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546:. Galena also sometimes crystallizes as octahedrons, and the eight faces of the octahedron belong to another crystallographic form reflecting a different symmetry of the isometric system. A crystallographic form is described by placing the Miller indices of one of its faces within brackets. For example, the octahedral form is written as {111}, and the other faces in the form are implied by the symmetry of the crystal.
1181:
570:
43:
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Forms may be closed, meaning that the form can completely enclose a volume of space, or open, meaning that it cannot. The cubic and octahedral forms are examples of closed forms. All the forms of the isometric system are closed, while all the forms of the monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems are
520:). As a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces. Therefore, the flat surfaces tend to grow larger and smoother, until the whole crystal surface consists of these plane surfaces. (See diagram on right.)
1691:
Crystallized sugar. Crystals on the right were grown from a sugar cube, while the left from a single seed crystal taken from the right. Red dye was added to the solution when growing the larger crystal, but, insoluble with the solid sugar, all but small traces were forced to precipitate out as it
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and single-crystal metals. The latter are grown synthetically, for example, fighter-jet turbines are typically made by first growing a single crystal of titanium alloy, increasing its strength and melting point over polycrystalline titanium. A small piece of metal may naturally form into a single
1275:
are often composed of single crystal, or many large crystals that may be several meters in size, due to very slow cooling in the vacuum of space. The slow cooling may allow the precipitation of a separate phase within the crystal lattice, which form at specific angles determined by the lattice,
1639:
1485:
crystals consist of a stack of sheets, and although each individual sheet is mechanically very strong, the sheets are rather loosely bound to each other. Therefore, the mechanical strength of the material is quite different depending on the direction of stress.
607:. Crystals found in rocks typically range in size from a fraction of a millimetre to several centimetres across, although exceptionally large crystals are occasionally found. As of 1999, the world's largest known naturally occurring crystal is a crystal of
1651:
1604:
1355:
form molecular bonds because the large molecules do not pack as tightly as atomic bonds. This leads to crystals that are much softer and more easily pulled apart or broken. Common examples include chocolates, candles, or viruses. Water ice and
992:, with various possibilities for the size, arrangement, orientation, and phase of its grains. The final form of the solid is determined by the conditions under which the fluid is being solidified, such as the chemistry of the fluid, the
404:, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the
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2211:
900:
is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have very different properties. For example, diamond is the hardest substance known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant.
426:
is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries (230 is commonly cited, but this treats chiral equivalents as separate entities), called
1616:
1218:. Like a grain boundary, a twin boundary has different crystal orientations on its two sides. But unlike a grain boundary, the orientations are not random, but related in a specific, mirror-image way.
561:(which restricts the possible facet orientations), the specific crystal chemistry and bonding (which may favor some facet types over others), and the conditions under which the crystal formed.
1427:
Quasicrystals, first discovered in 1982, are quite rare in practice. Only about 100 solids are known to form quasicrystals, compared to about 400,000 periodic crystals known in 2004. The 2011
1645:
A specimen consisting of a bornite-coated chalcopyrite crystal nestled in a bed of clear quartz crystals and lustrous pyrite crystals. The bornite-coated crystal is up to 1.5 cm across.
483:
for a crystal—a crystal is scientifically defined by its microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape—but the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy to see.
1320:) are typically formed from one or more non-metals, such as carbon or silicon and oxygen, and are often very hard, rigid, and brittle. These are also very common, notable examples being
1286:
typically form when a metal reacts with a non-metal, such as sodium with chlorine. These often form substances called salts, such as sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium nitrate (
1555:
968:
Crystallization is a complex and extensively-studied field, because depending on the conditions, a single fluid can solidify into many different possible forms. It can form a
1882:
1364:
materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization—and sometimes polymers are completely amorphous.
1402:
consists of arrays of atoms that are ordered but not strictly periodic. They have many attributes in common with ordinary crystals, such as displaying a discrete pattern in
2072:
Yoshinori
Furukawa, "Ice"; Matti Leppäranta, "Sea Ice"; D.P. Dobhal, "Glacier"; and other articles in Vijay P. Singh, Pratap Singh, and Umesh K. Haritashya, eds.,
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1574:
352:
Not all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a
1119:, places where the crystal's pattern is interrupted. The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.
2122:
1610:
An apatite crystal sits front and center on cherry-red rhodochroite rhombs, purple fluorite cubes, quartz and a dusting of brass-yellow pyrite cubes.
1290:), with crystals that are often brittle and cleave relatively easily. Ionic materials are usually crystalline or polycrystalline. In practice, large
953:
Crystallization is the process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in a fluid. (More rarely, crystals may be
905:
can form six different types of crystals, but only one has the suitable hardness and melting point for candy bars and confections. Polymorphism in
479:
Crystals are commonly recognized, macroscopically, by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. These shape characteristics are not
2161:
634:
are formed from molten magma and the degree of crystallization depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified. Such rocks as
2455:
757:, without passing through a liquid state. Another unusual property of water is that it expands rather than contracts when it crystallizes.
