Ming dynasty - Knowledge

4449: 4074:

expensive, sophisticated tutoring of the sort that wealthy gentry families specialized in providing their talented sons. In practice, 90 percent of the population was ineligible due to lack of education, but the upper 10 percent had equal chances for moving to the top. To be successful young men had to have extensive, expensive training in classical Chinese, the use of Mandarin in spoken conversation, calligraphy, and had to master the intricate poetic requirements of the eight-legged essay. Not only did the traditional gentry dominated the system, they also learned that conservatism and resistance to new ideas was the path to success. For centuries critics had pointed out these problems, but the examination system only became more abstract and less relevant to the needs of China. The consensus of scholars is that the eight-legged essay can be blamed as a major cause of "China's cultural stagnation and economic backwardness." However Benjamin Ellman argues there were some positive features, since the essay form was capable of fostering "abstract thinking, persuasiveness, and prosodic form" and that its elaborate structure discouraged a wandering, unfocused narrative".

5100: 3972:

Surveillance. Starting in the 1420s, eunuchs began taking over these ladies' positions until only the Bureau of Apparel with its four subsidiary offices remained. Hongwu had his eunuchs organized into the Directorate of Palace Attendants, but as eunuch power at court increased, so did their administrative offices, with eventual twelve directorates, four offices, and eight bureaus. The dynasty had a vast imperial household, staffed with thousands of eunuchs, who were headed by the Directorate of Palace Attendants. The eunuchs were divided into different directorates in charge of staff surveillance, ceremonial rites, food, utensils, documents, stables, seals, apparel, and so on. The offices were in charge of providing fuel, music, paper, and baths. The bureaus were in charge of weapons, silverwork, laundering, headgear, bronze work, textile manufacture, wineries, and gardens. At times, the most influential eunuch in the Directorate of Ceremonial acted as a

2798: 5045: 3213:(1572–82) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances; officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. Over time Wanli grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials' sight. Scholar-officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor. There were several military campaigns, which included the 5026: 5017: 5008: 4999: 3326: 4174:

merit-based) and Confucian values that dictated those who chose the profession of violence (wu) over the cultured pursuits of knowledge (wen). Although seen as less prestigious, military officers were not excluded from taking civil service examinations, and after 1478 the military even held their own examinations to test military skills. In addition to taking over the established bureaucratic structure from the Yuan period, the Ming emperors established the new post of the travelling military inspector. In the early half of the dynasty, men of noble lineage dominated the higher ranks of military office; this trend was reversed during the latter half of the dynasty as men from more humble origins eventually displaced them.

4058: 4445:. They drew upon the techniques, styles, and complexity in painting achieved by their Song and Yuan predecessors, but added techniques and styles. Well-known Ming artists could make a living simply by painting due to the high prices they demanded for their artworks and the great demand by the highly cultured community to collect precious works of art. The artist Qiu Ying was once paid 2.8 kg (100 oz) of silver to paint a long handscroll for the eightieth birthday celebration of the mother of a wealthy patron. Renowned artists often gathered an entourage of followers, some who were amateurs who painted while pursuing an official career and others who were full-time painters. 3238: 1162: 3994: 2998: 4070:

extreme cases, officials would be dismissed or punished. Only capital officials of grade 4 and above were exempt from the scrutiny of recorded evaluation, although they were expected to confess any of their faults. There were over 4,000 school instructors in county and prefectural schools who were subject to evaluations every nine years. The Chief Instructor on the prefectural level was classified as equal to a second-grade county graduate. The Supervisorate of Imperial Instruction oversaw the education of the heir apparent to the throne; this office was headed by a Grand Supervisor of Instruction, who was ranked as first class of grade three.

4112: 4964: 5685: 2933: 106: 4403: 4010:(581–618). Theoretically the system of exams allowed anyone to join the ranks of imperial officials (although it was frowned upon for merchants to join); in reality the time and funding needed to support the study in preparation for the exam generally limited participants to those already coming from the landholding class. However, the government did exact provincial quotas while drafting officials. This was an effort to curb monopolization of power by landholding gentry who came from the most prosperous regions, where education was the most advanced. The expansion of the 4042:", a departure from basing essays off progressing literary trends. The exams increased in difficulty as the student progressed from the local level, and appropriate titles were accordingly awarded successful applicants. Officials were classified in nine hierarchic grades, each grade divided into two degrees, with ranging salaries (nominally paid in piculs of rice) according to their rank. While provincial graduates who were appointed to office were immediately assigned to low-ranking posts like the county graduates, those who passed the palace examination were awarded a 2514: 4952:, re-established in 1604. These conservatives wanted a revival of orthodox Confucian ethics. Conservatives such as Gu Xiancheng (1550–1612) argued against Wang's idea of innate moral knowledge, stating that this was simply a legitimization for unscrupulous behavior such as greedy pursuits and personal gain. These two strands of Confucian thought, hardened by Chinese scholars' notions of obligation towards their mentors, developed into pervasive factionalism among the ministers of state, who used any opportunity to impeach members of the other faction from court. 698: 4103:

These lesser functionaries performed clerical and technical tasks for government agencies. Yet they should not be confused with lowly lictors, runners, and bearers; lesser functionaries were given periodic merit evaluations like officials and after nine years of service might be accepted into a low civil service rank. The one great advantage of the lesser functionaries over officials was that officials were periodically rotated and assigned to different regional posts and had to rely on the good service and cooperation of the local lesser functionaries.

4383: 121: 3825:". Hence, the Censorate was reinstalled and first staffed with investigating censors, later with censors-in-chief. By 1453, the grand coordinators were granted the title vice censor-in-chief or assistant censor-in-chief and were allowed direct access to the emperor. As in prior dynasties, the provincial administrations were monitored by a travelling inspector from the Censorate. Censors had the power to impeach officials on an irregular basis, unlike the senior officials who were to do so only in triennial evaluations of junior officials. 5521: 5170: 4083: 4903: 3095: 3961: 2687: 90: 4019: 4820: 4202: 3838: 5200: 4565: 5720:(r. 1464–87) was roughly 75 million, despite mid-Ming census figures hovering around 62 million. While prefectures across the empire in the mid-Ming period were reporting either a drop in or stagnant population size, local gazetteers reported massive amounts of incoming vagrant workers with not enough good cultivated land for them to till, so that many would become drifters, conmen, or wood-cutters that contributed to deforestation. The 5355: 3284:. He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire, and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for building the previous emperor's tombs. His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belittling his political opponents. The instability at court came right as natural calamity, pestilence, rebellion, and foreign invasion came to a peak. The 4220: 3448: 3146:(1398–1457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Holding the Zhengtong Emperor in captivity was a useless bargaining chip for the Oirats as long as another sat on his throne, so they released him back into Ming China. The former emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457 known as the "Wresting the Gate Incident". The former emperor retook the throne under the new era name 2914: 4348: 3395:. Famine, alongside tax increases, widespread military desertions, a declining relief system, and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood-control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility. The central government, starved of resources, could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Making matters worse, a widespread epidemic, the 3307: 2598:

or reject it. Hongwu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause. The Ming used the tribute they received from former Yuan vassals as proof that the Ming had taken over the Yuan's legitimacy. Tribute missions were regularly celebrated with music and dance in the Ming court.

3673: 4663: 5424: 3194: 4363:(1568–1610) used travel literature to express his desires for individualism as well as autonomy from and frustration with Confucian court politics. Yuan desired to free himself from the ethical compromises that were inseparable from the career of a scholar-official. This anti-official sentiment in Yuan's travel literature and poetry was actually following in the tradition of the Song dynasty poet and official 482: 3437: 5345:(1548–1620) in Europe. In addition to publishing his works on music, he was able to publish his findings on the calendar in 1597. A year earlier, the memorial of Xing Yunlu suggesting a calendar improvement was rejected by the Supervisor of the Astronomical Bureau due to the law banning private practice of astronomy; Xing would later serve with Xu Guangqi in reforming the calendar (Chinese: 5650: 3763: 3253:

participated in matters of appointment and promotion of officials. Yongle put 75 eunuchs in charge of foreign policy; they traveled frequently to vassal states including Annam, Mongolia, the Ryukyu Islands, and Tibet and less frequently to farther-flung places like Japan and Nepal. In the later 15th century, however, eunuch envoys generally only traveled to Korea.

4926:

Chinese thought and spurred new interest in Taoism and Buddhism. Furthermore, people began to question the validity of the social hierarchy and the idea that the scholar should be above the farmer. Wang Yangming's disciple and salt-mine worker Wang Gen gave lectures to commoners about pursuing education to improve their lives, while his follower He Xinyin (

2585:

as continued request for Korean concubines and eunuchs, Mongol-style hereditary military institutions, Mongol-style clothing and hats, promoting archery and horseback riding, and having large numbers of Mongols serve in the Ming military. Until the late 16th century Mongols still constituted one-in-three officers serving in capital forces like the

4448: 5705:, Ho Ping-ti suggests revising the 1393 census to 65 million people, noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census. Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62 million, while the population was in fact increasing. Even the 5382:(1020–1101)—he associated all of them with the decadence of Mongol rule and had them destroyed. This was described in full length by the Divisional Director of the Ministry of Works, Xiao Xun, who also carefully preserved details on the architecture and layout of the Yuan dynasty palace. Later, European Jesuits such as Matteo Ricci and 2652:. Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make-up of the region, since formerly more than half of the population were non-Han peoples. Resentment over such massive changes in population and the resulting government presence and policies sparked more 4375:. Yet even gentry and scholar-officials were affected by the new popular romantic literature, seeking gejis as soulmates to re-enact the heroic love stories that arranged marriages often could not provide or accommodate.During the Ming Dynasty, some gentry dated well-educated gejis outside of marriage and the concubine system. 5681:. The practice is well documented in China, going back over two thousand years, and it was described as "rampant" and "practiced by almost every family" by contemporary authors. However, the dramatically skewed sex ratios, which many counties reported exceeding 2:1 by 1586, cannot likely be explained by infanticide alone. 5333:, the Ming Directorate of Astronomy failed to periodically readjust it; this was perhaps due to their lack of expertise since their offices had become hereditary in the Ming and the Statutes of the Ming prohibited private involvement in astronomy. A sixth-generation descendant of the Hongxi Emperor, the "Prince" 2952:(r. 1398–1402) after Hongwu's death in 1398. The most powerful of Hongwu's sons, Zhu Di, then the militarily mighty disagreed with this, and soon a political showdown erupted between him and his nephew Jianwen. After Jianwen arrested many of Zhu Di's associates, Zhu Di plotted a rebellion that sparked a 5074:

A variety of occupations could be chosen or inherited from a father's line of work. This would include – but was not limited to – coffin makers, ironworkers and blacksmiths, tailors, cooks and noodle-makers, retail merchants, tavern, teahouse, or winehouse managers, shoemakers, seal cutters, pawnshop

4131:

Eunuchs gained unprecedented power over state affairs during the Ming dynasty. One of the most effective means of control was the secret service stationed in what was called the Eastern Depot at the beginning of the dynasty, later the Western Depot. This secret service was overseen by the Directorate

4102:

Scholar-officials who entered civil service through examinations acted as executive officials to a much larger body of non-ranked personnel called lesser functionaries. They outnumbered officials by four to one; Charles Hucker estimates that they were perhaps as many as 100,000 throughout the empire.

3828:

Although decentralization of state power within the provinces occurred in the early Ming, the trend of central government officials delegated to the provinces as virtual provincial governors began in the 1420s. By the late Ming dynasty, there were central government officials delegated to two or more

3573:

In 1640, masses of Chinese peasants who were starving, unable to pay their taxes, and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army, began to form into huge bands of rebels. The Chinese military, caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant

2584:

The Hongwu Emperor issued many edicts forbidding Mongol practices and proclaiming his intention to purify China of barbarian influence. However, he also sought to use the Yuan legacy to legitimize his authority in China and other areas ruled by the Yuan. He continued policies of the Yuan dynasty such

5700:

The number of people counted in the census of 1381 was 59,873,305; however, this number dropped significantly when the government found that some 3 million people were missing from the tax census of 1391. Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381, the need for survival

4654:

have also been identified as Muslim by Hui scholars, though this is doubted by non-Muslim sources. Regardless, the presence of Muslims in the armies that drove the Mongols northwards caused a gradual shift in the Chinese perception of Muslims, transitioning from "foreigners" to "familiar strangers".

3979:

Although the imperial household was staffed mostly by eunuchs and palace ladies, there was a civil service office called the Seal Office, which cooperated with eunuch agencies in maintaining imperial seals, tallies, and stamps. There were also civil service offices to oversee the affairs of imperial

5419:

over which a pointer circulated, similar to European models of the time. This sand-driven wheel clock was improved upon by Zhou Shuxue (fl. 1530–58) who added a fourth large gear wheel, changed gear ratios, and widened the orifice for collecting sand grains since he criticized the earlier model for

5132:

and fired pots, and weaving mats and baskets. In the north traveling by horse and carriage was most common, while in the south the myriad of rivers, canals, and lakes provided cheap and easy water transport. Although the south had the characteristic of the wealthy landlord and tenant farmers, there

5095:

to burn at ancestral sacrifices, specialized luxury goods, headgear, fine cloth, teas, and others. Smaller communities and townships too poor or scattered to support shops and artisans obtained their goods from periodic market fairs and traveling peddlers. A small township also provided a place for

2774:

origin, was ordered to lead an expedition to the mouth of the Amur to pacify the Wild Jurchens. After the death of Yongle Emperor, the Nurgan Regional Military Commission was abolished in 1435, and the Ming court ceased to have substantial activities there, although the guards continued to exist in

2753:

in Manchuria by the Mongols, yet it created a norm of organization that would ultimately serve as the main instrument for the relations with peoples along the northeast frontiers. By the end of the Hongwu reign, the essentials of a policy toward the Jurchens had taken shape. Most of the inhabitants

2597:

Hongwu insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject and had been divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view the Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist

5735:

Even with the Jiajing reforms to document migrant workers and merchants, by the late Ming era the government census still did not accurately reflect the enormous growth in population. Gazetteers across the empire noted this and made their own estimations of the overall population in the Ming, some

5676:

reported a population of 378,167 males and 226,982 females in 1502. The government attempted to revise the census figures using estimates of the expected average number of people in each household, but this did not solve the widespread problem of tax registration. Some part of the gender imbalance

5060:

writes that the distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city. Not only was the blurring of town and country evident, but also of socioeconomic class in the traditional

4925:

were wary of Wang's heterodoxy, the increasing number of his disciples while he was still in office, and his overall socially rebellious message. To curb his influence, he was often sent out to deal with military affairs and rebellions far away from the capital. Yet his ideas penetrated mainstream

4620:

The Yongle Emperor and later emperors strongly patronised Tibetan Buddhism by supporting construction, printing of sutras, ceremonies etc., to seek legitimacy among foreign audiences. Yongle tried to portray himself as a Buddhist ideal king, a cakravartin. There is evidence that this portrayal was

4250:

of various types flourished during the Ming dynasty, especially in the economically prosperous lower Yangzi valley. Although short fiction had been popular as far back as the Tang dynasty (618–907), and the works of contemporaneous authors such as Xu Guangqi, Xu Xiake, and Song Yingxing were often

4173:

Like scholar-officials, military generals were ranked in a hierarchic grading system and were given merit evaluations every five years (as opposed to three years for officials). However, military officers had less prestige than officials. This was due to their hereditary service (instead of solely

3640:

Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, the Ming were not yet totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. These scattered Ming

3545:

mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the Ming government failed to ship much-needed supplies there. In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service. The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had

3387:

equaled an ounce of silver; by 1640 that sum could fetch half an ounce; and, by 1643 only one-third of an ounce. For peasants this meant economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and crop sales in copper. Historians have debated the validity of the theory that

2593:

were also prominent. He frequently wrote to Mongol, Japanese, Korean, Jurchen, Tibetan, and Southwest frontier rulers offering advice on their governmental and dynastic policy, and insisted on leaders from these regions visiting the Ming capital for audiences. He resettled 100,000 Mongols into his

2488:

River Valley and cementing his power in the south. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while a guest of Zhu, there was no one left who was remotely capable of contesting his march to the throne, and he made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the

5055:

Wang Gen was able to give philosophical lectures to many commoners from different regions because—following the trend already apparent in the Song dynasty—communities in Ming society were becoming less isolated as the distance between market towns was shrinking. Schools, descent groups, religious

3971:

The imperial household was staffed almost entirely by eunuchs and ladies with their own bureaus. Female servants were organized into the Bureau of Palace Attendance, Bureau of Ceremonies, Bureau of Apparel, Bureau of Foodstuffs, Bureau of the Bedchamber, Bureau of Handicrafts, and Office of Staff

3179:

against the Mongols and the Oirats, the constant threat of Oirat incursions prompted the Ming authorities to fortify the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century; nevertheless, John Fairbank notes that "it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly expressed China's siege

5671:

notes that the Ming government census figures are dubious since fiscal obligations prompted many families to underreport the number of people in their households and many county officials to underreport the number of households in their jurisdiction. Children were often underreported, especially

4014:

enhanced the spread of knowledge and number of potential exam candidates throughout the provinces. For young schoolchildren there were printed multiplication tables and primers for elementary vocabulary; for adult examination candidates there were mass-produced, inexpensive volumes of Confucian

3291:

The eunuchs built their own social structure, providing and gaining support to their birth clans. Instead of fathers promoting sons, it was a matter of uncles promoting nephews. The Heishanhui Society in Peking sponsored the temple that conducted rituals for worshiping the memory of Gang Tie, a

2741:

of the former Yuan dynasty). He grew strong in the northeast, with forces large enough (numbering hundreds of thousands) to threaten invasion of the newly founded Ming dynasty in order to restore the Mongols to power in China. The Ming decided to defeat him instead of waiting for the Mongols to

4069:

The maximum tenure in office was nine years, but every three years officials were graded on their performance by senior officials. If they were graded as superior then they were promoted, if graded adequate then they retained their ranks, and if graded inadequate they were demoted one rank. In

2435:

as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects. Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han groups revolted, including the

5309:

in China, another important work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607 with the efforts of Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci. Ironically, some inventions which had their origins in ancient China were reintroduced to China from Europe during the late Ming; for example, the

4073:

Historians debate whether the examination system expanded or contracted upward social mobility. On the one hand, the exams were graded without regard to a candidate's social background, and were theoretically open to everyone. In actual practice, the successful candidates had years of a very

3708:

in 1127, the Song court established four semi-autonomous regional command systems based on territorial and military units, with a detached service secretariat that would become the provincial administrations of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. Copied on the Yuan model, the Ming provincial

2274:

into its modern form. Wide-ranging censuses of the entire empire were conducted decennially, but the desire to avoid labor and taxes and the difficulty of storing and reviewing the enormous archives at Nanjing hampered accurate figures. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to

3252:

The Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs during the Yongle Emperor's reign (1402–1424) and afterwards managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and

3483:

in the 1590s. Ming officials declined the offer, but granted him the title of dragon-tiger general for his gesture. Recognizing the weakness of Ming authority in Manchuria at the time, he consolidated power by co-opting or conquering surrounding territories. In 1616 he declared himself

5628:

in the title refers to the synonyms of each name. Inoculation, although it can be traced to earlier Chinese folk medicine, was detailed in Chinese texts by the sixteenth century. Throughout the Ming dynasty, around fifty texts were published on the treatment of smallpox. In regards to

4936:

even taught that women were the intellectual equals of men and should be given a better education; both Li and He eventually died in prison, jailed on charges of spreading "dangerous ideas". Yet these "dangerous ideas" of educating women had long been embraced by some mothers and by

4165:

was enthroned, he continued his nephew's policy of disarming his brothers and moved their fiefs away from the militarized northern border. Although princes served no organ of state administration, the princes, consorts of the imperial princesses, and ennobled relatives did staff the

4371:(1570–1623), were the founders of the Gong'an School of letters. This highly individualistic school of poetry and prose was criticized by the Confucian establishment for its association with intense sensual lyricism, which was also apparent in Ming vernacular novels such as the 4046:('presented scholar') degree and assured a high-level position. In 276 years of Ming rule and ninety palace examinations, the number of doctoral degrees granted by passing the palace examinations was 24,874. Ebrey states that "there were only two to four thousand of these 5736:

guessing that it had doubled, tripled, or even grown fivefold since 1368. Fairbank estimates that the population was perhaps 160 million in the late Ming dynasty, while Brook estimates 175 million, and Ebrey states perhaps as large as 200 million. However,

5386:

would briefly mention indigenous Chinese clockworks that featured drive wheels. However, both Ricci and Trigault were quick to point out that 16th-century European clockworks were far more advanced than the common time keeping devices in China, which they listed as

5709:(r. 1487–1505) remarked that the daily increase in subjects coincided with the daily dwindling number of registered civilians and soldiers. William Atwell states that around 1400 the population of China was perhaps 90 million people, citing Heijdra and Mote. 5701:

pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region, where Hongwu had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace. The government tried to mitigate this by creating their own conservative estimate of 60,545,812 people in 1393. In his

2956:. Under the pretext of rescuing the young Jianwen from corrupting officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with Jianwen himself, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di assumed the throne as the 4608:

fell from favor, and the early Ming emperors particularly favored Taoism, granting its practitioners many positions in the state's ritual offices. The Hongwu Emperor curtailed the cosmopolitan culture of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and the prolific Prince of Ning

4881:), gaining understanding through careful and rational investigation of things and events, Wang argued that universal concepts would appear in the minds of anyone. Therefore, he claimed that anyone—no matter their pedigree or education—could become as wise as 2180:

1368–1398), attempted to create a society of self-sufficient rural communities ordered in a rigid, immobile system that would guarantee and support a permanent class of soldiers for his dynasty: the empire's standing army exceeded one million troops and the

3950:

had charge of government construction projects, hiring of artisans and laborers for temporary service, manufacturing government equipment, the maintenance of roads and canals, standardization of weights and measures, and the gathering of resources from the

2484:, Zhu's force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650,000-strong. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful 2862:

The Ming sporadically sent armed forays into Tibet during the 14th century, which the Tibetans successfully resisted. Several scholars point out that unlike the preceding Mongols, the Ming dynasty did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet. The

5123:

and citrus were grown as basic crops. Some people in the mountainous southwest made a living by selling lumber from hard bamboo. Besides cutting down trees to sell wood, the poor also made a living by turning wood into charcoal, and by burning

4889:

had been and that their writings were not sources of truth but merely guides that might have flaws when carefully examined. A peasant with a great deal of experience and intelligence would then be wiser than an official who had memorized the

4750:

in 1625 also permitted Christianity to be treated as an old and established faith, rather than as a new and dangerous cult. However, there were strong disagreements about the extent to which converts could continue to perform rituals to the

5940:

until 1683. Zhu Shugui proclaimed that he acted in the name of the deceased Yongli Emperor. The Qing eventually sent the 17 Ming princes still living in Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. In 1725, the

2360:. The value of silver rapidly increased because of a disruption in the supply of imported silver from Spanish and Portuguese sources, making it impossible for Chinese farmers to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and 3180:

mentality." Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops.

3696:, the Ming emperors took over the provincial administration system of the Yuan dynasty, and the thirteen Ming provinces are the precursors of the modern provinces. Throughout the Song dynasty, the largest political division was the 3605:. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus. The Eight Banners under the Manchu Prince 3802:, and the Chief Military Commission and personally took charge of the Six Ministries and the regional Five Military Commissions. Thus a whole level of administration was cut out and only partially rebuilt by subsequent rulers. The 3341:

in 1516. Following the Ming Emperor's decision to ban direct trade with Japan, Portuguese traders acted as an intermediary between China and Japan by buying Chinese silks from China and selling it to Japan for silver. After some

3865:

Governmental institutions in China conformed to a similar pattern for some two thousand years, but each dynasty installed special offices and bureaus, reflecting its own particular interests. The Ming administration utilized

5146:

hats. Women could not use ornaments made from gold, jade, pearl or emerald. Merchants and their families were further banned from using silk. However, these laws were no longer enforced from the middle Ming period onwards.

4529:

Connoisseurship in the late Ming period centered on these items of refined artistic taste, which provided work for art dealers and even underground scammers who themselves made imitations and false attributions. The Jesuit

2854:

at court. Others argue that the significant religious nature of the relationship with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship. Others note the Ming need for Central Asian horses and the need to maintain the

4001:

The Hongwu emperor from 1373 to 1384 staffed his bureaus with officials gathered through recommendations only. After that the scholar-officials who populated the many ranks of bureaucracy were recruited through a rigorous

4963: 3882:

and were considered part of the imperial authority, not the ministerial one (hence being at odds with both the emperor and ministers at times). The Secretariat operated as a coordinating agency, whereas the Six

3382:

through Spanish ports. People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. In the 1630s a string of one thousand

2452:

was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352; he soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander. In 1356, Zhu's rebel force captured the city of

5557:

There were many advances and new designs in gunpowder weapons during the beginning of the dynasty, but by the mid to late Ming the Chinese began to frequently employ European-style artillery and firearms. The

2501:, and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in Dadu to the ground; the city was renamed Beiping in the same year. Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or "Vastly Martial", as his 3256:

The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy. Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as

2275:

200 million, but necessary revenues were squeezed out of smaller and smaller numbers of farmers as more disappeared from the official records or "donated" their lands to tax-exempt eunuchs or temples.

2783:) in Manchuria, but these were probably only nominal offices and did not necessarily imply political control. By the late Ming period, Ming's political presence in Manchuria has declined significantly. 5554:(1562–1633) took an interest in irrigation, fertilizers, famine relief, economic and textile crops, and empirical observation of the elements that gave insight into early understandings of chemistry. 5337:(1536–1611), submitted a proposal to fix the calendar in 1595, but the ultra-conservative astronomical commission rejected it. This was the same Zhu Zaiyu who discovered the system of tuning known as 5572:

sometime before the latter's death on 16 May 1375 (with a preface added by Jiao in 1412), featured many types of cutting-edge gunpowder weaponry for the time. This includes hollow, gunpowder-filled

5115:

engaged in intensive rice cultivation and had lakes and ponds where ducks and fish could be raised. The cultivation of mulberry trees for silkworms and tea bushes could be found mostly south of the

3997:

Painting that depicts the career of a civil servant. The career path starts with passing the civil service examinations (left side) and progresses to a high position in the government (right side).

3578:—and deserted the capital without much of a fight. On 25 April 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng when the city gates were opened by rebel allies from within. During the turmoil, 3333:

During the last years of the Wanli era and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered on a sudden widespread lack of the empire's chief medium of exchange: silver.

3391:

Famines became common in northern China in the early 17th century because of unusually dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season—effects of a larger ecological event now known as the

5692:(r. 1425–35); he stated in 1428 that his populace was dwindling due to palace construction and military adventures. But the population was rising under him, a fact noted by Zhou Chen—governor of 3156:

proved to be a troubled time and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic. On 7 August 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin and his Ming troops of Mongol descent

2805:

of Guhyasamaja Akshobhyavajra; the Ming dynasty court gathered various tribute items that were native products of Tibet (such as thangkas), and in return granted gifts to Tibetan tribute-bearers.

