenced literature ever since. 556: 497: 489: 477: 473: 469: 458: 397: 392:

was written alongside other substantial works (which have since been

336: 292: 284: 123: 4297: 4125:

Barney, Stephen A.; Lewis, W. J.; Beach, J. A.; Berghof, O. (2006).

2143:. In the indices to XXXIII–XXXVI, an important place is assigned to 1983: 1455:'s almanac grandiose for seeming to know how Nature works. He cites 5434: 5246: 4889: 4529: 4222:

Reading the world : encyclopedic writing in the scholastic age

3456:"Detlefsen on the "indices" of Pliny the Elder's "Natural History"" 2638: 2628:

varies between 221,500 miles at perigee to 252,700 miles at apogee.

2228:, "which would suffice to give renown to any other spot". He adds: 2176: 2052: 2017: 1987: 1975:, a softer grade. He is scathing about the use of iron in warfare. 1933: 1919: 1882: 1816: 1743: 1658: 1560: 1540: 1525: 1516: 1165:

were published of 5 volumes; the first by L. von Jan (1856-78; see

1094: 1050: 995: 979: 873: 535: 462: 355: 4949: 2732:

See David Bird's analysis of Pliny's use of water power in mining.

787:, especially as applied to life and art, work in gold and silver, 4157:

Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi Etymologiarum Sive Originum Libri XX

3240:

Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia

3197:

Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia

2701: 2600:

Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia

2536: 2171:

For a number of items relating to works of art near the coast of

2132: 2013: 1957: 1923: 1915: 1872: 1868: 1836: 1646: 1611: 1369: 1161:, D. Detlefsen, L. von Jan, and K. Rück in the 19th century. Two 1070: 907: 881: 877: 692: 512: 501: 308: 4442:

Pliny's encyclopedia : the reception of the Natural history

4358:

The Cambridge History of Science: Volume 3, Early Modern Science

3260: 2225: 2140: 2121: 1998: 1878: 1824: 1820: 1780: 1776: 1662: 1635: 1620: 1607: 1267: 1259: 725: 712: 696: 590: 564: 552: 539: 381: 312: 127: 55: 1893: 1459:'s estimate that the Moon is 230,000 miles away. He describes 1247:, beginning of Book 4, in ms. Leiden Voss. Lat. F. 4, fol. 20v 589:

was one of the first ancient European texts to be printed, in

570:"As full of variety as nature itself", stated Pliny's nephew, 4419: 4284:

Steiner, Grundy (1955). "The Skepticism of the Elder Pliny".

2646: 2405:

expressed scepticism about Pliny's dependability in his 1646

1832: 1788: 1727: 1692: 1688: 1654: 1616: 1580: 1571: 1567: 1548: 1532: 1521: 1460: 1128: 1098: 766: 741: 737: 700: 560: 420:

is encyclopaedic in scope, but its format is unlike a modern

401: 245: 101: 3998:(Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1982) pp. 101–102; Reinhold Köpke, 1169:) and the second by C. Mayhoff (1892-1906). The most recent 2554: 2217: 1994: 1949: 1852: 1444: 1263: 1082: 903: 858: 708: 551:, whose single foot could act as a sunshade, the mouthless 504:

theories, reflecting the prevailing sentiment of his time.

1368:

The work was one of the first classical manuscripts to be

185: 2209:, Athenodoros (possibly son of Agesander) and Polydorus. 2028:. He provides a thorough discussion of the properties of 1901:

Fraud and forgery are described in detail; in particular

1812: 1579:, which he admires for their industry, organisation, and 1576: 1440: 796: 493: 340: 276:. The rest was published posthumously by Pliny's nephew, 119: 4430: 4105: 3430:"The manuscripts of Pliny the Elder's "Natural History"" 892:(v. 16). Juba is one of his principal guides in botany; 4696:

Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Lipsiae. Teubner. 1906.

4124: 3506:"Manuscript: Leiden Voss.Lat.F.4, fols. 4–33 | DigiPal" 3263:

in Pliny; see also Roger French & Frank Greenaway,

4173:(January 1911). "The Editing of Isidore Etymologiae". 3404:

Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics

2152:, who holds that Pliny used the chronological work of 574:, and this verdict largely explains the appeal of the 4524:. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 59–74. 1332:

Oxford, Bodl. Auct. T.1.27 + Paris lat. 6798, 12th c.

4201: 2518: 1296:

R: Florence, Bibl. Ricc. 488. 9th cent (second half)

