Materials science - Knowledge

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of these materials types is the beverage container. The material types used for beverage containers accordingly provide different advantages and disadvantages, depending on the material used. Ceramic (glass) containers are optically transparent, impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide, relatively inexpensive, and are easily recycled, but are also heavy and fracture easily. Metal (aluminum alloy) is relatively strong, is a good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, and is easily recycled. However, the cans are opaque, expensive to produce, and are easily dented and punctured. Polymers (polyethylene plastic) are relatively strong, can be optically transparent, are inexpensive and lightweight, and can be recyclable, but are not as impervious to the passage of carbon dioxide as aluminum and glass.

1797: 1694:), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed. Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively recently. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength to weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength to weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering applications. 588: 36: 115: 229: 1445: 979: 857:, that partly describe a body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints common to all materials. These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, such as molecules. The behavior of these microscopic particles is described by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from, 1054: 2512: 2498: 93: 7529: 5645: 4785: 5515: 7553: 5675: 1154: 818: 1592: 1437: 1296:– are usually seen in crystalline form. The vast majority of commercial glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At the high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid which solidifies into a disordered state upon cooling. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also used for long-range telecommunication and optical transmission. Scratch resistant Corning 172:. Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. As such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world created dedicated schools for its study. 7565: 5665: 1334: 1261: 7541: 5655: 4797: 518: 661: 931: 3733:"Semiconductor Market Size, Share & COVID-19 Impact Analysis, By Component (Memory Devices, Logic Devices, Analog IC, MPU, Discrete Power Devices, MCU, Sensors, and Others), By Application (Networking & Communications, Data Processing, Industrial, Consumer Electronics, Automotive, and Government), and Regional Forecast, 2022–2029" 1319:. This process involves the strategic addition of second-phase particles within a ceramic matrix, optimizing their shape, size, and distribution to direct and control crack propagation. This approach enhances fracture toughness, paving the way for the creation of advanced, high-performance ceramics in various industries. 545:, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. Further, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding 1245:

Solid materials are generally grouped into three basic classifications: ceramics, metals, and polymers. This broad classification is based on the empirical makeup and atomic structure of the solid materials, and most solids fall into one of these broad categories. An item that is often made from each

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The basis of materials science is studying the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods to make that material, and the resulting material properties. The complex combination of these produce the performance of a material in a specific application. Many features across many

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The field of materials science and engineering is important both from a scientific perspective, as well as for applications field. Materials are of the utmost importance for engineers (or other applied fields) because usage of the appropriate materials is crucial when designing systems. As a result,

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compared to silicon, it is a material of choice for high-speed electronics applications. These superior properties are compelling reasons to use GaAs circuitry in mobile phones, satellite communications, microwave point-to-point links and higher frequency radar systems. Other semiconductor materials

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are made from a fine powder of their constituents in a process of sintering with a binder. Hot pressing provides higher density material. Chemical vapor deposition can place a film of a ceramic on another material. Cermets are ceramic particles containing some metals. The wear resistance of tools is

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Semiconductors, metals, and ceramics are used today to form highly complex systems, such as integrated electronic circuits, optoelectronic devices, and magnetic and optical mass storage media. These materials form the basis of our modern computing world, and hence research into these materials is of

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exhibit unique properties where their size and density remain unchanged across a range of temperatures. Cast iron is defined as an iron–carbon alloy with more than 2.00%, but less than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content

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can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs

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are all part of the required knowledge of a materials engineer. Often the presence, absence, or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will greatly affect the final properties of the materials produced. For example, steels are classified based on 1/10

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is the study of the rates at which systems that are out of equilibrium change under the influence of various forces. When applied to materials science, it deals with how a material changes with time (moves from non-equilibrium to equilibrium state) due to application of a certain field. It details

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Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material as revealed by a microscope above 25× magnification. It deals with objects from 100 nm to a few cm. The microstructure of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and

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research. Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties. The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional field of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials, such as fullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials

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Structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science. The very definition of the field holds that it is concerned with the investigation of "the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials". Materials science examines the structure of

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Synthesis and processing involves the creation of a material with the desired micro-nanostructure. A material cannot be used in industry if no economically viable production method for it has been developed. Therefore, developing processing methods for materials that are reasonably effective and

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A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can be included) that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us; they can be found in anything from new and advanced materials that are being developed include

1029:. Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug over an extended period of time. A biomaterial may also be an 1887:

and applies fundamental condensed matter concepts to complex multiphase media, including materials of technological interest. Current fields that materials physicists work in include electronic, optical, and magnetic materials, novel materials and structures, quantum phenomena in materials,

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material science field focused on addressing materials from the macro-level and on the approach that materials are designed on the basis of knowledge of behavior at the microscopic level. Due to the expanded knowledge of the link between atomic and molecular processes as well as the overall

1724:. Modern day electronics run on semiconductors, and the industry had an estimated US$ 530 billion market in 2021. Its electronic properties can be greatly altered through intentionally introducing impurities in a process referred to as doping. Semiconductor materials are used to build 2053:

Components with higher strength to weight ratios, transistors that operate at higher frequency, lower cost of display screens in mobile devices, storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars, filtration systems, longer-lasting and faster-charging batteries, sensors to diagnose diseases

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Atomic structure deals with the atoms of the materials, and how they are arranged to give rise to molecules, crystals, etc. Much of the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties of materials arise from this level of structure. The length scales involved are in angstroms

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With continuing increases in computing power, simulating the behavior of materials has become possible. This enables materials scientists to understand behavior and mechanisms, design new materials, and explain properties formerly poorly understood. Efforts surrounding

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composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on. Most of the traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are microstructured.

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Materials science evolved, starting from the 1950s because it was recognized that to create, discover and design new materials, one had to approach it in a unified manner. Thus, materials science and engineering emerged in many ways: renaming and/or combining existing

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The study of thermodynamics is fundamental to materials science. It forms the foundation to treat general phenomena in materials science and engineering, including chemical reactions, magnetism, polarizability, and elasticity. It explains fundamental tools such as

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Materials, which atoms and molecules form constituents in the nanoscale (i.e., they form nanostructures) are called nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are the subject of intense research in the materials science community due to the unique properties that they exhibit.

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Nanostructure deals with objects and structures that are in the 1 – 100 nm range. In many materials, atoms or molecules agglomerate to form objects at the nanoscale. This causes many interesting electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties.

352:, generally classified into three distinct groups: ceramics, metals, and polymers. The prominent change in materials science during the recent decades is active usage of computer simulations to find new materials, predict properties and understand phenomena. 942:

Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (10 meter), but is usually 1 nm – 100 nm. Nanomaterials research takes a materials science based approach to

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is important in the study of kinetics as this is the most common mechanism by which materials undergo change. Kinetics is essential in processing of materials because, among other things, it details how the microstructure changes with application of heat.

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are now focusing on combining computational methods with experiments to drastically reduce the time and effort to optimize materials properties for a given application. This involves simulating materials at all length scales, using methods such as

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To obtain a full understanding of the material structure and how it relates to its properties, the materials scientist must study how the different atoms, ions and molecules are arranged and bonded to each other. This involves the study and use of

1895:, and the materials scientists or engineers must be aware and make use of the methods of the physicist, chemist and engineer. Conversely, fields such as life sciences and archaeology can inspire the development of new materials and processes, in 688:), vacancies, interstitial atoms or substitutional atoms. The microstructure of materials reveals these larger defects and advances in simulation have allowed an increased understanding of how defects can be used to enhance material properties. 549:. Examples of crystal defects consist of dislocations including edges, screws, vacancies, self inter-stitials, and more that are linear, planar, and three dimensional types of defects. New and advanced materials that are being developed include 528:

Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. Crystallography is a useful tool for materials scientists. One of the fundamental concepts regarding the crystal structure of a material includes the

1459:. Plastics and rubber are the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. Plastics in former and in current widespread use include 1888:

nonequilibrium physics, and soft condensed matter physics. New experimental and computational tools are constantly improving how materials systems are modeled and studied and are also fields when materials physicists work in.

573:, not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic and mechanical descriptions of physical properties. 1356:(RCC), the light gray material, which withstands re-entry temperatures up to 1,510 °C (2,750 °F) and protects the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap. RCC is a laminated composite material made from 1903:

approaches. Thus, there remain close relationships with these fields. Conversely, many physicists, chemists and engineers find themselves working in materials science due to the significant overlaps between the fields.

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and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extracting and purifying methods used to extract iron in a blast furnace can affect the quality of steel that is produced.