3045:, but these missions were unprecedented in grandeur and scale. To service seven different tributary voyages, the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419, including 2640:, who was appointed Governor of Yunnan, were resettled in the region as part of a colonization effort. By the end of the 14th century, some 200,000 military colonists settled some 2,000,000 2573:

and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor, a precedent mostly followed throughout the Ming period. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the

4526:. The writing materials in a scholar's private study, including elaborately carved brush holders made of stone or wood, were designed and arranged ritually to give an aesthetic appeal. 5505:

used in gunpowder compositions—illustrating how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still-head that sent over sulfur as vapor that would solidify and

4255:, those with rudimentary education—such as women in educated families, merchants, and shop clerks—became a large potential audience for literature and performing arts that employed 5099: 4132:

of Ceremonial, hence this state organ's often totalitarian affiliation. Eunuchs had ranks that were equivalent to civil service ranks, only theirs had four grades instead of nine.

3936:

was in charge of the appointments, promotions, and demotions of military officers, the maintenance of military installations, equipment, and weapons, as well as the courier system.

3160:

out of fear of being next on his purge-list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident. Cao's rebel force managed to set fire to the western and eastern gates of the

10349: 8919:: "Inoculation had been a popular folk practice ... in all, some fifty texts on the treatment of smallpox are known to have been published in China during the Ming dynasty." 3929:

was in charge of state ceremonies, rituals, and sacrifices; it also oversaw registers for Buddhist and Daoist priesthoods and even the reception of envoys from tributary states.

9246: 2980:, the palatial residence of the emperor and his family. By 1553, the Outer City was added to the south, which brought the overall size of Beijing to 6.5 by 7 kilometres (4 by 4514:

wares displayed intricate scenes similar in complexity to those in painting. These items could be found in the homes of the wealthy, alongside embroidered silks and wares in

4379:

culture of the Ming Dynasty reshaped the purely sexual relationship with prostitutes into a cultural relationship, and men could even become friends with like-minded gejis.

4281:, published in 1610, although incorporating earlier material, marks the trend toward independent composition and concern with psychology. In the later years of the dynasty, 4251:

technical and encyclopedic, the most striking literary development was the vernacular novel. While the gentry elite were educated enough to fully comprehend the language of

11256: 4534:

while staying in Nanjing wrote that Chinese scam artists were ingenious at making forgeries and huge profits. However, there were guides to help the wary new connoisseur;

3292:

powerful eunuch of the Yuan dynasty. The Temple became an influential base for highly placed eunuchs, and continued in a somewhat diminished role during the Qing dynasty.

4022:

Candidates who had taken the civil service examinations would crowd around the wall where the results were posted; detail from a handscroll in ink and color on silk, by

4135:

Descendants of the first Ming emperor were made princes and given (typically nominal) military commands, annual stipends, and large estates. The title used was "king" (

10023: 668: 654: 640: 626: 612: 598: 573: 11888: 3209:(1572–1620). In the beginning of his reign, Wanli surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs. His Grand Secretary 2668:(1472–1529) suppressed another rebellion in the region, he advocated single, unitary administration of Chinese and indigenous ethnic groups in order to bring about 2423:(1271–1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty. Explanations for the demise of the Yuan include institutionalized ethnic discrimination against the 5366:

When the Ming founder Hongwu came upon the mechanical devices housed in the Yuan dynasty's palace at Khanbaliq—such as fountains with balls dancing on their jets,

4542:(1426–1435) bronze work could be authenticated by judging its sheen; porcelain wares from the Yongle era (1402–1424) could be judged authentic by their thickness. 3806:, at the beginning a secretarial institution that assisted the emperor with administrative paperwork, was instituted, but without employing grand counselors, or 5580:

that used a complex trigger mechanism of falling weights, pins, and a steel wheellock to ignite the train of fuses, naval mines, fin-mounted winged rockets for

4613:

even composed one encyclopedia attacking Buddhism as a foreign "mourning cult", deleterious to the state, and another encyclopedia that subsequently joined the

4504:, Chuimei Ho estimates that about 16% of late Ming era Chinese ceramic exports were sent to Europe, while the rest were destined for Japan and South East Asia. 2594:

territory, with many serving as guards in the capital. The emperor also strongly advertised the hospitality and role granted to Chinggisid nobles in his court.

13821: 3817:) the region; in 1421 the Yongle Emperor commissioned 26 officials to travel the empire and uphold similar investigatory and patrimonial duties. By 1430 these 2819:

in 1739—states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from

11871: 4779:—and a return by the Jesuits to presenting themselves as educated scholars in the Confucian mold restored their fortunes. However, by the end of the Ming the 4659:

of Islam and the prophet Muhammad. The Ming Emperors strongly sponsored the construction of mosques and granted generous liberties for the practice of Islam.

3138:. The Oirats held the Zhengtong Emperor for ransom. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor's younger brother assumed the throne under the era name 2835:

in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming era.

2624:, after serving the Ming in campaigns against aboriginal tribes. In 1381, the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the 2321: 9931: 5297:

system in their writing; it was not until 1865 that Catholic missionaries in China sponsored the heliocentric model as their Protestant peers did. Although

4344:

printing. The new literary field of the moral guide to business ethics was developed during the late Ming period, for the readership of the merchant class.

3922:

was in charge of gathering census data, collecting taxes, and handling state revenues, while there were two offices of currency that were subordinate to it.

11145:, A collaborative project that makes available translations (from Chinese to English) of portions of the 明史 Mingshi (Official History of the Ming Dynasty). 2972:. Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the center was the political node of the 5672:

female children, as shown by skewed population statistics throughout the Ming. Even adult women were underreported; for example, the Daming Prefecture in

5477:

encyclopedia of 1637. This includes mechanical and hydraulic powered devices for agriculture and irrigation, nautical technology such as vessel types and

13826: 3794:(202 BCE – 220 CE), the Ming administration had only one department, the Secretariat, that controlled the six ministries. Following the execution of the 2883:

sect. By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the

2329: 5096:

simple schooling, news and gossip, matchmaking, religious festivals, traveling theater groups, tax collection, and bases of famine relief distribution.

11908: 10319:——— (2000), "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525)", 3546:

thirty-six of his fellow rebels executed; Li's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang, central

9518: 2960:(r. 1402–24); his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies. 11635: 5716:

of Ming China for clues that would show consistent growth in population. Using the gazetteers, Brook estimates that the overall population under the

5140:

in Chinese history. It was illegal for commoners to wear fine silk or dress in bright red, dark green or yellow colors; nor could they wear boots or

3738: 3172: 3164:(doused by rain during the battle) and killed several leading ministers before his forces were finally cornered and he was forced to commit suicide. 5056:

associations, and other local voluntary organizations were increasing in number and allowing more contact between educated men and local villagers.

4157:, the princes did not serve any administrative function, and they partook in military affairs only during the reigns of the first two emperors. The 105: 2856: 3745:縣), overseen by a magistrate. Besides the provinces, there were also two large areas that belonged to no province, but were metropolitan areas ( 3613:; the Prince of Shun's army fled the capital on the fourth of June. On 6 June, the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young 12628: 13786: 12115: 11517: 3649:, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and executed. Despite the Ming defeat, smaller loyalist movements continued until the proclamation of the 3130:(r. 1435–49) to lead a force personally to face the Oirats after a recent Ming defeat; the emperor left the capital and put his half-brother 10427:

Schafer, Edward H. (1956), "The Development of Bathing Customs in Ancient and Medieval China and the History of the Floriate Clear Palace",

3463:

Originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power,

13771: 10575:"6 To catch a tiger The Eupression of the Yang Yinglong Miao uprising (1578–1600) as a case study in Ming military and borderlands history" 5071:), since artisans sometimes worked on farms in peak periods, and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth. 5035: 3829:

provinces as supreme commanders and viceroys, a system which reined in the power and influence of the military by the civil establishment.

3637:. One report says his death was a suicide; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food. 11176:

Chan, Hok-Lam (1988), "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-shi, and Hsuan-te reigns, 1399–1435", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

4806:

caused by Kaifeng's Ming governor devastated the community, which lost five of its twelve families, its synagogue, and most of its Torah.

4708:—who employed new western science and technology in their arguments for conversion. They were educated in Chinese language and culture at 11767: 11338: 10554:

Sperling, Elliot (2003), "The 5th Karma-pa and some aspects of the relationship between Tibet and the Early Ming", in McKay, Alex (ed.),

9226: 8120:

David M. Robinson; Dora C. Y. Ching; Chu Hung-Iam; Scarlett Jang; Joseph S. C. Lam; Julia K. Murray; Kenneth M. Swope (2008). "7 and 8".

4854: 3574:

revolts in the provinces, essentially fell apart. Unpaid and unfed, the army was defeated by Li Zicheng—now self-styled as the Prince of

3480: 3134:

in charge of affairs as temporary regent. On 8 September, Esen routed Zhengtong's army, and Zhengtong was captured—an event known as the

2797: 2325: 10370: 10209:

Perdue, Peter C. (2000), "Culture, History, and Imperial Chinese Strategy: Legacies of the Qing Conquests", in van de Ven, Hans (ed.),

8170: 5230: 5156: 5075:

owners, brothel heads, and merchant bankers engaging in a proto-banking system involving notes of exchange. Virtually every town had a

3399:, spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan, killing an unknown but large number of people. The deadliest earthquake of all time, the 2078: 2018: 5881:, whose regimes are collectively called the Southern Ming in historiography, ruled southern China until 1662. The Ming loyalist state 5810: 2344:

and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the

13806: 11920: 4011: 3947: 3904: 6995: 5133:

were on average many more owner-cultivators north of the Huai River due to harsher climate, living not far above subsistence level.

4030:

As in earlier periods, the focus of the examination was classical Confucian texts, while the bulk of test material centered on the

2868: 3874:

and later appointed as top officials of agencies and Grand Preceptor, a top-ranking, non-functional civil service post, under the

13811: 11330: 5142: 2743: 2660:

revolts in 1464 to 1466, which were crushed by an army of 30,000 Ming troops (including 1,000 Mongols) joining the 160,000 local

10034: 4538:(died 1637) wrote a book printed in 1635 that told his readers how to spot fake and authentic pieces of art. He revealed that a 3533:

and forced Joseon to become a Qing tributary. Shortly after, the Koreans renounced their long-held loyalty to the Ming dynasty.

3443:

along the Great Wall, the gate where the Manchus were repeatedly repelled before being finally let through by Wu Sangui in 1644.

3244:

teacups, from the Nantoyōsō Collection in Japan; the Tianqi Emperor was heavily influenced and largely controlled by the eunuch

12066: 11973: 10172:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic

9152:

Atwell, William S. (2002), "Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the 'Great Depression' of the Mid-Fifteenth Century",

5800: 5464: 4124: 1708: 163: 3915:

was in charge of appointments, merit ratings, promotions, and demotions of officials, as well as granting of honorific titles.

13581: 12963: 11961: 11809: 11570: 11306: 11285: 11276:

Mote, Frederick W. (1988), "The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465–1505", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

11266: 11232: 11204: 11185: 11133: 11081: 10970: 10951: 10932: 10909: 10861: 10817: 10790: 10763: 10744: 10680: 10661: 10642: 10586: 10563: 10544: 10503: 10484: 10465: 10417: 10398: 10364: 10218: 10199: 10113: 10094: 10075: 9990: 9903: 9884: 9836: 9813: 9794: 9775: 9696: 9677: 9658: 9637: 9599: 9580: 9561: 9538: 9460: 9439: 9411: 9283: 9260: 9142: 8129: 6144: 5780: 5737: 4970: 4038:

in the 12th century. Ming era examinations were perhaps more difficult to pass since the 1487 requirement of completing the "

3943:

was in charge of judicial and penal processes, but had no supervisory role over the Censorate or the Grand Court of Revision.

3396: 2361: 2008: 9923:

Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-Tibetan Relations Up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912: Occasional Paper 7

5885:

on Taiwan lasted until 1683, but it was not ruled by the Zhu clan and thus usually not considered part of the Southern Ming.

2968:

Yongle demoted Nanjing to a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in

13776: 12011: 11866: 7195:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 29

3940: 3919: 3900: 3888: 3783: 3662: 3452: 3061: 1581: 1571: 268: 13487: 11455: 4849:

were embraced by the court and the Chinese literati at large, although the direct line of his school was destroyed by the

11681: 11575: 10518: 5732:(r. 1521–67) finally had officials register migrants wherever they had moved or fled in order to bring in more revenues. 3964: 3034: 2759: 2611: 2050: 1212: 10852:

Wills, John E. Jr. (1998), "Relations with Maritime Europe, 1514–1662", in Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.),

5748:

noted more than half the population fell ill that year and that 90% of the local populace in one area was dead by 1642.

5592:

before igniting a swarm of smaller rockets issuing forth from the end of the missile (shaped like a dragon's head), and

5044: 13633: 12633: 11978: 2231:

in official appointments. He rewarded his eunuch supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian

1202: 522: 10001: 12277: 11510: 11395: 9618: 6866: 5233:, the Ming dynasty perhaps saw fewer advancements in science and technology compared to the pace of discovery in the 5025: 5016: 5007: 4998: 3771: 2115: 1879: 10290:——— (1999), "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461", 5435:

The Chinese were intrigued with European technology, but so were visiting Europeans of Chinese technology. In 1584,

3645:. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last Southern Ming emperor, 12146: 11170: 10154:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics

10068:

Development Centre Studies The World Economy Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics

5969:, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912. 5111:

Farming villagers in the north spent their days harvesting crops like wheat and millet, while farmers south of the

5079:

where female and male prostitutes could be had. Male catamites fetched a higher price than female concubines since

4426: 3933: 3896: 3709:

bureaucracy contained three commissions: one civil, one military, and one for surveillance. Below the level of the

3676:

Administrative Divisions and Military Protectorates of the Ming dynasty in 1427; note that the exact nature of the

11114: 4359:

In contrast to Xu Xiake, who focused on technical aspects in his travel literature, the Chinese poet and official

3325: 13259: 11701: 11412: 10921:"5 From Woman's Fertility to Masculine Authority: The Story of the White Emperor Heavenly Kings in Western Hunan" 10605: 9970: 9550:

Euclid in China: The Genesis of the First Translation of Euclid's Elements in 1607 & Its Reception Up to 1723

4057: 3530: 3515:(modern Shenyang), which had been made their capital in 1625. Hong Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title 3057: 2477: 1633: 12421: 11610: 3280:(r. 1620–1627) and had his political rivals tortured to death, mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the 13801: 13796: 13791: 13781: 11661: 10735:

Wang, Gungwu (1998), "Ming Foreign Relations: Southeast Asia", in Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.),

10058: 9252: 5785: 2071: 2023: 1049: 841: 9981:

Langlois, John D. Jr. (1988), "The Hung-wu reign, 1368–1398", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

7005: 4763:: Ricci had been very accommodating and an attempt by his successors to backtrack from this policy led to the 3049:

measuring 112 to 134 m (367 to 440 ft) in length and 45 to 54 m (148 to 177 ft) in width.

13697: 12193: 11915: 8171:"The Ming Court as Patron of the Chinese Islamic Architecture: The Case Study of the Daxuexi Mosque in Xi'an" 4642:, there were still several prominent Muslim figures early on, including the Yongle Emperor's powerful eunuch 4639: 4635: 4631: 4551: 3787: 3697: 3650: 2045: 1971: 1906: 1118: 910: 89: 35: 10902:

The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy

10556:

The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy

10145:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

9611:

Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule

9471: 5637:

had a primitive toothbrush of a twig frayed at the end, but the Chinese were the first to invent the modern

4468:

The period was also renowned for ceramics and porcelains. The major production center for porcelain was the

3496:. In 1618 he openly renounced the Ming overlordship and effectively declared war against the Ming with the " 13831: 13692: 13576: 12173: 11951: 11819: 11789: 11503: 11477: 9706:

Hargett, James M. (1985), "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)",

5953:, Zhu Zhilian, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the 5825: 5805: 5611: 5282: 5091:

became much more common than in earlier periods. Urban shops and retailers sold a variety of goods such as

4977: 4799: 4709: 3416: 2710:

dynasties, the vast majority of the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a product of the Ming dynasty.

2399: 1981: 513: 171: 120: 17: 3237: 2581:

drawn from his own palace guard. Some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule.

95: 13816: 13766: 13702: 12739: 12183: 12168: 11903: 11535: 10531: 6856: 5763: 5758: 5238: 5237:. In fact, key advances in Chinese science in the late Ming were spurred by contact with Europe. In 1626 5164: 4760: 4701: 4395: 4260: 4050:

at any given time, on the order of one out of 10,000 adult males." This was in comparison to the 100,000

3493: 3042: 2525:

Hongwu made an immediate effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km (30 mi) long

2393: 2033: 1790: 1171: 11431: 5452: 3993: 2997: 11994: 11716: 11615: 10228:

Peterson, Willard J. (1986). "Calendar Reform Prior to the Arrival of Missionaries at the Ming Court".

5795: 5160: 4461: 4387: 3730: 3684:

Described as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history" by

3583: 3317:(1494–1552); excessive luxury and decadence marked the late Ming period, spurred by the enormous state 2922: 2248: 2190: 2038: 1028: 11752: 10128:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth

9668:

Geiss, James (1988), "The Cheng-te reign, 1506–1521", in Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis (eds.),

3343: 3269:

increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes.

3142:(r. 1449–57); the Oirats were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor's confidant and defense minister 2364:, the dynasty collapsed in 1644 as Li Zicheng's rebel forces entered Beijing. Li then established the 2356:'s initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture was produced by the 13660: 12808: 12372: 12163: 11999: 11925: 11696: 11686: 10496:

The Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China: Connecting Money, Markets, and Institutions

9932:"Prince Chu Tsai-Yü's Life and Work: A Re-Evaluation of His Contribution to Equal Temperament Theory" 9735:

Hartwell, Robert M. (1982), "Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750–1550",

5962: 5790: 4784: 4559: 4481: 4150: 3641:

remnants in southern China after 1644 were collectively designated by 19th-century historians as the

3489: 3427: 2681: 2586: 2064: 2001: 1966: 1539: 1235: 1145: 591: 9472:"Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China" 4289:

innovated with vernacular short fiction. Theater scripts were equally imaginative. The most famous,

4111: 1745: 13618: 13593: 13443: 13102: 13097: 12226: 12105: 12004: 11691: 11605: 10180: 10163:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2: Agriculture

9765: 9293:

Chen, Gilbert (2 July 2016). "Castration and Connection: Kinship Organization among Ming Eunuchs".

9275: 4764: 4489: 4457: 3677: 3363: 3153: 3147: 2888: 2792: 2259: 1735: 1384: 377: 249: 12188: 11352:

Wade, Geoff (2008), "Engaging the South: Ming China and Southeast Asia in the Fifteenth Century",

10479:. Routledge studies – China in transition. Vol. 13 (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. 5444: 4704:

also disappeared. During the later Ming a new wave of Christian missionaries arrived—particularly

4330:. The first reference to the publishing of private newspapers in Beijing was in 1582; by 1638 the 3350:

as their permanent trade base in China. Their role in providing silver was gradually surpassed by

2464:

crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to

13685: 13566: 13107: 13060: 13003: 12702: 12646: 12394: 12136: 12045: 11711: 11565: 11344:

Swope, Kenneth M. "Manifesting Awe: Grand Strategy and Imperial Leadership in the Ming Dynasty."

10006: 5770: 5471:(1587–1666) documented a wide array of technologies, metallurgic and industrial processes in his 5306: 5286: 4656: 4300: 4196: 3400: 3161: 2973: 2607: 1961: 8916: 4771:

and forced the others out of public life for six years. A series of spectacular failures by the

4469: 3770:, the official imperial household of the Ming and Qing dynasties from 1420 until 1924, when the 3205:

There were many problems—fiscal or other—facing Ming China that started during the reign of the

3064:, from the initial invasion in 1406 until the Ming withdrawal in 1427 as a result of protracted 2758:, were at peace with China. In 1409, under the Yongle Emperor, the Ming Dynasty established the 13707: 13608: 13603: 13291: 13239: 13159: 13092: 12996: 12981: 12874: 12641: 12595: 12436: 12323: 12073: 12021: 11829: 11721: 10711: 9219: 5815: 5684: 5455:

also mentioned this a year later—noting even the designs of them on Chinese silken robes—while

4628: 4477: 2569:

executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that Hongwu abolished the

2182: 2013: 1991: 1976: 1462: 1181: 461: 11334: 10920: 10871:

Wong, H.C. (1963), "China's Opposition to Western Science during Late Ming and Early Ch'ing",

10574: 6858:

A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592-1598

2932: 337: 13761: 13638: 13598: 13411: 13286: 12350: 12340: 12299: 12270: 12178: 12156: 12141: 11782: 11762: 11640: 11600: 11590: 10579:

New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations

9401: 5311: 4941:

who were as literate and skillful in calligraphy, painting, and poetry as their male guests.

4705: 4581: 4555: 4188: 4003: 3912: 3884: 3329:

An imperial throne carpet with double dragon and seed pearl motif, Ming dynasty, 16th century

3214: 3046: 2722: 2473: 2240: 1986: 1403: 239: 31: 13526: 8188: 5649: 4752: 4402: 2258:

The rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances; the capture of the

13731: 13561: 13531: 13406: 13337: 13308: 13227: 12561: 12399: 12389: 12209: 11777: 11676: 11555: 10131: 4933: 4932:) challenged the elevation and emphasis of the family in Chinese society. His contemporary 4756: 4738: 4323: 3610: 3157: 3107: 3089: 2526: 2437: 2228: 2224: 2028: 1241: 13511: 9181:——— (2005). "Another Look at Silver Imports into China, ca. 1635–1644". 8119: 4794:

During his mission, Ricci was also contacted in Beijing by one of the approximately 5,000

3475:

to create a new Manchu ethnic identity. He offered to lead his armies to support Ming and

3025:(1371–1433) as the admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for international 2871:

initiated in 1578, an alliance which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Manchu

2513: 8: 13423: 13303: 13269: 13171: 12991: 12986: 12798: 12517: 12453: 12328: 12313: 12059: 11898: 11841: 11794: 11726: 11580: 6682:

Sen, Tansen (2016). "The impact of Zheng He's expeditions on Indian Ocean interactions".

5937: 5895: 5882: 5775: 5741: 5290: 4721: 4692:

The advent of the Ming was initially devastating to Christianity: in his first year, the

4271: 4167: 3685: 3622: 3472: 3431: 3384: 3367: 3334: 2691: 2271: 2232: 1193: 518: 182: 13139: 13129: 11630: 11441: 10135: 5728:

emperors lessened the penalties against those who had fled their home region, while the

5395:, and "other instruments ... with wheels rotated by sand as if by water" (Chinese: 3609:(1612–1650) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at 3065: 2917:

The territorial zenith of the Ming dynasty in 1415 under the reign of the Yongle Emperor

2737:

general of the Northern Yuan dynasty, won hegemony over the Mongol tribes in Manchuria (

2203:, a set of published dynastic instructions. This failed when his teenage successor, the 13536: 13516: 13499: 13450: 13315: 13124: 13075: 13008: 12926: 12867: 12862: 12857: 12813: 12783: 12675: 12573: 12441: 12416: 11671: 11625: 11585: 11369: 11060: 11052: 11005: 10997: 10925:

Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China

10888: 10796: 10622: 10444: 10336: 10307: 10257: 9962: 9954: 9909: 9863: 9825: 9752: 9723: 9510: 9494: 9429: 9388: 9380: 9339: 9310: 9206: 9198: 9169: 6075: 5740:

that started in Shanxi Province in 1633, ravaged the densely populated areas along the

5416: 5412: 5330: 4922: 4843: 4803: 4337: 4319: 4291: 4256: 4231: 4039: 3807: 3795: 3718: 3359: 3338: 3301: 3258: 3222: 3123: 3053: 2570: 2468:. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, 2301: 2247:

as far as Arabia and the eastern coasts of Africa. Hongwu and Yongle emperors had also

2127: 1996: 1176: 1085: 1077: 877: 869: 204: 192: 11804: 11326: 11150: 10836: 10690: 3525:("Revering Virtue") era, and changed the ethnic name of his people from "Jurchen" to " 1104: 896: 13645: 13541: 13477: 13472: 13401: 13298: 13013: 12941: 12936: 12778: 12707: 12690: 12685: 12680: 12480: 12431: 11883: 11620: 11560: 11391: 11302: 11281: 11262: 11228: 11200: 11181: 11129: 11077: 11064: 11009: 10966: 10947: 10928: 10905: 10892: 10857: 10813: 10786: 10759: 10740: 10676: 10657: 10638: 10582: 10559: 10540: 10499: 10480: 10461: 10413: 10394: 10360: 10340: 10214: 10195: 10109: 10090: 10071: 9986: 9966: 9899: 9880: 9832: 9809: 9790: 9771: 9692: 9673: 9654: 9648: 9633: 9614: 9595: 9576: 9557: 9553: 9534: 9514: 9502: 9456: 9450: 9435: 9407: 9392: 9314: 9279: 9272:

A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring & the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785

9256: 9210: 9138: 8125: 6862: 6699: 6140: 5942: 5660:(1598–1652), showing a lady holding an oval fan while enjoying the beauty of the plum 5585: 5456: 5338: 5254: 5129: 4861:

in 1402. The Ming scholar most influential upon subsequent generations, however, was

4776: 4772: 4725: 4382: 4311: 4252: 3926: 3892: 3867: 3822: 3803: 3705: 3579: 3468: 3288:(r. 1627–44) had Wei dismissed from court, which led to Wei's suicide shortly after. 3285: 3127: 3030: 2948:

specified his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor, and he assumed the throne as the

2738: 1924: 1492: 1472: 1247: 804: 796: 323: 261: 187: 11447: 10900:

Wylie, Turrell V. (2003), "Lama Tribute in the Ming Dynasty", in McKay, Alex (ed.),

9135:

Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing Chairman Mao and Ming Taizu

5520: 3265:, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the 2775:

Manchuria. Throughout its existence, the Ming established a total of 384 guards (衛,

2749:

The early Ming court could not, and did not, aspire to the control imposed upon the

2721:

by the Ming dynasty in 1368, Manchuria remained under control of the Mongols of the

697: 13494: 13281: 13276: 13232: 13219: 13149: 13117: 13112: 12976: 12971: 12953: 12914: 12847: 12830: 12771: 12761: 12756: 12697: 12653: 12623: 12583: 12566: 12549: 12512: 12263: 12052: 11861: 11824: 11814: 11799: 11772: 11757: 11595: 11426: 11361: 11243:

A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, in the Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries

11197:

Confucianism and Autocracy: Professional Elites in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty

11044: 10989: 10880: 10778: 10614: 10436: 10328: 10299: 10278: 10269:

Robinson, David M. (1995). "Notes on Eunuchs in Hebei During the Mid-Ming Period".