2049:
542:
often take the shape of cubes, and the six faces of the cube belong to a crystallographic form that displays one of the symmetries of the
1420:
has redefined the term "crystal" to include both ordinary periodic crystals and quasicrystals ("any solid having an essentially discrete
1377:
2058:
2381:
2095:
1796:
1409:
Quasicrystals are most famous for their ability to show five-fold symmetry, which is impossible for an ordinary periodic crystal (see
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Not all crystals have all of these properties. Conversely, these properties are not quite exclusive to crystals. They can appear in
1892:
324:
Macroscopic (~16 cm) halite crystal. The right-angles between crystal faces are due to the cubic symmetry of the atoms' arrangement
1115:
crystal has every atom in a perfect, exactly repeating pattern. However, in reality, most crystalline materials have a variety of
1820:
471:. Therefore, these parts of the crystal grow out very quickly (yellow arrows). Eventually, the whole surface consists of smooth,
2342:
1417:
1256:, and others. None of these are necessarily crystalline or non-crystalline. However, there are some general trends as follows:
550:
open. A crystal's faces may all belong to the same closed form, or they may be a combination of multiple open or closed forms.
1589:
2278:"Twenty years of structure research on quasicrystals. Part I. Pentagonal, octagonal, decagonal and dodecagonal quasicrystals"
1959:
1869:
1017:. Other less exotic methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including
538:
are sets of possible faces of the crystal that are related by one of the symmetries of the crystal. For example, crystals of
467:
crystal is growing, new atoms can very easily attach to the parts of the surface with rough atomic-scale structure and many
1410:
527:
consists of measuring the three-dimensional orientations of the faces of a crystal, and using them to infer the underlying
2741:
1914:
1837:
615:, 18 m (59 ft) long and 3.5 m (11 ft) in diameter, and weighing 380,000 kg (840,000 lb).
2419:
2132:
2105:
1469:, where a double image appears when looking through a crystal. Moreover, various properties of a crystal, including
1208:, are made possible largely by putting different semiconductor dopants into different places, in specific patterns.
2779:
2448:
820:
810:
2362:
741:. Ice crystals may form from cooling liquid water below its freezing point, such as ice cubes or a frozen lake.
642:
were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly, and in this latter group a small amount of amorphous or
337:
The scientific definition of a "crystal" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the
2081:
2006:
128:
with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as
1026:
954:
2721:
1298:
fluid, or by crystallization out of a solution. Some ionic compounds can be very hard, such as oxides like
678:
have acted on them by erasing their original structures and inducing recrystallization in the solid state.
638:, which have cooled very slowly and under great pressures, have completely crystallized; but many kinds of
415:, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are
2441:
1461:
of the crystal, i.e. the lack of rotational symmetry in its atomic arrangement. One such property is the
1804:
362:" or "grains") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does
2545:
2169:
1541:
2317:
1536:(in other words, the atomic arrangement) of a crystal. One widely used crystallography technique is
1428:
1149:, meaning that the "wrong" type of atom is present in a crystal. For example, a perfect crystal of
543:
444:
34:
2555:
1474:
1470:
1317:
1116:
1072:
1022:
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By volume and weight, the largest concentrations of crystals in the Earth are part of its solid
1228:
consists of smaller crystalline units that are somewhat misaligned with respect to each other.
1018:
210:, i.e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Polycrystals include most
226:, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include
174:
1704:
1277:
1271:, but larger pieces generally do not unless extremely slow cooling occurs. For example, iron
1139:
405:
27:
2415:
2385:
2042:
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
1985:
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crystallize rapidly and are almost always polycrystalline, though there are exceptions like
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1800:
1462:
1201:
1041:
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Other rock crystals have formed out of precipitation from fluids, commonly water, to form
8:
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gaseous-solution of water vapor and air, when the temperature of the air drops below its
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56:
2293:
2148:
Nucleation of Water: From
Fundamental Science to Atmospheric and Additional Applications
877:(a crystal). Likewise, if a substance can form crystals, it can also form polycrystals.
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condition nor entirely in solution, but the high temperature and pressure conditions of
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2627:
2464:
2261:
2236:
1965:
1729:
1506:
1478:
1307:
1253:
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are common crystalline/polycrystalline structures on Earth and other planets. A single
265:
20:
2761:
How Long Is the Coast of
Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension
1449:
Crystals can have certain special electrical, optical, and mechanical properties that
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crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid.