335:, which funded a series of university-hosted laboratories in the early 1960s, "to expand the national program of basic research and training in the materials sciences." In comparison with mechanical engineering, the 768:

cost-efficient is vital to the field of materials science. Different materials require different processing or synthesis methods. For example, the processing of metals has historically defined eras such as the

642:(UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometre range. The term 'nanostructure' is often used, when referring to magnetic technology. Nanoscale structure in biology is often called 2598: 3031: 340:

properties of materials, the design of materials came to be based on specific desired properties. The materials science field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics,

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are chemical compounds made up of a large number of identical components linked together like chains. Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what are commonly called plastics and

1013:. They are often intended or adapted for medical applications, such as biomedical devices which perform, augment, or replace a natural function. Such functions may be benign, like being used for a 1555:, ABS). Such plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material properties. They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity plastics. 300:

materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as

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in a vacuum chamber, and cured-pyrolized to convert the furfuryl alcohol to carbon. To provide oxidation resistance for reusability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to

557:. Mostly, materials do not occur as a single crystal, but in polycrystalline form, as an aggregate of small crystals or grains with different orientations. Because of this, the 4483: 3984: 1545:

and other additives that it accepts. The term "additives" in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material properties.

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departments are involved in materials research. Materials research covers a broad range of topics; the following non-exhaustive list highlights a few important research areas.

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departments, reflecting the 19th and early 20th-century emphasis on metals and ceramics. The growth of material science in the United States was catalyzed in part by the

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and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science. Modern materials science evolved directly from

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Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, etc.

533:, which is the smallest unit of a crystal lattice (space lattice) that repeats to make up the macroscopic crystal structure. Most common structural materials include 3787: 2298:, future use as programmable matter in display technologies (TV, projection), optical data communications (high-speed data transmission), medicine (laser scalpel) 1394:

Other examples can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so on. These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a

264:, which itself evolved from the use of fire. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist 4598: 1348:

Applications range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermal insulating tiles, which play a key and integral role in NASA's

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Callister, Jr., Rethwisch. Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction (8th ed.)uildings and cars to spacecraft. The main classes of materials are

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and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness.

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large. It lends itself to a vast array of applications, from

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Besides material characterization, the material scientist or engineer also deals with extracting materials and converting them into useful forms. Thus

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makes up the largest portion both by quantity and commercial value. Monocrystalline silicon is used to produce wafers used in the semiconductor and

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Macrostructure is the appearance of a material in the scale millimeters to meters, it is the structure of the material as seen with the naked eye.

1573:(UHMWPE) is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted 6624: 3740: 1561:

The dividing lines between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and applications. For example,

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Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in a laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches using metallic components,

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Improved insulation, insulative glass if it can be made clear, sleeves for oil pipelines, aerospace, high-heat & extreme cold applications

1284:, typically the most brittle materials with industrial relevance. Many ceramics and glasses exhibit covalent or ionic-covalent bonding with SiO 1121: 3766: 6272: 6159: 6725: 4840: 2541: 468:). The chemical bonding and atomic arrangement (crystallography) are fundamental to studying the properties and behavior of any material. 6730: 6591: 4591: 3869: 2483: 3917: 3638:

Lohaus, S. H.; Heine, M.; Guzman, P.; Bernal-Choban, C. M.; Saunders, C. N.; Shen, G.; Hellman, O.; Broido, D.; Fultz, B. (2023-07-27).

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Engineering ceramics are known for their stiffness and stability under high temperatures, compression and electrical stress. Alumina,

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The main branches of materials science stem from the four main classes of materials: ceramics, metals, polymers and composites.

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A. Navrotsky (1998). "Energetics and Crystal Chemical Systematics among Ilmenite, Lithium Niobate, and Perovskite Structures".

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devices like vacuum tubes in most applications. Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and as

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Callister, Jr., Rethwisch. "Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction" (8th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, 2009 pp.5–6

2759: 2681: 2656: 1748:(ICs), which consist of a number—from a few to millions—of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor 1070:

are a traditional example of these types of materials. They are materials that have properties that are intermediate between

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is a well-known example of the application of materials science to drastically improve the properties of common components.

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and performance. The understanding of processing -structure-properties relationships is called the materials paradigm. This

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on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and

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are related to the physical properties of a material. Important elements of modern materials science were products of the

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Callister, Jr., Rethwisch. "Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction" (8th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, 2009

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Callister, Jr., Rethwisch. "Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction" (8th ed.) John Wiley and Sons, 2009

1541:. Its fabrication and processing are simple and well-established. The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of 79: 57: 1803:-diagram visualizing the search terms for complex matter terminology (1940–2018). Green: "materials science", red: " 1337:

A 6 μm diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right) sitting atop the much larger human hair

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is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material. This involves methods such as diffraction with

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on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length could be much greater.

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derived from cemented carbides with the metal phase of cobalt and nickel typically added to modify properties.

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to achieve desirable electronic properties. Hence, semiconductors form the basis of the traditional computer.

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Beverage containers of all three materials types: ceramic (glass), metal (aluminum), and polymer (plastic).

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Iterative Design of Teaching-Learning Sequences: Introducing the Science of Materials in European Schools

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on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm.

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In describing nanostructures, it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the

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the rate of various processes evolving in materials including shape, size, composition and structure.

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Materials science is a highly active area of research. Together with materials science departments,

799:. As of the early 21st century, new methods are being developed to synthesize nanomaterials such as 7438: 7354: 6993: 6492: 6229: 5861: 5293: 4943: 4911: 4753: 3762: 2463: 2446: 2423: 2181: 1884: 1829: 1804: 1353: 1102: 44: 7376: 7287: 7250: 7134: 7060: 6881: 6864: 6807: 6224: 6091: 5965: 5531: 5490: 5413: 5373: 5167: 5156: 4571: 4406: 3813: 3570: 2070: 1721: 1075: 677: 546: 1422:. These additions may be termed reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose. 7294: 7282: 7173: 7038: 6812: 6678: 6576: 6438: 5697: 5408: 5388: 5383: 5368: 5308: 5303: 5162: 5108: 5073: 5018: 5008: 5000: 4973: 4938: 4926: 4916: 4865: 4860: 2699:"What's in a Name Change? Solid State Physics, Condensed Matter Physics, and Materials Science" 2392:

There are also relatively broad focuses across materials on specific phenomena and techniques.

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Ceramics can be significantly strengthened for engineering applications using the principle of

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Schmidt, Jonathan; Marques, Mário R. G.; Botti, Silvana; Marques, Miguel A. L. (2019-08-08).

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The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800

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The properties of a material determine its usability and hence its engineering application.

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at The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS) – accessed March 2007

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of a material is physically impossible. For example, any crystalline material will contain

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Callister, Jr., Rethwisch. Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction (8th ed.)

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and hexagonal lattice types. New and advanced materials that are being developed include

492: 449: 180: 126: 4496: 4328: 3655: 3382: 3333: 3287: 3150: 3047:"The effect of microstructure on the mechanical properties of two-phase titanium alloys" 2717: 1623:) make up the largest proportion of metals today both by quantity and commercial value. 7533: 7499: 7361: 7330: 7211: 7153: 6851: 6834: 6829: 6784: 6747: 6737: 6698: 6571: 6448: 6443: 6396: 6116: 6038: 5786: 5776: 5678: 5541: 5475: 5470: 5177: 5053: 5043: 5038: 5028: 4953: 4738: 4361: 4252: 4150: 3675: 3552: 3404: 3367:"Recent advances and applications of machine learning in solid-state materials science" 3269:"Microwave transmission through a two-dimensional, isotropic, left-handed metamaterial" 3238: 3172: 3110: 3084: 3023: 2997: 2729: 2594: 2526: 2517: 2386: 2349: 2189: 2171: 2048: 1985: 1973: 1745: 1526: 1468: 1368: 1342: 1328: 1138: 1130: 1053: 1010: 639: 558: 500: 433: 396: 387:

length scales impact material performance, from the constituent chemical elements, its

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Giacovazzo, C; Monaco HL; Viterbo D; Scordari F; Gilli G; Zanotti G; Catti M (1992).

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Polymer Fillers and Stiffening Agents: Applications and Non-traditional Alternatives

1444: 783:. Chemical and physical methods are also used to synthesize other materials such as 7557: 7474: 7129: 6988: 6965: 6918: 6859: 6525: 6465: 6391: 5985: 5970: 5740: 5194: 5103: 4698: 4500: 4332: 3706: 3659: 3604: 3534: 3499: 3460: 3386: 3337: 3291: 3234: 3197: 3154: 3092: 3058: 3046: 3007: 2958: 2900: 2840: 2721: 2411: 1764: 1737: 1504: 1384: 1308: 1292:) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics – not to be confused with raw, unfired 1179: 1042: 978: 952: 607: 565:

display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non-crystalline.

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O'Keeffe, M.; Hyde, B.G. (1996). "Crystal Structures; I. Patterns and Symmetry".

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A History of Technoscience: Erasing the Boundaries between Science and Technology

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are historic, if arbitrary examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of

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Theory of Neutron Scattering from Condensed Matter; Volume 1: Neutron Scattering

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materials science is an increasingly important part of an engineer's education.

1097:, etc. The study of these materials involves knowledge of materials science and 240:

The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point. Phases such as

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Theory of Neutron Scattering from Condensed Matter; Volume 2: Condensed Matter

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There are additionally broadly applicable, materials independent, endeavors.

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Bernard, L.; Cueff, R.; Breysse, C.; Décaudin, B.; Sautou, V. (2015-05-15).