252:. The largest single work to have survived from the 4238: 2550:– a similar, shorter encyclopedia written by Seneca 1702:in Book XXX. He is critical of the Magi, attacking 1097:. However, Bede updated and corrected Pliny on the 636:Preface and list of contents, lists of authorities 4038:"Pliny's Arrugia Water Power in Roman Gold-Mining" 3599:"Historical traditions at Wells, 1464, 1470, 1497" 3143: 3141: 3039: 1547:in detail, as well as the value and origin of the 4561:. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60: 169–85. 2799: 2797: 2795: 1630:Pliny gives special attention to spices, such as 1359:d: Paris lat. 6797, third quarter of 12th century 1131:: 5th-6th centuries. None survive intact; all as 5625: 2437:, wrote that while people often consult Pliny's 966:. It aims less at clarity and vividness than at 567:, and facts), but Pliny made them better known. 4283: 4268: 4033: 4031: 1815:and iron, as well as their many alloys such as 1714:as the source of magical ideas. He states that 1193:(25.2.36; xxv.a.3) (CLA x.1455) (=codex Moneus) 1157:/stemma was established by the German scholars 4354: 4321: 4219: 3990:, "The Curriculum Vitae of Duris of Samos" in 2792: 1496:and assorted matters such as the greatness of 424:. However, it does have structure: Pliny uses 4965: 4925:(in Italian). Venezia: Bartolomeo Zani. 1489. 4480:Pliny the Elder: Natural History: A Selection 4420:French, Roger & Greenaway, Frank (1986). 4326:. Penguin (Modern Classics). pp. 37–46. 3961: 3288:Healy, 2004. page 331 (translation of XXXV:80 2723:, who describes many machines used in mining. 2641:in southern France use water supplied by the 1308:Definite descendants of E (Paris lat. 6795): 1303: 1293:F: Leiden, Lipsius 7. 9th cent. (first half). 1114:Defloratio Historiae Naturalis Plinii Secundi 4600: 4401: 4131:(1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. 4028: 3655: 3189:Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder 2345:recipes, the vast majority of them from the 2315: 1859:, wife of Claudius, at a public show on the 1668: 1484:Book VII discusses the human race, covering 1217:Pal. Chat.: Autun 24 + Paris n.a.lat. 1629 ( 1108:, contains only books XXXII–XXXVII. In 1141 849:matter of each book. This has been shown in 439:, or dog-head, as described by Pliny in his 63: 5503:Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom 4689: 4667: 4361:. Cambridge University Press. p. 437. 4350: 4348: 4317: 4315: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3320: 2679:"Maggot berrie" and supposed "Cutchonele" ( 2261: 2139:, the author of a work on the monuments of 1922:is found in silver mines and is used as an 1324:Co: Copenhagen Gl.Kgl.S.212 2°, ca. 1200 AD 1273:B: Bamberg, Class. 42 (M.v.10) 9th century. 1191:St. Paul in Carinthia, Stiftsbibliothek 3.1 1119:There are three independent classes of the 1037: 890:studiorum claritate memorabilior quam regno 375: 201: 89: 49: 4972: 4958: 4552: 3891: 3211: 3209: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 1948:. He personally saw the massive statue of 500:. Pliny's premise is distinct from modern 38: 4908:All Six Volumes free at Project Gutenberg 4700: 4515: 4461:Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology 4431:Gibson, Roy; Morello, Ruth, eds. (2011). 3178:, 1905 reproduction by Ulan Press (2012). 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2497:. In the view of Mary Beagon, writing in 2335:The anonymous fourth-century compilation 1839:. He discusses why gold is unique in its 1566:Pliny correctly identifies the origin of 5154:Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes 4627: 4406:. Harvard University Press. p. 745. 4345: 4312: 3948: 3400: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2319: 2251: 2158: 1982: 1892: 1742: 1515: 1430: 1238: 1060: 880:, he relies largely on Aristotle and on 654: 629: 506: 430: 380:printed by Johannes Alvisius in 1499 in 369: 4685:. (Once owned by the Earls of Pembroke) 4169: 4151: 4145: 4115:(Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 64. 3632: 3373:Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxviii-xxxix 3255:, University of Oklahoma Press (2012), 3206: 3021: 1312:h: Berlin (East), Hamilton 517, 11th c. 1277: 1225: 962:Pliny's writing style emulates that of 27:Encyclopedia written by Pliny the Elder 14: 5626: 4586:. Paris: Sorbonne Université Presses. 4496: 3658:"Pliny the Elder, The Natural History" 3596: 3453: 3427: 3382:Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxvi-xxxvii 2859: 2624:Posidonius's figure was accurate: the 1141:Vetustiores (older): 8th-9th centuries 1017: 872:, which were completed by the emperor 609:consists of 37 books. Pliny devised a 559:(whose history was a broad mixture of 4953: 4477: 4458: 4439: 4244: 4207: 4128:The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville 3407:. Clarendon Press. pp. 307–316. 3364:Healy, 2004. Translator's Note:xliii 3215:Pliny the Younger. Book 3, Letter V. 3150:. Columbia University Press. p. 3146:An Illustrated History of the Herbals 3045: 2809: 2602:, OUP (2004), pp. 1–27, 194–215. 2272:Pliny provides lucid descriptions of 2104:, the original Greek authorities are 1583:, discussing the significance of the 1403:made a complete translation in 1855. 5669:Encyclopedias in classical antiquity 4581: 4501:. London & New York: Routledge. 4433:Pliny the Elder: Themes and Contexts 3656:Bostock, John; Riley, H. T. (1855). 3577: 3267:, Croom Helm (1986), pp. 23–44. 1380:of Venice is held in the library at 1022: 5381:The Naturalist on the River Amazons 4979: 4657:Complete Latin text at LacusCurtius 4616:Pliny – Natural History, 10 volumes 3199:, OUP (2004), pp. 196–200 and 2759:See also Bird on mining at Arrugia. 1910:. He records that it is toxic, and 1535:snail, the highly prized source of 1287:x.1580 + Suppl. p.28) ca. A.D. 800. 1180: 1166: 24: 3321:Pliny the Elder. "II:209, IX:26". 1687:, 550 in Theophrastus, and 650 in 1299:E: Paris lat. 6795, 9-10th century 1144:Recentiores (younger): 9th century 845:means of one's own achievements." 25: 5685: 4640: 4113:Medical Latin in the Roman Empire 3481:"Codices Vossiani Latini — Brill" 3391:Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxviii 1524:from the Archeological Museum of 1363: 927: 5571: 4945:Pliny the Elder's World Database 4878: 4395: 4277: 2847: 2521: 1318:Leiden, Voss. Lat. Q.43, 12th c. 1258:x.1578) 8th century. Written in 1196:M: Rome, Bibl. Naz. Sessor. 55 ( 580:Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 66:Bibliothèque nationale de France 5613:List of natural history dealers 5281:The Natural History of Selborne 4262: 4250: 4213: 4163: 4118: 4093: 4081: 4069: 4054: 4016: 3970: 3936: 3924: 3912: 3900: 3892:Greenfield, Amy Butler (2011). 3885: 3873: 3864: 3852: 3840: 3828: 3816: 3804: 3792: 3780: 3768: 3756: 3744: 3732: 3720: 3708: 3696: 3684: 3672: 3649: 3626: 3590: 3571: 3523: 3498: 3473: 3447: 3421: 3394: 3385: 3376: 3367: 3358: 3329: 3314: 3291: 3282: 3270: 3245: 3242:, OUP (2004), pp. 181–197. 