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2754:
2654:
2649:
2590:
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2101:
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2002:
1969:
1955:
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1403:
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is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water
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338:
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65:
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have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the
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2297:
2256:
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1947:
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1211:
1097:
1080:
993:
897:
770:
516:. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others (lower
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A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its
367:
253:
2225:
by Museum and
Galleries Commission -- Museum and Galleries Commission 2005 Page 57
2212:
Angelo State
University: Formulas and Nomenclature of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
1388:. Only quasicrystals can take this 5-fold symmetry. The edges are 2 mm long.
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1941:
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and some limestones have been deposited from aqueous solution, mostly owing to
658:, are recrystallized. This means that they were at first fragmental rocks like
627:
528:
517:
472:
468:
432:
141:
133:
117:
61:
2252:
848:, and many other forms. The different polymorphs are usually called different
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by Tilman Spohn, Doris Breuer, Torrence V. Johnson -- Elsevier 2014 Page 632
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2540:
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1739:
1583:: A type of ice crystal (picture taken from a distance of about 5 cm).
1399:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1032:
Large single crystals can be created by geological processes. For example,
870:
842:
675:
513:
342:
290:
1465:, where a voltage across the crystal can shrink or stretch it. Another is
580:
459:
358:
structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called "
2735:
2693:
2612:
2508:
2503:
1946:, vol. A, Chester, England: International Union of Crystallography,
1709:
1498:
1494:
1454:
1421:
1131:
997:
989:
738:
702:
651:
646:
matter is common. Other crystalline rocks, the metamorphic rocks such as
623:
587:
428:
359:
207:
73:
69:
1044:
in Naica, Mexico. For more details on geological crystal formation, see
1003:
Specific industrial techniques to produce large single crystals (called
919:
is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one
390:, etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as
2682:
2677:
2595:
2498:
1580:
1458:
1372:
1245:
1205:
798:
612:
242:
203:
2234:
1481:, may be different in different directions in a crystal. For example,
2784:
2687:
2433:
1887:
1714:
1677:
1658:
1287:
1272:
1221:
1084:
902:
881:
814:
778:
766:
754:
730:
690:
667:
659:
655:
371:
341:. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (
195:
184:
162:
77:
2366:
1089:
112:) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a
2513:
2478:
1670:
1666:
1568:. The low gravity allows crystals to be grown with minimal defects.
1482:
1340:
1174:
1170:
1146:
1076:
889:
819:
The same group of atoms can often solidify in many different ways.
734:
619:
501:
486:
454:
305:
261:
215:
121:
105:
47:
1214:
is a phenomenon somewhere between a crystallographic defect and a
504:
crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying
2634:
2622:
2600:
2585:
2493:
1662:
1626:
1595:
1561:
1361:
1357:
1321:
1150:
958:
885:
782:
774:
746:
726:
722:
635:
604:
591:
439:(where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as
379:
235:
199:
2340:
1629:, like this one, are an important type of industrially-produced
1134:(see figure at right). Dislocations are especially important in
2384:. Commission on Crystallographic Teaching. 2007. Archived from
1325:
1295:
1197:
1185:
1180:
1154:
893:
874:
857:
In addition, the same atoms may be able to form noncrystalline
845:
835:
828:
698:
694:
686:
671:
647:
584:
569:
539:
464:
448:
440:
301:
297:
211:
50:
2076:(Dordrecht, NE: Springer Science & Business Media, 2011).
1335:
also help hold together certain crystals, such as crystalline
1000:, and the speed with which all these parameters are changing.
489:
crystals are those that have obvious, well-formed flat faces.
33:
This article is about crystalline solids. For other uses, see
2672:
2343:"Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems"
2150:
by Ari
Laaksonen, Jussi Malila -- Elsevier 2022 Page 239--240
1490:
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81:
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In general, solids can be held together by various types of
249:
crystals, but rather types of glass, i.e. amorphous solids.
42:
2550:
2488:
2483:
2062:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1303:
1200:, drastically changes the crystal's electrical properties.
1166:
790:
718:
639:
101:
2223:
1540:. Large numbers of known crystal structures are stored in
1406:, and the ability to form shapes with smooth, flat faces.
745:, snowflakes, or small ice crystals suspended in the air (
733:
is a single crystal or a collection of crystals, while an
475:
faces, where new atoms cannot as easily attach themselves.
1352:
1344:
1051:
Crystals can also be formed by biological processes, see
824:
714:
573:
557:
is its visible external shape. This is determined by the
383:
231:
219:
170:
116:
that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic
109:
1842:
The
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
1165:
to slightly blue. Likewise, the only difference between
1055:. Conversely, some organisms have special techniques to
626:
processes, giving origin to large masses of crystalline
16:
Solid material with highly ordered microscopic structure
2341:
Howard, J. Michael; Darcy Howard (Illustrator) (1998).