10237: 9946: 9855: 9744: 9715: 9592:

Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character

9486: 9372: 9331: 9302: 9190: 9161: 8178: 6691: 5966: 5899: 5717: 5436: 5383: 5318: 5169: 4865:(1472–1529), whose teachings were attacked in his own time for their similarity to 4836: 4685: 4647: 4627:

was also well-established throughout China, with a history said to have begun with

4605: 4235: 4158: 4082: 3813:

The Hongwu Emperor sent his heir apparent to Shaanxi in 1391 to "tour and soothe" (

3710: 3689: 3517: 3497: 3281: 3218: 3026: 2953: 2824: 2502: 2445: 2297: 2289: 2208: 2199: 2098: 1603: 1161: 1153: 956: 933: 731: 708: 661: 197: 177: 61: 9306: 9220:"China, Europe and the Great Divergence: a Study in National Accounting, 980–1850" 5431:

by Yu Wenhui, Latinized as Emmanuel Pereira, dated the year of Ricci's death, 1610

5265:

model of the solar system was rejected by the Catholic missionaries in China, but

4902: 4522:. The houses of the rich were also furnished with rosewood furniture and feathery 2266:

ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while

2215:

in 1402. The Yongle Emperor established Yan as a secondary capital and renamed it

13712: 13680: 13553: 13521: 13504: 13460: 13455: 13433: 13428: 13386: 13379: 13354: 13214: 13209: 13050: 12931: 12825: 12820: 12788: 12613: 12603: 12497: 12490: 12485: 12470: 12426: 12308: 12294: 12243: 12095: 12038: 11956: 11731: 11706: 11459: 11385: 11296: 11123: 10800: 10526: 10249: 5834: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5706: 5506: 5403: 5270: 5266: 5057: 4949: 4780: 4585: 4580:

The dominant religious beliefs during the Ming dynasty were the various forms of

3960: 3858: 3846: 3693: 3614: 3551: 3404: 3139: 3094: 2949: 2896: 2847: 2811: 2746:, which concluded with the surrender of Naghachu and Ming conquest of Manchuria. 2625: 2531: 2333: 2309: 2204: 2197:

his many sons throughout China and attempting to guide these princes through the

2189:

were the largest in the world. He also took great care breaking the power of the

1007: 782: 13134: 10517:, translated with preface by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun, University Park: 9363:

Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve".

4065:

tomb of Pan Yongzheng, a Ming dynasty official who lived during the 16th century

2867:(r. 1572–1620) attempted to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations in the wake of a 2686: 13655: 13650: 13613: 13588: 13571: 13482: 13467: 13438: 13396: 13244: 13204: 13199: 13154: 13080: 13040: 13030: 13020: 12835: 12714: 12608: 12475: 12357: 12219: 12214: 12090: 11381: 10600: 10596: 10282: 10241: 10123: 10024:"The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims" 6380: 5864:

in Nanjing in 1364. The regime is known in historiography as the "Western Wu" (

5689: 5589: 5473: 5407:—describe the 'five-wheeled sand clock', a mechanism pioneered by Zhan Xiyuan ( 5371: 5258: 5191: 5137: 5088: 5049: 4850: 4743: 4693: 4672: 4624: 4507: 4497: 4453: 4332: 4243: 4239: 4162: 4087: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3850: 3767: 3626: 3392: 3379: 3351: 3277: 3241: 3168: 3099: 3010: 2977: 2957: 2945: 2937: 2908: 2771: 2750: 2699: 2518: 2465: 2357: 2341: 2332:

trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced a massive influx of

2220: 2212: 2170: 1505: 1422: 991: 766: 299: 287: 244: 219: 111: 11246: 11142: 11035:

Zhang, Wenxian (2008). "The Yellow Register Archives of Imperial Ming China".

10980:

Yuan, Zheng (1994), "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment",

6695: 5667:

debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty. The historian

4819: 4018: 3582:, the last Ming emperor, accompanied only by a eunuch servant, hanged himself 2267: 13755: 13736: 13623: 13418: 13391: 13364: 13342: 13320: 13087: 13070: 13055: 12899: 12852: 12840: 12766: 12658: 12532: 12527: 12502: 12384: 12100: 11893: 11836: 11365: 11316:

Owen, Stephen (1997), "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties", in Owen, Stephen (ed.),

11278:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

11178:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

10854:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2

10737:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2

9983:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

9670:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

6703: 5958: 5840: 5668: 5657: 5634: 5616: 5468: 5392: 5278: 5262: 5234: 5186: 4891: 4862: 4824: 4681: 4438: 4391: 4368: 4367:(1037–1101). Yuan Hongdao and his two brothers, Yuan Zongdao (1560–1600) and 4282: 4247: 4120: 3782:

Departing from the main central administrative system generally known as the

3642: 3590: 3526: 3371: 3273: 3266: 3245: 3210: 3206: 3198: 2864: 2755: 2665: 2578: 2552: 2469: 2449: 2369: 2353: 2349: 2337: 2163: 1295: 1262: 633: 390: 311: 13164: 13144: 11091:

Zhou, Shao Quan (1990). "明代服饰探论" [On the Costumes of Ming Dynasty].

10618: 10261: 9846:

Hucker, Charles O. (1958), "Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty",

9350: 9335: 6081: 5620:

is a medical text with 1,892 entries, each entry with its own name called a

5467:(1739–1801) in the writings of his travel diary in China. The encyclopedist 3073: 3069: 2892: 2543:, which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old 13628: 13369: 13359: 13325: 13254: 13176: 12966: 12948: 12909: 12904: 12884: 12879: 12751: 12744: 12734: 12729: 12724: 12618: 12556: 12537: 12522: 12458: 11876: 11487: 11470: 11321: 10536: 9925:, Canberra: The Australian National University, Centre of Oriental Studies. 9913: 9506: 8183: 5950: 5946: 5878: 5630: 5607: 5428: 5342: 5322: 5302: 5274: 5182: 5116: 4911: 4840: 4795: 4788: 4787:

in Rome that would eventually lead to a full ban of Christianity under the

4717: 4614: 4601: 4589: 4531: 4515: 4422: 4360: 4341: 4286: 4277: 4265: 4201: 4161:

was justified in part as upholding the rights of the princes, but once the

4054:('government students'), the lowest tier of graduates, by the 16th century. 3854: 3842: 3837: 3634: 3602: 3575: 3508: 3485: 3456: 3440: 3355: 2872: 2816: 2718: 2695: 2669: 2632:-loyalist Mongol and Hui Muslim troops holding out in Yunnan province. The 2629: 2559: 2536: 2461: 2432: 2420: 2377: 2373: 2365: 2336:

silver. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose paper

2305: 2244: 2159: 2151: 2135: 1870: 1846: 1820: 1764: 1723: 1661: 1375: 1365: 1342: 1094: 963: 886: 738: 647: 605: 578: 229: 11935: 10601:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 10332: 9194: 8309: 8307: 5277:(1612–1659) in 1627, Adam Schall von Bell's treatise in 1640, and finally 4519: 13347: 13332: 13181: 12894: 12803: 12793: 12719: 12367: 12362: 12131: 11666: 5820: 5678: 5673: 5593: 5581: 5560: 5530: 5482: 5460: 5448: 5388: 5212: 4858: 4697: 4677: 4523: 4493: 4296: 4192: 4154: 4146: 4007: 3791: 3646: 3375: 3135: 3119: 3085: 3038: 2839: 2707: 2703: 2653: 2441: 2427:

that stirred resentment and rebellion, overtaxation of areas hard-hit by

2424: 2263: 2194: 2139: 1777: 1648: 1482: 1450: 1437: 1271: 504: 496: 11373: 11180:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 182–384, 11056: 10856:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 333–375, 10739:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 301–332, 9985:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 107–181, 9672:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 403–439, 9351: 9202: 5199: 4564: 4492:

by the late 16th century. Individual potters also became known, such as

2320:, which diminished famines and spurred population growth. The growth of 13374: 13191: 13065: 13025: 12958: 12110: 11966: 11452: 11048: 11027: 10626: 10311: 9867: 9756: 9498: 9384: 9343: 9173: 8922: 8726: 8304: 7888: 5954: 5929: 5861: 5638: 5603: 5597: 5573: 5551: 5510: 5478: 5112: 5092: 4729: 4327: 4031: 3633:

province, Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645, thus ending the

3594: 3563: 3542: 3522: 3504: 3362:(r. 1621–1665) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from 3176: 3110:

of Bengal (r. 1410–12) to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China (r. 1402–24)

3002: 2876: 2843: 2828: 2763: 2657: 2633: 2566: 2481: 2345: 2252: 2155: 2147: 2138:. The Ming dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the 1529: 1318: 1021: 820: 813: 619: 11495: 11001: 10782: 10477:

Negotiating ethnicity in China: citizenship as a response to the state

10448: 9958: 9727: 8282: 8280: 8278: 5696:—in his 1432 report to the throne about widespread itinerant commerce. 5354: 3798:

Hu Weiyong in 1380, the Hongwu Emperor abolished the Secretariat, the

2142:, the majority ethnic group in China. Although the primary capital of 13264: 13035: 12919: 12889: 12670: 12544: 12335: 12151: 11252: 6739: 6737: 5860:

Prior to proclaiming himself emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself

5830: 5713: 5577: 5569: 5539: 5514: 5367: 5334: 5242: 5120: 5083:

with a teenage boy was seen as a mark of elite status, regardless of

5080: 4945: 4938: 4907: 4882: 4827:(1472–1529), considered the most influential Confucian thinker since 4569: 4511: 4430: 4410: 4406: 4376: 4212: 4123:'s royal carriage being pulled by elephants and escorted by cavalry ( 3799: 3598: 3226: 2734: 2544: 2490: 2457:, which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty. 2428: 2381: 2293: 1042: 834: 11151:

The Ming-Qing conflict, 1619–1683: A historiography and source guide

10710:

Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).

10303: 9859: 9767:

Amid the Clouds and Mist: China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200–1700

9748: 9490: 9376: 9165: 7411: 6137:

The price of collapse: the Little Ice Age and the fall of Ming China

5273:'s ideas slowly trickled into China starting with the Polish Jesuit 5215:

along the bottom. Sailing directions and distances are marked using

4219: 3447: 3122:

launched an invasion into Ming China in July 1449. The chief eunuch

2913: 2628:

following the successful effort by Hui Muslim Ming armies to defeat

2535:

states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new

12665: 12448: 12406: 12345: 11121: 11019: 10993: 10884: 10440: 9950: 9719: 8319: 8292: 8275: 7852: 6597: 5745: 5664: 5490: 5359: 5298: 5204: 5178: 4981: 4747: 4667: 4643: 4610: 4597: 4535: 4442: 4434: 4352: 4347: 4307: 4207: 4062: 4023: 3618: 3512: 3314: 3306: 3131: 3022: 2730: 2726: 2590: 2574: 2317: 2236: 2211:, an uprising that placed the Prince of Yan upon the throne as the 1063: 977: 855: 752: 234: 10458:

Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800

10412:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 8–9. 10033:. The 59th George E. Morrison Lecture in Ethnology. Archived from 9428:

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),

8512: 7648: 6734: 6651: 6260: 6104: 4869:. Building upon Zhu Xi's concept of the "extension of knowledge" ( 3667: 2270:

constructed the Liaodong palisade and connected and fortified the

12578: 12507: 12463: 12318: 10515:

T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century

8702: 5933: 5693: 5565: 5535: 5408: 5379: 5375: 5294: 5076: 4985: 4915: 4886: 4700:

missions among the Yuan heterodox and illegal. The centuries-old

4651: 4473: 4091: 3955: 3870:

to assist the emperor, handling paperwork under the reign of the

3672: 3630: 3559: 3555: 3464: 3318: 3262: 3143: 3103: 3006: 2969: 2802: 2767: 2715: 2661: 2649: 2637: 2617: 2498: 2497:) in 1368. The last Yuan emperor fled north to the upper capital 2494: 2485: 2454: 2416: 2216: 2186: 2143: 2131: 1672: 1523: 1517: 1101: 893: 363: 350: 145: 137: 12379: 10944:

The Jews of Kaifeng, China : history, culture, and religion

9322:

Crawford, Robert B. (1961). "Eunuch Power in the Ming Dynasty".

5949:

bestowed the hereditary title of marquis on a descendant of the

5423: 4775:—including missing an eclipse easily computed by Xu Guangqi and 4662: 4413:

of painting, contributing greatly to Chinese artistic tradition.

3321:

of incoming silver and by private transactions involving silver.

3193: 3029:. Among the kingdoms visited by Zheng He, Yongle proclaimed the 12411: 12286: 10810:

The Ming Prince and Daoism: Institutional Patronage of an Elite

10357:

Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)

10002:"Potosí: the mountain of silver that was the first global city" 9531:

A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China

9086: 8608: 8606: 8122:

Culture, Courtiers, and Competition: The Ming Court (1368–1644)

7768: 6899: 6591: 6483: 5525: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5208: 5125: 5084: 4846: 4828: 4733: 4593: 4573: 4539: 4496:, who became famous in the early 17th century for his style of 4485: 4418: 4364: 4035: 3606: 3476: 3115: 3018: 2851: 2645: 2277: 224: 11225:

Ming China, 1368–1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire

9248:

The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China

8774: 6785: 6773: 6710: 6248: 4098:, by an anonymous court painter of the Xuande period (1425–35) 3878:(r. 1424–25). The Grand Secretariat drew its members from the 3550:

province by 1635. By the 1640s, an ex-soldier and rival to Li—

3436: 13045: 12016: 10775:

Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics

9689:

The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet and the Dalai Lama

9403:

China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects

8690: 7312: 7136: 5411:

1360–80) which featured the scoop wheel of Su Song's earlier

5289:

in the 19th century. Catholic Jesuits in China would promote

4768: 4713: 3567: 3547: 3347: 2880: 2820: 2621: 2313: 2282: 1123: 1109: 915: 901: 535: 30:"Ming" and "Ming Dynasty" redirect here. For other uses, see 11258:

1587, a Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline

10108:. Berkeley: University of California press. p. xxxiii. 8996: 8994: 8603: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8563: 8138: 7876: 7744: 7372: 6519: 6005: 6003: 4394:(1598–1652); small leaf album paintings like this one first 3380:

shipping silver mined in the Spanish Latin American colonies

3017:

Beginning in 1405, the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored

11930: 10055:

Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China

8858: 8834: 8678: 8654: 8591: 8536: 8500: 8488: 8401: 8399: 8203: 6296: 6272: 6238: 6236: 6158: 6156: 5486: 5370:, dragon-headed devices that spouted mists of perfume, and 4224: 4095: 3861:" that indicates he was a civil official of the first rank. 3775: 3295: 2884: 2285:

instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves.

2107: 530: 12255: 11280:, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP, pp. 343–402, 10835: 10577:. In Aung-Thwin, Michael Arthur; Hall, Kenneth R. (eds.). 10391:

In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia

8966: 8964: 8928: 8411: 6471: 6392: 3388:

silver shortages caused the downfall of the Ming dynasty.

2815:—the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled by the 11167:

The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties

10252:(1987). "Chin P'ing Mei: Inversion of Self-cultivation". 9006: 8991: 8810: 8786: 8750: 8560: 8423: 8086: 8062: 8011: 7972: 7960: 7900: 7672: 7660: 7597: 7336: 7124: 7088: 6761: 6435: 6000: 5978:

For the argument that they increased social mobility see

5174: 4866: 4306:

Informal essay and travel writing was another highlight.

3762: 2130:, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the 2104: 1082: 1068: 1054: 874: 860: 846: 11354:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

10773:

Wang, Yuan-kang (2011). "The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)".

9770:(illustrated ed.). Harvard University Asia Center. 9076: 9074: 8951: 8949: 8396: 8386: 8384: 8382: 8150: 8052: 8050: 8001: 7999: 7912: 7864: 7816: 7804: 7792: 7720: 7626: 7624: 7609: 7587: 7585: 7583: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7564: 7551: 7549: 7522: 7486: 7462: 7401: 7399: 7360: 7288: 7269: 7267: 7252: 7242: 7240: 7210: 7100: 7035: 6983: 6935: 6875: 6615: 6531: 6233: 6221: 6209: 6180: 6168: 6153: 2842:

over Tibet. Some believe it was a relationship of loose

2547:

of 653. Hongwu organized a military system known as the

2207:, attempted to curtail his uncles' power, prompting the 1033: 825: 10837:"Who invented the toothbrush and when was it invented?" 10254:

The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel: Ssu Ta Ch'i-shu

9059: 9035: 9025: 9023: 9021: 8981: 8979: 8961: 8882: 8870: 8846: 8822: 8798: 8762: 8714: 8666: 8642: 8630: 8618: 8579: 8548: 8524: 8454: 8452: 8450: 8251: 7924: 7428: 7426: 7198: 7177: 7165: 7155: 7153: 7151: 7112: 7054: 7052: 7050: 7023: 6959: 6923: 6911: 6838: 6836: 6722: 6627: 6603: 6567: 6555: 6507: 6425: 6423: 6421: 6419: 6356: 6308: 6284: 6199: 6197: 6195: 5932:, Prince of Ningjing and Zhu Honghuan, who stayed with 5185:, with the right illustration displaying men working a 4944:

The liberal views of Wang Yangming were opposed by the

3832: 11318:

An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911

11106: 10633: 8738: 8476: 8435: 8227: 7936: 7756: 7227: 7225: 6887: 6749: 6684:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

6579: 6027: 5902:, is usually not considered part of the Southern Ming. 4728:

throughout East Asia, and whose work with the convert

2304:

of crops, plants, and animals into China, introducing

9575:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 9110: 9098: 9071: 9047: 8946: 8464: 8379: 8367: 8355: 8343: 8331: 8239: 8215: 8074: 8047: 8035: 8023: 7996: 7984: 7948: 7840: 7780: 7732: 7708: 7696: 7684: 7636: 7621: 7580: 7561: 7546: 7534: 7510: 7498: 7474: 7450: 7438: 7396: 7300: 7264: 7237: 6971: 6495: 6063: 5321:

was in need of reform. Although the Ming had adopted

5038:(蘇州片清明上河圖), depicting urban life of the Ming dynasty. 4716:

after its founding in 1579. The most influential was

3529:". In 1636, Banner Armies defeated Joseon during the 3346:

gained consent from the Ming court in 1557 to settle

2963: 2116: 1012: 996: 982: 968: 801: 787: 771: 757: 743: 10359:, Harvard University Asia Center, pp. 365–421, 9632:. Berkeley; London: University of California Press. 9431:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

9018: 8976: 8934: 8447: 7828: 7423: 7384: 7148: 7064: 7047: 7011: 6947: 6833: 6821: 6809: 6797: 6675: 6663: 6639: 6543: 6459: 6416: 6344: 6332: 6192: 5497:, manufacturing processes such as for roasting iron 5329:

calendar of 1281, which was just as accurate as the

2838:

Modern scholars debate whether the Ming dynasty had

1889: 1811: 1691: 1624: 1554: 1428: 11390:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 10410:

Ming China and its Allies: Imperial Rule in Eurasia

10350:"The Ming court and the legacy of the Yuan Mongols" 9427: 8325: 8313: 8298: 8286: 7894: 7654: 7222: 6743: 6657: 6447: 6368: 6110: 6015: 3079: 2529:, as well as new palaces and government halls. The 2101: 11448:Ming dynasty art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art 11216:Background Factors in the Rise of the Ming Dynasty 9824: 7348: 6320: 5293:theory at court, yet at the same time embrace the 5103:Weeding out the field, illustrated on Fan Kuang's 2440:in 1351. The Red Turbans were affiliated with the 10182:The Southwestern Frontier During the Ming Dynasty 4106: 3907:—were direct administrative organs of the state: 2823:and conferring new princely titles on leaders of 13753: 11169:(History of Imperial China) (Harvard UP, 2010). 10709: 7076: 6690:(3). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 609–636. 6139:. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press. 6045: 3570:with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan. 3536: 3407:'s reign, killing approximately 830,000 people. 2368:, but it was defeated shortly afterwards by the 11115:Ming History: An Introductory Guide to Research 10213:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, pp. 252–287, 9570: 9092: 7858: 6791: 6716: 6266: 6254: 5912: 5481:gear for pearl divers, the annual processes of 4814: 4299:(1550–1616), with its first performance at the 3737:州) under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the 3668:Province, prefecture, sub-prefecture and county 11301:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 3956:Bureaus and offices for the imperial household 3201:(r. 1572–1620) in state ceremonial court dress 2902: 2508: 2380:, with the help of the defecting Ming general 13822:States and territories disestablished in 1644 12271: 12116:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 11511: 11453:Highlights from the British Museum exhibition 11387:The Great Wall of China: From History to Myth 10960: 10831:, New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corporation. 10712:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 9877:The Mandate of Heaven and The Great Ming Code 9787:Studies on the Population of China: 1368–1953 9708:Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 8900: 7324: 5396: 5346: 5220: 5066: 4927: 4876: 4870: 4684:devoted an entire section of his book to the 4646:. The Hongwu Emperor's generals Chang Yuqun, 4136: 4015:classics and successful examination answers. 3554:(1606–1647)—had created a firm rebel base in 3188: 3060:to expand China's borders. This included the 2850:(r. 1521–67) persecuted Buddhism in favor of 2675: 2072: 938: 713: 413:6,500,000 km (2,500,000 sq mi) 68: 53: 13728:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 11143:The Ming History English Translation Project 10673:Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle 9691:, Berkeley: University of California Press, 9571:Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006), 9356:Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary 8103: 8101: 6082:Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary 5677:may be attributed to the practice of female 5509:—and the use of gunpowder weapons such as a 5463:(1608–1674) in one of his famous poems, and 5036:Along the River During the Qingming Festival 4621:successful in persuading foreign audiences. 4322:, with information on everything from local 2702:were combined into a unified wall under the 11442:Notable Ming dynasty painters and galleries 11016: 10923:. In Faure, David; Ho, Ts'ui-p'ing (eds.). 10689: 10675:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 7183: 6410: 6116: 6094: 6092: 6090: 6051: 4855:extermination of the ten degrees of kinship 4688:in the making of porcelain items like this. 4170:, which supervised the imperial genealogy. 3752: 3629:, and finally along the northern border of 3358:challenged them for control of this trade. 2410: 110:Ming China in 1415 during the reign of the 27:Imperial dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 13827:States and territories established in 1368 12278: 12264: 11518: 11504: 11071: 10946:. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Publishing House. 9547: 9452:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 9362: 9217: 9132: 8573: 7318: 7279: 6386: 6227: 6069: 5641:in 1498, although it used stiff pig hair. 5351:) in 1629 according to Western standards. 5231:science and technology in the Song dynasty 5157:History of science and technology in China 4576:deity, from the Ming dynasty, 16th century 3617:ruler of China. After being forced out of 3158:staged a coup against the Tianshun Emperor 2079: 2065: 696: 119: 104: 10758:, Beijing: China Intercontinental Press, 10753: 10595: 10558:, New York: Routledge, pp. 473–482, 10084: 9686: 9646: 9630:ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age 9455:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 8182: 8098: 7342: 6621: 6585: 6561: 6477: 6441: 6413:, Geography I, III; Western Territory III 6398: 6186: 6162: 6057: 6039: 5150: 4263:into mature form in this period, such as 3821:assignments became institutionalized as " 3788:which was instituted by various dynasties 3005:located 50 km (31 mi) north of 2601: 2352:permitted a more accommodating attitude. 2281:laws intended to protect the coasts from 10637:. University of Washington Press. 2012. 10553: 10455: 10429:Journal of the American Oriental Society 10407: 10388: 10347: 10318: 10289: 10268: 10227: 10106:Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900 10065: 9980: 9827:The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History 9734: 9321: 9133:Andrew, Anita N.; Rapp, John A. (2000), 8906: 8554: 8144: 7882: 7378: 7330: 6989: 6779: 6767: 6755: 6633: 6525: 6489: 6314: 6302: 6290: 6278: 6122: 6087: 6033: 5911:For the lower population estimate, see ( 5683: 5648: 5519: 5459:(1512–1594) featured them in his atlas, 5422: 5353: 5241:wrote the first Chinese treatise on the 5198: 5168: 5098: 5043: 4901: 4897: 4818: 4732:led to the first Chinese translation of 4722:Map of the Myriad Countries of the World 4661: 4563: 4476:province, most famous in the period for 4447: 4401: 4381: 4351:Painting of a peddler selling birds, by 4346: 4259:. Literati scholars edited or developed 4218: 4200: 4110: 4081: 4056: 4017: 3992: 3959: 3836: 3761: 3671: 3446: 3435: 3324: 3305: 3296:Economic breakdown and natural disasters 3236: 3192: 3106:as a tributary gift in the name of King 3093: 3033:to be its protectorate. The Chinese had 2996: 2931: 2912: 2827:. However, Turrell V. Wylie states that 2796: 2685: 2512: 13552: 11525: 11380: 11128:. New York: Columbia University Press. 11125:Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 11076:. China: China Intercontinental Press. 10961:Yaniv, Zohara; Bachrach, Uriel (2005). 10839:. The Library of Congress. 4 April 2007 10754:Wang, Jiawei; Nyima, Gyaincain (1997), 10691:"Tsunami among world's worst disasters" 10426: 10169: 10160: 10151: 10142: 10122: 9929: 9822: 9808:. New York: Columbia University Press. 9806:The Ladder of Success in Imperial China 9789:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 9705: 8912: 8888: 8876: 8864: 8852: 8840: 8828: 8816: 8804: 8792: 8780: 8768: 8732: 8720: 8684: 8672: 8660: 8648: 8636: 8624: 8612: 8597: 8585: 8542: 8530: 8506: 8494: 8441: 8209: 7942: 7930: 6598:The Ming Biographical Dictionary (1976) 6404: 5928:The last Ming princes to hold out were 5614:—belonged to the late Ming period. His 5445:mounting masts and sails onto carriages 5048:A Ming dynasty red "seal paste box" in 4955: 4488:catered to European tastes by creating 4480:, but also producing other styles. The 4077: 3757: 3276:(1568–1627) dominated the court of the 2786: 2644:(350,000 acres) of land in what is now 14: 13754: 12067:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty 10756:The Historical Status of China's Tibet 10525: 10256:. Princeton University Press: 55–182. 10208: 10185:(PhD thesis). University of Minnesota. 10103: 10052: 10021: 9920: 9893: 9845: 9763: 9608: 9399: 9232:from the original on 13 September 2014 9180: 9151: 9053: 9012: 8894: 8470: 8405: 8390: 8221: 8168: 8156: 8056: 7870: 7846: 7834: 7810: 7798: 7786: 7750: 7726: 7642: 7630: 7615: 7603: 7591: 7574: 7555: 7540: 7528: 7516: 7504: 7492: 7480: 7468: 7456: 7444: 7405: 7390: 7306: 7294: 7273: 7258: 7246: 7216: 7204: 7171: 7159: 7130: 7118: 7058: 7029: 6965: 6953: 6905: 6842: 6827: 6815: 6645: 6609: 6573: 6513: 6501: 6465: 6338: 6215: 5898:on the island of Taiwan, ruled by the 5801:Military conquests of the Ming dynasty 5465:Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest 5173:The puddling process of smelting iron 4386:Painting of flowers, a butterfly, and 4182: 4177: 4006:that was initially established by the 3421: 2895:(1582–1655) in 1642, establishing the 2744:a military campaign to attack Naghachu 1084: 876: 803: 12259: 11499: 11072:Zhang, Yuxin; Xiang, Hongjia (2002). 11034: 10899: 10851: 10826: 10572: 10248: 10189: 10087:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan 9874: 9667: 9627: 9528: 9524:from the original on 10 October 2022. 9469: 9448: 9269: 9244: 9116: 9104: 9080: 9065: 9041: 9029: 9000: 8985: 8970: 8955: 8940: 8458: 8429: 8417: 8373: 8361: 8349: 8337: 8257: 8245: 8092: 8080: 8068: 8041: 8029: 8017: 8005: 7990: 7978: 7966: 7954: 7918: 7906: 7774: 7762: 7738: 7714: 7702: 7690: 7678: 7666: 7432: 7417: 7231: 7106: 7094: 7070: 7041: 7017: 6941: 6881: 6854: 6803: 6669: 6549: 6537: 6453: 6429: 6350: 6242: 6203: 6174: 6134: 6098: 6021: 5916: 5781:List of tributaries of Imperial China 5606:(1518–1593)—one of the most renowned 5358:A 24-point compass chart employed by 5341:, a discovery made simultaneously by 5136:Early Ming dynasty saw the strictest 2875:(1644–1912) in their support for the 13787:14th-century establishments in China 11294: 11122:Goodrich, Luther Carrington (1976). 11090: 10979: 10870: 10807: 10772: 10734: 10670: 10651: 10512: 10178: 9999: 9434:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 9292: 9137:, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 8756: 8744: 8708: 8696: 8518: 8482: 8233: 8107: 7822: 7366: 7189: 7082: 7001: 6977: 6929: 6917: 6728: 6374: 6362: 5712:Historians are now turning to local 5489:, metallurgic processes such as the 4974:The Bustling and Hustling of Nanjing 4894:but not experienced the real world. 4094:with his eunuchs, a game similar to 3988: 3833:Grand Secretariat and Six Ministries 3784:Three Departments and Six Ministries 3749:京) attached to Nanjing and Beijing. 3663:List of emperors of the Ming dynasty 3566:, while Li's center of power was in 3453:Drum Tower and Bell Tower of Beijing 3229:, during the Wanli Emperor's reign. 2976:, and at the center of this was the 2664:. After the scholar and philosopher 702:"Ming dynasty" in Chinese characters 13772:Former countries in Chinese history 11107:Reference works and primary sources 11037:Libraries & the Cultural Record 10927:(illustrated ed.). UBC Press. 10918: 10519:Pennsylvania State University Press 10474: 9589: 8326:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8314:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8299:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8287:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 8263: 8169:Hagras, Hamada (20 December 2019). 8162: 7895:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 7655:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 7354: 6893: 6855:Swope, Kenneth M. (29 April 2013). 6744:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 6681: 6658:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 6326: 6111:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 5501:in converting sulphide to oxide in 5443:the peculiar Chinese innovation of 5305:(1231–1316) had laid the basis for 5257:acquired the telescope of the late 4456:mark and period (1426–35) imperial 3410: 3056:to spread Chinese culture. He also 2760:Nurgan Regional Military Commission 2612:Miao rebellions in the Ming dynasty 2292:—though restricted to islands near 2146:fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by 24: 11199:, University of California Press, 11158: 11101: 11017:Zhang Tingyu; et al. (1739). 10941: 10493: 10292:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9879:. University of Washington Press. 9848:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9803: 9784: 9737:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9533:. University of California Press. 8269: 7142: 6009: 5979: 5961:. He was posthumously promoted to 5703:Studies on the Population of China 5439:(1527–1598) featured in his atlas 4396:became popular in the Song dynasty 4012:printing industry since Song times 3586:right outside the Forbidden City. 3494:previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty 3232: 3041:(202 BCE – 220 CE) and engaged in 2964:New capital and foreign engagement 2846:that was largely cut off when the 2565:In 1380 Hongwu had the Chancellor 69: 25: 13843: 11406: 10716:Journal of World-Systems Research 9650:The Dynasties of China: A History 8124:. Harvard East Asian Monographs. 5957:, and was also inducted into the 5542:before the latter's death in 1375 5513:ignited by use of a rip-cord and 5087:being repugnant to sexual norms. 4153:dynasties—these estates were not 2480:. Known for its ambitious use of 2150:(who established the short-lived 13807:1640s disestablishments in China 10635:The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu 10089:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 9653:, New York: Carroll & Graf, 9449:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999), 9225:. Economic History Association. 8113: 6861:. University of Oklahoma Press. 6046:Turchin, Adams & Hall (2006) 5972: 5922: 5024: 5015: 5006: 4997: 4962: 4906:A Ming dynasty print drawing of 4427:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty 4145:) but—unlike the princes in the 4061:Processional figurines from the 3601:(1612–1678) opened the gates at 3584:on a tree in the imperial garden 3562:, with the establishment of the 3080:Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols 3072:, the founder of the Vietnamese 2927: 2169:The Ming dynasty's founder, the 2097: 1160: 666: 652: 638: 624: 610: 596: 571: 481: 480: 88: 11702:Japanese missions to Ming China 11018: 10827:White, William Charles (1966), 10654:The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty 10606:International Studies Quarterly 10355:, in Robinson, David M. (ed.), 9898:. University of Hawai'i Press. 9831:. University of Chicago Press. 9609:Farmer, Edward L., ed. (1995). 8735:, pp. 634, 649–50, 668–69. 6848: 6128: 5905: 5888: 5546:Focusing on agriculture in his 4767:, which exiled four Jesuits to 3531:Second Manchu invasion of Korea 2733:, a former Yuan official and a 2478:largest naval battle in history 2398:For a chronological guide, see 2175: 1124: 1110: 1083: 1069: 1055: 1034: 916: 902: 875: 861: 847: 826: 13812:1644 disestablishments in Asia 11576:Campaign against the Uriankhai 11348:79.3 (2015). pp. 597–634. 11245:(U of California Press, 1996) 10982:History of Education Quarterly 10671:——— (2001). 10652:Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996). 10456:Shepherd, John Robert (1993). 10408:——— (2020). 10393:. Cambridge University Press. 10389:——— (2019). 10348:——— (2008), 10170:——— (1987), 10161:——— (1984), 10152:——— (1971), 10143:——— (1965), 10130:, Cambridge University Press, 10059:University of Washington Press 9804:——— (1962). 9529:——— (2000). 9253:University of California Press 9125: 8929:The Library of Congress (2007) 5871: 5854: 5401:). Chinese records—namely the 4984:, depicting the urban life of 4640:sharply curtailed this support 4159:rebellion of the Prince of Yan 4107:Eunuchs, princes, and generals 3725:府) operating under a prefect ( 3621:by the Qing, chased along the 3597:after the Ming border general 3311:Spring morning in a Han palace 3225:in southwestern China and the 2742:attack. In 1387 the Ming sent 2431:, and massive flooding of the 2019:Science and technology history 1013: 997: 983: 969: 939: 802: 788: 772: 758: 744: 714: 13: 1: 11636:Campaigns against the Mongols 10777:. Columbia University Press. 10460:. Stanford University Press. 10174:, Cambridge University Press. 10165:, Cambridge University Press. 10156:, Cambridge University Press. 10147:, Cambridge University Press. 9687:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1997), 9548:Engelfriet, Peter M. (1998), 9307:10.1080/0147037X.2016.1179552 9093:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 7859:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6792:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6717:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6267:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 6255:Fairbank & Goldman (2006) 5989: 5644: 5368:self-operating tiger automata 4835:During the Ming dynasty, the 4809: 4696:declared the eighty-year-old 4552:Islam during the Ming dynasty 4508:Carved designs in lacquerware 3656: 3537:Rebellion, invasion, collapse 2754:of Manchuria, except for the 2616:Hui Muslim troops settled in 1389: 1348: 1324: 1301: 1277: 1218: 36:Ming Dynasty (disambiguation) 12174:Covered jar with carp design 11790:Transition from Ming to Qing 11478:Dynasties in Chinese history 11432:Resources in other libraries 11227:, Rowman & Littlefield, 11154:, Online Indiana University. 10963:Handbook of Medicinal Plants 10085:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). 10053:Lipman, Jonathan N. (1998), 9894:Kinney, Anne Behnke (1995). 9628:Frank, Andre Gunder (1998). 9479:The Journal of Asian Studies 9365:The Journal of Asian Studies 9218:Broadberry, Stephen (2014). 9154:The Journal of Asian Studies 8711:, pp. 171–72, 189, 196. 5994: 5915::128); for the higher, see ( 5833:(for further information on 5826:Transition from Ming to Qing 4815:Wang Yangming's Confucianism 4742:in 1607. The discovery of a 4634:and strong official support 4470:imperial kilns at Jingdezhen 4125:full panoramic painting here 3983: 3417:Transition from Ming to Qing 3339:established trade with China 2589:, and other peoples such as 2400:Timeline of the Ming dynasty 7: 13777:1368 establishments in Asia 12285: 12169:Ming presentation porcelain 11768:Japanese invasions of Korea 11346:Journal of Military History 11295:Mote, Frederick W. (2003). 10532:The Search For Modern China 10494:So, Billy Kee Long (2012). 10000:Lane, Kris (30 July 2019). 9823:Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). 9470:Elman, Benjamin A. (1991). 8901:Yaniv & Bachrach (2005) 5913:Fairbank & Goldman 2006 5764:Taxation in premodern China 5759:Economy of the Ming dynasty 5751: 5239:Johann Adam Schall von Bell 5165:List of Chinese discoveries 4800:their long history in China 4702:Church of the East in China 4545: 3481:Japanese invasions of Korea 3473:unified other Jurchen clans 3378:towards China, in favor of 3173:five major offensives north 3062:brief occupation of Vietnam 2903:Reign of the Yongle Emperor 2887:region, culminating in the 2714:After the overthrow of the 2551:, which was similar to the 2509:Reign of the Hongwu Emperor 2405: 2394:History of the Ming dynasty 2290:expansion of European trade 307:• 1572–1620 (longest) 10: 13848: 12031:Compilations and Documents 11662:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 10829:The Chinese Jews, Volume 1 10573:Swope, Kenneth M. (2011). 10535:(2nd ed.), New York: 10283:10.1179/014703795788763645 10242:10.1179/014703786788764194 10211:Warfare in Chinese History 10179:Ness, John Philip (1998). 10070:. Paris: OECD Publishing. 10022:Leslie, Donald D. (1998). 9930:Kuttner, Fritz A. (1975), 9896:Chinese Views of Childhood 9647:Gascoigne, Bamber (2003), 9406:. Richmond: Curzon Press. 9270:Chang, Michael G. (2007), 7145:, p. 4, 17–18, 32–34. 5796:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia 5786:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 5744:; a gazetteer in northern 5203:Map of the known world by 5161:List of Chinese inventions 5154: 4549: 4462:Metropolitan Museum of Art 4186: 3660: 3425: 3414: 3401:Shaanxi earthquake of 1556 3299: 3189:Reign of the Wanli Emperor 3183: 3083: 2923:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia 2920: 2906: 2790: 2679: 2676:Campaign in the North-East 2605: 2397: 2391: 2387: 2249:expanded the empire's rule 29: 13721: 13673: 13190: 12594: 12293: 12235: 12202: 12164:Chinese lacquerware table 12124: 12083: 12030: 11987: 11944: 11926:Embroidered Uniform Guard 11854: 11740: 11687:Prince of Anhua rebellion 11649: 11543: 11534: 11484: 11475: 11467: 11427:Resources in your library 11223:Dardess, John W. (2012), 11214:Dardess, John W. (1968), 11195:Dardess, John W. (1983), 11026:(in Chinese) – via 10808:Wang, Richard G. (2012). 10321:Journal of Social History 10031:www.islamicpopulation.com 6696:10.1017/s0041977x16001038 5963:Marquis of Extended Grace 5894:The Ming loyalist regime 5865: 5811:Ming emperors family tree 5791:Manchuria under Ming rule 5397: 5347: 5229:After the flourishing of 5221: 5067: 4928: 4877: 4871: 4785:Chinese Rites controversy 4655:The Hongwu Emperor wrote 4560:Chinese Rites Controversy 4502:The Ceramic Trade in Asia 4482:Dehua porcelain factories 4417:Famous painters included 4137: 3976:dictator over the state. 3589:Seizing opportunity, the 3507:renamed his dynasty the " 3428:Manchuria under Ming rule 3397:Great Plague of 1633–1644 3009:; the site was chosen by 2682:Manchuria under Ming rule 2587:Embroidered Uniform Guard 2288:By the 16th century, the 2162:—collectively called the 2158:ruled by remnants of the 2128:imperial dynasty of China 1893: 1815: 1695: 1628: 1558: 1432: 1135: 1117: 1100: 1093: 1076: 1062: 1048: 1041: 1027: 1020: 1006: 990: 976: 962: 955: 950: 946: 932: 927: 909: 892: 885: 868: 854: 840: 833: 819: 812: 795: 781: 765: 751: 737: 730: 725: 721: 707: 695: 691: 686: 550: 489: 474: 460: 456: 446: 436: 426: 422: 417: 409: 404: 400: 387: 374: 360: 347: 343: 333: 329: 317: 305: 293: 283:• 1368–1398 (first) 281: 277: 267: 257: 213: 157: 130: 118: 103: 85: 80: 54: 45: 12227:Great Ming Treasure Note 12106:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum 11889:Administrative divisions 11692:Prince of Ning rebellion 11366:10.1163/156852008X354643 11298:Imperial China, 900–1800 11095:(in Chinese) (6): 34–40. 10066:Maddison, Angus (2006). 9764:Herman, John E. (2007). 9400:Dillon, Michael (1999). 9276:Harvard University Press 9183:Journal of World History 8699:, pp. 7–30, 84–103. 7777:, p. 380, 394, 392. 6908:, p. 164, 165, 281. 6387:Zhang & Xiang (2002) 6228:Andrew & Rapp (2000) 6012:, pp. 8–9, 22, 259. 5847: 5317:By the 16th century the 4802:to Europe. However, the 4798:and introduced them and 4765:Nanjing Incident of 1616 4510:and designs glazed onto 4490:Chinese export porcelain 4478:blue and white porcelain 4409:(1427–1509) founded the 3948:Ministry of Public Works 3853:. The decoration of two 3845:, an official under the 3753:Institutions and bureaus 3541:A peasant soldier named 3459:and rebuilt in the Ming. 3035:sent diplomatic missions 2779:) and 24 battalions (所, 2411:Revolt and rebel rivalry 2260:Emperor Yingzong of Ming 2193:and unrelated magnates, 319:• 1627–1644 (last) 12046:The Hundred-word Eulogy 11712:Great Rites Controversy 11566:Ming conquest of Yunnan 10904:, New York: Routledge, 10619:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 10513:Song, Yingxing (1966), 9875:Jiang, Yonglin (2011). 