3232: 3181: 3168: 3135: 3123: 3111: 3099: 3087: 3075: 3063: 3051: 3036:Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxxix 3002: 2983: 2971: 2959: 2946: 2753: 2744: 2735: 2726: 2707: 2686: 2662: 2631: 2618: 2605: 2592: 2539:– his biography is featured in 2067:scratch another, presaging the 1779:that cut the ears of wheat and 1747:Detail of a relief depicting a 1479: 1387: 1355:Independent earlier tradition: 1000: 822:Pliny's purpose in writing the 457:Nature for Pliny was divine, a 274:AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius 5515:Adaptive Coloration in Animals 4814:. Books 24–27. Index of Plants 4444:. Cambridge University Press. 3996:Who Was Who in the Greek World 3870:Healy, 2004. Introduction:xxix 3620:10.1080/00665983.1904.10852967 3485:primarysources.brillonline.com 3454:Pearse, Roger (27 June 2013). 3428:Pearse, Roger (22 June 2013). 2934: 2922: 2910: 2893: 2881: 2780: 2771: 2692:It is likely that Pliny, as a 2582:– a medieval encyclopedic work 2074: 1738: 1266:'s personal copy mentioned by 1210:P: Paris lat. 9378, folio 26 ( 1089:", especially the sections on 1056: 864:One of Pliny's authorities is 426:Aristotle's division of nature 13: 1: 4220:Franklin-Brown, Mary (2012). 3349:The True Story of Lake Vadimo 2765: 2713:Pliny's work supplements the 2366: 1978: 1887:reverse overshot water-wheels 1802: 1595:. He praises the song of the 1500:, outstanding people such as 1374:Johann and Wendelin of Speyer 1135:or as recycled book bindings. 812: 358:of original authors, and its 5674:Phoenicia in ancient sources 4930: 4875:, 1855; complete, with index 4824:Books 28–32. Index of Fishes 4413: 3979:Dictionary of Art Historians 3896:. Random House. p. 351. 2579:Martianus Capella#De nuptiis 2471:Cambridge History of Science 2310: 1865:Indian gold obtained by ants 1470: 1426: 1328:Possible descendants of E: 1081:. Early in the 8th century, 776: 773: 754: 751: 721: 718: 688: 685: 671: 657: 640: 632: 621: 618: 600: 515:, described by Pliny in his 7: 5271:Bernard Germain de Lacépède 4888:public domain audiobook at 4463:. Oxford University Press. 3401:Marshall, Peter K. (1983). 3142:Anderson, Frank J. (1977). 2907:(rev. ed. 1989), pp. vii-x. 2514: 2327:translated into Italian by 1993:(1st century AD) depicting 1932:The main ore of mercury is 1343:e: Paris lat. 6796A, 12th c 1321:n: Montpellier 473, 12th c. 974:, questions, exclamations, 578:since Pliny's death in the 365: 10: 5690: 5634:1st-century books in Latin 5293:A History of British Birds 4865:Second English translation 4645: 4259:University of Chicago site 3633:Holland, Philemon (1601). 3607:The Archaeological Journal 3191:, Clarendon Press (1992), 2256:The striking landscape of 2241: 2188:and on the biographies of 2078: 1827:, and steel (Book XXXIV). 1754: 1511: 1315:X: Luxembourg 138, 12th c. 1304:Later Medieval Recentiores 835: 817: 624: 5608:Natural History Societies 5580: 5569: 5485: 5476:The Royal Natural History 5328:Ornithological Dictionary 5315: 5237:Johan Christian Fabricius 5163: 5069: 4996: 4987: 4855:First English translation 4635:. London: Longmans Green. 4567:10.1017/S0075435800043343 4340:Perché leggere i classici 4273:. Routledge. p. 111. 4271:Pliny's Defense of Empire 4187:10.1017/S0009838800019273 4051:Vol. 15, Nos. 4/5 (2004). 2420: 2341:contains more than 1,100 2316:Medieval and early modern 2237: 1669:Drugs, medicine and magic 1602: 1508:, happiness and fortune. 1406: 1006:This might be translated 902:was cited as a source on 215: 195: 183: 171: 161: 151: 137: 107: 97: 85: 75: 64: 37: 5454:The Naturalist's Library 5357:On the Origin of Species 4555:Journal of Roman Studies 4518:Journal of Roman Studies 4269:Laehn, Thomas R (2013). 3966:. Routledge. p. 16. 2586: 1761:List of Roman watermills 1587:and the use of smoke by 970:point. It contains many 957: 805:precious stones and gems 461:concept inspired by the 5588:Natural history museums 5190:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 4683:Corning Museum of Glass 4478:Healy, John F. (2004). 4459:Healy, John F. (1999). 4404:The Classical Tradition 4322:Calvino, Italo (2009). 4175:The Classical Quarterly 3637:. University of Chicago 3535:catalogue.leidenuniv.nl 3223:1 December 2008 at the 2874:Encyclopædia Britannica 2499:The Classical Tradition 2212:In the temple near the 2177:Gaius Licinius Mucianus 2085:Ancient Greek sculpture 1673:A major section of the 1591:at the hive to collect 1439:found the distances to 1372:, at Venice in 1469 by 256:to the modern day, the 5654:Encyclopedias in Latin 5639:Ancient Roman medicine 5440:William Jackson Hooker 5388:Alexander von Humboldt 5305:Philosophie zoologique 5088:Pinax theatri botanici 4741:Loeb Classical Library 4690: 4668: 4582:Naas, Valérie (2023). 4497:Isager, Jacob (1991). 4324:Why Read the Classics? 3962:Isager, Jacob (2013). 2931:VII:1 (Rackham et al.) 2905:Loeb Classical Library 2698:Hispania Tarraconensis 2637:Extant mills found at 2512: 2484: 2466: 2459:that his intention is: 2453: 2435:Why Read the Classics? 2418: 2332: 2269: 2262: 2235: 2168: 2009: 1898: 1752: 1528: 1520:A collection of Roman 1447: 1351:a: Vienna 234, 12th c. 1335:C: Le Mans 263, 12th c 1248: 1074: 1038: 1012: 1004: 955: 946: 866:Marcus Terentius Varro 833: 526: 454: 414: 385: 376: 241: 202: 90: 50: 5664:Natural history books 5526:The Study of Instinct 5465:Kunstformen der Natur 5369:The Malay Archipelago 5364:Alfred Russel Wallace 5300:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 4677:18 April 2014 at the 4043:28 March 2012 at the 3597:Church, C.M. (1904). 3174:Cf. Heinrich Brunn's 2968:XI:2 (Rackham et al.) 2611:Compare structure at 2547:Naturales quaestiones 2503: 2475: 2461: 2448: 2413: 2408:Pseudodoxia Epidemica 2323: 2255: 2242:Further information: 2230: 2162: 2154:Apollodorus of Athens 2114:Antigonus of Carystus 2079:Further information: 2005:Cabinet des Médailles 1986: 1896: 1857:Agrippina the Younger 1755:Further information: 1746: 1551:and the invention of 1519: 1434: 1242: 1231:Q: Paris lat. 10318 ( 1106:Bamberg State Library 1064: 1008: 950: 938: 917:Bibliotheca Historica 828: 510: 434: 410: 373: 5659:Prose texts in Latin 5445:Joseph Dalton Hooker 5398:The Birds of America 4482:. Penguin Classics. 4440:Doody, Aude (2010). 4338:(First published as 4047:, by David Bird, in 4001:De Antigono Carystio 3251:Cf. P. L. Chambers, 2626:distance to the Moon 2216:, Pliny admires the 2198:Laocoön and his Sons 2165:Laocoön and his Sons 2137:Heliodorus of Athens 2110:Xenocrates of Sicyon 2089:Pliny's chapters on 1962:Flavian Amphitheatre 1278:Medieval Recentiores 1226:Medieval Vetustiores 736:, especially of the 534:sent to the emperor 44:First page from the 5493:Martinus Beijerinck 5036:De Natura Animalium 4885:The Natural History 4171:Lindsay, Wallace M. 4153:Lindsay, Wallace M. 3992:Classical Quarterly 3238:Cf. Trevor Murphy, 2433:, in his 1991 book 2429:The Italian author 2396:De Erroribus Plinii 2378:Vincent of Beauvais 2376:. Through Isidore, 2069:Mohs hardness scale 2034:Magnes the shepherd 1903:coin counterfeiting 1799:across the Empire. 1539:. It describes the 1492:, aspects of human 1110:Robert of Cricklade 1018:Publication history 801:sculpture in marble 522:Nuremberg Chronicle 446:Nuremberg Chronicle 86:Original title 54:printed in 1469 in 34: 5598:Parson-naturalists 5430:Philip Henry Gosse 5393:John James Audubon 5376:Henry Walter Bates 5264:Histoire Naturelle 5252:Historia Plantarum 5140:Avium Praecipuarum 5124:Historia animalium 5025:Historia Plantarum 5013:History of Animals 4922:Historia naturalis 4873:Henry Thomas Riley 4694:. Pliny the Elder. 