2124:
Snow
Engineering 2000: Recent Advances and Developments
1360:
are examples of other materials with molecular bonding.
1130:(an extra atom squeezed in where it does not fit), and
1157:
atoms, but a real crystal might perhaps contain a few
283:
Halite (table salt, NaCl): Microscopic and macroscopic
19:"Crystalline" redirects here. For the Björk song, see
1457:
normally cannot. These properties are related to the
1438:
1145:
Another common type of crystallographic defect is an
880:
For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as
132:. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of
1066:
2001:. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand. pp. 134–138.
1122:A few examples of crystallographic defects include
252:Crystals, or crystalline solids, are often used in
84:) has no periodic arrangement even microscopically.
2183:Britain), Science Research Council (Great (1972).
275:
72:is composed of many microscopic crystals (called "
2401:"Crystal Lattice Structures:Index by Space Group"
1161:atoms as well. These boron impurities change the
374:solids are polycrystalline, including almost all
2802:
455:Crystal faces, shapes and crystallographic forms
419:in three-dimensional space to form the crystal.
2235:International Union of Crystallography (1992).
2094:Libbrecht, Kenneth; Wing, Rachel (2015-09-01).
1880:
1384:, which can take on the macroscopic shape of a
1294:crystals can be created by solidification of a
523:One of the oldest techniques in the science of
447:(where the crystals may form hexagons, such as
2360:
1779:
2449:
2120:
2093:
1990:
1224:is a spread of crystal plane orientations. A
804:
206:. Most inorganic solids are not crystals but
2237:"Report of the Executive Committee for 1991"
1984:, by Victor E. Henrich, P. A. Cox, page 28,
1598:, a metal that easily forms large crystals.
1126:(an empty space where an atom should fit),
769:are able to produce crystals grown from an
26:"Xtal" redirects here. For other uses, see
2456:
2442:
2275:
1665:crystal and oxidized on their surfaces to
827:is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form
2301:
2260:
2025:, London, Natural History Museum, page 58
1996:
1758:
1052:
272:beliefs and related religious movements.
2182:
1943:International Tables for Crystallography
1939:
1761:"Chem1 online textbook—States of matter"
1371:
1179:
1088:
1059:crystallization from occurring, such as
940:
913:, giving it a wide range of properties.
579:
568:
458:
55:
41:
2097:The Snowflake: Winter's Frozen Artistry
1883:"Using Crystals and Gemstones in Magic"
1339:, as well as the interlayer bonding in
1196:, a special type of impurity, called a
1173:is the type of impurities present in a
1093:Two types of crystallographic defects.
760:
564:
2803:
2463:
2074:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers
2028:
1862:Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia
1823:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1418:International Union of Crystallography
2437:
2422:, Department of Crystallography. 2010
2047:
1915:"The Magic of Crystals and Gemstones"
909:is responsible for its ability to be
100:material whose constituents (such as
2159:
2021:G. Cressey and I. F. Mercer, (1999)
1435:for the discovery of quasicrystals.
1411:crystallographic restriction theorem
2742:The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis
2318:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2011"
1982:The surface science of metal oxides
861:. For example, water can also form
194:Examples of large crystals include
13:
2334:
1881:Patti Wigington (31 August 2016).
1516:
1439:Special properties from anisotropy
1138:, because they help determine the
926:
834:, but can also exist as the cubic
346:
120:are usually identifiable by their
14:
2822:
2420:Spanish National Research Council
2345:. Bob's Rock Shop. Archived from
1231:
1067:Defects, impurities, and twinning
506:atomic arrangement of the crystal
2564:
2200:Encyclopedia of the Solar System
2121:Hjorth-Hansen, E. (2017-10-19).
2035:
1684:
1650:
1638:
1615:
1603:
1588:
1573:
1554:
1547:
1532:is the science of measuring the
1367:
1302:found in many gemstones such as
1140:mechanical strength of materials
972:, perhaps with various possible
811:Polymorphism (materials science)
317:
289:
264:, are sometimes associated with
222:. A third category of solids is
2361:Krassmann, Thomas (2005–2008).
2310:
2269:
2228:
2216:
2205:
2193:
2176:
2153:
2141:
2114:
2087:
2066:
2015:
1975:
276:Crystal structure (microscopic)
1933:
1907:
1874:
1854:
1830:
1814:
1790:
1773:
1752:
1661:crystals partially encased in
1036:crystals in excess of 10
408:, but forming a crystal does.
1:
1746:
1027:solvent-based crystallization
892:are two crystalline forms of
618:Some crystals have formed by
429:crystallographic space groups
2303:10.1524/zkri.219.7.391.35643
2166:National Geographic Magazine
2160:Shea, Neil (November 2008).