9336:10.1163/156853262X00057 9245:Brook, Timothy (1998), 6562:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6492:, pp. 474–75, 478. 6478:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6442:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6399:Wang & Nyima (1997) 6135:Brook, Timothy (2023). 5771:1642 Yellow River flood 5441:Theatrum Orbis Terrarum 5420:clogging up too often. 5362:during his explorations 5211:at the upper right and 4632:during the Tang dynasty 4301:Pavilion of Prince Teng 4197:Musicians in Ming China 3704:路). However, after the 3503:In 1636, Nurhaci's son 3108:Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah 2869:Mongol-Tibetan alliance 2801:A 17th-century Tibetan 2608:Ming conquest of Yunnan 2466:establish a new dynasty 2227:and the primacy of the 12084:Palaces and Mausoleums 12074:Ming Veritable Records 11722:Luso-Chinese agreement 11444:at China Online Museum 11261:, New Haven: Yale UP, 11218:, Columbia University. 11112:Farmer, Edward L. ed. 10656:. Albany: SUNY Press. 10104:Naquin, Susan (2000). 9921:Kolmaš, Josef (1967), 9590:Fan, C. Simon (2016). 8783:, pp. 205, 339ff. 8184:10.36816/shedet.006.08 6782:, pp. 79, 101–08. 5816:Ming official headwear 5697: 5661: 5543: 5432: 5363: 5251:Far Seeing Optic Glass 5226: 5196: 5151:Science and technology 5108: 5052: 4918: 4832: 4689: 4657:a 100 character praise 4577: 4465: 4414: 4399: 4356: 4314:author, published his 4228: 4216: 4128: 4117:The Emperor's Approach 4099: 4066: 4027: 3998: 3968: 3862: 3779: 3681: 3460: 3444: 3403:, occurred during the 3330: 3322: 3249: 3202: 3111: 3043:private overseas trade 3014: 2941: 2918: 2825:Tibetan Buddhist sects 2806: 2711: 2672:of the local peoples. 2602:South-Western frontier 2522: 2340:had suffered repeated 2312:and highly productive 2241:voyages of exploration 2166:—survived until 1662. 366:designated as capital 349:• Established in 125:Ming China around 1580 13802:17th century in China 13797:16th century in China 13792:15th century in China 13782:14th century in China 13698:Medieval great powers 12179:Yongning Temple Stele 11916:Imperial Commissioner 11641:Reign of Ren and Xuan 11601:Ming treasure voyages 11591:Dao Ganmeng rebellion 10919:Xie, Xiaohui (2013). 10333:10.1353/jsh.2000.0035 9195:10.1353/jwh.2006.0013 7753:, pp. 15–17, 26. 7420:, p. 15, footnote 42. 5936:'s Ming loyalists in 5687: 5665:Sinologist historians 5652: 5574:exploding cannonballs 5523: 5485:and weaving with the 5426: 5357: 5202: 5172: 5155:Further information: 5119:; even further south 5102: 5047: 5034:Suzhou Imitation" of 4905: 4898:Conservative reaction 4822: 4726:traditional geography 4665: 4582:Chinese folk religion 4567: 4556:Jesuit China missions 4451: 4405: 4385: 4350: 4227:from the Ming dynasty 4222: 4204: 4189:Ming dynasty painting 4187:Further information: 4114: 4085: 4060: 4021: 3996: 3963: 3913:Ministry of Personnel 3840: 3765: 3675: 3450: 3439: 3328: 3309: 3300:Further information: 3240: 3196: 3097: 3000: 2935: 2921:Further information: 2916: 2800: 2723:Northern Yuan dynasty 2698:walls of the ancient 2689: 2636:troops under General 2516: 2474:Battle of Lake Poyang 2239:, led seven enormous 2229:imperial examinations 1884:(mainland, 1912–1949) 240:Chinese folk religion 158:Common languages 32:Ming (disambiguation) 13708:European colonialism 13693:Ancient great powers 11778:Sino-Dutch conflicts 11677:Rebellion of Cao Qin 11606:Ming–Turpan conflict 11556:Red Turban Rebellion 11458:20 June 2020 at the 11074:Testimony of History 10965:. Psychology Press. 10194:, Richmond: Curzon, 10192:China's Tibet Policy 10190:Norbu, Dawa (2001), 9976:on 26 February 2020. 9785:Ho, Ping-ti (1959), 9573:China: A New History 9352:"Definition of Ming" 8759:, pp. 237, 190. 8615:, pp. 133, 508. 8521:, p. 31, footnote 1. 8420:, pp. 229, 232. 7097:, pp. 206, 208. 6528:, pp. 139, 161. 5951:Ming imperial family 5879:Ming imperial family 5417:stationary dial face 5374:in the tradition of 5207:: India at the top, 4956:Urban and rural life 4638:. Although the Ming 4336:switched from using 4261:major Chinese novels 4223:Decorated back of a 4078:Lesser functionaries 3778:from the Inner Court 3758:Institutional trends 3678:Ming–Tibet relations 3492:in reference to the 3488:and established the 3090:Rebellion of Cao Qin 3037:over land since the 2954:three-year civil war 2793:Ming–Tibet relations 2787:Relations with Tibet 2762:on the banks of the 2160:Ming imperial family 13832:Confucian dynasties 13703:Modern great powers 12125:Society and Culture 12060:Yongle Encyclopedia 11899:Imperial Clan Court 11842:Kingdom of Tungning 11795:Jurchen unification 11727:Jiajing wokou raids 11616:Battle of Palembang 11581:Battle of Buir Lake 10527:Spence, Jonathan D. 10475:Shi, Zhiyu (2002). 10136:1959scc3.book.....N 10040:on 17 December 2010 9003:, pp. 28, 267. 8867:, pp. 498–502. 8843:, pp. 203–205. 8687:, pp. 274–276. 8663:, pp. 510–511. 8600:, pp. 166–167. 8545:, pp. 255–257. 8509:, pp. 444–447. 8497:, pp. 444–445. 8432:, pp. 232–223. 8316:, pp. 281–282. 8212:, pp. 171–172. 8147:, pp. 203–207. 8095:, pp. 225–226. 8071:, pp. 224–225. 8020:, pp. 229–231. 7981:, pp. 318–319. 7969:, pp. 215–217. 7909:, pp. 202–203. 7897:, pp. 104–105. 7885:, pp. 116–117. 7861:, pp. 109–112. 7681:, pp. 198–202. 7669:, pp. 145–146. 7381:, pp. 397–398. 7369:, pp. 193–194. 7109:, pp. 349–353. 7044:, pp. 343–349. 6944:, pp. 194–195. 6731:, pp. 317–327. 6540:, pp. 417–418. 6305:, pp. 144–146. 6281:, pp. 365–399. 6269:, pp. 129–130. 6245:, pp. 192–193. 6177:, pp. 190–191. 5896:Kingdom of Tungning 5883:Kingdom of Tungning 5776:Kingdom of Tungning 5453:Gonzales de Mendoza 5225:) or compass route. 5093:special paper money 5063:Shì nóng gōng shāng 4923:scholar-bureaucrats 4773:Chinese astronomers 4650:, Ding Dexing, and 4629:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas 4318:in 404,000 written 4272:Journey to the West 4183:Literature and arts 4178:Society and culture 4168:Imperial Clan Court 3941:Ministry of Justice 3920:Ministry of Revenue 3857:on his chest is a " 3686:Edwin O. Reischauer 3479:armies against the 3432:Jurchen unification 3422:Rise of the Manchus 3344:initial hostilities 3102:envoy presenting a 2692:Great Wall of China 2527:wall around Nanjing 2233:scholar-bureaucrats 2223:, and restored the 13817:Medieval East Asia 13767:Dynasties of China 11974:Military conquests 11820:Peasant rebellions 11697:Capture of Malacca 11672:Defense of Beijing 11586:Lin Kuan rebellion 11049:10.1353/lac.0.0016 10697:. 30 December 2004 10599:(September 1997). 8191:on 18 October 2020 7921:, pp. 55–182. 7825:, p. 602–606. 7606:, pp. 11, 25. 7219:, pp. 24, 28. 7133:, p. 467–489. 6932:, p. 119-120. 6920:, p. 139–140. 6896:, p. 118–120. 6884:, p. 122–125. 6365:, p. 101–144. 6101:, pp. 148–175 5698: 5662: 5654:Appreciating Plums 5639:bristle toothbrush 5612:in Chinese history 5586:multistage rockets 5544: 5433: 5413:astronomical clock 5364: 5331:Gregorian calendar 5227: 5197: 5195:encyclopedia, 1637 5109: 5061:four occupations ( 5053: 4919: 4910:on his way to the 4833: 4710:St. Paul's College 4690: 4578: 4466: 4415: 4400: 4357: 4355:(計盛), 15th century 4292:The Peony Pavilion 4257:Vernacular Chinese 4229: 4217: 4129: 4100: 4067: 4040:eight-legged essay 4028: 4004:examination system 3999: 3969: 3863: 3823:grand coordinators 3780: 3682: 3461: 3445: 3360:Philip IV of Spain 3331: 3323: 3302:The General Crisis 3250: 3223:Chiefdom of Bozhou 3203: 3112: 3054:woodblock printing 3027:tributary missions 3015: 2942: 2919: 2807: 2712: 2523: 2302:Columbian exchange 2219:, constructed the 2122:), officially the 1899: 1709:Five Dynasties and 1701: 1636:Southern dynasties 1564: 1463:Chu–Han Contention 1455:(206 BCE – 220 CE) 389:• End of the 13747: 13746: 13669: 13668: 13634:Polish–Lithuanian 12809:Gurjara-Pratihara 12253: 12252: 11962:Gunpowder weapons 11921:Grand coordinator 11884:Grand Secretariat 11850: 11849: 11744:(1572–1683) 11653:(1435–1572) 11621:Battle of Kherlen 11571:Ming–Mong Mao War 11561:Wu Mian rebellion 11547:(1368–1435) 11494: 11493: 11485:Succeeded by 11413:Library resources 11308:978-0-674-01212-7 11287:978-0-521-24332-2 11268:978-0-300-02518-7 11241:Dardess, John W. 11234:978-1-4422-0491-1 11206:978-0-520-04733-4 11187:978-0-521-24332-2 11135:978-0-231-03833-1 11083:978-7-80113-885-9 10972:978-1-56022-995-7 10953:978-0-88125-791-5 10934:978-0-7748-2371-5 10911:978-0-415-30843-4 10863:978-0-521-24333-9 10819:978-0-19-976768-7 10801:10.7312/wang15140 10792:978-0-231-15140-5 10783:10.7312/wang15140 10765:978-7-80113-304-5 10746:978-0-521-24333-9 10682:978-0-295-80022-6 10663:978-0-7914-2687-6 10644:978-0-295-80400-2 10588:978-1-136-81964-3 10565:978-0-415-30843-4 10546:978-0-393-97351-8 10505:978-0-415-50896-4 10486:978-0-415-28372-4 10467:978-0-8047-2066-3 10419:978-1-108-48922-5 10400:978-1-10-868279-4 10366:978-0-674-02823-4 10220:978-90-04-11774-7 10201:978-0-7007-0474-3 10115:978-0-520-21991-5 10096:978-0-230-61424-6 10077:978-92-64-02262-1 9992:978-0-521-24332-2 9905:978-0-8248-1681-0 9886:978-0-295-80166-7 9838:978-0-226-35168-1 9815:978-0-231-89496-8 9796:978-0-674-85245-7 9777:978-0-674-02591-2 9698:978-0-520-21951-9 9679:978-0-521-24332-2 9660:978-0-7867-1219-9 9639:978-0-520-21129-2 9601:978-1-317-24183-6 9582:978-0-674-01828-0 9563:978-90-04-10944-5 9554:Koninklijke Brill 9540:978-0-520-92147-4 9462:978-0-521-66991-7 9441:978-0-618-13384-0 9413:978-0-7007-1026-3 9285:978-0-674-02454-0 9262:978-0-520-22154-3 9144:978-0-8476-9580-5 9068:, pp. 94–96. 9044:, pp. 27–28. 9015:, p. 200–01. 8973:, pp. 97–99. 8819:, pp. 24–25. 8795:, pp. 65–66. 8747:, pp. 36–36. 8574:Engelfriet (1998) 8408:, pp. 12–13. 8260:, pp. 31–38. 8236:, pp. 30–32. 8131:978-0-674-02823-4 7873:, pp. 19–20. 7813:, pp. 24–25. 7801:, pp. 18–19. 7729:, pp. 11–14. 7618:, pp. 25–26. 7531:, pp. 33–35. 7495:, pp. 31–32. 7471:, pp. 29–30. 7321:, p. 824–25. 7319:Dennerline (1985) 7297:, pp. 32–33. 7261:, pp. 21–22. 7174:, pp. 22–24. 7121:, pp. 20–21. 7032:, pp. 19–20. 6968:, pp. 17–18. 6770:, pp. 84–85. 6612:, pp. 34–35. 6576:, pp. 30–31. 6516:, pp. 28–29. 6480:, pp. 39–40. 6401:, pp. 39–41. 6218:, p. xxxiii. 6146:978-0-691-25040-3 6125:, p. 115–148 6070:Broadberry (2014) 5943:Yongzheng Emperor 5635:ancient Egyptians 5550:, the agronomist 5548:Nongzheng Quanshu 5515:steel flint wheel 5457:Gerardus Mercator 5372:mechanical clocks 5339:equal temperament 5261:(1576–1630). The 5255:Chongzhen Emperor 4839:doctrines of the 4777:Sabatino de Ursis 4686:ceramics industry 4425:, as well as the 4312:travel literature 4295:, was written by 4253:Classical Chinese 3989:Scholar-officials 3967:, 14–17th century 3927:Ministry of Rites 3868:Grand Secretaries 3804:Grand Secretariat 3772:Republic of China 3729:知府), followed by 3651:Republic of China 3490:Later Jin dynasty 3469:Jianzhou Jurchens 3455:was built in the 3286:Chongzhen Emperor 3128:Zhengtong Emperor 3066:guerrilla warfare 3058:used the military 3031:Kingdom of Cochin 2889:conquest of Tibet 2739:Liaoyang province 2089: 2088: 2046:Transport history 1972:Education history 1944: 1943: 1939: 1938: 1925:Republic of China 1907:People's Republic 1880:Republic of China 1859: 1858: 1808: 1807: 1803: 1802: 1688: 1687: 1621: 1620: 1616: 1615: 1552: 1551: 1385:Spring and Autumn 1248:Liao civilization 1139: 1138: 1131: 1130: 1050:Yale Romanization 957:Standard Mandarin 923: 922: 842:Yale Romanization 732:Standard Mandarin 682: 681: 678: 677: 674: 673: 584: 583: 476:• Per capita 324:Chongzhen Emperor 295:• 1402–1424 262:Absolute monarchy 250:Roman Catholicism 172:Chinese languages 16:(Redirected from 13839: 13550: 13549: 13215:Austro-Hungarian 12915:Chagatai Khanate 12280: 12273: 12266: 12257: 12256: 12053:Huang-Ming Zuxun 11825:Jiashen Incident 11815:She-An Rebellion 11800:Seven Grievances 11773:Donglin movement 11758:Bozhou rebellion 11745: 11654: 11631:Lam Sơn uprising 11611:Ming–Đại Ngu War 11596:Jingnan campaign 11548: 11541: 11540: 11520: 11513: 11506: 11497: 11496: 11468:Preceded by 11465: 11464: 11401: 11377: 11335:pp. 807–832 11327:pp. 723–743 11325: 11312: 11291: 11272: 11238: 11219: 11210: 11191: 11165:Brook, Timothy. 11139: 11096: 11087: 11068: 11031: 11025: 11013: 10976: 10957: 10942:Xu, Xin (2003). 10938: 10915: 10896: 10867: 10848: 10846: 10844: 10832: 10823: 10804: 10769: 10750: 10731: 10729: 10727: 10706: 10704: 10702: 10686: 10667: 10648: 10630: 10592: 10569: 10550: 10522: 10509: 10490: 10471: 10452: 10423: 10404: 10385: 10383: 10381: 10375: 10369:, archived from 10354: 10344: 10315: 10286: 10265: 10250:Plaks, Andrew. H 10245: 10224: 10205: 10186: 10175: 10166: 10157: 10148: 10139: 10119: 10100: 10081: 10062: 10049: 10047: 10045: 10039: 10028: 10018: 10016: 10014: 9996: 9977: 9975: 9969:, archived from 9936: 9926: 9917: 9890: 9871: 9842: 9830: 9819: 9800: 9781: 9760: 9731: 9702: 9683: 9664: 9643: 9624: 9605: 9586: 9567: 9544: 9525: 9523: 9476: 9466: 9445: 9424: 9422: 9420: 9396: 9359: 9347: 9318: 9289: 9266: 9241: 9239: 9237: 9231: 9224: 9214: 9177: 9148: 9120: 9114: 9108: 9102: 9096: 9090: 9084: 9078: 9069: 9063: 9057: 9051: 9045: 9039: 9033: 9027: 9016: 9010: 9004: 8998: 8989: 8983: 8974: 8968: 8959: 8953: 8944: 8938: 8932: 8926: 8920: 8910: 8904: 8898: 8892: 8886: 8880: 8874: 8868: 8862: 8856: 8850: 8844: 8838: 8832: 8826: 8820: 8814: 8808: 8802: 8796: 8790: 8784: 8778: 8772: 8766: 8760: 8754: 8748: 8742: 8736: 8730: 8724: 8718: 8712: 8706: 8700: 8694: 8688: 8682: 8676: 8670: 8664: 8658: 8652: 8646: 8640: 8634: 8628: 8622: 8616: 8610: 8601: 8595: 8589: 8583: 8577: 8571: 8558: 8552: 8546: 8540: 8534: 8528: 8522: 8516: 8510: 8504: 8498: 8492: 8486: 8485:, p. 34–40. 8480: 8474: 8468: 8462: 8456: 8445: 8439: 8433: 8427: 8421: 8415: 8409: 8403: 8394: 8388: 8377: 8371: 8365: 8359: 8353: 8347: 8341: 8335: 8329: 8323: 8317: 8311: 8302: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8273: 8267: 8261: 8255: 8249: 8243: 8237: 8231: 8225: 8219: 8213: 8207: 8201: 8200: 8198: 8196: 8187:. Archived from 8186: 8166: 8160: 8159:, p. 38-39. 8154: 8148: 8142: 8136: 8135: 8117: 8111: 8105: 8096: 8090: 8084: 8078: 8072: 8066: 8060: 8054: 8045: 8039: 8033: 8027: 8021: 8015: 8009: 8003: 7994: 7988: 7982: 7976: 7970: 7964: 7958: 7952: 7946: 7940: 7934: 7928: 7922: 7916: 7910: 7904: 7898: 7892: 7886: 7880: 7874: 7868: 7862: 7856: 7850: 7844: 7838: 7832: 7826: 7820: 7814: 7808: 7802: 7796: 7790: 7784: 7778: 7772: 7766: 7760: 7754: 7748: 7742: 7736: 7730: 7724: 7718: 7712: 7706: 7700: 7694: 7688: 7682: 7676: 7670: 7664: 7658: 7652: 7646: 7640: 7634: 7628: 7619: 7613: 7607: 7601: 7595: 7589: 7578: 7572: 7559: 7553: 7544: 7538: 7532: 7526: 7520: 7514: 7508: 7502: 7496: 7490: 7484: 7478: 7472: 7466: 7460: 7454: 7448: 7442: 7436: 7430: 7421: 7415: 7409: 7403: 7394: 7388: 7382: 7376: 7370: 7364: 7358: 7352: 7346: 7343:Manthorpe (2008) 7340: 7334: 7333:, p. 469–70 7328: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7286: 7283: 7277: 7271: 7262: 7256: 7250: 7244: 7235: 7229: 7220: 7214: 7208: 7207:, p. 27-28. 7202: 7196: 7193: 7187: 7181: 7175: 7169: 7163: 7157: 7146: 7140: 7134: 7128: 7122: 7116: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7092: 7086: 7080: 7074: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7045: 7039: 7033: 7027: 7021: 7015: 7009: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6981: 6980:, p. 27–47. 6975: 6969: 6963: 6957: 6951: 6945: 6939: 6933: 6927: 6921: 6915: 6909: 6903: 6897: 6891: 6885: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6852: 6846: 6840: 6831: 6825: 6819: 6813: 6807: 6801: 6795: 6789: 6783: 6777: 6771: 6765: 6759: 6753: 6747: 6741: 6732: 6726: 6720: 6714: 6708: 6707: 6679: 6673: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6637: 6631: 6625: 6622:Goldstein (1997) 6619: 6613: 6607: 6601: 6595: 6589: 6586:Goldstein (1997) 6583: 6577: 6571: 6565: 6559: 6553: 6547: 6541: 6535: 6529: 6523: 6517: 6511: 6505: 6499: 6493: 6487: 6481: 6475: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6451: 6445: 6444:, pp. 1–40. 6439: 6433: 6427: 6414: 6408: 6402: 6396: 6390: 6384: 6378: 6372: 6366: 6360: 6354: 6348: 6342: 6336: 6330: 6324: 6318: 6312: 6306: 6300: 6294: 6288: 6282: 6276: 6270: 6264: 6258: 6252: 6246: 6240: 6231: 6225: 6219: 6213: 6207: 6201: 6190: 6187:Gascoigne (2003) 6184: 6178: 6172: 6166: 6163:Gascoigne (2003) 6160: 6151: 6150: 6132: 6126: 6120: 6114: 6108: 6102: 6096: 6085: 6079: 6073: 6067: 6061: 6058:Taagepera (1997) 6055: 6049: 6043: 6037: 6031: 6025: 6019: 6013: 6007: 5983: 5976: 5970: 5967:Qianlong Emperor 5926: 5920: 5909: 5903: 5892: 5886: 5877:Remnants of the 5875: 5869: 5867: 5858: 5738:a great epidemic 5718:Chenghua Emperor 5437:Abraham Ortelius 5400: 5399: 5384:Nicolas Trigault 5350: 5349: 5319:Chinese calendar 5301:(1031–1095) and 5224: 5223: 5070: 5069: 5028: 5019: 5010: 5001: 4966: 4931: 4930: 4880: 4879: 4874: 4873: 4680:, 17th century; 4140: 4139: 3706:Jurchen invasion 3690:John K. Fairbank 3498:Seven Grievances 3467:, leader of the 3411:Fall of the Ming 3261:, Wang Zhi, and 3219:Bozhou rebellion 2993: 2992: 2988: 2985: 2936:Portrait of the 2517:Portrait of the 2448:secret society. 2283:Japanese pirates 2262:during the 1449 2209:Jingnan campaign 2200:Huang-Ming Zuxun 2185:'s dockyards in 2179: 2177: 2119: 2114: 2113: 2110: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2081: 2074: 2067: 2009:Military history 1967:Economic history 1955:Related articles 1932: 1914: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1885: 1852: 1839: 1826: 1813: 1812: 1796: 1783: 1770: 1751: 1741: 1729: 1716: 1698: 1697: 1693: 1692: 1677: 1667: 1654: 1641: 1626: 1625: 1609: 1604:Sixteen Kingdoms 1587: 1577: 1561: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1545: 1511: 1498: 1488: 1478: 1477:(202 BCE – 9 CE) 1468: 1456: 1443: 1430: 1429: 1408: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1391: 1381: 1371: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1350: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1326: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1303: 1288: 1286: 1282: 1279: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1220: 1164: 1154:History of China 1141: 1140: 1127: 1126: 1113: 1112: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1072: 1071: 1058: 1057: 1037: 1036: 1016: 1015: 1002: 1001: 1000: 986: 985: 972: 971: 948: 947: 942: 941: 919: 918: 905: 904: 881: 880: 879: 864: 863: 850: 849: 829: 828: 808: 807: 806: 791: 790: 777: 776: 775: 761: 760: 747: 746: 723: 722: 717: 716: 700: 684: 683: 670: 669: 662:Portuguese Macau 656: 655: 642: 641: 628: 627: 614: 613: 600: 599: 588: 587: 575: 574: 568: 567: 552: 551: 539: 526: 501: 484: 483: 467: 174: 150: 142: 123: 108: 92: 72: 65: 57: 56: 43: 42: 21: 13847: 13846: 13842: 13841: 13840: 13838: 13837: 13836: 13752: 13751: 13748: 13743: 13732:American Empire 13717: 13713:African empires 13665: 13548: 13240:Central African 13186: 13004:Romano-Germanic 12590: 12324:Middle Assyrian 12297: 12289: 12284: 12254: 12249: 12244:History of Ming 12231: 12198: 12120: 12096:Chaotian Palace 12079: 12039:History of Yuan 12026: 11983: 11940: 11846: 11746: 11743: 11736: 11732:Single whip law 11707:Ningbo incident 11682:Miao rebellions 11655: 11652: 11645: 11549: 11546: 11530: 11524: 11490: 11481: 11473: 11460:Wayback Machine 11438: 11437: 11436: 11421: 11420: 11416: 11409: 11404: 11398: 11382:Waldron, Arthur 11351: 11315: 11309: 11288: 11275: 11269: 11251: 11235: 11222: 11213: 11207: 11194: 11188: 11175: 11161: 11159:General studies 11136: 11109: 11104: 11102:Further reading 11099: 11084: 11021:History of Ming 10973: 10954: 10935: 10912: 10864: 10842: 10840: 10820: 10793: 10766: 10747: 10725: 10723: 10700: 10698: 10683: 10664: 10645: 10597:Taagepera, Rein 10589: 10566: 10547: 10506: 10487: 10468: 10420: 10401: 10379: 10377: 10376:on 11 June 2016 10373: 10367: 10352: 10304:10.2307/2652684 10221: 10202: 10124:Needham, Joseph 10116: 10097: 10078: 10043: 10041: 10037: 10026: 10012: 10010: 9993: 9973: 9939:Ethnomusicology 9934: 9906: 9887: 9860:10.2307/2718619 9839: 9816: 9797: 9778: 9749:10.2307/2718941 9699: 9680: 9661: 9640: 9621: 9602: 9583: 9564: 9541: 9521: 9491:10.2307/2057472 9474: 9463: 9442: 9418: 9416: 9414: 9377:10.2307/2056469 9286: 9263: 9235: 9233: 9229: 9222: 9166:10.2307/2700190 9145: 9128: 9123: 9115: 9111: 9103: 9099: 9091: 9087: 9079: 9072: 9064: 9060: 9052: 9048: 9040: 9036: 9028: 9019: 9011: 9007: 8999: 8992: 8984: 8977: 8969: 8962: 8954: 8947: 8939: 8935: 8927: 8923: 8911: 8907: 8899: 8895: 8887: 8883: 8875: 8871: 8863: 8859: 8851: 8847: 8839: 8835: 8827: 8823: 8815: 8811: 8803: 8799: 8791: 8787: 8779: 8775: 8767: 8763: 8755: 8751: 8743: 8739: 8731: 8727: 8719: 8715: 8707: 8703: 8695: 8691: 8683: 8679: 8671: 8667: 8659: 8655: 8647: 8643: 8635: 8631: 8623: 8619: 8611: 8604: 8596: 8592: 8584: 8580: 8572: 8561: 8555:Peterson (1986) 8553: 8549: 8541: 8537: 8529: 8525: 8517: 8513: 8505: 8501: 8493: 8489: 8481: 8477: 8469: 8465: 8457: 8448: 8440: 8436: 8428: 8424: 8416: 8412: 8404: 8397: 8389: 8380: 8372: 8368: 8360: 8356: 8348: 8344: 8336: 8332: 8324: 8320: 8312: 8305: 8297: 8293: 8285: 8276: 8268: 8264: 8256: 8252: 8244: 8240: 8232: 8228: 8220: 8216: 8208: 8204: 8194: 8192: 8167: 8163: 8155: 8151: 8145:Robinson (2020) 8143: 8139: 8132: 8118: 8114: 8106: 8099: 8091: 8087: 8079: 8075: 8067: 8063: 8055: 8048: 8040: 8036: 8028: 8024: 8016: 8012: 8004: 7997: 7989: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7965: 7961: 7953: 7949: 7941: 7937: 7929: 7925: 7917: 7913: 7905: 7901: 7893: 7889: 7883:Robinson (1999) 7881: 7877: 7869: 7865: 7857: 7853: 7845: 7841: 7833: 7829: 7821: 7817: 7809: 7805: 7797: 7793: 7785: 7781: 7773: 7769: 7765:, p. 7–28. 7761: 7757: 7749: 7745: 7737: 7733: 7725: 7721: 7713: 7709: 7701: 7697: 7689: 7685: 7677: 7673: 7665: 7661: 7653: 7649: 7641: 7637: 7629: 7622: 7614: 7610: 7602: 7598: 7590: 7581: 7573: 7562: 7554: 7547: 7539: 7535: 7527: 7523: 7515: 7511: 7503: 7499: 7491: 7487: 7479: 7475: 7467: 7463: 7455: 7451: 7443: 7439: 7431: 7424: 7416: 7412: 7404: 7397: 7389: 7385: 7379:Hartwell (1982) 7377: 7373: 7365: 7361: 7353: 7349: 7341: 7337: 7331:Shepherd (1993) 7329: 7325: 7317: 7313: 7305: 7301: 7293: 7289: 7284: 7280: 7272: 7265: 7257: 7253: 7245: 7238: 7230: 7223: 7215: 7211: 7203: 7199: 7194: 7190: 7184:BBC News (2004) 7182: 7178: 7170: 7166: 7158: 7149: 7141: 7137: 7129: 7125: 7117: 7113: 7105: 7101: 7093: 7089: 7081: 7077: 7069: 7065: 7057: 7048: 7040: 7036: 7028: 7024: 7016: 7012: 7000: 6996: 6992:, p. 1–16. 6990:Robinson (1995) 6988: 6984: 6976: 6972: 6964: 6960: 6952: 6948: 6940: 6936: 6928: 6924: 6916: 6912: 6904: 6900: 6892: 6888: 6880: 6876: 6869: 6853: 6849: 6841: 6834: 6826: 6822: 6814: 6810: 6802: 6798: 6790: 6786: 6780:Robinson (1999) 6778: 6774: 6768:Robinson (1999) 6766: 6762: 6756:Robinson (1999) 6754: 6750: 6742: 6735: 6727: 6723: 6715: 6711: 6680: 6676: 6668: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6644: 6640: 6634:Robinson (2000) 6632: 6628: 6624:, pp. 6–9. 6620: 6616: 6608: 6604: 6596: 6592: 6584: 6580: 6572: 6568: 6560: 6556: 6548: 6544: 6536: 6532: 6526:Langlois (1988) 6524: 6520: 6512: 6508: 6500: 6496: 6490:Sperling (2003) 6488: 6484: 6476: 6472: 6464: 6460: 6452: 6448: 6440: 6436: 6428: 6417: 6411:History of Ming 6409: 6405: 6397: 6393: 6385: 6381: 6373: 6369: 6361: 6357: 6349: 6345: 6337: 6333: 6325: 6321: 6315:Robinson (2019) 6313: 6309: 6303:Robinson (2019) 6301: 6297: 6293:, pp. 8–9. 