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would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include

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based on other elements, such as silicon. Examples of nanomaterials include

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Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (

7381: 7231: 7146: 7122: 7112: 7104: 7005: 6940: 6839: 6688: 6510: 6214: 6169: 6126: 5816: 5791: 5745: 5440: 4386:(2nd ed.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. 4214:

The New Science of Strong Materials or Why You Don't Fall Through the Floor

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is used to advance understanding in a variety of research areas, including

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Smith, D. R.; Padilla, WJ; Vier, DC; Nemat-Nasser, SC; Schultz, S (2000).

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Crystalline Imperfections: Key Topics in Materials Science and Engineering

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Morhardt, Duncan R.; Mauney, Joshua R.; Estrada, Carlos R. (2019-01-01),

2946: 2698: 2451: 2371: 2278: 2265: 2108: 1713: 1620: 1542: 1500: 1472: 1411: 1207: 1090: 1026: 1014: 973: 913: 830: 729: 554: 376: 313: 285: 192: 157: 138: 6602: 5514: 2962: 2511: 1767:(GaAs) is the second most popular semiconductor used. Due to its higher 92: 7405: 6530: 6520: 6234: 6199: 6068: 5836: 5831: 5689: 5252: 4733: 4622: 2828: 2531: 2441: 2367: 2335: 2160: 2139: 1867:

to describe the physical properties of materials. It is a synthesis of

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A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with

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Kärger, Jörg; Ruthven, Douglas M.; Theodorou, Doros N. (2012-04-25).

2620: 2406: 2225: 2016: 1883:, and materials science. Materials physics is considered a subset of 1872: 1841: 1777: 1643: 1612: 1574: 1534: 1480: 1380: 1372: 1191: 1038: 1034: 1030: 957: 948: 909: 892: 796: 751: 745: 723: 530: 345: 241: 149: 4313:"The role of materials science in the evolution of microelectronics" 408:

materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale.

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field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries.

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Why Things Break: Understanding the World by the Way It Comes Apart

4011:"Pentagon Developing Shape-Shifting 'Transformers' for Battlefield" 2588: 2305: 2259: 2102: 2036: 1656: 1635: 1376: 1357: 1153: 987: 854: 800: 773: 465: 417: 249: 184: 130: 3002: 1591: 319:

Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many eventual

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can significantly change these properties, however. In contrast,

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Shelby, R. A.; Smith D.R.; Shultz S.; Nemat-Nasser S.C. (2001).

1436: 1333: 1260: 1198:, etc.), and analytic methods (characterization methods such as 6015: 5821: 4249: 4189: 3426:(10th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. p. 12. 2143: 2134: 1961: 1679: 1660: 1456: 1341:

Another application of materials science in industry is making

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A phase diagram for a binary system displaying a eutectic point

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The materials paradigm represented in the form of a tetrahedron

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Building skyscrapers, towers, and sculptures like Europe Gate

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Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following.

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materials scientists aim to understand and improve materials.

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MS&T conference organized by the main materials societies

4566: 2802: 2221: 2113: 1740:, among their many uses. Semiconductor devices have replaced 1725: 1651: 1604: 1596: 1586: 1476: 1360: 1281: 1226: 983: 566: 521:

Crystal structure of a perovskite with a chemical formula ABX

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Encyclopedia of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

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The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the

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Hypothetical, experiments, some prototypes, few commercial

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in industrial production of materials, processing methods (

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and is studied under the branch of materials science named

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Chen, Xianhua; Liu, Lizi; Liu, Juan; Pan, Fusheng (2015).

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MILCOM 2005 – 2005 IEEE Military Communications Conference

3364: 3044: 2651:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 31. 7494: 3985:"Researchers One Step Closer to Building Synthetic Brain" 2601:

from the original on 2015-09-03 – via Academia.edu.

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Another application of materials science is the study of

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are also involved in the study of bonding and structure.

148:, when researchers began to use analytical thinking from 4524:

Introduction to the Theory of Thermal Neutron Scattering

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Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials

4277:. New York: Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Son's. 4106: 3790:. Construction Digital. 15 November 2011. Archived from 2984:

Cristina Buzea; Ivan Pacheco & Kevin Robbie (2007).

2077:; Hypothetical and experiments for higher temperatures 4294:

Chambers Dictionary of Materials Science and Technology

4059:"'Quantum dots' to boost performance of mobile cameras" 2986:"Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity" 1085:

This field also includes new areas of research such as

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and synthesis, which have been developed in support of

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Materials: engineering, science, processing and design

3959:"Carbon nanotubes used to make batteries from fabrics" 3189: 2417: 2073:

systems for mobile phone base stations; prototypes in

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Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives

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Filip, R; Kubiak, K; Ziaja, W; Sieniawski, J (2003).

4088:

Ashby, Michael; Hugh Shercliff; David Cebon (2007).

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Synthetic diamond and carbon nanotubes (Buckypaper)

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Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction

3135:"Computational thermodynamics and its applications" 2868:

Ion Exchange Materials: Properties and Applications

4360: 4251: 4149: 3422:Callister, William D.; Rethwish, David G. (2018). 2671: 1108: 4606: 4358: 4250:Lewis, P.R.; Reynolds, K. & Gagg, C. (2003). 3910:"Strides in Materials, but No Invisibility Cloak" 3640:"A thermodynamic explanation of the Invar effect" 3424:Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction 3421: 2827:Goodenough, John B.; Kim, Youngsik (2009-08-28). 1984:Lighter and cheaper wires, antistatic materials, 1383:to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with 118:Six classes of conventional engineering materials 7583: 3091:, ASM International, pp. 1–12, 2021-10-01, 569:, some ceramics, and many natural materials are 4216:(eissue ed.). Princeton University Press. 4190:González-Viñas, W. & Mancini, H.L. (2004). 4175:(4th ed.). Taylor and Francis Publishing. 4173:Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Materials 2672:Psillos, Dimitris; Kariotoglou, Petros (2015). 2542:List of emerging materials science technologies 1670:Other significant metallic alloys are those of 1440:The repeating unit of the polymer polypropylene 202:Materials science is also an important part of 4424:Green, D.J.; Hannink, R.; Swain, M.V. (1989). 4125: 4107:Askeland, Donald R.; Pradeep P. Phulé (2005). 1667:are typically also added in stainless steels. 1222:, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), etc.). 1122:integrated computational materials engineering 1021:with a more interactive functionality such as 455:Structure is studied in the following levels. 6618: 6280: 6266: 6160:Conservation and restoration of glass objects 5705: 4834: 4592: 4367:(2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press, Inc. 3692: 3085:"Crystal Structure Defects and Imperfections" 2826: 2095:, heat-free integral circuits and processors 2080:Copper wire, semiconductor integral circuits 1791: 1418:have been added for added strength, bulk, or 4254:Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies 4233:Composite Materials: Engineering and Science 3866:"Applications of Graphene under Development" 3233:, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 315–330, 2890: 2484:The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 1840:; recombining from the previous, as well as 4540: 4231:Mathews, F.L. & Rawlings, R.D. (1999). 3987:. Daily Tech. 25 April 2011. Archived from 3488:"Crack deflection processes—II. Experiment" 2083:No loss conductors, frictionless bearings, 1690:have been known for a long time (since the 6625: 6611: 6273: 6259: 5712: 5698: 4841: 4827: 4599: 4585: 4291: 4109:The Science & Engineering of Materials 3485: 3446: 3051:Journal of Materials Processing Technology 2944: 2829:"Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries" 2237:Potential applications of carbon nanotubes 2194:Wide range, e.g., self-health monitoring, 6632: 4363:Space Groups for Scientists and Engineers 4336: 3788:"Sto AG, Cabot Create Aerogel Insulation" 3486:Faber, K. T.; Evans, A. G. (1983-04-01). 3447:Faber, K. T.; Evans, A. G. (1983-04-01). 3390: 3341: 3158: 3001: 2865: 2690: 2646: 2474:Association for Iron and Steel Technology 2457: 179:) influences its structure, and thus the 80:Learn how and when to remove this message 5719: 4272: 4144: 4037:"Intel: Programmable matter takes shape" 2749: 1907: 1795: 1755:Of all the semiconductors in use today, 1590: 1571:ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene 1443: 1435: 1332: 1259: 1152: 1052: 977: 929: 816: 659: 586: 516: 361: 227: 113: 91: 43:This article includes a list of general 4521: 4461: 4442: 4381: 4310: 4170: 4092:(1st ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. 1507:. Plastics are generally classified as 1350:Space Shuttle thermal protection system 1249: 14: 7584: 6471:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics 5621:Electrical and electronics engineering 4208: 3948:. Nae.edu. Retrieved 22 February 2011. 3597:International Journal of Pharmaceutics 3449:"Crack deflection processes—I. Theory" 3260: 2696: 2214:Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, 2130:Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion 2041:Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, 2009:New materials; nuclear weapons, power 1937:Hypothetical, experiments, diffusion, 1921:Potentially marginalized technologies 1448:Expanded polystyrene polymer packaging 6606: 6254: 5693: 4822: 4580: 4426:Transformation Toughening of Ceramics 4130:(5th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. 4111:(5th ed.). Thomson-Engineering. 3939:NAE Website: Frontiers of Engineering 3846:from the original on 2 September 2013 3524: 2947:"Are Crystal Structures Predictable?" 2817:.. John Wiley and Sons, 2009 pp.10–12 2611: 1824:departments; splitting from existing 129:field of researching and discovering 7540: 5654: 4796: 4192:An Introduction to Materials Science 4017:from the original on 5 February 2011 3836:"Could graphene be the new silicon?" 3309: 2870:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. xi. 2745: 2743: 2642: 2640: 2605: 2586: 2557:Materials science in science fiction 2069:Cryogenic receiver front-end (CRFE) 29: 7564: 5664: 4126:Callister, Jr., William D. (2000). 3132: 2676:. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 79. 2418:Related or interdisciplinary fields 458: 24: 4346: 3884:"The 'new age' of super materials" 3239:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.65845-2 2552:List of materials analysis methods 2547:List of materials science journals 2283:Research, experiments, prototypes 2107:Experiments, already used to make 2065:High-temperature superconductivity 2058:Potential applications of graphene 1978:Research, experiments, prototypes 1495:. Rubbers include natural rubber, 506: 49:it lacks sufficient corresponding 25: 7613: 4560: 4275:Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 3814:"Is graphene a miracle material?" 3743:from the original on 11 June 2023 3527:"IPV6 BEnefits to the Warfighter" 3227:"Role of Biomaterials in Surgery" 3193:Diffusion in Nanoporous Materials 3097:10.31399/asm.tb.ciktmse.t56020001 2945:Gavezzotti, Angelo (1994-10-01). 2740: 2637: 2321: 1697: 1049:Electronic, optical, and magnetic 938:image of carbon nanotubes bundles 825:Thermodynamics is concerned with 806: 691: 649: 333:Advanced Research Projects Agency 7563: 7551: 7539: 7528: 7527: 5673: 5663: 5653: 5644: 5643: 5513: 4795: 4784: 4783: 4359:Burns, G.; Glazer, A.M. (1990). 3920:from the original on 1 July 2017 3872:from the original on 2014-09-21. 3763:"Semiconductor Industry Careers" 3034:from the original on 2012-07-03. 2754:. Oxon: Routledge. p. 225. 2562:Timeline of materials technology 2510: 2496: 1863:Materials physics is the use of 919: 576: 212:aviation accidents and incidents 34: 6592:Timeline of physics discoveries 6230:Radioactive waste vitrification 6185:Glass fiber reinforced concrete 4848: 4403:Fundamentals of Crystallography 4081: 4051: 4029: 4003: 3977: 3951: 3932: 3902: 3876: 3858: 3828: 3806: 3780: 3769:from the original on 2016-06-04 3755: 3725: 3686: 3631: 3584: 3571:"Explainer: What are polymers?" 3563: 3518: 3479: 3440: 3415: 3358: 3218: 3183: 3126: 3077: 3038: 2977: 2938: 2929: 2920: 2911: 2884: 2859: 2820: 2775:"For Authors: Nature Materials" 2378:Computational materials science 1788:and have various applications. 1736:(LEDs), and analog and digital 1580: 1400:acrylonitrile butadiene styrene 1115:Computational materials science 1109:Computational materials science 967: 355: 4194:. Princeton University Press. 2795: 2786: 2768: 2665: 2580: 2537:Forensic materials engineering 1943:Traditional insulation, glass 1828:research (itself growing into 947:, using advances in materials 438:energy-dispersive spectroscopy 13: 1: 6892:Interface and colloid science 6646:Glossary of chemical formulae 6097:Chemically strengthened glass 4384:Elements of X-Ray Diffraction 4353:Timeline of Materials Science 3609:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.03.030 3160:10.1016/j.actamat.2020.08.008 3063:10.1016/s0924-0136(02)00248-0 2951:Accounts of Chemical Research 2866:Zagorodni, Andrei A. (2006). 2587:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). 2568: 2230:Stronger, lighter materials, 1832:); pulling in relatively new 1363:cloth and impregnated with a 1322: 762: 699: 672:The manufacture of a perfect 348:materials, biomaterials, and 5930:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals 4871:List of engineering branches 4505:10.1524/zkri.1997.212.12.899 3711:10.1016/j.matdes.2014.09.034 3504:10.1016/0001-6160(83)90047-0 3465:10.1016/0001-6160(83)90046-9 2573: 2165:Research, commercialization 936:scanning electron microscopy 706:List of materials properties 402: 224:History of materials science 109:scanning electron microscopy 7: 7169:Bioorganometallic chemistry 6656:List of inorganic compounds 6556:Quantum information science 4466:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 4447:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3539:10.1109/milcom.2005.1606007 3371:npj Computational Materials 3343:10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.4184 2750:Channell, David F. (2017). 2489: 1567:medium-density polyethylene 1425: 1148: 1058:Negative index metamaterial 899: 876: 869:and concepts such as phase 728:Electrical properties, see 716:Mechanical properties, see 10: 7618: 7095:Dynamic covalent chemistry 7066:Enantioselective synthesis 7046:Physical organic chemistry 6999:Organolanthanide chemistry 6387:Classical electromagnetism 4572:MIT OpenCourseWare for MSE 4273:Wachtman, John B. (1996). 4171:Gaskell, David R. (1995). 4013:. Fox News. 10 June 2009. 3664:10.1038/s41567-023-02142-z 2697:Martin, Joseph D. (2015). 2479:Materials Research Society 2360:Materials characterization 2252:Hypothetical, experiments 1792:Relation with other fields 1701: 1584: 1429: 1371:at high temperature in an 1326: 1253: 1212:nuclear microscopy (HEFIB) 1112: 971: 923: 880: 810: 703: 664:Microstructure of pearlite 653: 580: 510: 475: 471: 221: 217: 7523: 7426: 7187: 7103: 7024: 6974: 6850: 6793: 6684:Electroanalytical methods 6669: 6641: 6564: 6501: 6429: 6345: 6317: 6289: 6150: 6082: 6014: 5961:Chemical vapor deposition 5948: 5910: 5882:Ultra low expansion glass 5772:Borophosphosilicate glass 5754: 5728: 5639: 5586: 5570: 5522: 5511: 5286: 5228: 5147: 5072: 4999: 4892: 4879: 4856: 4779: 4707: 4676: 4645: 4615: 4541:Young, R.A., ed. (1993). 