Age of Enlightenment

8192:, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result. 8658:

critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France. More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

8642:, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens." Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13%). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people." For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of 8880:

cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

7139: 5669:, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge, in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. Some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state to provide technical expertise. 8609: 8488:

learning. The new literate population was precipitated by a high rise in the availability of food; this enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Newton's celebrated

6762: 7844:, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is 8307: 6529: 8711:

and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If the different classes joined together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of the numbers of their members might be able to successfully revolt. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially matters of foreign affairs. Rulers thought political affairs were their business only, a result of their divine right to rule.

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performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

7886:: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas." 7189: 24388: 8112: 7530:, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the 8288:, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish, and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult, and a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the 5384: 7916: 5974:, liberty, and property. However, when one citizen breaks the law of nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts. In contrast, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with 7450: 8715:

Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, many were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including the educated wealthy and bourgeois as well as the lower classes. Patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, represented almost all classes, so the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who wanted to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse said that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to

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ideals of fraternity, which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs, but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden, and Russia. One example was the

7989: 8342:. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the latter half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution. Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions. 6306:

far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of ," and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions."

8596:: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination, and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance. 8266: 6127: 7597: 8675:

is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution." In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

5567: 8034: 6350: 4916: 6466:, the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high culture important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly established 22: 6595:

accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural, and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.

6873: 6670:, new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre. Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny. 3406: 6692:, Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European philosophy—well into the 20th century. German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far. 6599: 21418: 8843:, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded during the Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists, and political activists. 8828: 3394: 23115: 22131: 15987: 8628: 6078: 10557:"Recognized in Europe as the author of the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson quickly became a focal point or lightning rod for revolutionaries in Europe and the Americas. As United States minister to France when revolutionary fervor was rising toward the storming of the Bastille in 1789, Jefferson became an ardent supporter of the French Revolution, even allowing his residence to be used as a meeting place for the rebels led by Lafayette." 1788: 8398: 8600:

ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy, and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

8203:, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70% of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1% of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity. 71: 7852: 6494:, the principles of sociability, equality, and utility were disseminated in schools and universities, many of which used sophisticated teaching methods which blended philosophy with daily life. Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as schools, universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal 8167: 24400: 1712: 3470: 8212: 6205: 5733: 1724: 8257:) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of the upper class. In this way, natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works. 7264: 7817: 4928: 4899: 6224:. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the 23125: 5896: 8496: 8298:

objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian Enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.

6474: 85: 12087:... arises out of the claim of man to a ... self-supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself. 7808:

rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.

8326:. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology. 6171:." In this view, the revolutions were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. A governance philosophy where the king was never wrong would be in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. 8516:(1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's 6546:

the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of

6498:, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment." In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of 6827:(1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical, and economic thought, which became a guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development. 8026:

written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public," then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's

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journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes." Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the

5989:, wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn." Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's 6696:

so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.

11827: 6953:; and established public education starting with primary school through university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule. 8127:. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total. 20887: 5451:, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and, second, the Radical Enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be 8883:

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Catholic Church so in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even

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Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections, and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative

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One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific

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The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation." Kant considered

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In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but

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were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded such that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration, positions which intellectuals on the

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from Outram, 19. See Rolf Engelsing, "Die Perioden der Lesergeschichte in der Neuzeit. Das statische Ausmass und die soziokulturelle Bedeutung der Lektüre," Archiv für Geschichte des Buchwesens, 10 (1969), cols. 944–1002 and Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500–1800 (Stuttgart,

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and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and

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The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's

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Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and instead promoted the Enlightened ideals of toleration and intellectual

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France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology, and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology.

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represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would

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The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of

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and natural sciences makes it hard to circumscribe a Scientific Revolution. Storm defends his categorization of the Enlightenment as "myth" by noting the regulative role ideas of a period of Enlightenment and disenchantment play in modern Western culture, such that belief in magic, spiritualism, and

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In recent years, scholars have expanded the time span and global perspective of the Enlightenment by examining: (1) how European intellectuals did not work alone and other people helped spread and adapt Enlightenment ideas, (2) how Enlightenment ideas were "a response to cross-border interaction and

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forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage," tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another."

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Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during

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Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at

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In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the

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Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. In the 18th century, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over 70 official scientific

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The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities," offering a locus of learning that was less formal than at structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life,

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around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This

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Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the

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The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's

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In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honor with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and

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As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur

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In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European

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and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Although many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the

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argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim thinkers to equal

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and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined; that is, since atheists gave themselves to no supreme authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were

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It does not require great art or magnificently trained eloquence, to prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes, without doubt; are we

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proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power." This

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The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice—in

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on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against the law of nature because a person cannot surrender their own rights: freedom is absolute, and no one can take it away. Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying

8876:"initiate the unenlightened." This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe. 8854:

and spread to England and then across the Continent in the 18th century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality." Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent

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were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class

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Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala, and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose

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The target audience of natural history was French upper class, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to upper class desire for erudition: many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was

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two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained,

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the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude." Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

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have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian,

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which destroyed a large part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity (in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated industries in Portugal).