4691:Naturalis Historia 4669:Naturalis Historia 4603:Skeptical Inquirer 4342:, Mondadori, 1991. 4159:. Clarendon Press. 3976:On these, compare 3660:. Perseus at Tufts 2952:"Introduction" to 2899:"Introduction" to 2861:Sandys, John Edwin 2507:Historia naturalis 2491:in his great work 2479:Historia naturalis 2353:Isidore of Seville 2347:Historia naturalis 2333: 2329:Cristoforo Landino 2325:Historia naturalis 2270: 2169: 2026:hardstone carvings 2010: 1946:Colossus of Rhodes 1899: 1753: 1751:harvesting machine 1645:He is critical of 1570:as the fossilised 1529: 1448: 1418:history of science 1254:, Voss. Lat. F.4 ( 1249: 1235:v.593) ca.800 A.D. 1185:All 5th century: 1173:were published by 1075: 1039:Naturalis Historia 942:Festival of Vulcan 547:or Dog-Heads, the 527: 455: 386: 377:Naturalis Historia 242:Naturalis Historia 204:Naturalis Historia 91:Naturalis Historia 51:Historia Naturalis 32: 18:Naturalis Historia 5621: 5620: 5567: 5566: 5185:Marcello Malpighi 5079:Ulisse Aldrovandi 5059:De Materia Medica 4489:978-0-14-044413-1 4451:978-0-511-67707-6 4333:978-0-14-118970-3 4256:Available at the 4138:978-0-511-21969-6 3557:External link in 3414:978-0-19-814456-4 3336:Pliny the Younger 3298:Pliny the Younger 3195:; Trevor Murphy, 3187:Cf. Mary Beagon, 3129:Pliny the Elder. 3009:Pliny the Younger 2990:Pliny the Younger 2615:, with footnotes. 2558:– a 10th century 2494:De Materia Medica 2392:Niccolò Leoniceno 2268:mining technique. 2055:. He states that 2047:, describing the 2039:Pliny moves into 2001:playing the lyre 1797:Roman water mills 1757:Roman agriculture 1733:Peloponnesian War 1684:De Materia Medica 1559:. The keeping of 1243:Pliny the Elder, 1175:Les Belle Letters 1171:critical editions 1155:textual tradition 1023:First publication 992:ablative absolute 914:, as well as the 810: 809: 572:Pliny the Younger 278:Pliny the Younger 228: 227: 162:Publication place 16:(Redirected from 5681: 5575: 5548:The Dancing Bees 5472:Richard Lydekker 5420:Jean-Henri Fabre 5405:William Buckland 5210:Regnier de Graaf 5104:Andrea Cesalpino 4994: 4993: 4974: 4967: 4960: 4951: 4950: 4926: 4882: 4881: 4859:Philemon Holland 4693: 4671: 4636: 4624: 4619:. Translated by 4610: 4597: 4578: 4549: 4512: 4493: 4474: 4455: 4436: 4427: 4408: 4407: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4386: 4382: 4380: 4372: 4352: 4343: 4337: 4319: 4310: 4309: 4286:Classical Weekly 4281: 4275: 4274: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4248: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4217: 4211: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4167: 4161: 4160: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4122: 4116: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4091: 4085: 4079: 4073: 4067: 4058: 4052: 4035: 4026: 4020: 4014: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3959: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3922: 3916: 3910: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3889: 3883: 3877: 3871: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3850: 3844: 3838: 3832: 3826: 3820: 3814: 3808: 3802: 3796: 3790: 3784: 3778: 3772: 3766: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3736: 3730: 3724: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3603: 3594: 3588: 3587: 3578:Garrison, Mary. 3575: 3569: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3555: 3553: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3477: 3471: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3398: 3392: 3389: 3383: 3380: 3374: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3356: 3354: 3333: 3327: 3326: 3318: 3312: 3295: 3289: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3249: 3243: 3236: 3230: 3218:To Baebius Macer 3213: 3204: 3185: 3179: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3149: 3139: 3133: 3127: 3121: 3115: 3109: 3103: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3073: 3067: 3061: 3055: 3049: 3043: 3037: 3034: 3019: 3006: 3000: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2908: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2853: 2851: 2850: 2844: 2807: 2801: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2760: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2742: 2739: 2733: 2730: 2724: 2711: 2705: 2690: 2684: 2666: 2660: 2635: 2629: 2622: 2616: 2609: 2603: 2596: 2531: 2526: 2525: 2388:The Great Mirror 2371: 2368: 2267: 2214:Flaminian Circus 1964:(now called the 1698:Pliny addresses 1691:. The poppy and 1627:, among others. 1393:Philemon Holland 1181:Ancient Codicies 1163:Teubner Editions 1044:Naturae historia 1041: 1030:floating islands 922:Diodorus Siculus 884:, the scholarly 842:indices auctorum 616: 615: 595:Philemon Holland 406:Vita vigilia est 379: 207: 187: 153:Publication date 93: 69: 68: 60:Johann of Speyer 53: 42: 35: 33:Natural History 31: 21: 5689: 5688: 5684: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5679: 5678: 5624: 5623: 5622: 5617: 5576: 5563: 5544:Karl von Frisch 5481: 5450:William Jardine 5340:Le Règne Animal 5311: 5259:Comte de Buffon 5220:Systema Naturae 5159: 5131:Frederik Ruysch 5109:Valerius Cordus 5099:Hieronymus Bock 5065: 5047:Natural History 5042:Pliny the Elder 4999: 4989: 4983: 4981:Natural history 4978: 4939:Natural History 4933: 4919: 4897:Natural History 4879: 4706: 4679:Wayback Machine 4648: 4643: 4629:Wethered, H. N. 4613: 4594: 4509: 4490: 4471: 4452: 4416: 4411: 4400: 4396: 4384: 4383: 4374: 4373: 4369: 4353: 4346: 4334: 4320: 4313: 4298:10.2307/4343682 4282: 4278: 4267: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4243: 4239: 4232: 4218: 4214: 4206: 4202: 4168: 4164: 4150: 4146: 4139: 4123: 4119: 4110: 4106: 4100:Natural History 4098: 4094: 4088:Natural History 4086: 4082: 4076:Natural History 4074: 4070: 4059: 4055: 4045:Wayback Machine 4036: 4029: 4023:Natural History 4021: 4017: 3975: 3971: 3960: 3949: 3943:Natural History 3941: 3937: 3931:Natural History 3929: 3925: 3919:Natural History 3917: 3913: 3907:Natural History 3905: 3901: 3890: 3886: 3880:Natural History 3878: 3874: 3869: 3865: 3859:Natural History 3857: 3853: 3847:Natural History 3845: 3841: 3835:Natural History 3833: 3829: 3823:Natural History 3821: 3817: 3811:Natural History 3809: 3805: 3799:Natural History 3797: 3793: 3787:Natural History 3785: 3781: 3775:Natural History 3773: 3769: 3763:Natural History 3761: 3757: 3751:Natural History 3749: 3745: 3739:Natural History 3737: 3733: 3727:Natural History 3725: 3721: 3715:Natural History 3713: 3709: 3703:Natural History 3701: 3697: 3691:Natural History 3689: 3685: 3679:Natural History 3677: 3673: 3663: 3661: 3654: 3650: 3640: 3638: 3631: 3627: 3614:(11): 155–180. 