4428:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 4258:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 4235:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 3868:. understandingnano.com. 3737:Fortune Business Insights 3392:10.1038/s41524-019-0221-0 3229:, in Reis, Rui L. (ed.), 2726:10.1007/s00016-014-0151-7 2647:Defonseka, Chris (2020). 2313:Field-effect transistors 2182:Multi function structures 2087:, lossless high-capacity 1712:is a material that has a 1216:Rutherford backscattering 1127:density functional theory 750:Magnetic properties, see 722:Chemical properties, see 559:powder diffraction method 7602:Condensed matter physics 7439:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 7355:Supramolecular chemistry 6994:Organometallic chemistry 6493:Condensed matter physics 6200:Glass-reinforced plastic 5862:Sodium hexametaphosphate 4754:Condensed-matter physics 4292:Walker, P., ed. (1993). 4039:. ZD Net. 22 August 2008 3816:. BBC Click. 21 May 2011 2464:American Ceramic Society 2447:Supramolecular chemistry 2424:Condensed matter physics 1891:The field is inherently 1885:condensed matter physics 1830:condensed matter physics 1805:condensed matter physics 1420:electrostatic dispersion 1354:reinforced Carbon-Carbon 1137:, dislocation dynamics, 1103:condensed matter physics 740:Optical properties, see 734:Thermal properties, see 547:crystallographic defects 284:; the understanding and 7377:Combinatorial chemistry 7288:Food physical chemistry 7251:Environmental chemistry 7135:Bioorthogonal chemistry 7061:Retrosynthetic analysis 6882:Chemical thermodynamics 6865:Spectroelectrochemistry 6808:Computational chemistry 6092:Anti-reflective coating 5966:Glass batch calculation 5847:Photochromic lens glass 5532:Bachelor of Engineering 5374:Engineering mathematics 4462:Lovesey, S. W. (1984). 4443:Lovesey, S. W. (1984). 4407:Oxford University Press 4296:. Chambers Publishing. 3322:Physical Review Letters 3276:Applied Physics Letters 2310:Hypothetical, research 2071:RF and microwave filter 2021:Experiments, diffusion 1924:Potential applications 1239:electrolytic extraction 686:Hall–Petch relationship 424:, and various forms of 160:to understand ancient, 64:more precise citations. 7449:of element discoveries 7295:Agricultural chemistry 7283:Carbohydrate chemistry 7174:Bioinorganic chemistry 7039:Alkane stereochemistry 6984:Coordination chemistry 6813:Mathematical chemistry 6679:Instrumental chemistry 6577:Nobel Prize in Physics 6439:Relativistic mechanics 5631:Structural engineering 5626:Mechanical engineering 5369:Engineering management 4522:Squires, G.L. (1996). 4382:Cullity, B.D. (1978). 3699:Materials & Design 3533:. IEEE. pp. 1–6. 2833:Chemistry of Materials 2706:Physics in Perspective 2617:A Search for Structure 2458:Professional societies 1854:electrical engineering 1850:mechanical engineering 1812: 1600: 1449: 1441: 1338: 1273: 1158: 1060: 991: 939: 833:and their relation to 822: 665: 595: 525: 367: 272:properties related to 268:demonstrated that the 237: 119: 111: 7444:Timeline of chemistry 7341:Post-mortem chemistry 7326:Clandestine chemistry 7256:Atmospheric chemistry 7179:Biophysical chemistry 7011:Solid-state chemistry 6961:Equilibrium chemistry 6870:Photoelectrochemistry 6582:Philosophy of physics 6225:Prince Rupert's drops 6074:Transparent materials 6034:Gradient-index optics 5842:Phosphosilicate glass 5611:Aerospace engineering 5524:Engineering education 4722:Solid-state chemistry 3202:10.1002/9783527651276 2432:solid-state chemistry 2383:Materials informatics 2350:Composite engineering 2196:self-healing material 2148:metamaterial cloaking 1908:Emerging technologies 1799: 1734:light-emitting diodes 1594: 1531:electrical insulation 1447: 1439: 1336: 1272:ceramic bearing parts 1263: 1156: 1056: 981: 964:, nanocrystals, etc. 933: 859:statistical mechanics 820: 718:Strength of materials 663: 614:Nanotextured surfaces 590: 520: 497:solid-state chemistry 365: 276:structure in various 231: 181:material's properties 135:Materials engineering 117: 95: 27:Research of materials 7597:Building engineering 7434:History of chemistry 7389:Chemical engineering 7164:Bioorganic chemistry 6914:Structural chemistry 6651:List of biomolecules 6541:Mathematical physics 6190:Glass ionomer cement 6064:Photosensitive glass 5991:Liquidus temperature 5812:Fluorosilicate glass 5552:Graduate certificate 4646:Material independent 4338:10.1557/mrs.2015.276 4311:Mahajan, S. (2015). 4210:Gordon, James Edward 3842:. 13 November 2011. 3133:Liu, Zi-Kui (2020). 2613:Smith, Cyril Stanley 2452:Biomaterials science 1915:Emerging technology 1846:chemical engineering 1822:ceramics engineering 1761:electronics industry 1652:certain metal alloys 1603:The alloys of iron ( 1595:Wire rope made from 1250:Ceramics and glasses 1188:thin-film deposition 684:, grain boundaries ( 592:Buckminsterfullerene 329:ceramics engineering 266:Josiah Willard Gibbs 204:forensic engineering 146:Age of Enlightenment 107:planes, imaged with 7457:The central science 7411:Ceramic engineering 7336:Forensic toxicology 7309:Chemistry education 7207:Radiation chemistry 7189:Interdisciplinarity 7142:Medicinal chemistry 7080:Fullerene chemistry 6956:Microwave chemistry 6825:Molecular mechanics 6820:Molecular modelling 6516:Atmospheric physics 6355:Classical mechanics 6283:branches of physics 6210:Glass-to-metal seal 6132:Self-cleaning glass 6054:Optical lens design 5537:Bachelor of Science 5379:Engineering physics 5363:Engineering drawing 4885:Interdisciplinarity 4769:Solid-state physics 4764:Soft-matter physics 4744:Nuclear engineering 4663:Fundamental aspects 4637:Polymer engineering 4628:Ceramic engineering 4543:The Rietveld Method 4497:1997ZK....212..899K 4329:2015MRSBu..40.1079M 3916:. 8 November 2010. 3794:on 31 December 2011 3656:2023NatPh..19.1642L 3383:2019npjCM...5...83S 3334:2000PhRvL..84.4184S 3288:2001ApPhL..78..489S 3151:2020AcMat.200..745L 2963:10.1021/ar00046a004 2718:2015PhP....17....3M 2428:solid-state physics 2331:Ceramic engineering 2248:Programmable matter 2190:Composite materials 2085:magnetic levitation 2028:Programmable matter 1986:organic solar cells 1974:Conductive polymers 1881:solid state physics 1834:polymer engineering 1826:solid state physics 1809:solid state physics 1801:Google Ngram Viewer 1773:saturation velocity 1746:integrated circuits 1343:composite materials 1220:neutron diffraction 1200:electron microscopy 1099:solid-state physics 1011:composite materials 845:variables, such as 640:ultrafine particles 630:Finally, spherical 493:Solid-state physics 450:electron microscope 7500:Chemical substance 7362:Chemical synthesis 7331:Forensic chemistry 7212:Actinide chemistry 7154:Clinical chemistry 6835:Molecular geometry 6830:Molecular dynamics 6785:Elemental analysis 6738:Separation process 6572:History of physics 6195:Glass microspheres 6117:Hydrogen darkening 6039:Hydrogen darkening 5787:Chalcogenide glass 5777:Borosilicate glass 5139:Telecommunications 5044:Naval architecture 4739:Mining engineering 3944:2014-07-28 at the 3914:The New York Times 3525:Green, D. (2005). 2780:2010-08-01 at the 2595:Ashgate Publishing 2527:Bio-based material 2518:Engineering portal 2264:Wide range, e.g., 2232:the space elevator 2174:, floating cities 2049:integrated circuit 1813: 1642:processes such as 1632:high carbon steels 1601: 1527:artificial leather 1469:polyvinyl chloride 1450: 1442: 1339: 1329:Composite material 1274: 1163:materials advances 1159: 1131:molecular dynamics 1064:vital importance. 1061: 996:biological systems 992: 940: 823: 666: 596: 526: 501:physical chemistry 434:Raman spectroscopy 368: 344:, semiconductors, 238: 120: 112: 18:Material scientist 7592:Materials science 7579: 7578: 7515:Quantum mechanics 7480:Chemical compound 7463:Chemical reaction 7401:Materials science 7319:General chemistry 7314:Amateur chemistry 7242:Photogeochemistry 7227:Stellar chemistry 7197:Nuclear chemistry 7118:Molecular biology 7085:Polymer chemistry 7056:Organic synthesis 7051:Organic reactions 7016:Ceramic chemistry 7006:Cluster chemistry 6936:Chemical kinetics 6924:Molecular physics 6803:Quantum chemistry 6716:Mass spectrometry 6600: 6599: 6587:Physics education 6536:Materials science 6503:Interdisciplinary 6461:Quantum mechanics 6248: 6247: 6165:Glass-coated wire 6137:sol–gel technique 6122:Insulated glazing 6059:Photochromic lens 6044:Optical amplifier 5996:sol–gel technique 5687: 5686: 5616:Civil engineering 5562:Licensed engineer 5557:Engineer's degree 5509: 5508: 5341:Building services 5324:Health technology 5185:Chemical reaction 5134:Signal processing 4816: 4815: 4727:Polymer chemistry 4709:Interdisciplinary 4609:materials science 4552:978-0-19-855577-3 4533:978-0-486-69447-4 4514:978-0-939950-40-9 4473:978-0-19-852017-7 4454:978-0-19-852015-3 4435:978-0-8493-6594-2 4416:978-0-19-855578-0 4393:978-0-534-55396-8 4374:978-0-12-145761-7 4323:(40): 1079–1088. 4303:978-0-550-13249-9 4284:978-0-471-13316-2 4242:978-0-8493-0621-1 4223:978-0-691-02380-9 4201:978-0-691-07097-1 4182:978-1-56032-992-3 4163:978-1-4000-4760-4 4137:978-0-471-32013-5 4118:978-0-534-55396-8 4099:978-0-7506-8391-3 3965:. 21 January 2010 3650:(11): 1642–1648. 3492:Acta Metallurgica 3453:Acta Metallurgica 3305:on June 18, 2010. 3296:10.1063/1.1343489 3248:978-0-12-813700-0 3211:978-3-527-31024-1 3106:978-1-62708-389-8 3012:10.1116/1.2815690 2905:10.1021/cm9801901 2899:(10): 2787–2793. 2877:978-0-08-044552-6 2845:10.1021/cm901452z 2761:978-1-351-97740-1 2683:978-94-007-7807-8 2658:978-3-11-066999-2 2469:ASM International 2319: 2318: 2296:Quantum dot laser 2270:synthetic biology 1927:Related articles 1893:interdisciplinary 1869:physical sciences 1769:electron mobility 1738:electric circuits 1497:styrene-butadiene 1404:calcium carbonate 1204:X-ray diffraction 1145:, and many more. 888:Chemical kinetics 883:Chemical kinetics 485:quantum chemistry 430:chemical analysis 323:departments were 321:materials science 127:interdisciplinary 123:Materials science 90: 89: 82: 16:(Redirected from 7609: 7567: 7566: 7555: 7543: 7542: 7531: 7530: 7475:Chemical element 7130:Chemical biology 6989:Magnetochemistry 6966:Mechanochemistry 6919:Chemical physics 6860:Electrochemistry 6765:Characterization 6627: 6620: 6613: 6604: 6603: 6526:Chemical physics 6466:Particle physics 6392:Classical optics 6275: 6268: 6261: 6252: 6251: 5986:Ion implantation 5741:Glass transition 5714: 5707: 5700: 5691: 5690: 5677: 5667: 5666: 5657: 5656: 5647: 5646: 5517: 5104:Electromechanics 4890: 4889: 4843: 4836: 4829: 4820: 4819: 4799: 4798: 4787: 4786: 4699:Microelectronics 4653:Characterization 4601: 4594: 4587: 4578: 4577: 4556: 4537: 4518: 4477: 4458: 4439: 4420: 4397: 4378: 4366: 4342: 4340: 4307: 4288: 4269: 4257: 4246: 4227: 4205: 4186: 4167: 4155: 4141: 4122: 4103: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3991:on 29 April 2011 3981: 3975: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3955: 3949: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3810: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3784: 3778: 3777: 3775: 3774: 3759: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3739:. 