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The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of

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when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the

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became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. After the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, the relationship between church and the absolutist government was very strong. The early enlightenment emerged in protest to these circumstances, gaining

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German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and

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As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the

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It is difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this

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The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and

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constitutes a myth. Storm points out that there are vastly different and mutually contradictory periodizations of the Enlightenment depending on nation, field of study, and school of thought; that the term and category of "Enlightenment" referring to the Scientific Revolution was actually applied

6361:

The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries and influenced nations globally, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a

6324:

The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to Locke. According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people

10880:

containing the history of the most illustrious persons of all ages and nations particularly those of Great Britain and Ireland, distinguished by their rank, actions, learning and other accomplishments. With reflections on such passages of Bayle, as seem to favor scepticism and the Manichee system

8809:

issues, debated primarily to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority." After Enlightenment, everything that previously had been rooted in tradition was questioned, and often replaced by new concepts. After the second half of the 17th

8134:

Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively," finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy

7798:

In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.

5613:

Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought.

8714:

Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, from philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery.

7911:

Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject

11964:

Outram, 1. The past tense is used deliberately as whether man would educate himself or be educated by certain exemplary figures was a common issue at the time. D'Alembert's introduction to l'Encyclopédie, for example, along with Immanuel Kant's essay response (the "independent thinkers"), both

8253:

often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social." The idea of taste (

8143:

a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the

7673:

historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that

7153:

In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in

6909:

in which regions could trade with companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the restrictive mercantile system. The crown sent out scientific expeditions to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not control, but also importantly to discover the economic

6027:

argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject that the subject tacitly consents, and Hume says that the subjects would "never

8875:

exiles. Furthermore, freemasons across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to

8871:

model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English

8846:

During the Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain, France, and other places. Freemasonry as a

8565:

was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular

7652:

saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic

6594:

Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became

8818:

From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside,

8742:

who conducted their research on some of the premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far

7035:), methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale example of 10879:

A general dictionary: historical and critical: in which a new and accurate translation of that of the celebrated Mr. Bayle, with the corrections and observations printed in the late edition at Paris, is included; and interspersed with several thousand lives never before published. The whole

8797:

In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution." The debating societies were

6370:

A common theme among most countries which derived Enlightenment ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of Enlightenment philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by Enlightenment philosophy, "France's revolutionary

7289:

Eighteenth-century China experienced "a trend towards seeing fewer dragons and miracles, not unlike the disenchantment that began to spread across the Europe of the Enlightenment." Furthermore, "some of the developments that we associate with Europe's Enlightenment resemble events in China

6236:, published his "Essay concerning the Use of Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony" (1707), in which he rejects the distinction between "above reason" and "contrary to reason," and demands that revelation should conform to man's natural ideas of God. In the 6297:, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of 7227:, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia, and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King 8138:

The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the

7945:(published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was 8750:

was established in Paris in 1686, and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the

6182:

from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power."

6332:

and the drafting of the United States Constitution. In a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, Thomas Jefferson calls for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the

13521:

Yale University Press, 1985 p. 437–440. Pope, a Catholic, was a Freemason in 1730, eight years before membership was prohibited by the Catholic Church (1738). Pope's name is on the membership list of the Goat Tavern Lodge (p. 439). Pope's name appears on a 1723 list and a 1730

13276:(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 5, 56, 57. This same desire for multiple witnesses led to attempts at replication in other locations and a complex iconography and literary technology developed to provide visual and written proof of experimentation. See pp. 59–65. 8813:

In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government; the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the

7875:, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions, and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the 7889:

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people:

6371:

government had denounced slavery, but the property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts." Slavery frequently showed the limitations of the Enlightenment ideology as it pertained to European colonialism, since many colonies of Europe operated on a

6991:

The revolution combined Enlightenment ideas with the experiences of the slaves in Haiti, two-thirds of whom had been born in Africa and could "draw on specific notions of kingdom and just government from West and Central Africa, and to employ religious practices such as

8072:, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors." These men came to London to become authors only to discover that the literary market could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling 20181: 9135: 6366:

fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

22267: 7518:, who had indicted the Islamic religion, with his own version of the Enlightenment, which "was not a poor copy of French debates in the eighteenth century, but an original position responding to the exigencies of Ottoman society in the late nineteenth century." 7542:

portrays it as a grand intellectual and political program, offering a "science" of society modeled on the powerful physical laws of Newton. "Social science" was seen as the instrument of human improvement. It would expose truth and expand human happiness.

7879:. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the king's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings. 10513:"Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and intellectual and religious freedom pervaded the American colonial religious landscape, and these values were instrumental in the American Revolution and the creation of a nation without an established religion." 21622: 6636:(The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science, and literature. Christian Wolff was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language. 20227: 8184:

reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits. Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the

7129:

forced the return of the royal family to Portugal. The terms by which the restored king was to rule was a constitutional monarchy under the Constitution of Portugal. Brazil declared its independence of Portugal in 1822 and became a monarchy.