3601: 3595: 3591: 3576: 3572: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3547: 3546: 3539: 3537: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3514: 3512: 3504: 3503: 3499: 3489: 3487: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3464: 3462: 3452: 3448: 3438: 3436: 3426: 3422: 3415: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3334: 3330: 3323:Natural History 3319: 3315: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3277:Natural History 3275: 3271: 3250: 3246: 3237: 3233: 3225:Wayback Machine 3214: 3207: 3186: 3182: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3140: 3136: 3128: 3124: 3118:Natural History 3116: 3112: 3106:Natural History 3104: 3100: 3094:Natural History 3092: 3088: 3082:Natural History 3080: 3076: 3070:Natural History 3068: 3064: 3058:Natural History 3056: 3052: 3044: 3040: 3035: 3022: 3007: 3003: 2988: 2984: 2978:Natural History 2976: 2972: 2966:Natural History 2964: 2960: 2954:Natural History 2951: 2947: 2941:Natural History 2939: 2935: 2929:Natural History 2927: 2923: 2917:Natural History 2915: 2911: 2901:Natural History 2898: 2894: 2888:Natural History 2886: 2882: 2865:Pliny the Elder 2848: 2846: 2845: 2810: 2804:Natural History 2802: 2793: 2787:Natural History 2785: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2716:De Architectura 2712: 2708: 2691: 2687: 2671:'s influential 2667: 2663: 2656:De Architectura 2636: 2632: 2623: 2619: 2610: 2606: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2541:Natural History 2527: 2520: 2517: 2473:, asserts that 2457:Natural History 2439:Natural History 2423: 2374:Natural History 2369: 2363:The Etymologies 2343:pharmacological 2338:Medicina Plinii 2318: 2313: 2276:. He describes 2250: 2240: 2192:and Antigonus. 2181:Temple of Peace 2087: 2081:Roman sculpture 2077: 2041:crystallography 1981: 1940:, probably the 1805: 1772:De Agri Cultura 1763: 1741: 1675:Natural History 1671: 1605: 1514: 1482: 1473: 1429: 1413:Natural History 1409: 1390: 1382:Wells Cathedral 1366: 1306: 1280: 1262:hand; possibly 1245:Natural History 1228: 1183: 1087:De natura rerum 1067:Natural History 1059: 1034:Vadimonian Lake 1025: 1020: 960: 934:Natural History 930: 838: 824:Natural History 820: 815: 769:, aquatic life 607:Natural History 603: 587:Natural History 576:Natural History 517:Natural History 482:Natural History 441:Natural History 418:Natural History 390:Natural History 368: 352:Natural History 345:precious stones 262:natural history 258:Natural History 250:Pliny the Elder 233:Natural History 221:Natural History 198: 176: 154: 146:popular science 112:Natural history 80:Pliny the Elder 71: 46:editio princeps 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5687: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5619: 5618: 5616: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5595: 5584: 5582: 5578: 5577: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5561: 5554:Ronald Lockley 5551: 5541: 5529: 5522:Niko Tinbergen 5519: 5507: 5495: 5489: 5487: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5479: 5469: 5457: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5390: 5385: 5373: 5361: 5352:Charles Darwin 5349: 5344: 5335:Georges Cuvier 5332: 5323:George Montagu 5319: 5317: 5313: 5312: 5310: 5309: 5297: 5285: 5273: 5268: 5256: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5212: 5207: 5205:Jan Swammerdam 5202: 5197: 5195:William Derham 5192: 5187: 5182: 5169: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5157: 5147: 5136:William Turner 5133: 5128: 5119:Conrad Gessner 5116: 5114:Leonhart Fuchs 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5084:Gaspard Bauhin 5081: 5075: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5063: 5051: 5039: 5029: 5017: 5004: 5002: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4977: 4976: 4969: 4962: 4954: 4948: 4947: 4942: 4932: 4929: 4928: 4927: 4911: 4910: 4905: 4900:Translated by 4892: 4876: 4862: 4846: 4845: 4835: 4825: 4815: 4805: 4795: 4785: 4775: 4765: 4755: 4738: 4737: 4731: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4705: 4704:Latin Editions 4699: 4698: 4697: 4686: 4664: 4659: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4641:External links 4639: 4638: 4637: 4625: 4611: 4598: 4592: 4579: 4550: 4530:10.2307/298927 4513: 4507: 4494: 4488: 4475: 4469: 4456: 4450: 4437: 4428: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4409: 4394: 4367: 4344: 4332: 4311: 4276: 4261: 4249: 4237: 4230: 4212: 4210:, p. 170. 4200: 4162: 4144: 4137: 4117: 4111:D.R. Langlow, 4104: 4102:XXXIII:156-164 4092: 4090:XXXIII:138-144 4080: 4068: 4053: 4049:Mining History 4027: 4015: 3986:"Xenocrates"; 3969: 3947: 3945:XXXVII:196-200 3935: 3923: 3911: 3899: 3884: 3872: 3863: 3851: 3839: 3827: 3815: 3803: 3791: 3779: 3767: 3755: 3743: 3731: 3719: 3707: 3695: 3683: 3671: 3648: 3625: 3589: 3570: 3522: 3510:www.digipal.eu 3497: 3472: 3446: 3420: 3413: 3393: 3384: 3375: 3366: 3357: 3328: 3313: 3290: 3281: 3269: 3244: 3231: 3205: 3180: 3167: 3160: 3134: 3122: 3110: 3098: 3086: 3074: 3062: 3060:XXXIII:154–751 3050: 3038: 3020: 3001: 2982: 2970: 2958: 2945: 2933: 2921: 2919:VIII:44 (Loeb) 2909: 2892: 2880: 2869:Chisholm, Hugh 2808: 2791: 2779: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2761: 2752: 2743: 2734: 2725: 2706: 2685: 2675:(1597) called 2661: 2659:of 25 BC. 2630: 2617: 2604: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2584: 2583: 2575: 2563: 2551: 2543: 2533: 2532: 2516: 2513: 2489:Roman medicine 2422: 2419: 2383:Speculum Maius 2331:, 1489 edition 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2301:copper pyrites 2248:Roman aqueduct 2239: 2236: 2106:Duris of Samos 2102:history of art 2076: 2073: 1980: 1977: 1918:copper, while 1804: 1801: 1795:, as found in 1767:Cato the Elder 1740: 1737: 1712:Ancient Persia 1670: 1667: 1651:attar of roses 1604: 1601: 1557:oyster farming 1513: 1510: 1481: 1478: 1472: 1469: 1428: 1425: 1408: 1405: 1389: 1386: 1378:Nicolas Jenson 1365: 1364:Printed copies 1362: 1361: 1360: 1353: 1352: 1347:Cousin of E: 1345: 1344: 1339:Copies of E: 1337: 1336: 1333: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1313: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1236: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1222: 1215: 1208: 1203:O: Vienna 1a ( 1201: 1194: 1182: 1179: 1167:external links 1151: 1150: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1142: 1136: 1058: 1055: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 959: 956: 929: 928:Working method 926: 851:Heinrich Brunn 837: 834: 819: 816: 814: 811: 808: 807: 778: 775: 771: 770: 756: 753: 749: 748: 723: 720: 716: 715: 705:marine animals 690: 687: 683: 682: 673: 669: 668: 659: 656: 652: 651: 642: 638: 637: 634: 631: 627: 626: 623: 620: 602: 599: 367: 364: 226: 225: 217: 213: 212: 199: 196: 193: 192: 189: 181: 180: 177: 172: 169: 168: 163: 159: 158: 155: 152: 149: 148: 139: 135: 134: 109: 105: 104: 99: 95: 94: 87: 83: 82: 77: 73: 72: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5686: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5629: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5603: 5599: 5596: 5593: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5579: 5574: 5559: 5555: 5552: 5549: 5545: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5537:On Aggression 5533: 5532:Konrad Lorenz 5530: 5527: 5523: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5508: 5505: 5504: 5499: 5498:Abbott Thayer 5496: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5477: 5473: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5461: 5460:Ernst Haeckel 5458: 5455: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5425:Louis Agassiz 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5410:Charles Lyell 