16 July 2023. 3729: 3723: 3722: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3579: 3578: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3394: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3345: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3304: 3298:. Archived from 3273: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3256: 3255: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3162: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3122: 3121: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3042: 3036: 3035: 3005: 2996:(4): MR17–MR71. 2981: 2975: 2974: 2942: 2936: 2933: 2927: 2924: 2918: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2824: 2818: 2799: 2793: 2790: 2784: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2747: 2738: 2737: 2703: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2644: 2635: 2634: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2584: 2520: 2515: 2514: 2506: 2501: 2500: 2412:Microelectronics 2210:carbon nanotubes 2152:cloaking devices 2006:Present nuclear 1912: 1911: 1765:Gallium arsenide 1505:butadiene rubber 1385:furfuryl alcohol 1317:crack deflection 1309:tungsten carbide 1237:extraction, and 1180:ion implantation 1043:organ transplant 962:carbon nanotubes 953:microfabrication 636:three dimensions 478:Chemical bonding 459:Atomic structure 446:thermal analysis 410:Characterization 381:energy materials 288:of the metallic 234:Bronze Age sword 208:failure analysis 164:observations in 162:phenomenological 105:crystallographic 85: 78: 74: 71: 65: 60:this article by 51:inline citations 38: 37: 30: 21: 7617: 7616: 7612: 7611: 7610: 7608: 7607: 7606: 7582: 7581: 7580: 7575: 7519: 7422: 7416:Polymer science 7372:Click chemistry 7367:Green chemistry 7261:Ocean chemistry 7237:Biogeochemistry 7183: 7099: 7071:Total synthesis 7034:Stereochemistry 7020: 6970: 6887:Surface science 6877:Thermochemistry 6846: 6789: 6760:Crystallography 6665: 6637: 6631: 6601: 6596: 6560: 6546:Medical physics 6497: 6456:Nuclear physics 6425: 6419:Non-equilibrium 6341: 6313: 6285: 6279: 6249: 6244: 6180:Glass electrode 6175:Glass databases 6152: 6146: 6084: 6078: 6010: 5944: 5920:Bioactive glass 5906: 5892:Vitreous enamel 5877:Thoriated glass 5872:Tellurite glass 5857:Soda–lime glass 5827:Gold ruby glass 5797:Cranberry glass 5750: 5724: 5718: 5688: 5683: 5635: 5582: 5566: 5542:Master's degree 5518: 5505: 5419:Instrumentation 5282: 5224: 5190:Electrochemical 5143: 5129:Radio frequency 5068: 4995: 4959:Municipal/Urban 4883: 4881: 4875: 4852: 4847: 4817: 4812: 4775: 4759:Polymer physics 4703: 4689:Surface science 4684:Crystallography 4672: 4641: 4633:Polymer science 4611: 4605: 4563: 4553: 4534: 4515: 4474: 4455: 4436: 4417: 4394: 4375: 4349: 4347:Further reading 4304: 4285: 4266: 4243: 4224: 4202: 4183: 4164: 4138: 4119: 4100: 4084: 4079: 4078: 4068: 4066: 4065:. 22 March 2010 4057: 4056: 4052: 4042: 4040: 4035: 4034: 4030: 4020: 4018: 4009: 4008: 4004: 3994: 3992: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3968: 3966: 3957: 3956: 3952: 3946:Wayback Machine 3937: 3933: 3923: 3921: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3882: 3881: 3877: 3864: 3863: 3859: 3849: 3847: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3819: 3817: 3812: 3811: 3807: 3797: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3772: 3770: 3761: 3760: 3756: 3746: 3744: 3731: 3730: 3726: 3691: 3687: 3636: 3632: 3589: 3585: 3576: 3574: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3549: 3523: 3519: 3484: 3480: 3445: 3441: 3434: 3420: 3416: 3363: 3359: 3314: 3310: 3302: 3271: 3265: 3261: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3223: 3219: 3212: 3188: 3184: 3139:Acta Materialia 3131: 3127: 3119: 3117: 3107: 3083: 3082: 3078: 3043: 3039: 2982: 2978: 2957:(10): 309–314. 2943: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2889: 2885: 2878: 2864: 2860: 2825: 2821: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2782:Wayback Machine 2773: 2769: 2762: 2748: 2741: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2670: 2666: 2659: 2645: 2638: 2631: 2610: 2606: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2571: 2566: 2516: 2509: 2502: 2495: 2492: 2460: 2420: 2402:Surface science 2397:Crystallography 2341:Polymer science 2324: 1995:Femtotechnology 1954:Amorphous metal 1910: 1877:solid mechanics 1838:polymer science 1794: 1786:gallium nitride 1782:silicon carbide 1706: 1700: 1609:stainless steel 1589: 1583: 1434: 1428: 1402:(ABS) in which 1398:matrix such as 1389:silicon carbide 1331: 1325: 1305:silicon carbide 1287: 1271: 1267: 1258: 1252: 1151: 1117: 1111: 1087:superconducting 1051: 1023:hydroxylapatite 982:The iridescent 976: 970: 928: 922: 902: 885: 879: 847:internal energy 815: 809: 765: 708: 702: 694: 658: 652: 623:Nanotubes have 585: 579: 543:single crystals 524: 515: 513:Crystallography 509: 507:Crystallography 489:quantum physics 480: 474: 461: 452:analysis, etc. 405: 383:to name a few. 358: 236:or dagger blade 226: 220: 86: 75: 69: 66: 56:Please help to 55: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7615: 7605: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7577: 7576: 7574: 7573: 7561: 7549: 7537: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7471: 7470: 7460: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7441: 7436: 7430: 7428: 7424: 7423: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7398: 7397: 7396: 7386: 7385: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7359: 7358: 7357: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7343: 7338: 7328: 7323: 7322: 7321: 7316: 7305: 7304: 7303: 7302: 7300:Soil chemistry 7292: 7291: 7290: 7285: 7278:Food chemistry 7275: 7273:Carbochemistry 7270: 7268:Clay chemistry 7265: 7264: 7263: 7258: 7247: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7239: 7229: 7223:Astrochemistry 7219:Cosmochemistry 7216: 7215: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7202:Radiochemistry 7193: 7191: 7185: 7184: 7182: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7159:Neurochemistry 7156: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7139: 7138: 7137: 7127: 7126: 7125: 7120: 7109: 7107: 7101: 7100: 7098: 7097: 7092: 7090:Petrochemistry 7087: 7082: 7077: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7042: 7041: 7030: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7019: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 7002: 7001: 6991: 6986: 6980: 6978: 6972: 6971: 6969: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6951:Spin chemistry 6948: 6946:Photochemistry 6943: 6938: 6933: 6931:Femtochemistry 6928: 6927: 6926: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6900: 6899: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6873: 6872: 6867: 6856: 6854: 6848: 6847: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6842: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6816: 6815: 6805: 6799: 6797: 6791: 6790: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6756: 6755: 6750: 6743:Chromatography 6740: 6735: 6734: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6713: 6712: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6686: 6681: 6675: 6673: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6663: 6661:Periodic table 6658: 6653: 6648: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6630: 6629: 6622: 6615: 6607: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6568: 6566: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6558: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6507: 6505: 6499: 6498: 6496: 6495: 6490: 6489: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6435: 6433: 6427: 6426: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6409:Thermodynamics 6406: 6405: 6404: 6399: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6351: 6349: 6343: 6342: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6337: 6327: 6321: 6319: 6315: 6314: 6312: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6299: 6293: 6291: 6287: 6286: 6278: 6277: 6270: 6263: 6255: 6246: 6245: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6156: 6154: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6144: 6142:Tempered glass 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6112:DNA microarray 6109: 6107:Dealkalization 6104: 6099: 6094: 6088: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6020: 6018: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5981:Glass modeling 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5916: 5914: 5912:Glass-ceramics 5908: 5907: 5905: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5852:Silicate glass 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5758: 5756: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5732: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5723:science topics 5717: 5716: 5709: 5702: 5694: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5671: 5661: 5651: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5601: 5592: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5580: 5574: 5572: 5571:Related topics 5568: 5567: 5565: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5528: 5526: 5520: 5519: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5491:Sustainability 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5360: 5355: 5353:Geoengineering 5350: 5349: 5348: 5338: 5337: 5336: 5334:Rehabilitation 5331: 5329:Pharmaceutical 5326: 5321: 5316: 5314:Bioinformatics 5306: 5301: 5296: 5290: 5288: 5284: 5283: 5281: 5280: 5275: 5273:Semiconductors 5270: 5265: 5263:Nanotechnology 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5234: 5232: 5226: 5225: 5223: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5181: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5160: 5153: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5084: 5078: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5005: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4979:Transportation 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4935: 4934: 4929: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4898: 4896: 4887: 4877: 4876: 4874: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4846: 4845: 4838: 4831: 4823: 4814: 4813: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4793: 4780: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4724: 4713: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4680: 4678: 4674: 4673: 4671: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4642: 4640: 4639: 4630: 4625: 4619: 4617: 4613: 4612: 4604: 4603: 4596: 4589: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4569: 4562: 4561:External links 4559: 4558: 4557: 4551: 4538: 4532: 4519: 4513: 4478: 4472: 4459: 4453: 4440: 4434: 4421: 4415: 4398: 4392: 4379: 4373: 4356: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4343: 4308: 4302: 4289: 4283: 4270: 4264: 4247: 4241: 4228: 4222: 4206: 4200: 4187: 4181: 4168: 4162: 4146:Eberhart, Mark 4142: 4136: 4123: 4117: 4104: 4098: 4083: 4080: 4077: 4076: 4050: 4028: 4002: 3976: 3950: 3931: 3901: 3890:. 