20215: 6793:

were active under the tolerant King Charles of Bourbon. However, the Neapolitan Enlightenment, like Vico's philosophy, remained almost always in the theoretical field. Only later, many Enlighteners animated the unfortunate experience of the

8098:

was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the

5937:

in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual, the natural equality of all men, the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between

5138:. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and religious officials and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism, 6139:

his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

8810:

century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity."

6106:

and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors, and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers

7674:

eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition, and authority."

7953:(1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, 6654:) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath 8665:

of London played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The society played a large role in spreading

7760:

Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster

7537:

Romantic philosophers argued that the Enlightenment's excessive dependence on reason was a mistake that it perpetuated, disregarding the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.

7154:

fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as

20612: 5846:

to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale studies by

7641:

called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness." According to historian

5582:

and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century.

8653:(roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the 8478:

in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.

7467:

further encouraged "social transformations that harkened back to debates about inner-Islamic reform, but now were also legitimized by referring to the authority of the Enlightenment." A major intellectual influence on

5700:. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science. The century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological 20854: 8333:

has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and

8057:

the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

7867:. The modern nation state in its consolidation of public power created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's 5711:

The influence of science began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics.

8888:

were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

8321:

Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century

7234:

Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King

21617: 6325:

could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

7360:

In Japan and much of East Asia, Confucian ideas were not replaced but "ideas associated with the Enlightenment were instead fused with the existing cosmology—which in turn was refashioned under conditions of

6965:

began in 1791 and ended in 1804 and shows how Enlightenment ideas "were part of complex transcultural flows." Radical ideas in Paris during and after the French Revolution were mobilized in Haiti, such as by

6046:, which are not a result of law or custom but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from Locke's 8442:

rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Diderot and d'Alembert's

20203: 7925:

As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience.

5629:

Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of

6566:. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles, and biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in 22336: 7162:. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of 8249:

As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

6028:

imagine that their consent made him sovereign," rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767

634: 6270:

advised affording no political weight to any organized religion but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. They believed a good religion based in instinctive

5161:

and the power of religious authorities. The Enlightenment was marked by an increasing awareness of the relationship between the mind and the everyday media of the world, and by an emphasis on the

21773: 21413: 20882: 6274:

and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

5793:

often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by

5662:. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. 8079:

The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the

8228:

A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include

6459:

continent had to fight against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.

7401:

who popularized the term Enlightenment throughout Korea. The use of Enlightenment ideas was a "response to a specific situation in Korea in the 1890s, and not a belated answer to Voltaire."

21813: 20000: 20989: 5985:

Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty, and Property," and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke,

22831: 22206: 5978:

is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the

2972: 6632:

Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural, and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the

22218: 5555:(the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by Hutcheson's protégés in 6720:

facing opposition. Joseph II carried out numerous reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, which affected, for example, the school system, monasteries and the legal system. Emperor

20198: 6435:, a term describing those who stood in opposition to the institution of the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible, can be said to have begun in England no later than 1713, when 3679: 22262: 8492:

was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

7682:

There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though several historians and philosophers argue that it was marked by Descartes' 1637 philosophy of

8329:

Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian

21931: 20984: 20617: 20176: 13736:

Jacob, 139. See also Janet M. Burke, "Freemasonry, Friendship and Noblewomen: The Role of the Secret Society in Bringing Enlightenment Thought to Pre-Revolutionary Women Elites,"

20899: 7930:, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of 6362:

spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the

24176: 22416: 22392: 22360: 22250: 7349:

singled out as the driving force behind Western capitalism." Japanese Confucian and Enlightenment ideas were brought together, for example, in the work of the Japanese reformer

7174:

which combined religious piety, erudition, and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the Western European Enlightenment.

5507:

The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on

22404: 22299: 10016: 8462:

desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the

8374: 21003: 20600: 15671: 7015: 6108: 6082: 9244: 22463: 19968: 8801:

The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional"—that is, Catholic,

21732: 20309: 7859:

showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.

7620:

Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took.

7551:

The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the latter part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term

8506:

The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was

22645: 20164: 6918:

free rein to travel in Spanish America, usually closed to foreigners, and more importantly, access to crown officials to aid the success of his scientific expedition.

5095:(1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and the beginning of the Enlightenment. European historians traditionally dated its beginning with the death of 5525:

of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the

24065: 22691: 22458: 21876: 19498: 8195:

A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the

8294:

of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

6391:, broke out. European nations and the United States, despite the strong support for Enlightenment ideals, refused to " to Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle." 23162: 20624: 20514: 20222: 20014: 13683: 8439: 8623:

in 1671: "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world"—Peter Barrett

8545:

published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Writing for a growing female audience,

7463:

Eighteenth-century Egypt had "a form of 'cultural revival' in the making—specifically Islamic origins of modernization long before Napoleon's Egyptian campaign."