5408: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5374: 5371: 5370: 5365: 5362: 5359: 5358: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5347:William Smith 5345: 5342: 5341: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5314: 5307: 5306: 5301: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5289: 5288:Thomas Bewick 5286: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5276:Gilbert White 5274: 5272: 5269: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5227:Georg Steller 5225: 5222: 5221: 5216: 5215:Carl Linnaeus 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5165:Enlightenment 5162: 5155: 5151: 5148: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5094:Otto Brunfels 5092: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5076: 5074: 5072: 5068: 5061: 5060: 5055: 5052: 5049: 5048: 5043: 5040: 5037: 5033: 5030: 5027: 5026: 5021: 5018: 5015: 5014: 5009: 5006: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4986: 4982: 4975: 4970: 4968: 4963: 4961: 4956: 4955: 4952: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4934: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4909: 4906: 4903: 4899: 4898: 4893: 4891: 4887: 4886: 4877: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4863: 4860: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4851: 4850: 4844:. Books 36–37 4843: 4839: 4836: 4834:. Books 33–35 4833: 4829: 4826: 4823: 4819: 4816: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4804:. Books 20–23 4803: 4799: 4796: 4794:. Books 17–19 4793: 4789: 4786: 4784:. Books 12–16 4783: 4779: 4776: 4773: 4769: 4766: 4763: 4759: 4756: 4753: 4749: 4746: 4745: 4744: 4742: 4736:: Books 33-37 4735: 4732: 4730:: Books 23-32 4729: 4726: 4724:: Books 16-22 4723: 4720: 4717: 4714: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4703: 4695: 4692: 4687: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4673: 4670: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4654: 4653: 4652: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4617: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4593:9791023107432 4589: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4510: 4508:0-415-06950-5 4504: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4485: 4481: 4476: 4472: 4470:0-19-814687-6 4466: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4443: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4426:. Croom Helm. 4425: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4405: 4398: 4390: 4378: 4370: 4368:9780521572446 4364: 4360: 4359: 4351: 4349: 4341: 4335: 4329: 4325: 4318: 4316: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4272: 4265: 4258: 4253: 4247:, p. 31. 4246: 4241: 4233: 4231:9780226260709 4227: 4223: 4216: 4209: 4204: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4166: 4158: 4154: 4148: 4140: 4134: 4130: 4129: 4121: 4114: 4108: 4101: 4096: 4089: 4084: 4077: 4072: 4065: 4063: 4057: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4039: 4034: 4032: 4024: 4019: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4002: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3980: 3973: 3965: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3944: 3939: 3932: 3927: 3920: 3915: 3908: 3903: 3895: 3888: 3881: 3876: 3867: 3860: 3855: 3848: 3843: 3836: 3831: 3824: 3819: 3812: 3807: 3800: 3795: 3788: 3783: 3776: 3771: 3764: 3759: 3752: 3747: 3740: 3735: 3728: 3723: 3716: 3711: 3704: 3699: 3692: 3687: 3680: 3675: 3659: 3652: 3636: 3629: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3608: 3600: 3593: 3585: 3581: 3574: 3566: 3551: 3536: 3532: 3526: 3511: 3507: 3501: 3486: 3482: 3476: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3435: 3431: 3424: 3416: 3410: 3406: 3405: 3397: 3388: 3379: 3370: 3361: 3351: 3350: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3324: 3317: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3285: 3278: 3273: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3241: 3235: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3219: 3212: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3184: 3177: 3171: 3163: 3161:0-231-04002-4 3157: 3153: 3148: 3147: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3119: 3114: 3107: 3102: 3095: 3090: 3083: 3078: 3071: 3066: 3059: 3054: 3047: 3042: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3005: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2986: 2979: 2974: 2967: 2962: 2955: 2949: 2942: 2937: 2930: 2925: 2918: 2913: 2906: 2903:, Bks. I–II, 2902: 2896: 2889: 2884: 2876: 2875: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2856:public domain 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2805: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2788: 2783: 2774: 2770: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2729: 2722: 2718: 2717: 2710: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2658: 2657: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2634: 2627: 2621: 2614: 2608: 2601: 2595: 2591: 2581: 2580: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2549: 2548: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2530: 2524: 2519: 2511: 2508: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2495: 2490: 2483: 2480: 2474: 2472: 2465: 2460: 2458: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2444:Immanuel Kant 2440: 2436: 2432: 2431:Italo Calvino 2427: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2409: 2404: 2403:Thomas Browne 2399: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2384: 2379: 2375: 2364: 2360: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2339: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2266: 2265: 2264:Ruina Montium 2259: 2254: 2249: 2245: 2234: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2199: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2167: 2166: 2161: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2098: 2096: 2092: 2086: 2082: 2072: 2070: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2022:engraved gems 2019: 2015: 2008: 2006: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1989: 1985: 1976: 1974: 1969: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1942:kermes insect 1939: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1895: 1891: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1867:or dug up by 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1800: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1773: 1769:and his work 1768: 1762: 1758: 1750: 1745: 1736: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1685: 1680: 1676: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1600: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1569: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1537:Tyrian purple 1534: 1527: 1523: 1518: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1498:Julius Caesar 1495: 1491: 1487: 1477: 1468: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1433: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1414: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1358: 1357: 1356: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1342: 1341: 1340: 1334: 1331: 1330: 1329: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1246: 