5 March 2007 3875: 3857: 3827: 3805: 3779: 3765:. 2013-09-06. 3754: 3724: 3685: 3644:Nature Physics 3630: 3603:(1): 341–347. 3583: 3562: 3547: 3517: 3498:(4): 577–584. 3478: 3459:(4): 565–576. 3439: 3432: 3414: 3357: 3328:(18): 4184–7. 3308: 3259: 3247: 3217: 3210: 3182: 3125: 3105: 3076: 3057:(1–2): 84–89. 3037: 2990:Biointerphases 2976: 2937: 2928: 2919: 2910: 2883: 2876: 2858: 2839:(3): 587–603. 2819: 2807:semiconductors 2794: 2785: 2767: 2760: 2739: 2689: 2682: 2664: 2657: 2636: 2630:978-0262191913 2629: 2604: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2521: 2507: 2504:Science portal 2491: 2488: 2487: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2437:Nanotechnology 2434: 2419: 2416: 2415: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2390: 2389: 2380: 2375: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2338: 2333: 2323: 2322:Subdisciplines 2320: 2317: 2316: 2314: 2311: 2308: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2293: 2284: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2272: 2262: 2253: 2250: 2244: 2243: 2234: 2228: 2218: 2212: 2202: 2201: 2199: 2192: 2187: 2184: 2178: 2177: 2175: 2172:Space colonies 2169: 2166: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2154: 2137: 2131: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2111: 2105: 2099: 2098: 2096: 2081: 2078: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2055: 2051: 2047:Silicon-based 2045: 2039: 2033: 2032: 2030: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2013: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2004: 2001: 1999:picotechnology 1991: 1990: 1988: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1970: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1959: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1947: 1944: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1909: 1906: 1793: 1790: 1702:Main article: 1699: 1698:Semiconductors 1696: 1640:Heat treatment 1585:Main article: 1582: 1579: 1493:polycarbonates 1430:Main article: 1427: 1424: 1365:phenolic resin 1327:Main article: 1324: 1321: 1285: 1269: 1265: 1254:Main article: 1251: 1248: 1184:crystal growth 1150: 1147: 1143:finite element 1113:Main article: 1110: 1107: 1068:Semiconductors 1050: 1047: 972:Main article: 969: 966: 945:nanotechnology 924:Main article: 921: 918: 901: 898: 881:Main article: 878: 875: 867:phase diagrams 813:Thermodynamics 811:Main article: 808: 807:Thermodynamics 805: 793:semiconductors 764: 761: 757: 756: 755: 754: 748: 738: 736:Thermodynamics 732: 726: 720: 704:Main article: 701: 698: 693: 692:Macrostructure 690: 656:Microstructure 654:Main article: 651: 650:Microstructure 648: 644:ultrastructure 625:two dimensions 581:Main article: 578: 575: 522: 511:Main article: 508: 505: 476:Main article: 473: 470: 460: 457: 442:chromatography 404: 401: 393:thermodynamics 389:microstructure 357: 354: 310:semiconductors 222:Main article: 219: 216: 189:nanotechnology 103:showing seven 88: 87: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7614: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7589: 7587: 7572: 7571: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7550: 7548: 7547: 7538: 7536: 7535: 7526: 7525: 7522: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7505:Chemical bond 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7469: 7466: 7465: 7464: 7461: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7431: 7429: 7425: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7403: 7402: 7399: 7395: 7394:Stoichiometry 7392: 7391: 7390: 7387: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7363: 7360: 7356: 7353: 7352: 7351: 7350:Nanochemistry 7348: 7347: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7333: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7311: 7310: 7307: 7306: 7301: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7293: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7224: 7220: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7199: 7198: 7195: 7194: 7192: 7190: 7186: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7148: 7145: 7144: 7143: 7140: 7136: 7133: 7132: 7131: 7128: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7114: 7111: 7110: 7108: 7106: 7102: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7075:Semisynthesis 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7036: 7035: 7032: 7031: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7000: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6981: 6979: 6977: 6973: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6909:Sonochemistry 6907: 6905: 6904:Cryochemistry 6902: 6898: 6897:Micromeritics 6895: 6894: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6878: 6875: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6862: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6853: 6849: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6814: 6811: 6810: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6800: 6798: 6796: 6792: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6775:Wet chemistry 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6718: 6717: 6714: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6691: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6643: 6640: 6636: 6628: 6623: 6621: 6616: 6614: 6609: 6608: 6605: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6563: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6551:Ocean physics 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6508: 6506: 6504: 6500: 6494: 6491: 6487: 6486:Modern optics 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6432: 6428: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6410: 6407: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6357: 6356: 6353: 6352: 6350: 6348: 6344: 6336: 6335:Computational 6333: 6332: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6316: 6308: 6305: 6304: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6294: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6276: 6271: 6269: 6264: 6262: 6257: 6256: 6253: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6157: 6155: 6149: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6081: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6049:Optical fiber 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6007: 6006:Vitrification 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5976:Glass melting 5974: 5972: 5971:Glass forming 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5887:Uranium glass 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5867:Soluble glass 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5782:Ceramic glaze 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5759: 5757: 5753: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5733: 5731: 5727: 5722: 5715: 5710: 5708: 5703: 5701: 5696: 5695: 5692: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5670: 5662: 5660: 5652: 5650: 5642: 5641: 5638: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5596: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5585: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5516: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5421: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5342: 5339: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5285: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5165: 5164: 5161: 5158: 5155: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5146: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5034:Manufacturing 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5024:Biomechanical 5022: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5004: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4922:Environmental 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4902:Architectural 4900: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4878: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4858: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4839: 4837: 4832: 4830: 4825: 4824: 4821: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4803: 4794: 4792: 4791: 4782: 4781: 4778: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4712: 4710: 4706: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4675: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4658:Computational 4656: 4654: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4638: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4620: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4602: 4597: 4595: 4590: 4588: 4583: 4582: 4579: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4564: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4525: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4485: 4479: 4475: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4450: 4446: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4370: 4365: 4364: 4357: 4354: 4351: 4350: 4339: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4280: 4276: 4271: 4267: 4265:9780849311826 4261: 4256: 4255: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4197: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4178: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4159: 4154: 