22673: 21396: 18666: 8932: 7637:"For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance." The German scholar 6262:

and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding

5799: 5306: 8589:

late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

7377:

exchange." By the 1880s, the slogan "Civilization and Enlightenment" became potent throughout Japan, China, and Korea and was employed to address challenges of

24372: 24367: 22468: 20581: 20432: 20415: 10595: 6341:. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of Locke, Bacon, and Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived. 9516: 22965: 21531: 6996:

for the formation of revolutionary communities." The revolution also affected France and "forced the French National Convention to abolish slavery in 1794."

5079:

in 1637, with his method of systematically disbelieving everything unless there was a well-founded reason for accepting it, and featuring his famous dictum,

21758: 7067: 20676: 19889: 18656: 9869: 7985:

spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.

7593:(German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late 19th century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment." 7514:, drew on major Enlightenment thinkers and "a variety of intellectual resources in his quest for social and political reform." In 1893, Kemal responded to 6155:

of 1789—both had some intellectual influence from Thomas Jefferson. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "

5946:" and based on the consent of the people, and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid. 5593:

philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work

5487:

Bayle only partially accepted the philosophy and principles of rationality. He did draw a strict boundary between morality and religion. The rigor of his

22443: 21970: 21581: 21457: 19659: 16328: 8702: 6812:(famous philosophers and writers, as well as their brother Giovanni), who also gave life to the Accademia dei Pugni, founded in 1761. Minor centers were 6467: 6319: 5990: 2736: 21022: 6724:, who was an early opponent of capital punishment, had a brief and contentious rule that was mostly marked by relations with France. Similarly, Emperor 23716: 23196: 20967: 18531: 6328:

These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the

21039: 8734:

a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, to both entertain and provoke discussion on serious philosophical matters.

8149:

offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals, and sometimes even popular novels to their customers.

6842:

states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty." The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been

6439:

wrote his "Discourse of Free-thinking," which gained substantial popularity. This essay attacked the clergy of all churches and was a plea for deism.

5962:

respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the

24091: 22959: 21247: 21027: 14601:

Navarro i Soriano, Ferran (2019). Harca, harca, harca! Músiques per a la recreació històrica de la Guerra de Successió (1794–1715). Editorial DENES.

10956:

to translate the demand for liberty of conscience into a systematic argument for distinguishing the realm of government from the realm of religion.")

5767:, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of 5455:

whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative

9085: 8189: 7071: 5879:

visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia;

24166: 22971: 22448: 22341: 22304: 22105: 20894: 8913:. This can especially be seen in early American art and architecture, which featured arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs. 8798:

commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators per night.

8425:

and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and

8090:"slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself." 7577:=to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like 5551:

principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." Much of what is incorporated in the

6905:. The monarchy curtailed the power of the Catholic Church, and established a standing military in Spanish America. Freer trade was promoted under 6023:

Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, Hume and Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay

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in 1789. Many historians now date the end of the Enlightenment as the start of the 19th century, with the latest proposed year being the death of

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De Vos, Paula S. "Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries,"

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The art produced during the Enlightenment focused on a search for morality that was absent from the art in previous eras. At the same time, the

7969:(1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment." 7863:

The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of

22498: 22082: 21994: 20302: 18671: 16549: 15051: 14789: 11842: 5986: 4727: 1322: 15162: 7694: 7646:, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance, is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture. 7561:

in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question:

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Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher, and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece

2761: 2731: 133: 9836: 7243:, Josef Niemcewicz, and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, 7043:, and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office. His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the 23155: 21658: 20263: 18041: 10895: 7714:

until the French Revolution. Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution or the beginning of the

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was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project.

3436: 2813: 1754: 571: 10201: 7726:," and (3) how the Enlightenment "continued throughout the nineteenth century and beyond." The Enlightenment "was not merely a history of 23749: 23242: 22580: 22186: 21855: 21557: 21008: 20482: 16952: 16539: 5304:

helped in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other publications of the Enlightenment included Berkeley's

4958: 12180: 8859:, founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The name itself translates to " 5428:(1690) and Hume's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his 24131: 23430: 22765: 22433: 22387: 22026: 21323: 20575: 20026: 9913: 9081: 7122: 5855:, and, most recently, by Jonathan Israel. Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as 5842:

The Enlightenment has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought

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were reunited and discussed old, actual, or new ideas. This led to salons being the birthplace of intellectual and enlightened ideas.

7170:

centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was

7103: 6941:(parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the 22382: 22377: 22072: 20742: 18611: 9045: 5884: 2766: 1886: 22274: 20005: 11543:

Michael J. Sauter, "The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany's public sphere."

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to promote the values of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

8356:

Harris' book avoids theological and biographical entries and instead concentrates on science and technology. Published in 1704, the

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provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge—of which the

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Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state.

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Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a

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Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico

13210:

Jeremy L. Caradonna, "Prendre part au siècle des Lumières: Le concours académique et la culture intellectuelle au XVIIIe siècle,"

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society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.

7437:

was a reformer who "fused different traditions in his project of social reform that made him a proponent of a 'religion of reason.