1952:10.1107/97809553602060000001
1940:Welberry, T. R, ed. (2021),
1827:, on Perseus Digital Library
1811:, on Perseus Digital Library
1780:Ashcroft and Mermin (1976).
1511:stress-induced birefringence
496:The flat faces (also called
185:
163:
64:has atoms in a near-perfect
7:
2365:. Krassmann. Archived from
2363:"The Giant Crystal Project"
2048:Flett, John Smith (1911). "
1697:
431:. These are grouped into 7
296:Microscopic structure of a
245:, and related products are
243:lead crystal, crystal glass
10:
2827:
1542:crystallographic databases
1520:
1442:
1391:
1070:
1045:
930:
808:
805:Polymorphism and allotropy
330:
179:
157:
32:
25:
18:
2772:
2722:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
2665:
2573:
2562:
2471:
2253:10.1107/S0108767392008328
2189:. H.M. Stationery Office.
1316:solids (sometimes called
873:(an amorphous glass) and
749:) more often grow from a
670:and have never been in a
312:in the atoms' arrangement
2162:"Cave of Crystal Giants"
1997:Sinkankas, John (1964).
1429:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1267:crystal, such as Type 2
1117:crystallographic defects
957:directly from gas; see:
949:in a beet sugar factory.
598:
544:isometric crystal system
445:hexagonal crystal system
35:Crystal (disambiguation)
2059:Encyclopædia Britannica
1999:Mineralogy for amateurs
1825:A Greek-English Lexicon
1809:A Greek-English Lexicon
1475:electrical permittivity
1471:electrical conductivity
1386:pentagonal dodecahedron
1318:covalent network solids
1073:Crystallographic defect
630:. The vast majority of
76:" or "grains"); and an
1860:Regal, Brian. (2009).
1389:
1378:holmium–magnesium–zinc
1278:Widmanstatten patterns
1189:
1108:
1019:hydrothermal synthesis
950:
708:
595:
577:
536:crystallographic forms
476:
345:are an exception, see
191:), "icy cold, frost".
85:
53:
2556:Widmanstätten pattern
2186:Report of the Council
1705:Atomic packing factor
1375:
1343:. Substances such as
1202:Semiconductor devices
1183:
1092:
944:
583:
572:
462:
424:symmetry of a crystal
406:latent heat of fusion
124:, consisting of flat
59:
45:
28:Xtal (disambiguation)
2382:"Teaching Pamphlets"
1864:. Greenwood. p. 51.
1801:Henry George Liddell
1566:grown in earth orbit
1497:that have been made
1463:piezoelectric effect
1333:van der Waals forces
1128:interstitial defects
1042:Cave of the Crystals
988:. Or, it can form a
947:cooling crystallizer
781:in the case of most
761:Organigenic crystals
565:Occurrence in nature
437:cubic crystal system
300:crystal. (Purple is
2790:Mathematics and art
2780:Pattern recognition
2750:Aristid Lindenmayer
2294:2004ZK....219..391S
2288:(7–2004): 391–446.
2276:Steurer W. (2004).
2241:Acta Crystallogr. A
1895:on 15 November 2016
1783:Solid State Physics
1674:Milwaukee Formation
1254:van der Waals bonds
1153:would only contain
1061:antifreeze proteins
1011:Czochralski process
443:shown at right) or
370:. Most macroscopic
60:Microscopically, a
2728:On Growth and Form
2628:Logarithmic spiral
2465:Patterns in nature
2100:. Voyageur Press.
1921:. 14 December 2011
1730:Crystal oscillator
1390:
1308:synthetic sapphire
1190:
1109:
1015:Bridgman technique
951:
705:in arid climates.
611:from Malakialina,
596:
578:
512:of relatively low
477:
449:ordinary water ice
260:, and, along with
256:practices such as
241:Despite the name,
86:
54:
21:Crystalline (song)
2798:
2797:
2755:Benoît Mandelbrot
2655:Self-organization
2591:Natural selection
2581:Pattern formation
2416:"Crystallography"
1986:google books link
1961:978-1-119-95235-0
1870:978-0-313-35507-3
1720:Colloidal crystal
1538:X-ray diffraction
1534:crystal structure
1404:x-ray diffraction
1380:(Ho–Mg–Zn) forms
1314:Covalently bonded
1136:materials science
1105:screw dislocation
1040:are found in the
559:crystal structure
339:crystal structure
333:Crystal structure
169:), meaning both "
151:derives from the
122:geometrical shape
94:crystalline solid
2818:
2606:Sexual selection
2568:
2458:
2451:
2444:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2320:. Nobelprize.org
2314:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2232:
2226:
2220:
2214:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2180:
2174:
2173:
2172:on Dec 19, 2017.