4153: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4120: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4085: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4038: 4032: 4016: 4012: 4006: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3964: 3960: 3954: 3947: 3943: 3940: 3935: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3905: 3889: 3885: 3879: 3871: 3867: 3861: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3815: 3809: 3793: 3789: 3783: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3728: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3689: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3587: 3572: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3548:0-7803-9393-7 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3443: 3435: 3433:9780470419977 3429: 3425: 3418: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3263: 3250: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3213: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3194: 3186: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3129: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2932: 2923: 2914: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2887: 2879: 2873: 2869: 2862: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2798: 2789: 2783: 2779: 2776: 2771: 2763: 2757: 2753: 2746: 2744: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2693: 2685: 2679: 2675: 2668: 2660: 2654: 2650: 2643: 2641: 2632: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2524: 2519: 2513: 2508: 2505: 2499: 2494: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2461: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2422: 2421: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2393: 2388: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2358: 2357: 2356: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2328: 2327: 2315: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2261: 2257: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2206:Nanomaterials 2204: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2126:Metamaterials 2124: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2093:electric cars 2090: 2086: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2066: 2063: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 2014: 2011: 2008: 2005: 2003:Hypothetical 2002: 2000: 1996: 1993: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1930: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1913: 1905: 1902: 1901:paleoinspired 1898: 1894: 1889: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1810: 1807:" and blue: " 1806: 1802: 1798: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1710:semiconductor 1705: 1704:Semiconductor 1695: 1693: 1689: 1688:Copper alloys 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1598: 1593: 1588: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1549:Polycarbonate 1546: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1533:and cabling, 1532: 1528: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1489:polyurethanes 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1465:polypropylene 1462: 1458: 1454: 1446: 1438: 1433: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1416:carbon fibers 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1396:thermoplastic 1392: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1344: 1335: 1330: 1320: 1318: 1313: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1299: 1298:Gorilla Glass 1295: 1291: 1283: 1279: 1262: 1257: 1247: 1243: 1240: 1236: 1235:blast furnace 1232: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1155: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1123: 1116: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1095:metamaterials 1092: 1088: 1083: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1059: 1055: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 999: 997: 989: 985: 980: 975: 965: 963: 959: 954: 950: 946: 937: 932: 927: 926:Nanomaterials 920:Nanomaterials 917: 915: 911: 907: 897: 894: 889: 884: 874: 872: 868: 862: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 841:. It defines 840: 836: 832: 828: 819: 814: 804: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 781: 775: 771: 760: 753: 749: 747: 743: 739: 737: 733: 731: 727: 725: 721: 719: 715: 714: 713: 712: 711: 707: 697: 689: 687: 683: 679: 675: 670: 662: 657: 647: 645: 641: 637: 633: 632:nanoparticles 628: 626: 621: 619: 618:one dimension 615: 611: 609: 604: 600: 594:nanostructure 593: 589: 584: 583:Nanostructure 577:Nanostructure 574: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 551:nanomaterials 548: 544: 540: 539:nanomaterials 536: 535:parallelpiped 532: 519: 514: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 479: 469: 467: 456: 453: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 400: 398: 394: 390: 384: 382: 378: 374: 373:nanomaterials 364: 360: 353: 351: 350:nanomaterials 347: 343: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 317: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 270:thermodynamic 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 235: 230: 225: 215: 213: 209: 205: 200: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 173: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 142: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 116: 110: 106: 102: 101:cuboctahedron 99: 94: 84: 81: 73: 63: 59: 53: 52: 46: 41: 32: 31: 19: 7568: 7556: 7544: 7532: 7400: 7382:Biosynthesis 7232:Geochemistry 7147:Pharmacology 7123:Cell biology 7113:Biochemistry 6941:Spectroscopy 6840:VSEPR theory 6689:Spectroscopy 6633:Branches of 6535: 6511:Astrophysics 6325:Experimental 6215:Porous glass 6170:Safety glass 6127:Porous glass 6085:modification 5897:Wood's glass 5817:Fused quartz 5792:Cobalt glass 5746:Supercooling 5595:Engineering 5441:Mechatronics 5294:Agricultural 5229: 4944:Geotechnical 4912:Construction 4800: 4788: 4616:Main classes 4608: 4607:Branches of 4542: 4523: 4488: 4482: 4463: 4444: 4425: 4402: 4383: 4362: 4320: 4317:MRS Bulletin 4316: 4293: 4274: 4253: 4232: 4213: 4191: 4172: 4151: 4127: 4108: 4089: 4082:Bibliography 4067:. Retrieved 4062: 4053: 4041:. Retrieved 4031: 4019:. Retrieved 4005: 3993:. Retrieved 3989:the original 3979: 3967:. Retrieved 3962: 3953: 3934: 3922:. Retrieved 3913: 3904: 3892:. Retrieved 3887: 3878: 3860: 3848:. Retrieved 3840:The Guardian 3839: 3830: 3818:. Retrieved 3808: 3796:. Retrieved 3792:the original 3782: 3771:. Retrieved 3757: 3745:. Retrieved 3736: 3727: 3702: 3698: 3688: 3647: 3643: 3633: 3600: 3596: 3586: 3575:. 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Oxford: 3773:2016-05-15 3577:2024-05-02 3282:(4): 489. 3254:2024-04-28 3120:2023-10-29 2569:References 2532:Bioplastic 2442:Mineralogy 2368:microscopy 2336:Metallurgy 2161:Metal foam 2133:Classical 1818:metallurgy 1742:thermionic 1716:between a 1692:Bronze Age 1665:molybdenum 1630:, mid and 1617:tool steel 1575:hip joints 1539:containers 1481:polyesters 1323:Composites 1076:insulators 1072:conductors 1045:material. 958:fullerenes 797:thin films 780:metallurgy 770:Bronze Age 763:Processing 700:Properties 325:metallurgy 282:Space Race 262:metallurgy 246:Bronze Age 197:metallurgy 177:processing 170:mineralogy 166:metallurgy 45:references 7468:Catalysis 6976:Inorganic 6770:Titration 6635:chemistry 6481:Molecular 6382:Acoustics 6375:Continuum 6370:Celestial 6360:Newtonian 6347:Classical 6290:Divisions 6102:Corrosion 6001:Viscosity 5956:Annealing 5547:Doctorate 5461:Packaging 5431:Logistics 5404:Geomatics 5365:/graphics 5258:Molecular 5248:Corrosion 5230:Materials 5210:Petroleum 5200:Molecular 5082:Broadcast 5064:Tribology 5014:Aerospace 4949:Hydraulic 4717:Chemistry 4694:Tribology 4043:2 January 3719:0261-3069 3680:260266502 3672:1745-2481 3617:0378-5173 3512:0001-6160 3473:0001-6160 3409:199492241 3401:2057-3960 3377:(1): 83. 3196:. 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After 1358:graphite 1278:ceramics 1161:Radical 1149:Industry 1025:-coated 1003:polymers 988:nautilus 900:Research 877:Kinetics 855:pressure 801:graphene 789:ceramics 785:polymers 774:Iron Age 680:such as 563:Polymers 432:such as 422:neutrons 397:kinetics 346:magnetic 342:polymers 306:plastics 258:ceramics 250:Iron Age 185:paradigm 7546:Commons 7510:Alchemy 7026:Organic 6565:Related 6449:General 6444:Special 6302:Applied 6151:Diverse 6083:Surface 5940:Zerodur 5659:Commons 5501:Textile 5496:Systems 5466:Privacy 5451:Nuclear 5215:Process 5173:Genetic 5119:Optical 5099:Control 5092:outline 5059:Thermal 5049:Railway 4989:Railway 4984:Traffic 4907:Coastal 4866:Outline 4861:History 4749:Physics 4677:Domains 4493:Bibcode 4325:Bibcode 3747:16 July 3652:Bibcode 3379:Bibcode 3330:Bibcode 3284:Bibcode 3147:Bibcode 2714:Bibcode 2144:cameras 2075:dry ice 1933:Aerogel 1918:Status 1865:physics 1757:silicon 1471:(PVC), 1432:Polymer 1406:chalk, 1282:glasses 1256:Ceramic 1231:foundry 1176:welding 1172:rolling 1168:casting 906:physics 851:entropy 678:defects 674:crystal 472:Bonding 337:nascent 302:rubbers 232:A late 218:History 154:physics 98:diamond 58:improve 7558:Portal 6704:UV-Vis 6476:Atomic 6431:Modern 6281:Major 6153:topics 6016:Optics 5822:GeSbTe 5729:Basics 5679:Portal 5476:Survey 5471:Safety 5358:Design 5178:Tissue 5054:Sports 5039:Marine 5029:Energy 4954:Mining 4802:Common 4549: 4530: 4511: 4470: 4451: 4432: 4413: 4390: 4371: 4300: 4281: 4262: 4239: 4220: 4198: 4179: 4160: 4134: 4115: 4096: 3717: 3678: 3670: 3623: 3615: 3555: 3545: 3510: 3471: 3430: 3407: 3399: 3350: 3245: 3208: 3175: 3167: 3113: 3103: 3069: 3026: 3018: 2969: 2874: 2851: 2803:metals 2758: 2732: 2680: 2655: 2627: 2168:Hulls 2135:optics 1966:Armor 1962:Kevlar 1852:, and 1784:, and 1726:diodes 1680:copper 1661:Nickel 1537:, and 1503:, and 1491:, and 1477:nylons 1457:rubber 1375:, the 1369:curing 1307:, and 1290:silica 1080:doping 853:, and 835:energy 795:, and 742:Optics 414:X-rays 379:, and 312:, and 298:carbon 294:silica 292:, and 290:alloys 278:phases 274:atomic 252:, and 195:, and 156:, and 137:is an 125:is an 47:, but 6731:MALDI 6699:Raman 5935:Macor 5902:ZBLAN 5736:Glass 5721:Glass 5299:Audio 5287:Other 5205:Paper 5124:Power 4969:River 4894:Civil 3676:S2CID 3553:S2CID 3405:S2CID 3303:(PDF) 3272:(PDF) 3173:S2CID 3111:S2CID 3024:S2CID 2998:arXiv 2730:S2CID 2702:(PDF) 2222:steel 2114:Glass 1605:steel 1599:alloy 1597:steel 1587:Alloy 1361:rayon 1227:ingot 1009:, or 990:shell 984:nacre 634:have 616:have 567:Glass 541:. 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