5810:(1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of 23148: 22836: 22311: 21818: 21653: 21467: 21391: 20979: 20080: 17525: 16648: 16101: 14824: 11359: 8964: 8839:

was a main factor in the Enlightenment. Leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire,

6781:: in both cities the intellectuals took public office and collaborated with the Bourbon and Habsburg administrations. In Naples, 6228:. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. 5424: 3625: 2746: 21833: 20849: 9143: 6293:

with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his

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to be considered influenced by the Enlightenment in some areas, was marked by a mix of enlightenment and conservatism. Her son

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Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the

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Schmidt, James (2003). "Inventing the Enlightenment: Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians, and the 'Oxford English Dictionary'".

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and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral, and religious authority in France.

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Richard Butterwick, "What is Enlightenment (oświecenie)? Some Polish Answers, 1765–1820." Central Europe 3.1 (2005): 19–37.

9147: 6798:. In Milan, however, the movement strove to find concrete solutions to problems. The center of discussions was the magazine 5447:, these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke, and 24450: 23388: 23284: 22916: 22760: 22528: 22067: 22036: 21506: 21437: 21153: 21089: 21067: 20748: 19991: 19271: 14762: 14232: 8470:

and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the

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matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.

6012:, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the 5595: 3106: 2967: 2915: 2910: 750: 20019: 6945:, which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial; put limits on the king by creating a 24250: 24148: 24035: 22046: 21824: 21702: 21692: 21482: 21328: 21163: 20365: 20095: 20045: 18787: 17467: 16898: 14987: 14753: 14732: 8819:

spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

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and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

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illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the

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Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a

7730:" and "was the work of historical actors around the world... who invoked the term... for their own specific purposes." 7464: 7216: 6559: 5511:, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a 3146: 3044: 2992: 2930: 2925: 2863: 21401: 13295:

Klein, Lawrence E. (1 January 1996). "Coffeehouse Civility, 1660–1714: An Aspect of Post-Courtly Culture in England".

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However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the Age of Enlightenment were

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The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian

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From Naples, Genovesi influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook

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was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial

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In literature, the first Enlightenment ideas in Portugal can be traced back to the diplomat, philosopher, and writer

5771:. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced 5516: 3769: 3151: 2776: 2531: 1249: 21565: 20548: 9049: 5406:

philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. Descartes' attempt to construct the sciences on a secure

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Jeremy Black, "Ancien Regime and Enlightenment. Some Recent Writing on Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Europe,"

9520: 8719:, receiving all types of animals, clean and unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism, when 8413:

In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The

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The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's

5834:(Considerations on the Criminal Trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law. 4863: 4720: 3429: 3186: 1747: 702: 564: 538: 41: 21687: 21633: 21494: 20053: 19894: 9101: 7083: 23686: 23610: 23230: 23208: 23128: 22550: 21593: 21575: 21408: 21099: 20068: 19921: 19451: 19069: 18646: 18581: 17626: 17477: 17080: 16945: 16888: 16174: 15882: 15207: 9123: 8507: 7397:. Korea was influenced by China and Japan but also found its own Enlightenment path with the Korean intellectual 6555: 6123:

among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

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as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the

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had consequences for the Portuguese monarchy. With the aid of the British navy, the Portuguese royal family was

5724:

penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton and praised his science and legacy.

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emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as

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argues that any idea of the Age of Enlightenment as a clearly defined period that is separate from the earlier

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Colum Leckey, "What is Prosveshchenie? Nikolai Novikov's Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers Revisited."

11586:

On the caoncept of 'felicitas publica' in Eighteenth-Century political economy, in History of economic thought

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more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25,000 copies of the

7882:

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the

7094:. The ideas of the Enlightenment influenced various economists and anti-colonial intellectuals throughout the 4983:) was the intellectual and philosophical movement that occurred in Europe in the 17th and the 18th centuries. 24435: 24425: 24220: 23799: 23774: 23383: 22826: 22794: 22717: 22523: 21550: 21442: 21316: 20437: 20360: 20314: 19009: 17990: 17472: 17381: 16862: 16824: 16700: 16688: 16490: 16454: 15990: 15419: 15066: 14775: 10223: 9270: 9089: 9009: 8592:

The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries, was

8115: 7821: 7251:(1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by 7125:, its most important colony. Even though Napoleon had been defeated, the royal court remained in Brazil. The 6713: 6436: 6354: 6243:

Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the

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William Clark, Jan Golinski, and Steven Schaffer, eds. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 281–82.

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The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:

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potential of its far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of use to the empire.

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made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian

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were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

8068:) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, 7453: 4677: 24225: 23595: 23368: 23088: 22921: 22787: 22679: 22657: 21860: 21828: 21778: 21586: 21536: 21427: 21168: 20930: 20806: 20800: 20781: 19986: 19815: 19698: 19245: 18007: 17518: 17431: 17426: 17042: 16475: 16406: 16350: 15384: 15232: 11532:

The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution

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Bullock, Steven C. (1996). "Initiating the Enlightenment?: Recent Scholarship on European Freemasonry".