2168:. Archived from
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2091:
2085:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2019:
2013:
2012:
1994:
1988:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1891:. Archived from
1878:
1872:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1834:
1828:
1818:
1812:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1756:
1688:
1654:
1642:
1619:
1607:
1592:
1577:
1558:
1337:molecular solids
1098:edge dislocation
1081:Crystal twinning
994:ambient pressure
898:amorphous carbon
771:aqueous solution
529:crystal symmetry
397:amorphous solids
368:grain boundaries
321:
293:
254:pseudoscientific
224:amorphous solids
190:
182:
181:
168:
160:
159:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2768:
2661:
2569:
2560:
2467:
2462:
2425:
2423:
2414:
2406:
2404:
2399:
2391:
2389:
2380:
2372:
2370:
2352:
2350:
2337:
2335:Further reading
2332:
2323:
2321:
2316:
2315:
2311:
2274:
2270:
2233:
2229:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2181:
2177:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2092:
2088:
2084:, 9789048126415
2071:
2067:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2020:
2016:
2009:
1995:
1991:
1980:
1976:
1962:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1922:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1898:
1896:
1879:
1875:
1859:
1855:
1846:
1844:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1819:
1815:
1795:
1791:
1778:
1774:
1765:
1763:
1759:Stephen Lower.
1757:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1700:
1693:
1689:
1680:
1655:
1646:
1643:
1634:
1620:
1611:
1608:
1599:
1593:
1584:
1578:
1569:
1559:
1550:
1529:Crystallography
1525:
1523:Crystallography
1519:
1517:Crystallography
1479:Young's modulus
1447:
1441:
1431:was awarded to
1396:
1370:
1300:aluminium oxide
1284:Ionic compounds
1264:amorphous metal
1234:
1163:diamond's color
1124:vacancy defects
1087:
1071:Main articles:
1069:
978:stoichiometries
939:
933:Crystallization
931:Main articles:
929:
927:Crystallization
921:amorphous solid
884:. For example,
868:
839:
832:
817:
809:Main articles:
807:
789:in the case of
787:hydroxylapatite
763:
717:in the form of
711:
601:
567:
555:crystal's habit
525:crystallography
457:
433:crystal systems
355:polycrystalline
335:
329:
328:
327:
326:
325:
322:
314:
313:
308:ion). There is
294:
285:
284:
278:
258:crystal therapy
138:crystallization
130:crystallography
118:single crystals
114:crystal lattice
80:solid (such as
68:arrangement; a
38:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2824:
2814:
2813:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2766:
2765:
2764:
2752:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2719:
2717:Wilson Bentley
2714:
2712:Joseph Plateau
2709:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2650:Plateau's laws
2647:
2645:Fluid dynamics
2642:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2610:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2583:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2461:
2460:
2453:
2446:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2412:
2397:
2378:
2358:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2309:
2282:Z. Kristallogr
2268:
2247:(6): 922–946.
2227:
2215:
2204:
2192:
2175:
2152:
2140:
2133:
2113:
2106:
2086:
2065:
2054:Chisholm, Hugh
2027:
2014:
2007:
1989:
1974:
1960:
1932:
1906:
1873:
1853:
1829:
1813:
1789:
1772:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1735:Liquid crystal
1732:
1727:
1725:Crystal growth
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1681:
1656:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1637:
1635:
1631:single crystal
1621:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1602:
1600:
1594:
1587:
1585:
1579:
1572:
1570:
1560:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1521:Main article:
1518:
1515:
1509:—for example,
1445:Crystal optics
1440:
1437:
1392:Main article:
1369:
1366:
1328:respectively.
1250:covalent bonds
1242:metallic bonds
1238:chemical bonds
1233:
1232:Chemical bonds
1230:
1226:mosaic crystal
1216:grain boundary
1194:semiconductors
1188:crystal group.
1068:
1065:
1009:) include the
980:, impurities,
970:single crystal
937:Crystal growth
928:
925:
869:can form both
866:
837:
830:
806:
803:
773:, for example
762:
759:
751:supersaturated
710:
707:
600:
597:
566:
563:
518:surface energy
469:dangling bonds
456:
453:
400:, also called
331:Main article:
323:
316:
315:
310:cubic symmetry
304:ion, green is
295:
288:
287:
286:
282:
281:
280:
279:
277:
274:
142:solidification
134:crystal growth
62:single crystal
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2823:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2707:Ernst Haeckel
2705:
2703:
2702:Adolf Zeising
2700:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:Vortex street
2544:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2524:Quasicrystals
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
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2476:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2454:
2452:
2447:
2445:
2440:
2439:
2436:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2402:
2398:
2388:on 2008-04-17
2387:
2383:
2379:
2369:on 2008-04-26
2368:
2364:
2359:
2349:on 2006-08-26
2348:
2344:
2339:
2338:
2319:
2313:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
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2272:
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2258:
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2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2219:
2213:
2208:
2201:
2196:
2188:
2187:
2179:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2156:
2149:
2144:
2136:
2134:9781351416238
2130:
2127:. Routledge.