6291:Robinson (2020) 6289: 6285: 6279:Robinson (2008) 6277: 6273: 6265: 6261: 6253: 6249: 6241: 6234: 6226: 6222: 6214: 6210: 6202: 6193: 6185: 6181: 6173: 6169: 6161: 6154: 6147: 6133: 6129: 6123:Crawford (1961) 6121: 6117: 6109: 6105: 6097: 6088: 6080: 6076: 6068: 6064: 6056: 6052: 6044: 6040: 6034:Maddison (2006) 6032: 6028: 6020: 6016: 6008: 6001: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5986: 5977: 5973: 5965:in 1750 by the 5927: 5923: 5910: 5906: 5893: 5889: 5876: 5872: 5859: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5835:rural economics 5754: 5730:Jiajing Emperor 5707:Hongzhi Emperor 5647: 5610:and physicians 5608:pharmacologists 5596:that had up to 5590:booster rockets 5271:Galileo Galilei 5267:Johannes Kepler 5253:); in 1634 the 5167: 5153: 5128:shells to make 5058:Jonathan Spence 5042: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5031: 5030: 5029: 5021: 5020: 5012: 5011: 5003: 5002: 4991: 4990: 4989: 4972: 4967: 4958: 4950:Donglin Academy 4900: 4817: 4812: 4636:during the Yuan 4586:Three Teachings 4568:Chinese glazed 4562: 4548: 4498:white porcelain 4338:woodblock print 4310:(1587–1641), a 4199: 4185: 4180: 4109: 4080: 3991: 3986: 3958: 3934:Ministry of War 3847:Hongzhi Emperor 3835: 3760: 3755: 3694:Albert M. Craig 3670: 3665: 3659: 3615:Shunzhi Emperor 3552:Zhang Xianzhong 3539: 3521:, declared the 3434: 3424: 3419: 3413: 3405:Jiajing Emperor 3304: 3298: 3282:Donglin Society 3235: 3233:Role of eunuchs 3191: 3186: 3126:encouraged the 3092: 3084:Main articles: 3082: 2990: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2966: 2950:Jianwen Emperor 2930: 2925: 2911: 2905: 2897:Khoshut Khanate 2857:tea-horse trade 2848:Jiajing Emperor 2795: 2789: 2694:: Although the 2684: 2678: 2626:Kingdom of Dali 2614: 2606:Main articles: 2604: 2577:, a network of 2532:History of Ming 2511: 2476:, arguably the 2413: 2408: 2403: 2396: 2390: 2310:Sichuan cuisine 2205:Jianwen Emperor 2174: 2117: 2100: 2096: 2085: 2056: 2055: 2051:Women's history 1957: 1956: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1917: 1912: 1908: 1888: 1883: 1874: 1873: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1842: 1837: 1829: 1824: 1810: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1786: 1781: 1773: 1768: 1760: 1754: 1749: 1739: 1727: 1719: 1714: 1710: 1690: 1689: 1684: 1675: 1665: 1657: 1652: 1644: 1639: 1635: 1623: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1599: 1596: 1590: 1585: 1575: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1535: 1509: 1501: 1496: 1486: 1476: 1466: 1454: 1446: 1441: 1426: 1425: 1414: 1413: 1406: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1379: 1369: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1338: 1331: 1327: 1322: 1309: 1046 BCE 1308: 1304: 1299: 1291: 1285: 1600 BCE 1284: 1280: 1275: 1266: 1265: 1254: 1253: 1226: 2000 BCE 1225: 1221: 1216: 1208: 1197: 1196: 1008:Tongyong Pinyin 998: 783:Tongyong Pinyin 773: 703: 667: 653: 639: 625: 611: 597: 572: 546: 543: 542: 533: 519:strings of coin 516: 499: 477: 465: 449: 439: 429: 393: 380: 378:Fall of Beijing 370:28 October 1420 367: 356:23 January 1368 353: 320: 308: 296: 284: 169: 153: 148: 140: 126: 114: 99: 98: 93: 76: 75: 59: 48: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13845: 13835: 13834: 13829: 13824: 13819: 13814: 13809: 13804: 13799: 13794: 13789: 13784: 13779: 13774: 13769: 13764: 13745: 13744: 13742: 13741: 13740: 13739: 13734: 13725: 13723: 13719: 13718: 13716: 13715: 13710: 13705: 13700: 13695: 13690: 13689: 13688: 13677: 13675: 13671: 13670: 13667: 13666: 13664: 13663: 13658: 13653: 13648: 13643: 13642: 13641: 13631: 13626: 13621: 13616: 13611: 13606: 13601: 13596: 13591: 13586: 13585: 13584: 13579: 13569: 13564: 13558: 13556: 13547: 13546: 13545: 13544: 13539: 13534: 13529: 13524: 13514: 13509: 13508: 13507: 13497: 13492: 13491: 13490: 13485: 13480: 13470: 13465: 13464: 13463: 13458: 13448: 13447: 13446: 13441: 13436: 13431: 13426: 13416: 13415: 13414: 13409: 13399: 13394: 13389: 13384: 13383: 13382: 13377: 13372: 13367: 13362: 13352: 13351: 13350: 13345: 13335: 13330: 13329: 13328: 13323: 13313: 13312: 13311: 13306: 13296: 13295: 13294: 13289: 13279: 13274: 13273: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13242: 13237: 13236: 13235: 13230: 13222: 13217: 13212: 13207: 13202: 13196: 13194: 13188: 13187: 13185: 13184: 13179: 13174: 13169: 13168: 13167: 13162: 13157: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13137: 13127: 13122: 13121: 13120: 13115: 13110: 13105: 13100: 13095: 13085: 13084: 13083: 13078: 13073: 13068: 13058: 13053: 13048: 13043: 13038: 13033: 13028: 13023: 13018: 13017: 13016: 13011: 13001: 13000: 12999: 12994: 12989: 12984: 12979: 12974: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12946: 12945: 12944: 12939: 12934: 12924: 12923: 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12897: 12892: 12887: 12882: 12877: 12872: 12871: 12870: 12865: 12860: 12855: 12845: 12844: 12843: 12838: 12833: 12828: 12818: 12817: 12816: 12811: 12806: 12796: 12791: 12786: 12781: 12776: 12775: 12774: 12769: 12764: 12754: 12749: 12748: 12747: 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12712: 12711: 12710: 12705: 12695: 12694: 12693: 12688: 12683: 12678: 12668: 12663: 12662: 12661: 12651: 12650: 12649: 12644: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12606: 12600: 12598: 12596:Post-classical 12592: 12591: 12589: 12588: 12587: 12586: 12576: 12571: 12570: 12569: 12564: 12554: 12553: 12552: 12542: 12541: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12525: 12520: 12515: 12505: 12500: 12495: 12494: 12493: 12488: 12483: 12478: 12468: 12467: 12466: 12461: 12451: 12446: 12445: 12444: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12424: 12414: 12409: 12404: 12403: 12402: 12397: 12395:Middle Kingdom 12392: 12382: 12377: 12376: 12375: 12370: 12365: 12355: 12354: 12353: 12351:Neo-Babylonian 12348: 12343: 12341:Old Babylonian 12333: 12332: 12331: 12326: 12316: 12311: 12305: 12303: 12291: 12290: 12283: 12282: 12275: 12268: 12260: 12251: 12250: 12248: 12247: 12239: 12237: 12233: 12232: 12230: 12229: 12224: 12223: 12222: 12220:Yongle Tongbao 12217: 12215:Hongwu Tongbao 12206: 12204: 12200: 12199: 12197: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12176: 12171: 12166: 12161: 12160: 12159: 12154: 12149: 12139: 12134: 12128: 12126: 12122: 12121: 12119: 12118: 12113: 12108: 12103: 12098: 12093: 12091:Forbidden City 12087: 12085: 12081: 12080: 12078: 12077: 12070: 12063: 12056: 12049: 12042: 12034: 12032: 12028: 12027: 12025: 12024: 12019: 12014: 12009: 12008: 12007: 12002: 11991: 11989: 11985: 11984: 11982: 11981: 11979:Nine Garrisons 11976: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11959: 11954: 11948: 11946: 11942: 11941: 11939: 11938: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11918: 11913: 11912: 11911: 11901: 11896: 11891: 11886: 11881: 11880: 11879: 11874: 11869: 11858: 11856: 11852: 11851: 11848: 11847: 11845: 11844: 11839: 11834: 11833: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11787: 11786: 11785: 11775: 11770: 11765: 11763:Ordos campaign 11760: 11755: 11749: 11747: 11742: 11738: 11737: 11735: 11734: 11729: 11724: 11719: 11714: 11709: 11704: 11699: 11694: 11689: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11658: 11656: 11651: 11647: 11646: 11644: 11643: 11638: 11633: 11628: 11626:Ming–Kotte War 11623: 11618: 11613: 11608: 11603: 11598: 11593: 11588: 11583: 11578: 11573: 11568: 11563: 11558: 11552: 11550: 11545: 11538: 11532: 11531: 11523: 11522: 11515: 11508: 11500: 11492: 11491: 11486: 11483: 11474: 11469: 11463: 11462: 11450: 11445: 11435: 11434: 11429: 11423: 11422: 11411: 11410: 11408: 11407:External links 11405: 11403: 11402: 11396: 11378: 11360:(4): 578–638, 11349: 11342: 11313: 11307: 11292: 11286: 11273: 11267: 11249: 11239: 11233: 11220: 11211: 11205: 11192: 11186: 11173: 11162: 11160: 11157: 11156: 11155: 11146: 11140: 11134: 11119: 11108: 11105: 11103: 11100: 11098: 11097: 11088: 11082: 11069: 11043:(2): 148–175. 11032: 11014: 10994:10.2307/369121 10988:(2): 193–213, 10977: 10971: 10958: 10952: 10939: 10933: 10916: 10910: 10897: 10885:10.1086/349663 10868: 10862: 10849: 10833: 10824: 10818: 10805: 10791: 10770: 10764: 10751: 10745: 10732: 10707: 10687: 10681: 10668: 10662: 10649: 10643: 10631: 10613:(3): 475–504. 10593: 10587: 10570: 10564: 10551: 10545: 10523: 10510: 10504: 10491: 10485: 10472: 10466: 10453: 10441:10.2307/595074 10424: 10418: 10405: 10399: 10386: 10365: 10345: 10327:(3): 527–563, 10316: 10287: 10266: 10246: 10225: 10219: 10206: 10200: 10187: 10176: 10167: 10158: 10149: 10140: 10120: 10114: 10101: 10095: 10082: 10076: 10063: 10050: 10019: 9997: 9991: 9978: 9951:10.2307/850355 9945:(2): 163–206, 9927: 9918: 9904: 9891: 9885: 9872: 9843: 9837: 9820: 9814: 9801: 9795: 9782: 9776: 9761: 9743:(2): 365–442, 9732: 9720:10.2307/495194 9714:(1/2): 67–93, 9703: 9697: 9684: 9678: 9665: 9659: 9644: 9638: 9625: 9619: 9606: 9600: 9587: 9581: 9568: 9562: 9545: 9539: 9526: 9467: 9461: 9446: 9440: 9425: 9412: 9397: 9371:(4): 824–825. 9360: 9348: 9330:(3): 115–148. 9319: 9290: 9284: 9267: 9261: 9242: 9215: 9189:(4): 467–489. 9178: 9149: 9143: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9121: 9119:, p. 163. 9109: 9107:, p. 195. 9097: 9095:, p. 128. 9085: 9083:, p. 162. 9070: 9058: 9046: 9034: 9017: 9005: 8990: 8975: 8960: 8958:, p. 267. 8945: 8933: 8921: 8913:Hopkins (2002) 8905: 8893: 8891:, p. 229. 8889:Needham (1987) 8881: 8879:, p. 508. 8877:Needham (1987) 8869: 8865:Needham (1987) 8857: 8855:, p. 205. 8853:Needham (1987) 8845: 8841:Needham (1987) 8833: 8831:, p. 264. 8829:Needham (1987) 8821: 8817:Needham (1987) 8809: 8807:, p. 372. 8805:Needham (1987) 8797: 8793:Needham (1984) 8785: 8781:Needham (1987) 8773: 8771:, p. 126. 8769:Needham (1987) 8761: 8749: 8737: 8733:Needham (1971) 8725: 8723:, p. 668. 8721:Needham (1971) 8713: 8701: 8689: 8685:Needham (1965) 8677: 8675:, p. 276. 8673:Needham (1965) 8665: 8661:Needham (1965) 8653: 8651:, p. 511. 8649:Needham (1965) 8641: 8639:, p. 509. 8637:Needham (1965) 8629: 8627:, p. 438. 8625:Needham (1965) 8617: 8613:Needham (1965) 8602: 8598:Kuttner (1975) 8590: 8588:, p. 166. 8586:Kuttner (1975) 8578: 8559: 8547: 8543:Needham (1965) 8535: 8533:, p. 110. 8531:Needham (1959) 8523: 8511: 8507:Needham (1959) 8499: 8495:Needham (1959) 8487: 8475: 8463: 8446: 8442:Schafer (1956) 8434: 8422: 8410: 8395: 8378: 8376:, p. 206. 8366: 8364:, p. 213. 8354: 8352:, p. 230. 8342: 8340:, p. 158. 8330: 8328:, p. 283. 8318: 8303: 8301:, p. 281. 8291: 8289:, p. 282. 8274: 8262: 8250: 8248:, p. 212. 8238: 8226: 8214: 8210:Needham (1965) 8202: 8177:(6): 134–158. 8161: 8149: 8137: 8130: 8112: 8097: 8085: 8083:, p. 225. 8073: 8061: 8046: 8044:, p. 206. 8034: 8032:, p. 201. 8022: 8010: 8008:, p. 318. 7995: 7993:, p. 319. 7983: 7971: 7959: 7957:, p. xxi. 7947: 7943:Hargett (1985) 7935: 7933:, p. 524. 7931:Needham (1959) 7923: 7911: 7899: 7887: 7875: 7863: 7851: 7839: 7827: 7815: 7803: 7791: 7779: 7767: 7755: 7743: 7741:, p. 199. 7731: 7719: 7717:, p. xxv. 7707: 7705:, p. 198. 7695: 7693:, p. 200. 7683: 7671: 7659: 7647: 7635: 7620: 7608: 7596: 7579: 7560: 7545: 7533: 7521: 7509: 7497: 7485: 7473: 7461: 7449: 7437: 7422: 7410: 7395: 7383: 7371: 7359: 7347: 7345:, p. 108. 7335: 7323: 7311: 7299: 7287: 7278: 7263: 7251: 7236: 7221: 7209: 7197: 7188: 7176: 7164: 7147: 7135: 7123: 7111: 7099: 7087: 7075: 7073:, p. 205. 7063: 7046: 7034: 7022: 7020:, p. 124. 7010: 6994: 6982: 6970: 6958: 6946: 6934: 6922: 6910: 6898: 6886: 6874: 6867: 6847: 6832: 6820: 6808: 6806:, p. 208. 6796: 6794:, p. 139. 6784: 6772: 6760: 6748: 6746:, p. 273. 6733: 6721: 6719:, p. 137. 6709: 6674: 6672:, p. 194. 6662: 6660:, p. 272. 6650: 6638: 6636:, p. 527. 6626: 6614: 6602: 6590: 6578: 6566: 6554: 6552:, p. 227. 6542: 6530: 6518: 6506: 6504:, p. 273. 6494: 6482: 6470: 6458: 6446: 6434: 6432:, p. 470. 6415: 6403: 6391: 6379: 6377:, p. 159. 6367: 6355: 6353:, p. 197. 6343: 6331: 6329:, p. 133. 6319: 6317:, p. 248. 6307: 6295: 6283: 6271: 6259: 6257:, p. 130. 6247: 6232: 6220: 6208: 6206:, p. 191. 6191: 6189:, p. 151. 6179: 6167: 6165:, p. 150. 6152: 6145: 6127: 6115: 6113:, p. 271. 6103: 6086: 6074: 6062: 6050: 6038: 6036:, p. 238. 6026: 6024:, p. 109. 6014: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5971: 5921: 5904: 5900:House of Zheng 5887: 5870: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5843: 5838: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5767: 5766: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5690:Xuande Emperor 5646: 5643: 5564:, compiled by 5534:, compiled by 5493:technique and 5474:Tiangong Kaiwu 5393:incense clocks 5378:(683–727) and 5259:Johann Schreck 5192:Tiangong Kaiwu 5152: 5149: 5138:sumptuary laws 5089:Public bathing 5050:carved lacquer 5033: 5032: 5023: 5022: 5014: 5013: 5005: 5004: 4996: 4995: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4969: 4968: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4899: 4896: 4851:Yongle Emperor 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4783:had begun the 4694:Hongwu Emperor 4673:Blanc-de-Chine 4547: 4544: 4500:sculpture. In 4458:blue and white 4388:rock sculpture 4333:Peking Gazette 4316:Travel Diaries 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4163:Yongle Emperor 4108: 4105: 4088:Xuande Emperor 4079: 4076: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3957: 3954: 3953: 3952: 3944: 3937: 3930: 3923: 3916: 3880:Hanlin Academy 3876:Hongxi Emperor 3872:Yongle Emperor 3851:Nanjing Museum 3841:A portrait of 3834: 3831: 3768:Forbidden City 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3731:subprefectures 3669: 3666: 3658: 3655: 3538: 3535: 3423: 3420: 3415:Main article: 3412: 3409: 3393:Little Ice Age 3335:The Portuguese 3297: 3294: 3278:Tianqi Emperor 3234: 3231: 3215:Ordos campaign 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3169:Yongle Emperor 3150:(r. 1457–64). 3081: 3078: 3047:treasure ships 2978:Forbidden City 2965: 2962: 2958:Yongle Emperor 2946:Hongwu Emperor 2938:Yongle Emperor 2929: 2926: 2909:Yongle Emperor 2907:Main article: 2904: 2901: 2791:Main article: 2788: 2785: 2770:, a eunuch of 2700:Warring States 2680:Main article: 2677: 2674: 2603: 2600: 2539:law code, the 2519:Hongwu Emperor 2510: 2507: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2392:Main article: 2389: 2386: 2376:armies of the 2358:Little Ice Age 2348:introduced by 2342:hyperinflation 2334:South American 2235:. One eunuch, 2221:Forbidden City 2213:Yongle Emperor 2171:Hongwu Emperor 2087: 2086: 2084: 2083: 2076: 2069: 2061: 2058: 2057: 2054: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2042: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2005: 2004: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1982:Jewish history 1979: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1958: 1954: 1953: 1952: 1949: 1948: 1942: 1941: 1937: 1936: 1934: 1933: 1920: 1918: 1916: 1915: 1913:(1949–present) 1902: 1900: 1894: 1887: 1886: 1875: 1869: 1868: 1867: 1864: 1863: 1857: 1856: 1854: 1853: 1841: 1840: 1828: 1827: 1816: 1806: 1805: 1801: 1800: 1798: 1797: 1787: 1784: 1774: 1771: 1761: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1752: 1742: 1731: 1730: 1718: 1717: 1704: 1702: 1696: 1686: 1685: 1683: 1682: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1678: 1656: 1655: 1643: 1642: 1629: 1619: 1618: 1614: 1613: 1611: 1610: 1600: 1597: 1593: 1591: 1589: 1588: 1578: 1567: 1565: 1559: 1550: 1549: 1547: 1546: 1534: 1533: 1513: 1512: 1506:Three Kingdoms 1500: 1499: 1489: 1479: 1469: 1458: 1457: 1445: 1444: 1433: 1427: 1421: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1404:Warring States 1401: 1397: 476 BCE 1372: 1370:(1046–771 BCE) 1361: 1360: 1356: 256 BCE 1337: 1336: 1314: 1313: 1290: 1289: 1267: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1256: 1255: 1252: 1251: 1231: 1230: 1207: 1206: 1198: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1184: 1182:Historiography 1179: 1174: 1166: 1165: 1157: 1156: 1150: 1149: 1137: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1121: 1115: 1114: 1107: 1098: 1097: 1091: 1090: 1080: 1074: 1073: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1052: 1046: 1045: 1043:Yue: Cantonese 1039: 1038: 1031: 1025: 1024: 1018: 1017: 1010: 1004: 1003: 994: 988: 987: 980: 974: 973: 966: 960: 959: 953: 952: 951:Transcriptions 944: 943: 936: 930: 929: 925: 924: 921: 920: 913: 907: 906: 899: 890: 889: 883: 882: 872: 866: 865: 858: 852: 851: 844: 838: 837: 835:Yue: Cantonese 831: 830: 823: 817: 816: 810: 809: 799: 793: 792: 785: 779: 778: 769: 763: 762: 755: 749: 748: 741: 735: 734: 728: 727: 726:Transcriptions 719: 718: 711: 705: 704: 701: 693: 692: 689: 688: 680: 679: 676: 675: 672: 671: 664: 658: 657: 650: 644: 643: 636: 630: 629: 622: 616: 615: 608: 602: 601: 594: 585: 582: 581: 576: 564: 563: 558: 548: 547: 545: 544: 541: 540: 538:and by weight) 527: 509: 508: 502: 493: 491: 487: 486: 478: 475: 472: 471: 468: 458: 457: 454: 453: 450: 447: 444: 443: 440: 437: 434: 433: 430: 427: 424: 423: 420: 419: 415: 414: 411: 407: 406: 402: 401: 398: 397: 394: 388: 385: 384: 381: 375: 372: 371: 368: 361: 358: 357: 354: 348: 345: 344: 341: 340: 335: 334:Historical era 331: 330: 327: 326: 321: 318: 315: 314: 309: 306: 303: 302: 300:Yongle Emperor 297: 294: 291: 290: 288:Hongwu Emperor 285: 282: 279: 278: 275: 274: 271: 265: 264: 259: 255: 254: 253: 252: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 220:Heaven worship 215: 211: 210: 209: 208: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 167: 159: 155: 154: 152: 151: 143: 134: 132: 128: 127: 124: 116: 115: 112:Yongle Emperor 109: 101: 100: 94: 87: 86: 83: 82: 78: 77: 74: 73: 66: 50: 49: 46: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13844: 13833: 13830: 13828: 13825: 13823: 13820: 13818: 13815: 13813: 13810: 13808: 13805: 13803: 13800: 13798: 13795: 13793: 13790: 13788: 13785: 13783: 13780: 13778: 13775: 13773: 13770: 13768: 13765: 13763: 13760: 13759: 13757: 13750: 13738: 13737:Soviet empire 13735: 13733: 13730: 13729: 13727: 13726: 13724: 13722:Miscellaneous 13720: 13714: 13711: 13709: 13706: 13704: 13701: 13699: 13696: 13694: 13691: 13687: 13684: 13683: 13682: 13679: 13678: 13676: 13672: 13662: 13659: 13657: 13654: 13652: 13649: 13647: 13644: 13640: 13637: 13636: 13635: 13632: 13630: 13627: 13625: 13622: 13620: 13617: 13615: 13612: 13610: 13607: 13605: 13602: 13600: 13597: 13595: 13592: 13590: 13587: 13583: 13580: 13578: 13575: 13574: 13573: 13570: 13568: 13565: 13563: 13560: 13559: 13557: 13555: 13551: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13533: 13530: 13528: 13525: 13523: 13520: 13519: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13506: 13503: 13502: 13501: 13498: 13496: 13493: 13489: 13486: 13484: 13481: 13479: 13476: 13475: 13474: 13471: 13469: 13466: 13462: 13459: 13457: 13454: 13453: 13452: 13449: 13445: 13442: 13440: 13437: 13435: 13432: 13430: 13427: 13425: 13422: 13421: 13420: 13417: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13404: 13403: 13400: 13398: 13395: 13393: 13390: 13388: 13385: 13381: 13378: 13376: 13373: 13371: 13368: 13366: 13363: 13361: 13358: 13357: 13356: 13353: 13349: 13346: 13344: 13341: 13340: 13339: 13336: 13334: 13331: 13327: 13324: 13322: 13321:German Empire 13319: 13318: 13317: 13314: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13301: 13300: 13297: 13293: 13290: 13288: 13285: 13284: 13283: 13280: 13278: 13275: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13248: 13247: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13234: 13231: 13229: 13226: 13225: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13208: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13197: 13195: 13193: 13189: 13183: 13180: 13178: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13166: 13163: 13161: 13158: 13156: 13153: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13132: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13119: 13116: 13114: 13111: 13109: 13106: 13104: 13101: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13090: 13089: 13086: 13082: 13079: 13077: 13074: 13072: 13069: 13067: 13064: 13063: 13062: 13061:Turco-Persian 13059: 13057: 13054: 13052: 13049: 13047: 13044: 13042: 13039: 13037: 13034: 13032: 13029: 13027: 13024: 13022: 13019: 13015: 13012: 13010: 13007: 13006: 13005: 13002: 12998: 12995: 12993: 12990: 12988: 12985: 12983: 12980: 12978: 12975: 12973: 12970: 12969: 12968: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12933: 12930: 12929: 12928: 12925: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12902: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12881: 12878: 12876: 12873: 12869: 12866: 12864: 12861: 12859: 12856: 12854: 12851: 12850: 12849: 12846: 12842: 12839: 12837: 12834: 12832: 12829: 12827: 12824: 12823: 12822: 12819: 12815: 12812: 12810: 12807: 12805: 12802: 12801: 12800: 12797: 12795: 12792: 12790: 12787: 12785: 12782: 12780: 12777: 12773: 12770: 12768: 12765: 12763: 12760: 12759: 12758: 12755: 12753: 12750: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12717: 12716: 12713: 12709: 12706: 12704: 12701: 12700: 12699: 12696: 12692: 12689: 12687: 12684: 12682: 12679: 12677: 12674: 12673: 12672: 12669: 12667: 12664: 12660: 12657: 12656: 12655: 12652: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12639: 12637: 12635: 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12617: 12615: 12612: 12610: 12607: 12605: 12602: 12601: 12599: 12597: 12593: 12585: 12582: 12581: 12580: 12577: 12575: 12572: 12568: 12565: 12563: 12560: 12559: 12558: 12555: 12551: 12548: 12547: 12546: 12543: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12529: 12526: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12516: 12514: 12511: 12510: 12509: 12506: 12504: 12501: 12499: 12496: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12473: 12472: 12469: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12456: 12455: 12452: 12450: 12447: 12443: 12440: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12428: 12425: 12423: 12420: 12419: 12418: 12415: 12413: 12410: 12408: 12405: 12401: 12398: 12396: 12393: 12391: 12388: 12387: 12386: 12383: 12381: 12378: 12374: 12371: 12369: 12366: 12364: 12361: 12360: 12359: 12356: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12338: 12337: 12334: 12330: 12327: 12325: 12322: 12321: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12310: 12307: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12296: 12292: 12288: 12281: 12276: 12274: 12269: 12267: 12262: 12261: 12258: 12246: 12245: 12241: 12240: 12238: 12234: 12228: 12225: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12212: 12211: 12208: 12207: 12205: 12201: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12180: 12177: 12175: 12172: 12170: 12167: 12165: 12162: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12129: 12127: 12123: 12117: 12114: 12112: 12109: 12107: 12104: 12102: 12101:Ming Xiaoling 12099: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12089: 12088: 12086: 12082: 12076: 12075: 12071: 12069: 12068: 12064: 12062: 12061: 12057: 12055: 12054: 12050: 12048: 12047: 12043: 12041: 12040: 12036: 12035: 12033: 12029: 12023: 12020: 12018: 12015: 12013: 12010: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11997: 11996: 11993: 11992: 11990: 11986: 11980: 11977: 11975: 11972: 11968: 11965: 11964: 11963: 11960: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11949: 11947: 11943: 11937: 11934: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11919: 11917: 11914: 11910: 11909:Vassal prince 11907: 11906: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11897: 11895: 11894:Eastern Depot 11892: 11890: 11887: 11885: 11882: 11878: 11875: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11864: 11863: 11860: 11859: 11857: 11853: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11837:Southern Ming 11835: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11792: 11791: 11788: 11784: 11781: 11780: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11769: 11766: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11754: 11751: 11750: 11748: 11739: 11733: 11730: 11728: 11725: 11723: 11720: 11718: 11715: 11713: 11710: 11708: 11705: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11693: 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11659: 11657: 11648: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11632: 11629: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11614: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11604: 11602: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11587: 11584: 11582: 11579: 11577: 11574: 11572: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11559: 11557: 11554: 11553: 11551: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11533: 11528: 11521: 11516: 11514: 11509: 11507: 11502: 11501: 11498: 11489: 11480: 11479: 11472: 11466: 11461: 11457: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11443: 11440: 11439: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11425: 11424: 11419: 11414: 11399: 11397:0-521-36518-X 11393: 11389: 11388: 11383: 11379: 11375: 11371: 11367: 11363: 11359: 11355: 11350: 11347: 11343: 11340: 11336: 11332: 11328: 11323: 11319: 11314: 11310: 11304: 11300: 11299: 11293: 11289: 11283: 11279: 11274: 11270: 11264: 11260: 11259: 11254: 11250: 11248: 11244: 11240: 11236: 11230: 11226: 11221: 11217: 11212: 11208: 11202: 11198: 11193: 11189: 11183: 11179: 11174: 11172: 11168: 11164: 11163: 11153: 11152: 11148:Lynn Struve, 11147: 11144: 11141: 11137: 11131: 11127: 11126: 11120: 11117: 11116: 11111: 11110: 11094: 11089: 11085: 11079: 11075: 11070: 11066: 11062: 11058: 11054: 11050: 11046: 11042: 11038: 11033: 11029: 11024: 11022: 11015: 11011: 11007: 11003: 10999: 10995: 10991: 10987: 10983: 10978: 10974: 10968: 10964: 10959: 10955: 10949: 10945: 10940: 10936: 10930: 10926: 10922: 10917: 10913: 10907: 10903: 10898: 10894: 10890: 10886: 10882: 10878: 10874: 10869: 10865: 10859: 10855: 10850: 10838: 10834: 10830: 10825: 10821: 10815: 10811: 10806: 10802: 10798: 10794: 10788: 10784: 10780: 10776: 10771: 10767: 10761: 10757: 10752: 10748: 10742: 10738: 10733: 10721: 10717: 10713: 10708: 10696: 10692: 10688: 10684: 10678: 10674: 10669: 10665: 10659: 10655: 10650: 10646: 10640: 10636: 10632: 10628: 10624: 10620: 10616: 10612: 10608: 10607: 10602: 10598: 10594: 10590: 10584: 10581:. Routledge. 