13361:

Darnton, Robert (2000). "An Early Information Society: News and the Media in Eighteenth-Century Paris".

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Anna Maria Rao, "Enlightenment and reform: an overview of culture and politics in Enlightenment Italy."

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which is the Confucian idea of "order and harmony on human society" also came to represent "the idea of

5883:

closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the

4986:

The Enlightenment featured a range of social ideas centered on the value of knowledge learned by way of

3722: 2551: 24234: 23259: 23008: 22885: 22862: 22747: 22650: 22588: 22560: 22196: 22009: 21742: 21516: 21173: 21104: 20759: 20629: 20558: 19703: 19537: 19527: 17878: 17601: 17487: 17482: 16938: 16872: 16867: 16671: 16589: 16059: 15819: 15429: 15354: 15292: 15157: 12083:... lies at the foundation of its own fixed qualities and changing circumstances. The superiority of a 9856:

The Scottish enlightenment and the challenges for Europe in the 21st century; climate change and energy

9722:

The Roots of Enlightenment: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE AGE OF REASON IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY EUROPE

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in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and

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basis from external authority to internal certainty. In France, many cited the publication of Newton's

7621: 7192: 7126: 7111: 6993: 6950: 6655: 6626: 6528: 6131: 6120: 6116: 6112: 5794: 5748: 5324: 5297: 4944: 4732: 4617: 4159: 3136: 2801: 2586: 2268: 2113: 1568: 1084: 471: 21965: 20913: 20844: 20734: 15267: 15217: 11172: 9854: 9159: 8997: 8431: 7895: 7107: 24495: 24293: 23995: 23306: 23033: 22943: 22289: 20641: 20122: 19664: 19493: 19145: 18526: 18486: 17927: 17457: 17211: 17172: 16857: 16812: 16606: 15374: 15081: 15002: 8772: 8335: 7612:, in the top center, is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right, Philosophy and 7248: 7188: 6585: 5760: 5348: 5232: 5015: 4825: 4497: 3640: 3620: 3247: 3141: 2751: 2541: 2221: 2207: 1342: 1029: 285: 31: 21032: 11839: 9187: 9005: 7600:

If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it.

7074:

in 1790 until 1794) surfaced in the academic medium, in particular involving former students of the

5479:

the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment had already started by the early 18th century, when

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The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany

9057: 8840: 8417:(1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. 8081: 8048:

Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment because of the role they played as

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Movements, Currents, Trends: Aspects of European Thought in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

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Margaret C. Jacob, "Polite worlds of Enlightenment," in Martin Fitzpatrick and Peter Jones, eds.

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tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as

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A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy

13811: 11815: 6846:. Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including Beccaria, 2418: 24215: 24101: 23814: 22852: 22804: 22799: 21768: 21722: 21571: 21077: 20531: 20504: 20474: 20338: 20285: 20102: 19978: 19873: 19713: 19708: 19566: 19532: 19520: 19515: 19478: 19428: 19286: 19266: 18952: 18897: 18576: 18566: 18155: 18086: 18071: 17552: 17511: 17286: 17115: 16638: 16554: 16362: 16169: 15927: 15829: 15786: 15645: 15526: 14933: 14878: 12159: 11729: 9456:

Bristow, William (29 August 2017). "Enlightenment". In Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.).

8959: 8943: 8790: 8111: 7927: 7919: 7856: 7787: 7036: 7023: 6922: 6915: 6863: 6851: 6523: 6491: 6384: 6103: 6072: 5887:; and Madison incorporated these ideals into the U.S. Constitution during its framing in 1787. 5868: 5823: 5744: 5540: 5383: 5312: 5169:, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy—an attitude captured by Kant's essay 4770: 4114: 3876: 3712: 3610: 3600: 3252: 3228: 3196: 3166: 3131: 3126: 3101: 2962: 2880: 2756: 2726: 1951: 1661: 1538: 1332: 1191: 1122: 1009: 967: 714: 528: 481: 446: 194: 174: 110: 22331: 20586: 14649:(1969) excerpt and text search Collaborative Translation Project of the University of Michigan 14640:

Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind

14559:

Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind

13122:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800

12803:

The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800

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Casini, Paolo (January 1988). "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment".

8452:

the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

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Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in

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Burrows, Simon. (2013) "In Search of Enlightenment: From Mapping Books to Cultural History."

13533: 13150: 12374: 12186: 12114: 11255: 10796: 10436: 9203: 9179: 9065: 9033: 9017: 8901:

of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered

8520:(1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [ 8500: 8151: 7915: 7883: 7778: 7766: 7393:" but became awakened to Enlightenment ideas by the 1890s such as with the activities of the 7342: 7290:

remarkably." During this time, ideals of Chinese society were reflected in "the reign of the

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Maciej Janowski, "Warsaw and Its Intelligentsia: Urban Space and Social Change, 1750–1831."