1241: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1229: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1178: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1148: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1122: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1054: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1031: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 954: 949: 945: 943: 937: 935: 925: 923: 919: 918: 913: 909: 905: 901: 900: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 862: 860: 856: 852: 846: 843: 832: 827: 825: 806: 802: 799:, modelling, 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 779: 772: 768: 764: 760: 757: 750: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 724: 717: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 691: 684: 681: 677: 674: 670: 667: 663: 660: 653: 650: 646: 643: 639: 635: 628: 617: 614: 612: 608: 598: 596: 592: 588: 583: 581: 577: 573: 568: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 541: 537: 533: 524: 523: 518: 514: 509: 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 464: 460: 452: 448: 447: 442: 438: 433: 429: 427: 423: 422:encyclopaedia 419: 413: 409: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 383: 378: 372: 363: 361: 357: 353: 348: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 281: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 234: 224:at Wikisource 223: 222: 218: 214: 211: 206: 205: 200: 197:Original text 194: 190: 188: 186:LC Class 182: 178: 175: 174:Dewey Decimal 170: 167: 164: 160: 156: 150: 147: 143: 142:Encyclopaedia 140: 136: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 110: 106: 103: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 81: 78: 74: 67: 61: 57: 52: 47: 41: 36: 30: 19: 5557: 5547: 5535: 5525: 5513: 5510:Hugh B. Cott 5501: 5486:20th century 5475: 5463: 5453: 5396: 5379: 5367: 5355: 5338: 5326: 5316:19th century 5303: 5291: 5279: 5262: 5250: 5242:James Hutton 5232:Joseph Banks 5218: 5178:Micrographia 5176: 5173:Robert Hooke 5153: 5143: 5139: 5122: 5087: 5057: 5046: 5045: 5035: 5023: 5020:Theophrastus 5011: 4938: 4921: 4913: 4912: 4896: 4884: 4869:John Bostock 4848: 4847: 4837: 4827: 4822:Volume VIII. 4817: 4807: 4797: 4787: 4777: 4774:. Books 8–11 4767: 4757: 4747: 4739: 4718:: Books 7-15 4650: 4649: 4632: 4615: 4606: 4602: 4583: 4558: 4554: 4521: 4517: 4498: 4479: 4460: 4441: 4432: 4424: 4421: 4403: 4397: 4357: 4339: 4323: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4270: 4264: 4252: 4240: 4221: 4215: 4203: 4181:(1): 42–53. 4178: 4174: 4165: 4156: 4147: 4127: 4120: 4112: 4107: 4099: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4061: 4056: 4048: 4025:XXXIII:36-81 4022: 4018: 4010: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3978: 3972: 3963: 3942: 3938: 3933:XXXVII:23-29 3930: 3926: 3921:XXXVII:55-60 3918: 3914: 3909:XXXVII:18-22 3906: 3902: 3893: 3887: 3879: 3875: 3866: 3858: 3854: 3846: 3842: 3834: 3830: 3822: 3818: 3810: 3806: 3798: 3794: 3786: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3762: 3758: 3750: 3746: 3738: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3714: 3710: 3702: 3698: 3690: 3686: 3678: 3674: 3662:. Retrieved 3651: 3639:. Retrieved 3628: 3611: 3605: 3592: 3583: 3573: 3560:|title= 3538:. Retrieved 3534: 3525: 3513:. Retrieved 3509: 3500: 3488:. Retrieved 3484: 3475: 3463:. Retrieved 3460:Roger Pearse 3459: 3449: 3437:. Retrieved 3434:Roger Pearse 3433: 3423: 3403: 3396: 3387: 3378: 3369: 3360: 3353:(in Italian) 3347: 3339: 3331: 3322: 3316: 3301: 3293: 3284: 3276: 3272: 3264: 3259:, and Latin 3256: 3252: 3247: 3239: 3234: 3216: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3175: 3170: 3145: 3137: 3131:Praefatio:21 3125: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3096:XXXV:151–851 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3048:, p. 9. 3041: 3012: 3004: 2993: 2985: 2977: 2973: 2965: 2961: 2953: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2900: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2872: 2803: 2786: 2782: 2773: 2755: 2746: 2737: 2728: 2714: 2709: 2688: 2676: 2672: 2664: 2654: 2633: 2620: 2613:LacusCurtius 2607: 2599: 2594: 2577: 2574:encyclopedia 2567:Urra=hubullu 2565: 2562:encyclopedia 2553: 2545: 2540: 2529:Books portal 2506: 2504: 2498: 2492: 2485: 2478: 2476: 2470: 2467: 2462: 2456: 2454: 2449: 2438: 2434: 2428: 2424: 2414: 2406: 2400: 2395: 2387: 2381: 2373: 2362: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2336: 2334: 2324: 2298: 2286:fire-setting 2274:Roman mining 2271: 2244:Roman mining 2231: 2211: 2196: 2194: 2170: 2163: 2130: 2099: 2088: 2065: 2057:rock crystal 2038: 2011: 2002: 1973:wrought iron 1970: 1937: 1931: 1908:silver mines 1900: 1877: 1841:malleability 1829: 1806: 1793:water wheels 1770: 1764: 1697: 1682: 1674: 1672: 1644: 1629: 1606: 1565: 1553:fish farming 1545:hippopotamus 1530: 1486:anthropology 1483: 1480:Anthropology 1474: 1465: 1449: 1422: 1412: 1410: 1397:John Bostock 1391: 1388:Translations 1367: 1354: 1346: 1338: 1327: 1307: 1284: 1255: 1244: 1232: 1218: 1211: 1204: 1197: 1184: 1152: 1118: 1113: 1103: 1076: 1066: 1048: 1043: 1026: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 982:, and other 968:epigrammatic 961: 951: 947: 939: 933: 931: 915: 897: 894:Theophrastus 889: 863: 854: 847: 841: 839: 829: 823: 821: 759:Pharmacology 734:horticulture 728:, including 695:, including 676:Anthropology 610: 606: 604: 586: 584: 575: 569: 528: 520: 516: 486:architecture 481: 478:teleological 456: 450: 444: 440: 437:cynocephalus 417: 415: 411: 405: 389: 387: 351: 349: 325:pharmacology 321:horticulture 301:anthropology 282: 266:encyclopedia 257: 254:Roman Empire 232: 231: 229: 219: 166:Ancient Rome 29: 5558:Shearwaters 5415:Mary Anning 5200:Hans Sloane 5150:John Gerard 5144:New Herball 5071:Renaissance 5054:Dioscorides 4990:naturalists 4764:. Books 3–7 4754:. Books 1–2 4712:: Books 1-6 4621:Rackham, H. 4385:|work= 4292:(10): 142. 4013:II.1.26,47. 3346:; see also 3084:XXXV:15–941 2702:eye witness 2669:John Gerard 2358:Etymologiae 2290:undermining 2282:Las Médulas 2278:gold mining 2258:Las Médulas 2233:(XXXVI:27). 2075:Art history 1912:amalgamates 1861:Fucine Lake 1749:Gallo-Roman 1739:Agriculture 1679:Dioscorides 1597:nightingale 1506:Asclepiades 1502:Hippocrates 1490:ethnography 1401:H. T. Riley 1133:palimspests 1091:meteorology 1057:Manuscripts 886:Mauretanian 730:agriculture 666:ethnography 649:meteorology 545:Cynocephali 519:, from the 459:pantheistic 443:. From the 356:referencing 317:agriculture 297:ethnography 289:mathematics 272:during the 216:Translation 116:ethnography 5649:Incunabula 5628:Categories 4988:Pioneering 4902:H. Rackham 4812:Volume VII 4772:Volume III 4245:Doody 2010 4208:Doody 2010 3882:XX:198-200 3861:XV:119-138 3849:XV:102-104 3801:II:186-187 3765:II:119-153 3705:II:5-6, 10 3046:Doody 2010 2766:References 2694:Procurator 2645:supplying 2572:Babylonian 2370: 600 2186:Xenocrates 2173:Asia Minor 2118:Parrhasius 2049:octahedral 2045:mineralogy 1979:Mineralogy 1803:Metallurgy 1785:bas-relief 1724:Democritus 1720:Empedocles 1716:Pythagoras 1640:cane sugar 1589:beekeepers 1494:physiology 1457:Posidonius 1453:Hipparchus 1437:Hipparchus 1138:Medieval: 1112:wrote the 988:Silver Age 984:mannerisms 972:antitheses 912:Thucydides 876:; for his 855:Disputatio 813:Production 785:mineralogy 680:physiology 678:and human 611:summarium, 502:ecological 466:philosophy 333:mineralogy 305:physiology 210:Wikisource 191:PA6611 .A2 132:mineralogy 5644:Geoponici 5008:Aristotle 5000:antiquity 4998:Classical 4931:Secondary 4832:Volume IX 4802:Volume VI 4782:Volume IV 4762:Volume II 4743:Editions 4546:162096359 4387:ignored ( 4377:cite book 4195:170517611 4078:XXXIV:117 3540:28 August 3515:28 August 3490:28 August 3465:15 August 3439:15 August 2890:XXXVII:77 2863:(1911). " 2721:Vitruvius 2681:Cochineal 2677:scolecium 2651:Vitruvius 2560:Byzantine 2311:Reception 2305:marcasite 2294:quartzite 2222:Aphrodite 2207:Agesander 2145:Pasiteles 2095:Greek art 2061:sesterces 2030:fluorspar 2018:gemstones 1966:Colosseum 1938:scolecium 1845:ductility 1787:found at 1708:Zoroaster 1704:astrology 1593:honeycomb 1585:queen bee 1561:aquariums 1471:Geography 1427:Astronomy 1177:(1950-). 