10580: 10576: 10571: 10567: 10561: 10557: 10552: 10548: 10542: 10538: 10534: 10533: 10528: 10524: 10520: 10516: 10511: 10507: 10501: 10498:. Routledge. 10497: 10492: 10488: 10482: 10478: 10473: 10469: 10463: 10459: 10454: 10450: 10446: 10442: 10438: 10434: 10430: 10425: 10421: 10415: 10411: 10406: 10402: 10396: 10392: 10387: 10372: 10368: 10362: 10358: 10351: 10346: 10342: 10338: 10334: 10330: 10326: 10322: 10317: 10313: 10309: 10305: 10301: 10298:(1): 79–123, 10297: 10293: 10288: 10284: 10280: 10276: 10272: 10267: 10263: 10259: 10255: 10251: 10247: 10243: 10239: 10235: 10231: 10226: 10222: 10216: 10212: 10207: 10203: 10197: 10193: 10188: 10184: 10183: 10177: 10173: 10168: 10164: 10159: 10155: 10150: 10146: 10141: 10137: 10133: 10129: 10125: 10121: 10117: 10111: 10107: 10102: 10098: 10092: 10088: 10083: 10079: 10073: 10069: 10064: 10060: 10056: 10051: 10036: 10032: 10025: 10020: 10009: 10008: 10003: 9998: 9994: 9988: 9984: 9979: 9972: 9968: 9964: 9960: 9956: 9952: 9948: 9944: 9940: 9933: 9928: 9924: 9919: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9901: 9897: 9892: 9888: 9882: 9878: 9873: 9869: 9865: 9861: 9857: 9853: 9849: 9844: 9840: 9834: 9829: 9828: 9821: 9817: 9811: 9807: 9802: 9798: 9792: 9788: 9783: 9779: 9773: 9769: 9768: 9762: 9758: 9754: 9750: 9746: 9742: 9738: 9733: 9729: 9725: 9721: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9704: 9700: 9694: 9690: 9685: 9681: 9675: 9671: 9666: 9662: 9656: 9652: 9651: 9645: 9641: 9635: 9631: 9626: 9622: 9620:90-04-10391-0 9616: 9612: 9607: 9603: 9597: 9594:. Routledge. 9593: 9588: 9584: 9578: 9574: 9569: 9565: 9559: 9555: 9551: 9546: 9542: 9536: 9532: 9527: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9508: 9504: 9500: 9496: 9492: 9488: 9484: 9480: 9473: 9468: 9464: 9458: 9454: 9453: 9447: 9443: 9437: 9433: 9432: 9426: 9415: 9409: 9405: 9404: 9398: 9394: 9390: 9386: 9382: 9378: 9374: 9370: 9366: 9361: 9357: 9353: 9349: 9345: 9341: 9337: 9333: 9329: 9325: 9320: 9316: 9312: 9308: 9304: 9301:(74): 27–47. 9300: 9296: 9291: 9287: 9281: 9277: 9274:, Cambridge: 9273: 9268: 9264: 9258: 9254: 9250: 9249: 9243: 9228: 9221: 9216: 9212: 9208: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9184: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9167: 9163: 9160:(1): 83–113, 9159: 9155: 9150: 9146: 9140: 9136: 9131: 9130: 9118: 9113: 9106: 9101: 9094: 9089: 9082: 9077: 9075: 9067: 9062: 9056:, p. 86. 9055: 9054:Atwell (2002) 9050: 9043: 9038: 9032:, p. 28. 9031: 9026: 9024: 9022: 9014: 9013:Kinney (1995) 9009: 9002: 8997: 8995: 8988:, p. 97. 8987: 8982: 8980: 8972: 8967: 8965: 8957: 8952: 8950: 8943:, p. 27. 8942: 8937: 8930: 8925: 8918: 8914: 8909: 8902: 8897: 8890: 8885: 8878: 8873: 8866: 8861: 8854: 8849: 8842: 8837: 8830: 8825: 8818: 8813: 8806: 8801: 8794: 8789: 8782: 8777: 8770: 8765: 8758: 8753: 8746: 8741: 8734: 8729: 8722: 8717: 8710: 8705: 8698: 8693: 8686: 8681: 8674: 8669: 8662: 8657: 8650: 8645: 8638: 8633: 8626: 8621: 8614: 8609: 8607: 8599: 8594: 8587: 8582: 8576:, p. 78. 8575: 8570: 8568: 8566: 8564: 8557:, p. 47. 8556: 8551: 8544: 8539: 8532: 8527: 8520: 8515: 8508: 8503: 8496: 8491: 8484: 8479: 8473:, p. 14. 8472: 8471:Spence (1999) 8467: 8461:, p. 95. 8460: 8455: 8453: 8451: 8444:, p. 57. 8443: 8438: 8431: 8426: 8419: 8414: 8407: 8406:Spence (1999) 8402: 8400: 8393:, p. 13. 8392: 8391:Spence (1999) 8387: 8385: 8383: 8375: 8370: 8363: 8358: 8351: 8346: 8339: 8334: 8327: 8322: 8315: 8310: 8308: 8300: 8295: 8288: 8283: 8281: 8279: 8272:, p. 47. 8271: 8266: 8259: 8254: 8247: 8242: 8235: 8230: 8224:, p. 15. 8223: 8222:Leslie (1998) 8218: 8211: 8206: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8176: 8172: 8165: 8158: 8157:Lipman (1998) 8153: 8146: 8141: 8133: 8127: 8123: 8116: 8109: 8104: 8102: 8094: 8089: 8082: 8077: 8070: 8065: 8059:, p. 10. 8058: 8057:Spence (1999) 8053: 8051: 8043: 8038: 8031: 8026: 8019: 8014: 8007: 8002: 8000: 7992: 7987: 7980: 7975: 7968: 7963: 7956: 7951: 7945:, p. 69. 7944: 7939: 7932: 7927: 7920: 7915: 7908: 7903: 7896: 7891: 7884: 7879: 7872: 7871:Hucker (1958) 7867: 7860: 7855: 7849:, p. 19. 7848: 7847:Hucker (1958) 7843: 7836: 7835:Hucker (1958) 7831: 7824: 7819: 7812: 7811:Hucker (1958) 7807: 7800: 7799:Hucker (1958) 7795: 7789:, p. 18. 7788: 7787:Hucker (1958) 7783: 7776: 7771: 7764: 7759: 7752: 7751:Hucker (1958) 7747: 7740: 7735: 7728: 7727:Hucker (1958) 7723: 7716: 7711: 7704: 7699: 7692: 7687: 7680: 7675: 7668: 7663: 7657:, p. 96. 7656: 7651: 7645:, p. 12. 7644: 7643:Hucker (1958) 7639: 7633:, p. 26. 7632: 7631:Hucker (1958) 7627: 7625: 7617: 7616:Hucker (1958) 7612: 7605: 7604:Hucker (1958) 7600: 7594:, p. 25. 7593: 7592:Hucker (1958) 7588: 7586: 7584: 7577:, p. 24. 7576: 7575:Hucker (1958) 7571: 7569: 7567: 7565: 7558:, p. 36. 7557: 7556:Hucker (1958) 7552: 7550: 7543:, p. 35. 7542: 7541:Hucker (1958) 7537: 7530: 7529:Hucker (1958) 7525: 7519:, p. 33. 7518: 7517:Hucker (1958) 7513: 7507:, p. 32. 7506: 7505:Hucker (1958) 7501: 7494: 7493:Hucker (1958) 7489: 7483:, p. 30. 7482: 7481:Hucker (1958) 7477: 7470: 7469:Hucker (1958) 7465: 7459:, p. 23. 7458: 7457:Hucker (1958) 7453: 7447:, p. 16. 7446: 7445:Hucker (1958) 7441: 7435:, p. 16. 7434: 7429: 7427: 7419: 7414: 7408:, p. 28. 7407: 7406:Hucker (1958) 7402: 7400: 7392: 7391:Hucker (1958) 7387: 7380: 7375: 7368: 7363: 7357:, p. 97. 7356: 7351: 7344: 7339: 7332: 7327: 7320: 7315: 7309:, p. 33. 7308: 7307:Spence (1999) 7303: 7296: 7295:Spence (1999) 7291: 7282: 7276:, p. 22. 7275: 7274:Spence (1999) 7270: 7268: 7260: 7259:Spence (1999) 7255: 7249:, p. 31. 7248: 7247:Spence (1999) 7243: 7241: 7234:, p. 92. 7233: 7228: 7226: 7218: 7217:Spence (1999) 7213: 7206: 7205:Spence (1999) 7201: 7192: 7185: 7180: 7173: 7172:Spence (1999) 7168: 7162:, p. 21. 7161: 7160:Spence (1999) 7156: 7154: 7152: 7144: 7139: 7132: 7131:Atwell (2005) 7127: 7120: 7119:Spence (1999) 7115: 7108: 7103: 7096: 7091: 7084: 7079: 7072: 7067: 7061:, p. 20. 7060: 7059:Spence (1999) 7055: 7053: 7051: 7043: 7038: 7031: 7030:Spence (1999) 7026: 7019: 7014: 7007: 7003: 6998: 6991: 6986: 6979: 6974: 6967: 6966:Spence (1999) 6962: 6956:, p. 11. 6955: 6954:Hucker (1958) 6950: 6943: 6938: 6931: 6926: 6919: 6914: 6907: 6906:Herman (2007) 6902: 6895: 6890: 6883: 6878: 6870: 6868:9780806185026 6864: 6860: 6859: 6851: 6845:, p. 17. 6844: 6843:Spence (1999) 6839: 6837: 6830:, p. 16. 6829: 6828:Spence (1999) 6824: 6818:, p. 31. 6817: 6816:Hucker (1958) 6812: 6805: 6800: 6793: 6788: 6781: 6776: 6769: 6764: 6758:, p. 83. 6757: 6752: 6745: 6740: 6738: 6730: 6725: 6718: 6713: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6678: 6671: 6666: 6659: 6654: 6648:, p. 84. 6647: 6646:Atwell (2002) 6642: 6635: 6630: 6623: 6618: 6611: 6610:Kolmaš (1967) 6606: 6599: 6594: 6587: 6582: 6575: 6574:Kolmaš (1967) 6570: 6564:, p. 38. 6563: 6558: 6551: 6546: 6539: 6534: 6527: 6522: 6515: 6514:Kolmaš (1967) 6510: 6503: 6502:Perdue (2000) 6498: 6491: 6486: 6479: 6474: 6468:, p. 32. 6467: 6466:Kolmaš (1967) 6462: 6456:, p. 52. 6455: 6450: 6443: 6438: 6431: 6426: 6424: 6422: 6420: 6412: 6407: 6400: 6395: 6388: 6383: 6376: 6371: 6364: 6359: 6352: 6347: 6341:, p. 34. 6340: 6339:Dillon (1999) 6335: 6328: 6323: 6316: 6311: 6304: 6299: 6292: 6287: 6280: 6275: 6268: 6263: 6256: 6251: 6244: 6239: 6237: 6230:, p. 25. 6229: 6224: 6217: 6216:Naquin (2000) 6212: 6205: 6200: 6198: 6196: 6188: 6183: 6176: 6171: 6164: 6159: 6157: 6148: 6142: 6138: 6131: 6124: 6119: 6112: 6107: 6100: 6095: 6093: 6091: 6083: 6078: 6071: 6066: 6060:, p. 500 6059: 6054: 6048:, p. 222 6047: 6042: 6035: 6030: 6023: 6018: 6011: 6006: 6004: 5999: 5981: 5975: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5959:Eight Banners 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5925: 5918: 5914: 5908: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5884: 5880: 5874: 5863: 5857: 5853: 5842: 5841:Zheng Zhilong 5839: 5836: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5806:Ming ceramics 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5749: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5733: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5695: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5669:Timothy Brook 5666: 5659: 5658:Chen Hongshou 5655: 5651: 5642: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5618: 5617:Bencao Gangmu 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5588:propelled by 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5562: 5555: 5553: 5549: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5518: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5475: 5470: 5469:Song Yingxing 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5449:Chinese ships 5446: 5442: 5438: 5430: 5425: 5421: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5405: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5361: 5356: 5352: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5279:Joseph Edkins 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5235:Western world 5232: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5194: 5193: 5188: 5187:blast furnace 5184: 5180: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5131: 5127: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5106: 5105:Bianmintuzuan 5101: 5097: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5064: 5059: 5051: 5046: 5037: 5027: 5018: 5009: 5000: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4976:-handscroll ( 4975: 4971: 4965: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4942: 4940: 4935: 4924: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4904: 4895: 4893: 4888: 4884: 4868: 4867:Chan Buddhism 4864: 4863:Wang Yangming 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4845: 4842: 4838: 4837:Neo-Confucian 4830: 4826: 4825:Wang Yangming 4821: 4807: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4792: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4740: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4687: 4683: 4682:Song Yingxing 4679: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4660: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4616: 4612: 4607: 4606:Tibetan lamas 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4543: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4518:, ivory, and 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4452:Ming dynasty 4450: 4446: 4444: 4440: 4439:Wen Zhengming 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4397: 4393: 4392:Chen Hongshou 4389: 4384: 4380: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4369:Yuan Zhongdao 4366: 4362: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4283:Feng Menglong 4280: 4279: 4274: 4273: 4268: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4248:Chinese opera 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4226: 4221: 4214: 4210: 4209: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4175: 4171: 4169: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4133: 4126: 4122: 4121:Wanli Emperor 4118: 4113: 4104: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4075: 4071: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3995: 3981: 3977: 3975: 3966: 3962: 3949: 3945: 3942: 3938: 3935: 3931: 3928: 3924: 3921: 3917: 3914: 3910: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3849:, now in the 3848: 3844: 3839: 3830: 3826: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3750: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3674: 3664: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3643:Southern Ming 3638: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3591:Eight Banners 3587: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3534: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3519: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3386: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3354:, while even 3353: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3336: 3327: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3303: 3293: 3289: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3274:Wei Zhongxian 3270: 3268: 3267:Wanli Emperor 3264: 3260: 3254: 3247: 3246:Wei Zhongxian 3243: 3239: 3230: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3211:Zhang Juzheng 3208: 3207:Wanli Emperor 3200: 3199:Wanli Emperor 3195: 3181: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3163: 3162:Imperial City 3159: 3155: 3151: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3077: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3050: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2999: 2995: 2979: 2975: 2974:Imperial City 2971: 2961: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2939: 2934: 2928:Rise to power 2924: 2915: 2910: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2865:Wanli Emperor 2860: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2836: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2813: 2804: 2799: 2794: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2772:Haixi Jurchen 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2756:Wild Jurchens 2752: 2747: 2745: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2717: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2666:Wang Yangming 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2613: 2609: 2599: 2595: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2580: 2579:secret police 2576: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2555: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2533: 2528: 2520: 2515: 2506: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2493:(present-day 2492: 2489:Yuan capital 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2470:Chen Youliang 2467: 2463: 2458: 2456: 2451: 2450:Zhu Yuanzhang 2447: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2401: 2395: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2354:Zhang Juzheng 2351: 2350:Wang Yangming 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2306:chili peppers 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2279: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2191:court eunuchs 2188: 2184: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2164:Southern Ming 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2120: 2112: 2094: 2082: 2077: 2075: 2070: 2068: 2063: 2062: 2060: 2059: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2014:Naval history 2012: 2010: 2007: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1998: 1997:Music history 1995: 1993: 1992:Media history 1990: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1977:Legal history 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1951: 1950: 1931:1949–present) 1927: 1926: 1922: 1921: 1919: 1911: 1910: 1904: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1897: 1892: 1882: 1881: 1877: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1843: 1836: 1835: 1831: 1830: 1823: 1822: 1818: 1817: 1814: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1785: 1780: 1779: 1775: 1772: 1767: 1766: 1762: 1759: 1758: 1756: 1748: 1747: 1746:Southern Song 1743: 1738: 1737: 1736:Northern Song 1733: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1721: 1720: 1713: 1712: 1706: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1694: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1663: 1659: 1658: 1651: 1650: 1646: 1645: 1638: 1637: 1631: 1630: 1627: 1606: 1605: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1592: 1584: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1573: 1569: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1562: 1557: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1536: 1532: 1531: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1519: 1515: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1503: 1502: 1495: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1474: 1470: 1467:(206–202 BCE) 1465: 1464: 1460: 1459: 1453: 1452: 1448: 1447: 1442:(221–207 BCE) 1440: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1431: 1424: 1418: 1417: 1407:(475–221 BCE) 1405: 1402: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1380:(771–256 BCE) 1378: 1377: 1373: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1345: 1344: 1340: 1339: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1298: 1297: 1293: 1292: 1274: 1273: 1269: 1268: 1264: 1258: 1257: 1250: 1249: 1244: 1243: 1238: 1237: 1233: 1232: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1204: 1200: 1199: 1195: 1189: 1188: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1142: 1134: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1099: 1096: 1092: 1086: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1067: 1065: 1061: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1019: 1011: 1009: 1005: 995: 993: 989: 981: 979: 975: 967: 965: 961: 958: 954: 949: 945: 937: 935: 931: 928:Dynastic name 926: 914: 912: 908: 900: 898: 895: 891: 888: 884: 878: 873: 871: 867: 859: 857: 853: 845: 843: 839: 836: 832: 824: 822: 818: 815: 811: 805: 800: 798: 794: 786: 784: 780: 770: 768: 764: 756: 754: 750: 742: 740: 736: 733: 729: 724: 720: 712: 710: 706: 699: 694: 690: 685: 665: 663: 660: 659: 651: 649: 646: 645: 637: 635: 634:Southern Ming 632: 631: 623: 621: 618: 617: 609: 607: 604: 603: 595: 593: 590: 589: 586: 580: 577: 570: 569: 566: 565: 562: 559: 557: 554: 553: 549: 537: 532: 528: 524: 520: 515: 511: 510: 506: 503: 498: 495: 494: 492: 488: 479: 473: 469: 463: 459: 455: 451: 445: 441: 435: 431: 425: 421: 416: 412: 408: 403: 399: 395: 392: 391:Southern Ming 386: 383:25 April 1644 382: 379: 373: 369: 365: 359: 355: 352: 346: 342: 339: 336: 332: 328: 325: 322: 316: 313: 312:Wanli Emperor 310: 304: 301: 298: 292: 289: 286: 280: 276: 272: 270: 266: 263: 260: 256: 251: 248: 246: 243: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 217: 216: 212: 207: 206: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 173: 168: 165: 162: 161: 160: 156: 147: 144: 139: 136: 135: 133: 129: 122: 117: 113: 107: 102: 97: 96:Imperial seal 91: 84: 79: 71: 67: 63: 52: 51: 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 13762:Ming dynasty 13749: 13488:Contemporary 13338:Indo-Persian 13326:Nazi Germany 13270:Contemporary 13249: 13172:Vijayanagara 13071:Great Seljuk 12982:Thessalonica 12910:Golden Horde 12550:Carthaginian 12329:Neo-Assyrian 12314:Neo-Sumerian 12242: 12236:Other topics 12147:Four Masters 12072: 12065: 12058: 12051: 12044: 12037: 11877:House of Zhu 11830:Shanhai Pass 11810:Great Plague 11753:Jianzhou war 11527:Ming dynasty 11526: 11488:Qing dynasty 11476: 11471:Yuan dynasty 11418:Ming dynasty 11417: 11386: 11357: 11353: 11345: 11322:W. W. Norton 11320:, New York: 11317: 11297: 11277: 11257: 11242: 11224: 11215: 11196: 11177: 11166: 11149: 11124: 11113: 11092: 11073: 11040: 11036: 11020: 10985: 10981: 10962: 10943: 10924: 10901: 10879:(1): 29–49, 10876: 10872: 10853: 10841:. Retrieved 10828: 10809: 10774: 10755: 10736: 10726:16 September 10724:. Retrieved 10719: 10715: 10699:. Retrieved 10694: 10672: 10653: 10634: 10610: 10604: 10578: 10555: 10537:W. W. Norton 10530: 10514: 10495: 10476: 10457: 10435:(2): 57–82, 10432: 10428: 10409: 10390: 10378:, retrieved 10371:the original 10356: 10324: 10320: 10295: 10291: 10274: 10271:Ming Studies 10270: 10262:j.ctt17t75h5 10253: 10236:(1): 45–61. 10233: 10230:Ming Studies 10229: 10210: 10191: 10181: 10171: 10162: 10153: 10144: 10127: 10105: 10086: 10067: 10054: 10042:. Retrieved 10035:the original 10030: 10011:. Retrieved 10005: 9982: 9971:the original 9942: 9938: 9922: 9895: 9876: 9851: 9847: 9826: 9805: 9786: 9766: 9740: 9736: 9711: 9707: 9688: 9669: 9649: 9629: 9610: 9591: 9572: 9549: 9530: 9482: 9478: 9451: 9430: 9417:. Retrieved 9402: 9368: 9364: 9355: 9327: 9323: 9298: 9295:Ming Studies 9294: 9271: 9251:, Berkeley: 9247: 9234:. Retrieved 9186: 9182: 9157: 9153: 9134: 9117:Brook (1998) 9112: 9105:Ebrey (1999) 9100: 9088: 9081:Brook (1998) 9066:Brook (1998) 9061: 9049: 9042:Brook (1998) 9037: 9030:Brook (1998) 9008: 9001:Brook (1998) 8986:Brook (1998) 8971:Brook (1998) 8956:Brook (1998) 8941:Brook (1998) 8936: 8924: 8908: 8903:, p. 37 8896: 8884: 8872: 8860: 8848: 8836: 8824: 8812: 8800: 8788: 8776: 8764: 8752: 8740: 8728: 8716: 8704: 8692: 8680: 8668: 8656: 8644: 8632: 8620: 8593: 8581: 8550: 8538: 8526: 8514: 8502: 8490: 8478: 8466: 8459:Brook (1998) 8437: 8430:Brook (1998) 8425: 8418:Brook (1998) 8413: 8374:Ebrey (1999) 8369: 8362:Ebrey (1999) 8357: 8350:Brook (1998) 8345: 8338:Ebrey (1999) 8333: 8321: 8294: 8265: 8258:White (1966) 8253: 8246:Ebrey (1999) 8241: 8229: 8217: 8205: 8195:16 September 8193:. Retrieved 8189:the original 8174: 8164: 8152: 8140: 8121: 8115: 8110:, p. 11 8093:Brook (1998) 8088: 8081:Brook (1998) 8076: 8069:Brook (1998) 8064: 8042:Brook (1998) 8037: 8030:Ebrey (1999) 8025: 8018:Brook (1998) 8013: 8006:Chang (2007) 7991:Chang (2007) 7986: 7979:Chang (2007) 7974: 7967:Brook (1998) 7962: 7955:Brook (1998) 7950: 7938: 7926: 7919:Plaks (1987) 7914: 7907:Ebrey (1999) 7902: 7890: 7878: 7866: 7854: 7842: 7837:, p. 8. 