2126:
2125:
2117:
2109:
2107:9781627887335
2103:
2099:
2098:
2090:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2061:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2044:public domain
2031:
2024:
2018:
2010:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1936:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1894:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1843:
1839:
1833:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1793:
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1784:
1776:
1762:
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1728:
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1723:
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1713:
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1648:
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1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
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1613:
1606:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1552:
1551:
1548:Image gallery
1545:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1524:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1467:birefringence
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1436:
1434:
1433:Dan Shechtman
1430:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1414:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1382:quasicrystals
1379:
1376:The material
1374:
1368:Quasicrystals
1365:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1327:
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1319:
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1311:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
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1289:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1269:telluric iron
1265:
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1257:
1255:
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1243:
1239:
1229:
1227:
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1219:
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1102:Bottom right:
1099:
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1007:
1001:
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987:
983:
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971:
966:
964:
960:
956:
948:
943:
938:
934:
924:
922:
918:
917:Polyamorphism
914:
912:
908:
904:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
878:
876:
872:
864:
863:amorphous ice
860:
855:
853:
852:
847:
844:
840:
833:
826:
822:
816:
812:
802:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
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748:
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736:
732:
728:
724:
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716:
706:
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692:
688:
684:
679:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
632:igneous rocks
629:
625:
621:
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614:
610:
606:
593:
589:
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582:
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571:
562:
560:
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446:
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438:
434:
430:
425:
420:
418:
414:
409:
407:
403:
399:
398:
394:, are called
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
356:
350:
348:
344:
343:Quasicrystals
340:
334:
320:
311:
307:
303:
299:
292:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
250:
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217:
213:
209:
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201:
197:
192:
189:
188:
176:
172:
167:
166:
154:
153:Ancient Greek
150:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
83:
79:
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71:
67:
63:
58:
52:
49:
44:
40:
36:
29:
22:
2759:
2740:
2726:
2692:
2639:
2618:Chaos theory
2541:Tessellation
2424:. Retrieved
2405:. Retrieved
2390:. Retrieved
2386:the original
2371:. Retrieved
2367:the original
2351:. Retrieved
2347:the original
2322:. Retrieved
2312:
2285:
2281:
2271:
2244:
2240:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2207:
2199:
2195:
2185:
2178:
2170:the original
2165:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2123:
2116:
2096:
2089:
2073:
2068:
2057:
2030:
2022:
2017:
1998:
1992:
1981:
1977:
1942:
1935:
1923:. Retrieved
1918:
1909:
1897:. Retrieved
1893:the original
1886:
1876:
1861:
1856:
1845:. Retrieved
1841:
1832:
1824:
1816:
1808:
1805:Robert Scott
1792:
1781:
1775:
1764:. Retrieved
1754:
1740:Time crystal
1657:Needle-like
1527:
1526:
1495:polycrystals
1488:
1455:polycrystals
1448:
1426:
1415:
1408:
1400:quasicrystal
1397:
1394:Quasicrystal
1330:
1312:
1282:
1258:
1235:
1220:
1210:
1191:
1144:
1132:dislocations
1121:
1112:
1110:
1101:
1094:
1056:
1050:
1031:
1025:, or simply
1004:
1002:
967:
952:
915:
911:heat treated
879:
871:fused silica
856:
849:
843:rhombohedral
821:Polymorphism
818:
765:Many living
764:
713:Water-based
712:
680:
676:metamorphism
652:mica-schists
617:
602:
552:
548:
535:
534:A crystal's
533:
522:
514:Miller index
495:
485:
480:
478:
421:
412:
410:
395:
363:
360:crystallites
353:
351:
336:
251:
246:
240:
208:polycrystals
193:
186:
175:rock crystal
164:
148:
146:
93:
89:
87:
74:crystallites
46:Crystals of
39:
2736:Alan Turing
2694:Liber Abaci
2613:Mathematics
2519:in crystals
2509:Soap bubble
2504:Phyllotaxis
1925:14 November
1919:WitchesLore
1899:14 November
1710:Anticrystal
1669:; from the
1499:anisotropic
1424:diagram").