1159:J. Sillig 980:metaphors 899:On Stones 861:, 1856). 662:Geography 645:Astronomy 625:Contents 601:Structure 593:in 1469. 557:Herodotus 549:Sciapodae 498:jewellery 490:sculpture 474:geography 470:cosmology 398:Vespasian 337:sculpture 293:geography 285:astronomy 270:his death 208:at Latin 124:sculpture 5435:Asa Gray 5247:John Ray 4895:Pliny's 4890:LibriVox 4842:Volume X 4792:Volume V 4752:Volume I 4734:Volume 5 4728:Volume 4 4722:Volume 3 4716:Volume 2 4710:Volume 1 4675:Archived 4631:(1937). 4609:(1): 39. 4435:. Brill. 4155:(1911). 4041:Archived 3988:A. Dalby 3837:XV:68-78 3825:XV:47-54 3693:II:28-51 3550:cite web 3221:Archived 2643:aqueduct 2639:Barbegal 2515:See also 2501:in 2010: 2394:'s 1509 2220:and the 2150:Kalkmann 2133:epigrams 2126:intaglio 2053:hardness 2014:minerals 1991:intaglio 1988:Amethyst 1934:cinnabar 1927:cosmetic 1920:antimony 1883:Hannibal 1869:griffins 1817:electrum 1811:, lead, 1659:cinnamon 1647:perfumes 1541:elephant 1526:Aquileia 1129:Codicies 1127:Ancient 1073:, France 1051:Petrarch 996:ablative 908:minerals 874:Augustus 789:statuary 746:medicine 536:Claudius 388:Pliny's 374:Copy of 366:Overview 350:Pliny's 303:, human 248:work by 157:AD 77–79 98:Language 4914:Italian 4849:English 4702:Teubner 4646:Primary 4414:Sources 4306:4343682 3813:XV:1-34 3753:I:89-90 3340:Letters 3302:Letters 3279:XXXV:80 3013:Letters 2994:Letters 2871:(ed.). 2858:: 2704:report. 2673:Herball 2653:in his 2537:Famulus 2203:Vatican 2100:In the 1958:Hadrian 1924:eyebrow 1916:gilding 1873:Scythia 1837:Croesus 1809:mercury 1612:papyrus 1512:Zoology 1370:printed 1221:vi.725) 1207:x.1470) 1200:iv.421) 1079:Solinus 1071:Le Mans 1032:of the 986:of the 878:zoology 870:Agrippa 836:Sources 818:Purpose 719:IV–VII 713:insects 697:mammals 693:Zoology 619:Volume 565:legends 532:phoenix 513:sciapod 384:, Italy 309:zoology 244:) is a 108:Subject 5581:Topics 5032:Aelian 4861:, 1601 4590: 4575:299421 4573: 4544: 4538:298927 4536: 4505: 4486: 4467: 4448: 4365: 4330: 4304: 4228: 4193: 4135: 4064:xxi-72 4003:(1862) 3789:II:182 3777:II:181 3664:28 May 3641:28 May 3411: 3261:syntax 3201:passim 3158: 3120:XXXVII 2867:". In 2852: 2451:death. 2421:Modern 2238:Mining 2226:Scopas 2141:Athens 2131:Greek 2122:relief 2112:, and 1999:Apollo 1879:Silver 1825:pewter 1821:bronze 1781:barley 1777:reaper 1663:balsam 1661:, and 1638:, and 1636:ginger 1632:pepper 1625:laurel 1621:myrtle 1608:Botany 1603:Botany 1461:comets 1407:Topics 1268:Alcuin 1260:Jarrow 1252:Leiden 1214:v.575) 1121:stemma 994:, and 976:tropes 964:Seneca 888:king, 793:bronze 781:Mining 777:33–37 755:28–32 726:Botany 722:12–27 701:snakes 622:Books 591:Venice 553:Astomi 540:Africa 525:(1493) 496:, and 382:Venice 343:, and 329:mining 313:botany 128:mining 76:Author 56:Venice 4867:, by 4857:, by 4651:Latin 4571:JSTOR 4542:S2CID 4534:JSTOR 4302:JSTOR 4191:S2CID 4011:Caput 4007:Latin 4005:, in 3741:II:24 3729:II:20 3717:II:14 3681:II:11 3602:(PDF) 3108:XXXVI 3072:XXXIV 2980:VII:2 2647:Arles 2587:Notes 2190:Duris 2091:Roman 1833:Midas 1789:Trier 1728:Plato 1700:magic 1693:opium 1689:Galen 1665:gum. 1655:myrrh 1617:olive 1581:honey 1572:resin 1568:amber 1549:pearl 1533:murex 1522:amber 1099:tides 1042:as a 958:Style 774:IX–X 767:water 763:magic 752:VIII 742:olive 709:birds 689:8–11 561:myths 463:Stoic 402:Titus 360:index 246:Latin 238:Latin 138:Genre 102:Latin 5602:List 5592:List 4871:and 4838:L419 4828:L394 4818:L418 4808:L393 4798:L392 4788:L371 4778:L370 4768:L353 4758:L352 4748:L330 4588:ISBN 4503:ISBN 4484:ISBN 4465:ISBN 4446:ISBN 4389:help 4363:ISBN 4328:ISBN 4226:ISBN 4133:ISBN 4062:N.H. 3984:s.v. 3666:2015 3643:2015 3565:help 3542:2024 3517:2024 3492:2024 3467:2024 3441:2024 3409:ISBN 3310:9.33 3306:8.20 3257:s.v. 3193:s.v. 3156:ISBN 3017:6.16 2789:I:13 2570:– a 2555:Suda 2505:the 2401:Sir 2303:and 2246:and 2218:Ares 2093:and 2083:and 2043:and 2024:and 2016:and 1995:Nero 1950:Nero 1853:wire 1849:foil 1843:and 1835:and 1759:and 1726:and 1623:and 1577:bees 1555:and 1543:and 1504:and 1488:and 1445:Moon 1443:and 1435:How 1411:The 1399:and 1264:Bede 1153:The 1095:gems 1093:and 1083:Bede 1065:The 906:and 904:ores 882:Juba 859:Bonn 783:and 740:and 738:vine 686:III 664:and 658:3–6 605:The 585:The 543:the 472:and 451:1493 416:The 394:lost 230:The 4681:at 4563:doi 4526:doi 4294:doi 4183:doi 3616:doi 3344:3.5 3015:, 2998:3.5 2996:, 2943:VII 2719:of 2696:in 2380:'s 2355:'s 2224:of 2184:of 2124:or 1997:as 1968:). 1954:Sol 1871:in 1813:tin 1710:of 1681:'s 1441:Sun 1285:CLA 1256:CLA 1250:A: 1233:CLA 1219:CLA 1212:CLA 1205:CLA 1198:CLA 1189:N: 920:of 853:'s 797:art 791:in 655:II 494:art 341:art 179:508 120:art 58:by 48:of 5630:: 5142:, 4840:) 4830:) 4820:) 4810:) 4800:) 4790:) 4780:) 4770:) 4760:) 4750:) 4607:27 4605:. 4569:. 4559:60 4557:. 4540:. 4532:. 4522:62 4520:. 4381:: 4379:}} 4375:{{ 4347:^ 4314:^ 4300:. 4290:48 4288:. 4189:. 4177:. 4030:^ 4009:, 3982:, 3950:^ 3612:61 3610:. 3604:. 3582:. 3554:: 3552:}} 3548:{{ 3533:. 3508:. 3483:. 3458:. 3432:. 3342:, 3338:, 3308:, 3304:, 3300:, 3208:^ 3154:. 3152:17 3023:^ 3011:, 2992:, 2811:^ 2794:^ 2411:: 2367:c. 2365:, 2128:. 2108:, 2036:. 1956:. 1929:. 1875:. 1823:, 1819:, 1735:. 1722:, 1718:, 1657:, 1634:, 1599:. 1384:. 1101:. 978:, 936:: 924:. 803:, 795:, 765:, 761:, 744:, 732:, 711:, 707:, 703:, 699:, 672:7 647:, 641:2 633:1 630:I 563:, 511:A 492:, 488:, 453:). 435:A 362:. 347:. 339:, 335:, 331:, 327:, 323:, 319:, 315:, 311:, 307:, 299:, 295:, 291:, 287:, 280:. 240:: 144:, 130:, 126:, 122:, 118:, 114:, 62:. 5604:) 5600:( 5594:) 5590:( 5560:) 5556:( 5550:) 5546:( 5540:) 5534:( 5528:) 5524:( 5518:) 5512:( 5506:) 5500:( 5478:) 5474:( 5468:) 5462:( 5456:) 5452:( 5401:) 5395:( 5384:) 5378:( 5372:) 5366:( 5360:) 5354:( 5343:) 5337:( 5331:) 5325:( 5308:) 5302:( 5296:) 5290:( 5284:) 5278:( 5267:) 5261:( 5255:) 5249:( 5223:) 5217:( 5181:) 5175:( 5156:) 5152:( 5146:) 5138:( 5127:) 5121:( 5090:) 5086:( 5062:) 5056:( 5050:) 5044:( 5038:) 5034:( 5028:) 5022:( 5016:) 5010:( 4973:e 4966:t 4959:v 4596:. 4577:. 4565:: 4548:. 4528:: 4511:. 4492:. 4473:. 4454:. 4391:) 4371:. 4336:. 4308:. 4296:: 4234:. 4197:. 4185:: 4179:5 4141:. 4066:. 3668:. 3645:. 3622:. 3618:: 3586:. 3567:) 3563:( 3544:. 3519:. 3494:. 3469:. 3443:. 3417:. 3355:. 3325:. 3227:. 3203:. 3164:. 2386:( 2361:( 2007:) 2003:( 1270:. 857:( 449:( 236:( 70:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.