7830: 7818: 7806: 7794: 7782: 7775:Elman (2000) 7770: 7763:Elman (1991) 7758: 7746: 7739:Ebrey (1999) 7734: 7722: 7715:Brook (1998) 7710: 7703:Ebrey (1999) 7698: 7691:Ebrey (1999) 7686: 7679:Ebrey (1999) 7674: 7667:Ebrey (1999) 7662: 7650: 7638: 7611: 7599: 7536: 7524: 7512: 7500: 7488: 7476: 7464: 7452: 7440: 7433:Chang (2007) 7418:Chang (2007) 7413: 7393:, p. 5. 7386: 7374: 7362: 7350: 7338: 7326: 7314: 7302: 7290: 7281: 7254: 7232:Chang (2007) 7212: 7200: 7191: 7179: 7167: 7138: 7126: 7114: 7107:Wills (1998) 7102: 7095:Brook (1998) 7090: 7078: 7071:Brook (1998) 7066: 7042:Wills (1998) 7037: 7025: 7018:Brook (1998) 7013: 6997: 6985: 6973: 6961: 6949: 6942:Ebrey (1999) 6937: 6925: 6913: 6901: 6889: 6882:Swope (2011) 6877: 6857: 6850: 6823: 6811: 6804:Ebrey (1999) 6799: 6787: 6775: 6763: 6751: 6724: 6712: 6687: 6683: 6677: 6670:Ebrey (1999) 6665: 6653: 6641: 6629: 6617: 6605: 6600:, p. 23 6593: 6588:, p. 8. 6581: 6569: 6557: 6550:Ebrey (1999) 6545: 6538:Geiss (1988) 6533: 6521: 6509: 6497: 6485: 6473: 6461: 6454:Norbu (2001) 6449: 6437: 6430:Wylie (2003) 6406: 6394: 6389:, p. 73 6382: 6370: 6358: 6351:Ebrey (1999) 6346: 6334: 6322: 6310: 6298: 6286: 6274: 6262: 6250: 6243:Ebrey (1999) 6223: 6211: 6204:Ebrey (1999) 6182: 6175:Ebrey (1999) 6170: 6136: 6130: 6118: 6106: 6099:Zhang (2008) 6077: 6065: 6053: 6041: 6029: 6022:Frank (1998) 6017: 5974: 5947:Qing dynasty 5924: 5907: 5890: 5873: 5856: 5837:in the Ming) 5734: 5711: 5702: 5699: 5663: 5653: 5631:oral hygiene 5625: 5621: 5615: 5602: 5594:hand cannons 5559: 5556: 5547: 5545: 5529: 5472: 5447:, just like 5440: 5434: 5429:Matteo Ricci 5427:Portrait of 5402: 5389:water clocks 5365: 5343:Simon Stevin 5326: 5323:Guo Shoujing 5316: 5307:trigonometry 5303:Guo Shoujing 5275:Michael Boym 5263:heliocentric 5250: 5247:Yuanjingshuo 5246: 5228: 5216: 5190: 5183:wrought iron 5141: 5135: 5117:Yangzi River 5110: 5104: 5073: 5062: 5054: 4973: 4943: 4920: 4912:Zhou dynasty 4834: 4823:Portrait of 4796:Kaifeng Jews 4793: 4789:Qing dynasty 4737: 4718:Matteo Ricci 4691: 4671: 4666:Bodhisattva 4623: 4619: 4615:Taoist canon 4590:Confucianism 4579: 4572:statue of a 4532:Matteo Ricci 4528: 4506: 4501: 4467: 4423:Dong Qichang 4416: 4373:Jin Ping Mei 4372: 4361:Yuan Hongdao 4358: 4342:movable type 4331: 4315: 4305: 4290: 4287:Ling Mengchu 4278:Jin Ping Mei 4276: 4270: 4266:Water Margin 4264: 4230: 4205: 4172: 4142: 4134: 4130: 4119:showing the 4116: 4101: 4072: 4068: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4034:outlined by 4029: 4026:(1494–1552). 4000: 3978: 3973: 3970: 3965:Ming coinage 3951:countryside. 3905:Public Works 3864: 3843:Jiang Shunfu 3827: 3818: 3814: 3812: 3781: 3746: 3742: 3734: 3726: 3722: 3714: 3701: 3683: 3639: 3635:Shun dynasty 3603:Shanhai Pass 3593:crossed the 3588: 3572: 3540: 3516: 3502: 3462: 3390: 3385:copper coins 3374:through the 3332: 3310: 3290: 3271: 3255: 3251: 3248:(1568–1627). 3204: 3166: 3152: 3113: 3052:Yongle used 3051: 3016: 2967: 2943: 2940:(r. 1402–24) 2873:Qing dynasty 2861: 2837: 2832: 2817:Qing dynasty 2810: 2808: 2780: 2776: 2748: 2719:Yuan dynasty 2713: 2696:rammed earth 2670:sinification 2641: 2615: 2596: 2583: 2564: 2560:Tang dynasty 2553: 2548: 2540: 2530: 2524: 2521:(r. 1368–98) 2462:Yuan dynasty 2459: 2433:Yellow River 2421:Yuan dynasty 2414: 2378:Qing dynasty 2374:Eight Banner 2366:Shun dynasty 2300:—spread the 2287: 2276: 2268:forced labor 2257: 2245:Indian Ocean 2198: 2168: 2156:rump regimes 2154:), numerous 2152:Shun dynasty 2136:Yuan dynasty 2123: 2093:Ming dynasty 2092: 2090: 1987:LGBT history 1923: 1905: 1878: 1845: 1833: 1832: 1819: 1789: 1776: 1763: 1744: 1734: 1722: 1711:Ten Kingdoms 1707: 1660: 1647: 1634:Northern and 1632: 1602: 1580: 1570: 1538: 1528: 1522: 1516: 1510:(220–280 CE) 1504: 1491: 1481: 1471: 1461: 1449: 1436: 1376:Eastern Zhou 1374: 1366:Western Zhou 1364: 1341: 1317: 1294: 1270: 1246: 1240: 1234: 1211: 1201: 1095:Southern Min 1029:Romanization 964:Hanyu Pinyin 887:Southern Min 739:Hanyu Pinyin 687:Ming dynasty 648:Qing dynasty 606:Shun dynasty 579:Yuan dynasty 561:Succeeded by 560: 555: 448:• 1600 438:• 1500 428:• 1393 338:Early modern 230:Confucianism 202: 40: 18:Ming Dynasty 13076:Khwarezmian 13009:Carolingian 12814:Rashtrakuta 12518:Shaishunaga 12417:Hellenistic 12400:New Kingdom 12390:Old Kingdom 12189:Tai history 11872:Family tree 11783:Liaoluo Bay 11717:Renyin plot 11667:Tumu Crisis 11247:online free 10277:(1): 1–16. 10057:, Seattle: 9914:j.ctt6wr0q3 9485:(1): 7–28. 9126:Works cited 8757:Song (1966) 8745:Song (1966) 8709:Song (1966) 8697:Song (1966) 8519:Wong (1963) 8483:Zhou (1990) 8234:Wong (1963) 8108:Wang (2012) 7823:Mote (2003) 7367:Yuan (1994) 7285:Spence, 25. 7083:Lane (2019) 7002:Tsai (1996) 6978:Chen (2016) 6930:Tsai (1996) 6918:Ness (1998) 6729:Wang (1998) 6375:Tsai (2001) 6363:Wang (2011) 5821:Ming poetry 5742:Grand Canal 5694:South Zhili 5679:infanticide 5674:North Zhili 5598:ten barrels 5582:aerodynamic 5561:Huolongjing 5531:Huolongjing 5507:crystallize 5483:sericulture 5461:John Milton 5213:East Africa 5189:, from the 4948:and by the 4914:capital of 4859:Fang Xiaoru 4759:, or their 4744:Xi'an Stele 4678:He Chaozong 4604:-supported 4524:latticework 4494:He Chaozong 4464:, New York. 4297:Tang Xianzu 4193:Ming poetry 4155:feudatories 4008:Sui dynasty 3883:Ministries— 3808:chancellors 3790:since late 3719:prefectures 3680:is disputed 3647:Zhu Youlang 3611:Shanhaiguan 3441:Shanhaiguan 3376:Philippines 3370:across the 3352:the Spanish 3272:The eunuch 3171:had staged 3136:Tumu Crisis 3120:Esen Tayisi 3086:Tumu Crisis 3039:Han dynasty 2840:sovereignty 2571:Chancellery 2562:(618–907). 2442:White Lotus 2438:Red Turbans 2362:an epidemic 2264:Tumu Crisis 2225:Grand Canal 2034:Discoveries 2029:Cartography 2024:Archaeology 1962:Art history 1851:(1644–1912) 1838:(1368–1644) 1825:(1271–1368) 1795:(1115–1234) 1782:(1038–1227) 1778:Western Xia 1750:(1127–1279) 1582:Eastern Jin 1572:Western Jin 1497:(25–220 CE) 1493:Eastern Han 1473:Western Han 1352: 1046 1332: 1046 1328: 1250 1305: 1600 1281: 2070 1222: 8500 1203:Paleolithic 1194:Prehistoric 1070:daai6 ming4 1056:Daaih Mìhng 848:Mìhng chìuh 556:Preceded by 500:(1368–1450) 497:Paper money 452:160,000,000 442:125,000,000 149:(1403–1644) 141:(1368–1644) 13756:Categories 13646:Portuguese 13527:Revival Le 13517:Vietnamese 13160:Later Tran 13130:Vietnamese 13026:Singhasari 13014:Holy Roman 12638:Bulgarian 12574:Satavahana 12545:Phoenician 12481:Achaemenid 12442:Indo-Greek 12422:Macedonian 12336:Babylonian 12157:Zhe School 12111:Ming tombs 11995:Inner Asia 11967:Shenjiying 11957:Great Wall 11855:Government 11482:1368–1644 11253:Huang, Ray 11028:Wikisource 9552:, Leiden: 9324:T'oung Pao 8915:, p. 7355:Fan (2016) 6894:Xie (2013) 6327:Shi (2002) 5990:References 5955:Ming tombs 5930:Zhu Shugui 5917:Ebrey 1999 5862:King of Wu 5714:gazetteers 5645:Population 5604:Li Shizhen 5578:land mines 5552:Xu Guangqi 5511:naval mine 5479:snorkeling 5312:field mill 5291:Copernican 5287:John Fryer 5283:Alex Wylie 5113:Huai River 4939:courtesans 4810:Philosophy 4804:1642 flood 4781:Dominicans 4730:Xu Guangqi 4724:" upended 4698:Franciscan 4550:See also: 4540:Xuande era 4328:mineralogy 4320:characters 4232:Literature 4115:Detail of 4032:Four Books 3859:rank badge 3796:Chancellor 3661:See also: 3657:Government 3595:Great Wall 3564:Xi dynasty 3543:Li Zicheng 3509:Great Qing 3505:Hong Taiji 3426:See also: 3242:Tianqi-era 3177:Great Wall 3167:While the 3074:Lê dynasty 3021:commander 3003:Ming Tombs 2893:Güshi Khan 2881:Yellow Hat 2877:Dalai Lama 2844:suzerainty 2829:censorship 2764:Amur River 2567:Hu Weiyong 2541:Da Ming Lü 2482:fire ships 2425:Han people 2346:heterodoxy 2322:Portuguese 2272:Great Wall 2253:Inner Asia 2195:enfeoffing 2148:Li Zicheng 2140:Han people 2124:Great Ming 2039:Inventions 1769:(916–1125) 1740:(960–1127) 1728:(960–1279) 1395: – c. 1393: 770 1354: – c. 1330: – c. 1319:Late Shang 1307: – c. 1283: – c. 1224: – c. 992:Wade–Giles 862:ming4 ciu4 821:Suzhounese 774:Ming ch'ao 767:Wade–Giles 620:Xi dynasty 505:Bimetallic 485:19.8 taels 432:65,000,000 418:Population 258:Government 183:Old Uyghur 166:(official) 47:Great Ming 13639:Couronian 13277:Ethiopian 13265:Manchukuo 13220:Brazilian 13066:Ghaznavid 13036:Srivijaya 12987:Trebizond 12972:Byzantine 12954:North Sea 12949:Norwegian 12937:Almoravid 12920:Ilkhanate 12890:Majapahit 12863:Muromachi 12772:Solomonic 12757:Ethiopian 12671:Caliphate 12604:Aragonese 12432:Ptolemaic 12152:Wu School 12137:Musicians 12000:Manchuria 11988:Frontiers 11065:201773710 11010:144538656 10893:144136313 10843:18 August 10341:144496554 9967:160016226 9613:. Brill. 9515:154406547 9393:162510092 9315:152169027 9236:15 August 9211:162090282 8270:Xu (2003) 7143:So (2012) 6704:0041-977X 6010:Ho (1959) 5995:Citations 5980:Ho (1962) 5831:Ye Chunji 5584:control, 5570:Liu Bowen 5540:Liu Bowen 5528:from the 5495:quenching 5335:Zhu Zaiyu 5295:Ptolemaic 5243:telescope 5181:and then 5121:sugarcane 5081:pederasty 4946:Censorate 4908:Confucius 4883:Confucius 4761:ancestors 4757:Confucius 4720:, whose " 4570:stoneware 4520:cloisonné 4512:porcelain 4431:Shen Zhou 4411:Wu School 4407:Shen Zhou 4324:geography 4303:in 1598. 4213:Shen Zhou 4052:shengyuan 3984:Personnel 3980:princes. 3885:Personnel 3800:Censorate 3623:Han River 3599:Wu Sangui 3580:Chongzhen 3364:New Spain 3356:the Dutch 3259:Wang Zhen 3227:Imjin War 3124:Wang Zhen 2735:Uriankhai 2725:based in 2545:Tang Code 2537:Confucian 2472:, in the 2460:With the 2429:inflation 2382:Wu Sangui 2294:Guangzhou 2243:into the 2126:, was an 1715:(907–979) 1676:(690–705) 1666:(618–907) 1653:(581–618) 1640:(420–589) 1608:(304–439) 1586:(317–420) 1576:(266–316) 1544:(266–420) 1487:(9–23 CE) 1213:Neolithic 1177:Dynasties 917:Bîng tiâu 903:Bêng tiâu 789:Míng cháo 745:Míng cháo 592:Later Jin 466:(nominal) 214:Religion 193:Mongolian 81:1368–1644 13619:Japanese 13582:Scottish 13562:American 13554:Colonial 13483:Imperial 13451:Moroccan 13387:Japanese 13365:Afsharid 13224:Burmese 13210:Austrian 13165:Later Le 13140:Early Le 13125:Venetian 13051:Tiwanaku 12964:Hellenic 12927:Moroccan 12858:Kamakura 12848:Japanese 12831:Saffarid 12784:Georgian 12698:Chalukya 12676:Rashidun 12666:Calakmul 12634:Bruneian 12513:Haryanka 12491:Sasanian 12486:Parthian 12437:Bactrian 12427:Seleucid 12407:Goguryeo 12385:Egyptian 12319:Assyrian 12309:Akkadian 12300:Colonies 12203:Currency 12142:Painting 11952:Military 11945:Military 11456:Archived 11384:(1990). 11374:25165269 11255:(1981), 11057:25549473 10701:26 March 10695:BBC News 10529:(1999), 10126:(1959), 10044:26 March 10013:4 August 9854:: 1–66, 9519:Archived 9227:Archived 9203:20079347 5752:See also 5746:Zhejiang 5491:crucible 5404:Yuan Shi 5360:Zheng He 5299:Shen Kuo 5205:Zheng He 5179:pig iron 5177:to make 4982:Qiu Ying 4978:zh:南都繁会图 4892:Classics 4739:Elements 4668:Manjusri 4644:Zheng He 4611:Zhu Quan 4598:Buddhism 4584:and the 4546:Religion 4536:Liu Tong 4443:Qiu Ying 4435:Tang Yin 4353:Ji Sheng 4308:Xu Xiake 4236:painting 4208:Mount Lu 4090:playing 4063:Shanghai 4024:Qiu Ying 3974:de facto 3786:system, 3774:evicted 3717:省) were 3711:province 3315:Qiu Ying 3154:Tianshun 3148:Tianshun 3132:Zhu Qiyu 3023:Zheng He 2994:miles). 2751:Jurchens 2731:Naghachu 2727:Mongolia 2591:Jurchens 2575:Jinyiwei 2503:era name 2446:Buddhist 2406:Founding 2318:potatoes 2296:such as 2237:Zheng He 2002:Timeline 1929:(Taiwan, 1909:of China 1423:Imperial 1172:Timeline 1146:a series 1144:Part of 1125:Tāi-bîng 1111:Tāi-bêng 1064:Jyutping 984:ㄉㄚˋ ㄇㄧㄥˊ 978:Bopomofo 856:Jyutping 759:ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ 753:Bopomofo 490:Currency 470:estimate 235:Buddhism 164:Mandarin 13686:largest 13681:Empires 13661:Swedish 13656:Spanish 13651:Russian 13614:Italian 13589:Chinese 13577:English 13572:British 13567:Belgian 13542:Vietnam 13532:Tay son 13478:Tsarist 13473:Russian 13468:Ottoman 13434:Dzungar 13429:Khoshut 13402:Mexican 13397:Maratha 13380:Pahlavi 13360:Safavid 13355:Iranian 13282:Haitian 13245:Chinese 13205:Ashanti 13177:Wagadou 13103:Eastern 13098:Western 13081:Timurid 13041:Tibetan 13031:Songhai 13021:Serbian 12942:Almohad 12932:Idrisid 12836:Samanid 12826:Tahirid 12821:Iranian 12799:Kannauj 12779:Genoese 12715:Chinese 12708:Eastern 12703:Western 12691:Fatimid 12686:Abbasid 12681:Umayyad 12654:Burmese 12614:Ayyubid 12609:Angevin 12579:Xianbei 12567:Eastern 12562:Western 12508:Magadha 12471:Iranian 12464:Xiongnu 12449:Hittite 12358:Chinese 12346:Kassite 12295:Ancient 12287:Empires 12210:Coinage 12184:Economy 12012:Vietnam 11904:Princes 11862:Emperor 11650:Middle 11536:History 11339:Archive 11331:Archive 11171:excerpt 11118:(1994). 10812:. OUP. 10627:2600793 10312:2652684 10132:Bibcode 9868:2718619 9757:2718941 9507:2057472 9499:2057472 9419:28 June 9385:2056469 9344:4527509 9174:2700190 7006:excerpt 5945:of the 5934:Koxinga 5726:Zhengde 5722:Hongzhi 5566:Jiao Yu 5536:Jiao Yu 5380:Su Song 5376:Yi Xing 5327:Shoushi 5107:(便民图纂). 5077:brothel 4986:Nanjing 4916:Luoyang 4887:Mencius 4844:scholar 4753:emperor 4706:Jesuits 4652:Mu Ying 4474:Jiangxi 4092:chuiwan 3901:Justice 3889:Revenue 3698:circuit 3631:Jiangxi 3627:Wuchang 3560:Sichuan 3556:Chengdu 3523:Chongde 3518:huangdi 3465:Nurhaci 3372:Pacific 3319:bullion 3263:Liu Jin 3221:by the 3184:Decline 3175:of the 3144:Yu Qian 3140:Jingtai 3118:leader 3104:giraffe 3100:Bengali 3068:led by 3007:Beijing 2989:⁄ 2970:Beijing 2879:of the 2833:Mingshi 2831:in the 2812:Mingshi 2803:thangka 2768:Yishiha 2662:Guangxi 2650:Guizhou 2638:Mu Ying 2618:Changde 2558:of the 2499:Shangdu 2495:Beijing 2486:Yangtze 2455:Nanjing 2388:History 2326:Spanish 2217:Beijing 2187:Nanjing 2178: 2144:Beijing 1673:Wu Zhou 1263:Ancient 1242:Yangtze 1102:Hokkien 1014:Dà Míng 999:Ta Ming 970:Dà Míng 934:Chinese 894:Hokkien 827:Mín záu 709:Chinese 529:Silver 512:Copper 376:• 364:Beijing 362:• 351:Nanjing 269:Emperor 198:Jurchen 188:Tibetan 146:Beijing 138:Nanjing 131:Capital 70:Dà Míng 62:Chinese 13624:Mongol 13609:German 13604:French 13594:Danish 13537:Dainam 13512:Tongan 13500:Somali 13495:Sokoto 13461:'Alawi 13439:Kalmyk 13419:Mongol 13412:Second 13392:Korean 13343:Mughal 13333:Indian 13316:German 13309:Second 13299:French 13292:Second 13228:Second 13200:Afghan 13192:Modern 13118:Kyrgyz 13113:Uighur 13108:Second 13088:Turkic 13056:Toltec 12992:Epirus 12977:Nicaea 12900:Mongol 12853:Yamato 12789:Huetar 12647:Second 12584:Rouran 12533:Shunga 12528:Maurya 12503:Kushan 12476:Median 12454:Hunnic 12412:Harsha 12132:Poetry 12022:Yunnan 11544:Early 11529:topics 11415:about 11394: 11372: 11305: 11284: 11265: 11231: 11203: 11184: 11132: 11080: 11063: 11055: 11023: 11008: 11002:369121 11000: 10969: 10950: 10931: 10908: 10891: 10860: 10816: 10799: 10789: 10762: 10743: 10679: 10660: 10641: 10625: 10585: 10562: 10543: 10502: 10483: 10464: 10449:595074 10447: 10416: 10397: 10363: 10339: 10310: 10260: 10217: 10198: 10112: 10093: 10074: 9989: 9965: 9959:850355 9957: 9912: 9902: 9883: 9866: 9835: 9812: 9793: 9774: 9755: 9728:495194 9726: 9695: 9676: 9657: 9636: 9617: 9598: 9579: 9560: 9537: 9513: 9505: 9497: 9459: 9438: 9410: 9391: 9383: 9342: 9313: 9282: 9259: 9209: 9201: 9172: 9141: 8175:SHEDET 8128: 6865: 6702: 6143: 5938:Taiwan 5919::197). 5633:, the 5624:. The 5526:cannon 5503:sulfur 5499:pyrite 5415:and a 5285:, and 5245:, the 5217:zhenlu 5209:Ceylon 5163:, and 5126:oyster 5085:sodomy 4934:Li Zhi 4921:Other 4847:Zhu Xi 4829:Zhu Xi 4734:Euclid 4648:Lan Yu 4600:. The 4596:, and 4594:Taoism 4574:Daoist 4558:, and 4486:Fujian 4460:vase. 4454:Xuande 4441:, and 4419:Ni Zan 4365:Su Shi 4246:, and 4240:poetry 4215:, 1467 4206:Lofty 4195:, and 4048:jinshi 4044:jinshi 4036:Zhu Xi 3903:, and 3855:cranes 3739:county 3607:Dorgon 3527:Manchu 3513:Mukden 3477:Joseon 3337:first 3070:Lê Lợi 3019:eunuch 3011:Yongle 2852:Daoism 2766:, and 2716:Mongol 2646:Yunnan 2556:system 2554:fubing 2549:weisuo 2417:Mongol 2370:Manchu 2328:, and 2278:Haijin 2132:Mongol 1871:Modern 1527:, and 1245:, and 1236:Yellow 1148:on the 1119:Tâi-lô 1035:da men 911:Tâi-lô 536:sycees 514:cashes 464: 273: 225:Taoism 205:others 170:other 58: 13674:Lists 13629:Omani 13599:Dutch 13505:Isaaq 13456:Saadi 13424:Oirat 13407:First 13375:Qajar 13304:First 13287:First 13260:China 13233:Third 13093:First 13046:Tikal 12997:Morea 12967:Roman 12885:Latin 12880:Khmer 12875:Kanem 12841:Buyid 12767:Zagwe 12762:Aksum 12752:Chola 12659:First 12642:First 12629:Bornu 12624:Benin 12619:Aztec 12557:Roman 12538:Gupta 12523:Nanda 12459:White 12194:Islam 12017:Wokou 12005:Tibet 11936:Fotou 11805:Sarhū 11741:Late 11370:JSTOR 11061:S2CID 11053:JSTOR 11006:S2CID 10998:JSTOR 10889:S2CID 10797:JSTOR 10623:JSTOR 10445:JSTOR 10380:3 May 10374:(PDF) 10353:(PDF) 10337:S2CID 10308:JSTOR 10258:JSTOR 10038:(PDF) 10027:(PDF) 9974:(PDF) 9963:S2CID 9955:JSTOR 9935:(PDF) 9910:JSTOR 9864:JSTOR 9753:JSTOR 9724:JSTOR 9522:(PDF) 9511:S2CID 9495:JSTOR 9475:(PDF) 9389:S2CID 9381:JSTOR 9340:JSTOR 9311:S2CID 9230:(PDF) 9223:(PDF) 9207:S2CID 9199:JSTOR 9170:JSTOR 5848:Notes 5656:, by 4980:) by 4769:Macau 4748:Xi'an 4714:Macau 4676:, by 4625:Islam 4244:music 4211:, by 3893:Rites 3819:xunfu 3815:xunfu 3727:zhifu 3715:sheng 3619:Xi'an 3568:Hubei 3548:Henan 3511:" at 3348:Macau 3313:, by 3116:Oirat 2821:Tibet 2622:Hunan 2419:-led 2372:-led 2338:money 2330:Dutch 2314:maize 2298:Macau 2251:into 2134:-led 1296:Shang 531:taels 523:paper 245:Islam 178:Turki 13444:Bogd 13370:Zand 13348:Sikh 13255:Qing 13250:Ming 13182:Wari 13150:Tran 13135:Dinh 12905:Yuan 12895:Mali 12804:Pala 12794:Inca 12745:Yuan 12735:Song 12730:Liao 12725:Tang 12498:Kush 12380:Dʿmt 11931:Tusi 11867:List 11392:ISBN 11303:ISBN 11282:ISBN 11263:ISBN 11229:ISBN 11201:ISBN 11182:ISBN 11130:ISBN 11093:史学月刊 11078:ISBN 10967:ISBN 10948:ISBN 10929:ISBN 10906:ISBN 10873:Isis 10858:ISBN 10845:2008 10814:ISBN 10787:ISBN 10760:ISBN 10741:ISBN 10728:2016 10703:2021 10677:ISBN 10658:ISBN 10639:ISBN 10583:ISBN 10560:ISBN 10541:ISBN 10500:ISBN 10481:ISBN 10462:ISBN 10414:ISBN 10395:ISBN 10382:2016 10361:ISBN 10275:1995 10234:1986 10215:ISBN 10196:ISBN 10110:ISBN 10091:ISBN 10072:ISBN 10046:2021 10015:2019 10007:Aeon 9987:ISBN 9900:ISBN 9881:ISBN 9833:ISBN 9810:ISBN 9791:ISBN 9772:ISBN 9693:ISBN 9674:ISBN 9655:ISBN 9634:ISBN 9615:ISBN 9596:ISBN 9577:ISBN 9558:ISBN 9535:ISBN 9503:OCLC 9457:ISBN 9436:ISBN 9421:2010 9408:ISBN 9299:2016 9280:ISBN 9257:ISBN 9238:2020 9139:ISBN 8197:2021 8126:ISBN 6863:ISBN 6700:ISSN 6141:ISBN 5724:and 5688:The 5622:gang 5568:and 5538:and 5487:loom 5348:崇禎暦書 5269:and 5143:guan 5130:lime 5068:士農工商 4885:and 4878:格物致知 4841:Song 4602:Yuan 4516:jade 4421:and 4377:Gējì 4285:and 4269:and 4225:pipa 4149:and 4143:wáng 4096:golf 4086:The 3946:The 3939:The 3932:The 3925:The 3918:The 3911:The 3776:Puyi 3766:The 3747:jing 3743:xian 3735:zhou 3692:and 3576:Shun 3486:Khan 3457:Yuan 3451:The 3430:and 3368:Peru 3366:and 3197:The 3114:The 3088:and 3001:The 2944:The 2885:Amdo 2809:The 2706:and 2690:The 2656:and 2654:Miao 2648:and 2630:Yuan 2610:and 2491:Dadu 2444:, a 2415:The 2316:and 2183:navy 2118:MING 2091:The 1847:Qing 1834:Ming 1821:Yuan 1765:Liao 1724:Song 1662:Tang 1343:Zhou 1334:BCE) 534:(in 521:and 517:(in 410:1450 405:Area 396:1662 203:and 34:and 13522:Mac 12959:Oyo 12868:Edo 12740:Jīn 12720:Sui 12373:Jin 12368:Han 12363:Qin 11362:doi 11333:). 11045:doi 10990:doi 10881:doi 10779:doi 10722:(2) 10615:doi 10437:doi 10329:doi 10300:doi 10279:doi 10238:doi 9947:doi 9856:doi 9745:doi 9716:doi 9487:doi 9373:doi 9332:doi 9303:doi 9191:doi 9162:doi 8917:110 8179:doi 6692:doi 5409:fl. 5325:'s 5175:ore 4929:何心隱 4875:or 4857:of 4853:'s 4746:at 4736:'s 4712:on 4670:in 4484:in 4472:in 4390:by 4340:to 4326:to 4151:Jin 4147:Han 3897:War 3792:Han 3625:to 3500:." 2891:by 2781:suo 2777:wei 2708:Han 2704:Qin 2658:Yao 2634:Hui 2308:to 1791:Jin 1649:Sui 1540:Jin 1524:Shu 1518:Wei 1483:Xin 1451:Han 1438:Qin 1272:Xia 1105:POJ 1078:IPA 897:POJ 870:IPA 797:IPA 462:GDP 13758:: 13155:Ho 13145:Ly 11368:, 11358:51 11356:, 11341:). 11059:. 11051:. 11041:43 11039:. 11004:, 10996:, 10986:34 10984:, 10887:, 10877:54 10875:, 10795:. 10785:. 10720:12 10718:. 10714:. 10693:. 10621:. 10611:41 10609:. 10603:. 10539:, 10443:, 10433:76 10431:, 10335:, 10325:33 10323:, 10306:, 10296:59 10294:, 10273:. 10232:. 10029:. 10004:. 9961:, 9953:, 9943:19 9941:, 9937:, 9908:. 9862:, 9852:21 9850:, 9751:, 9741:42 9739:, 9722:, 9710:, 9556:, 9517:. 9509:. 9501:. 9493:. 9483:50 9481:. 9477:. 9387:. 9379:. 9369:44 9367:. 9354:. 9338:. 9328:49 9326:. 9309:. 9297:. 9278:, 9255:, 9205:. 9197:. 9187:16 9185:. 9168:, 9158:61 9156:, 9073:^ 9020:^ 8993:^ 8978:^ 8963:^ 8948:^ 8605:^ 8562:^ 8449:^ 8398:^ 8381:^ 8306:^ 8277:^ 8173:. 8100:^ 8049:^ 7998:^ 7623:^ 7582:^ 7563:^ 7548:^ 7425:^ 7398:^ 7266:^ 7239:^ 7224:^ 7150:^ 7049:^ 7004:, 6835:^ 6736:^ 6698:. 6688:79 6686:. 6418:^ 6235:^ 6194:^ 6155:^ 6089:^ 6002:^ 5868:). 5866:西吳 5626:mu 5600:. 5576:, 5524:A 5517:. 5451:. 5398:沙漏 5391:, 5314:. 5281:, 5222:針路 5159:, 5065:, 4872:理學 4791:. 4755:, 4617:. 4592:, 4554:, 4437:, 4433:, 4429:, 4275:. 4242:, 4238:, 4234:, 4191:, 4141:, 3899:, 3895:, 3891:, 3887:, 3810:. 3723:fu 3702:lu 3688:, 3653:. 3558:, 3471:, 3217:, 3098:A 3076:. 2899:. 2859:. 2729:. 2642:mu 2620:, 2505:. 2384:. 2324:, 2255:. 2176:r. 1530:Wu 1521:, 1390:c. 1349:c. 1325:c. 1302:c. 1278:c. 1239:, 1219:c. 1022:Wu 940:大明 814:Wu 715:明朝 55:大明 12302:) 12298:( 12279:e 12272:t 12265:v 11519:e 11512:t 11505:v 11400:. 11376:. 11364:: 11337:( 11329:( 11324:. 11311:. 11290:. 11271:. 11237:. 11209:. 11190:. 11138:. 11086:. 11067:. 11047:: 11030:. 11012:. 10992:: 10975:. 10956:. 10937:. 10914:. 10895:. 10883:: 10866:. 10847:. 10822:. 10803:. 10781:: 10768:. 10749:. 10730:. 10705:. 10685:. 10666:. 10647:. 10629:. 10617:: 10591:. 10568:. 10549:. 10521:. 10508:. 10489:. 10470:. 10451:. 10439:: 10422:. 10403:. 10384:. 10343:. 10331:: 10314:. 10302:: 10285:. 10281:: 10264:. 10244:. 10240:: 10223:. 10204:. 10138:. 10134:: 10118:. 10099:. 10080:. 10061:. 10048:. 10017:. 9995:. 9949:: 9916:. 9889:. 9870:. 9858:: 9841:. 9818:. 9799:. 9780:. 9759:. 9747:: 9730:. 9718:: 9712:7 9701:. 9682:. 9663:. 9642:. 9623:. 9604:. 9585:. 9566:. 9543:. 9489:: 9465:. 9444:. 9423:. 9395:. 9375:: 9358:. 9346:. 9334:: 9317:. 9305:: 9288:. 9265:. 9240:. 9213:. 9193:: 9176:. 9164:: 9147:. 8931:. 8199:. 8181:: 8134:. 7186:. 7085:. 7008:. 6871:. 6706:. 6694:: 6149:. 6084:. 6072:. 5982:. 5249:( 5219:( 4988:. 4831:. 4588:— 4398:. 4138:王 4127:) 3741:( 3733:( 3721:( 3713:( 3700:( 3013:. 2991:2 2987:1 2984:+ 2982:4 2402:. 2173:( 2111:/ 2108:ŋ 2105:ɪ 2102:m 2099:/ 2095:( 2080:e 2073:t 2066:v 1399:) 1388:( 1358:) 1347:( 1323:( 1311:) 1300:( 1287:) 1276:( 1228:) 1217:( 525:) 507:: 64:) 60:( 38:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index