1422:diffraction
1246:ionic bonds
1206:transistors
1023:sublimation
998:temperature
990:polycrystal
865:, while SiO
799:vertebrates
739:polycrystal
703:evaporation
624:metamorphic
508:: they are
234:, and many
70:polycrystal
2683:Empedocles
2678:Pythagoras
2596:Camouflage
2534:in biology
2529:in flowers
2499:Parastichy
2426:2010-01-08
2407:2016-12-03
2392:2008-04-20
2373:2008-04-20
2353:2008-04-20
2324:2011-12-29
2082:904812641X
2008:0442276249
1847:2023-06-17
1838:"crys·tal"
1797:κρύσταλλος
1766:2016-09-19
1747:References
1581:Hoar frost
1459:anisotropy
1443:See also:
1273:meteorites
1240:, such as
1204:, such as
1095:Top right:
691:Evaporites
656:quartzites
613:Madagascar
435:, such as
204:table salt
196:snowflakes
165:krustallos
158:κρύσταλλος
136:is called
2785:Emergence
2688:Fibonacci
2050:Petrology
1970:146060934
1888:About.com
1715:Cocrystal
1678:Wisconsin
1659:millerite
1564:crystals
1288:saltpeter
1222:Mosaicity
1177:crystal.
1085:Mosaicity
955:deposited
945:Vertical
903:Chocolate
882:allotropy
815:Allotropy
779:aragonite
767:organisms
755:dew point
731:snowflake
668:sandstone
660:limestone
481:necessary
413:unit cell
372:inorganic
266:spellwork
262:gemstones
214:, rocks,
147:The word
106:molecules
78:amorphous
2811:Crystals
2805:Category
2514:Symmetry
2472:Patterns
2023:Crystals
1698:See also
1671:Devonian
1667:zaratite
1483:graphite
1341:graphite
1212:Twinning
1184:Twinned
1175:corundum
1171:sapphire
1147:impurity
1077:Impurity
1034:selenite
1013:and the
896:, while
890:graphite
783:molluscs
735:ice cube
727:glaciers
693:such as
620:magmatic
594:crystals
576:crystals
502:euhedral
491:Anhedral
487:Euhedral
380:ceramics
306:chlorine
236:plastics
216:ceramics
200:diamonds
177:", from
66:periodic
48:amethyst
2773:Related
2640:Crystal
2635:Physics
2623:Fractal
2601:Mimicry
2586:Biology
2494:Meander
2290:Bibcode
2262:1826680
2056:(ed.).
2046::
1663:calcite
1627:silicon
1596:Gallium
1562:Insulin
1503:working
1491:glasses
1362:Polymer
1358:dry ice
1322:diamond
1276:called
1151:diamond
1057:prevent
982:defects
959:epitaxy
886:diamond
775:calcite
747:ice fog
723:sea ice
689:veins.
648:marbles
636:granite
605:bedrock
592:calcite
500:) of a
417:stacked
173:" and "
149:crystal
90:crystal
2666:People
2574:Causes
2403:. 2004
2259:
2131:
2104:
2080:
2052:". In
2040:
2005:
1968:
1958:
1868:
1692:grew.
1623:Boules
1507:stress
1477:, and
1349:lipids
1326:quartz
1296:molten
1260:Metals
1198:dopant
1186:pyrite
1155:carbon
1083:, and
1006:boules
996:, the
986:habits
984:, and
974:phases
923:form.
894:carbon
875:quartz
859:phases
851:phases
846:ice II
841:, the
725:, and
699:gypsum
695:halite
687:quartz
683:druses
672:molten
644:glassy
585:Fossil
540:galena
510:planes
498:facets
473:stable
465:halite
441:halite
402:glassy
376:metals
302:sodium
298:halite
270:Wiccan
218:, and
212:metals
202:, and
51:quartz
2673:Plato
2479:Crack
1966:S2CID
1821:κρύος
1451:glass
1331:Weak
1159:boron
1113:ideal
1053:above
1046:above
963:frost
907:steel
836:Ice I
829:Ice I
795:teeth
791:bones
743:Frost
737:is a
664:shale
609:beryl
599:Rocks
590:with
588:shell
463:As a
392:glass
388:rocks
347:below
228:glass
187:kruos
180:κρύος
155:word
126:faces
108:, or
102:atoms
98:solid
96:is a
82:glass
2551:Wave
2489:Foam
2484:Dune
2129:ISBN
2102:ISBN
2078:ISBN
2003:ISBN
1956:ISBN
1927:2016
1901:2016
1866:ISBN
1453:and
1416:The
1351:and
1345:fats
1324:and
1306:and
1304:ruby
1292:salt
1169:and
1167:ruby
961:and
935:and
888:and
813:and
793:and
777:and
719:snow
666:and
654:and
640:lava
628:rock
622:and
422:The
110:ions
2298:doi
2286:219
2257:PMC
2249:doi
1948:doi
1676:of
1625:of
1505:or
1501:by
1493:or
1413:).
1353:wax
1192:In
1111:An
965:.)
825:ice
797:in
785:or
715:ice
709:Ice
685:or
574:Ice
451:).
384:ice
364:not
349:).
268:in
247:not
232:wax
220:ice
171:ice
140:or
92:or
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