11217:

Reading the Scottish Enlightenment Books and Their Readers in Provincial Scotland, 1750–1820

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Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at

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Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, "Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia,"

10332:"John Locke > The Influence of John Locke's Works (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" 9155: 9119: 9115: 9021: 8922: 8729: 8429:

were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the

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In the 18th Century, the Spanish continued to expand their empire in the Americas with the

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belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed

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Ritchie Robertson, "The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790." (2020) ch. 1.

11866:

State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu,

11696:

The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867

8378:(1728), which included five editions and is a substantially larger work than Harris'. The 5803:(1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator. 5618:

were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the

2318: 1787: 8: 24392: 24116: 24106: 24055: 23913: 23899: 23759: 23501: 23264: 22857: 21603: 21017: 20724: 20420: 19632: 19544: 19303: 18937: 18902: 18805: 18706: 18571: 18441: 18231: 18160: 17917: 17890: 17873: 17861: 17683: 17639: 17386: 17316: 17259: 17176: 17002: 16829: 16750: 16601: 16594: 16574: 16522: 16480: 16459: 16323: 16266: 16122: 16076: 16071: 16033: 15720: 15404: 15172: 15141: 14092: 13658: 13469:(2014). "Freemasonry and the Enlightenment". In Bodgan, Henrik; Snoek, Jan A. M. (eds.). 13404:

Andrew, 406. Andrew gives the name as "William Henley," which must be a lapse of writing.

11681:

Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment.

10626:. Vol. "Preface" The Reasonableness of Christianity, as delivered in the Scriptures. 10561: 10331: 10131:

Swingewood, Alan (1970). "Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment".

8546: 8005: 7876: 7654: 7558: 7430: 7244: 7142: 6911: 6890:, initiating a period of French Enlightenment influence in Spain and the Spanish Empire. 6883: 6213: 6148: 6085:, as the head of the government of Portugal, implemented sweeping socio-economic reforms. 5872: 5864: 5856: 5586: 5500:

By the mid-18th century the French Enlightenment had found a focus in the project of the

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Niccolò Guasti, "Antonio Genovesi's Diceosina: Source of the Neapolitan Enlightenment."

10558: 10487:

John Stanley, "Towards A New Nation: The Enlightenment and National Revival in Poland,"

9073: 8860: 7710:("Century of Enlightenments") between 1715 and 1789: from the beginning of the reign of 7497: 7353:

in the 1870s, who said, "Whenever we open our mouths...it is to speak of 'enlightenment.

7240: 6949:; defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry; established 6432: 5107:

in 1804. In reality, historical periods do not have clearly defined start or end dates.

4652: 24485: 24404: 24181: 23950: 23874: 23842: 23661: 23630: 23467: 23455: 23316: 23254: 23083: 23078: 23013: 22896: 22809: 22640: 22316: 21648: 21432: 20497: 20452: 19811: 19767: 19722: 19345: 19291: 19212: 18783: 18426: 18342: 18332: 18165: 18128: 18058: 17997: 17980: 17934: 17844: 17758: 17572: 17492: 17396: 17180: 17132: 17127: 17030: 17020: 16977: 16969: 16559: 16345: 16259: 16227: 16137: 16132: 16127: 15730: 15592: 15582: 15567: 15557: 15511: 15399: 15222: 14943: 14515: 14434: 13804: 13374: 13312: 13086: 11939: 11154: 10518: 10390:

The Life, Unpublished Letters and Philosophical Regimen of Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury

10283: 10148: 9498: 9340: 9195: 8993: 8649:

The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the

8409:

organised knowledge into – it had three main branches: memory, reason, and imagination.

7988: 7374: 7323: 7159: 6962: 6790: 6786: 6659: 6614: 6376: 6372: 6259: 5912: 5701: 5631: 4868: 4810: 4642: 4567: 4339: 4319: 4304: 4154: 4059: 3916: 3896: 3881: 3831: 3811: 3789: 3630: 3565: 3453: 3079: 2982: 2895: 2691: 2626: 2526: 2081: 2061: 1898: 1651: 1611: 1488: 1337: 1302: 1089: 1049: 1004: 924: 879: 859: 646: 461: 367: 327: 322: 307: 297: 290: 241: 236: 214: 152: 23970: 20353: 15702: 14871: 9053: 8553:

which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by

8021:

because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.

7938:

styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

7804: 7718:(1804) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment. 6938: 5927:

theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. English philosopher

5495: 4429: 2343: 24480: 24465: 24430: 24350: 24255: 24030: 24016: 23990: 23975: 23879: 23864: 23794: 23784: 23653: 23585: 23486: 23450: 23346: 22901: 22755: 22503: 21800: 20811: 20650: 20075: 19834: 19773: 19732: 19549: 19434: 19370: 19281: 19258: 19202: 19110: 18843: 18556: 18458: 18446: 18431: 18411: 18322: 18269: 18241: 18223: 18026: 17902: 17895: 17708: 17656: 17634: 17562: 17371: 17346: 17326: 17306: 17296: 17186: 17168: 17137: 17070: 16987: 16961: 16921: 16802: 16797: 16755: 16710: 16378: 16335: 16308: 16293: 16254: 16217: 15935: 15740: 15735: 15697: 15687: 15536: 15452: 15447: 15389: 15237: 15227: 14992: 14849: 14661: 14602: 14589: 14576: 14438: 14388: 14248: 14217: 14198: 14112: 13951: 13933: 13920: 13539: 13500: 13490: 13160: 13090: 12380: 12348: 12270: 12243: 12216: 11811: 11751: 11699: 11629: 11564: 11452: 11448: 11261: 11221: 11146: 11092: 10856: 10829: 10802: 10775: 10735: 10671: 10644: 10538: 10514: 10442: 10287: 10217: 9726: 9699: 9606: 9599: 9547: 9502: 9490: 9387: 9362: 9264: 9001: 8885: 8631: 8351: 7845: 7753: 7539: 7469: 7394: 7311: 7204: 7163: 7146: 7095: 6847: 6839: 6709: 6647: 6610: 6568: 6334: 6329: 6267: 6152: 5876: 5720:(1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. 5713: 5615: 5552: 5530: 5391: 5330: 5162: 5158: 5119: 5100: 4760: 4672: 4577: 4439: 4369: 4274: 4259: 4026: 3966: 3921: 3906: 3866: 3801: 3580: 3570: 3507: 3398: 2671: 2428: 2358: 2333: 2323: 2303: 2123: 2010: 1941: 1903: 1716: 1583: 1450: 1440: 1385: 1307: 1181: 1166: 1044: 1014: 944: 934: 869: 686: 669: 641: 621: 523: 518: 451: 382: 377: 317: 312: 261: 246: 229: 179: 89: 18701: 15776: 15197: 14727: 14535:

Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding.

9457: 7840:

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the

7051: 5515:

in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the

5387: 5212: 5070: 604: 24240: 24045: 24025: 23945: 23930: 23829: 23731: 23605: 23445: 23403: 23398: 23378: 23361: 23274: 23068: 22775: 22598: 22574: 22535: 22115: 21272: 20662: 20521: 20509: 19801: 19761: 19756: 19581: 19468: 19403: 19230: 19225: 19207: 19065: 18866: 18819: 18317: 18307: 18133: 18081: 17985: 17849: 17738: 17688: 17666: 17661: 17592: 17361: 17276: 17221: 17191: 17142: 17102: 17085: 17075: 17010: 16982: 16787: 16401: 16357: 16086: 16066: 15940: 15572: 15552: 15521: 15212: 15177: 15121: 14528:

The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna

14507: 14426: 14238: 14125: 13482: 13478: 13366: 13304: 13078: 11935: 11741: 11257:

Jews, Confucians, and Protestants: Cultural Capital and the End of Multiculturalism

11138: 10275: 10263: 10140: 9482: 9352: 9069: 8643: 8554: 8369: 8200: 7745: 7684: 7649: 7334: 7299: 7268: 7247:, Karol Wyrwicz, and Wojciech Skarszewski. The movement went into decline with the 6926: 6887: 6831: 6809: 6782: 6606: 6091: 6042:

Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of

6001: 5975: 5880: 5819: 5548: 5131: 5081: 4920: 4903: 4622: 4602: 4522: 4517: 4459: 4419: 4409: 4374: 4294: 4269: 4239: 4224: 4219: 4194: 4139: 4124: 4031: 4006: 3936: 3891: 3861: 3749: 3737: 3665: 3650: 3590: 3555: 3314: 3307: 2646: 2596: 2561: 2506: 2413: 2398: 2373: 2308: 2278: 2145: 2096: 2071: 2054: 2049: 1983: 1908: 1834: 1822: 1518: 1493: 1445: 1425: 1370: 1347: 1297: 1176: 1079: 1069: 1059: 1024: 914: 864: 854: 849: 362: 278: 20390: 16411: 15655: 14758: 14706:

What is Enlightenment?: Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions

14157: 14073: 13590:

Margaret C. Jacob's seminal work on Enlightenment freemasonry, Margaret C. Jacob,

13067:"The Shape of Knowledge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy and Numeracy" 9681:

The Business of Enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800

8245: 7044: 5526: 4702: 4364: 4094: 2566: 24505: 24298: 24265: 24209: 24203: 24060: 23965: 23869: 23681: 23175: 23140: 22493: 22100: 21674: 21350: 20714: 20536: 20321: 20085: 19911: 19556: 18871: 18691: 18631: 18516: 18364: 18359: 18337: 18257: 18211: 17968: 17922: 17820: 17797: 17780: 17753: 17538: 17401: 17376: 17164: 17147: 16992: 16817: 16737: 16705: 16386: 16081: 15745: 15630: 15506: 15468: 15287: 15131: 15126: 14928: 14834: 14723: 14694: 13945: 12342: 12266:

The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences

12264: 12239:

The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences

12237: 12215:. Translated by E. Jephcott. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 3. 12142: 11846: 11746: 11558: 11527: 11444: 11215: 11046: 10665: 9720: 9207: 9105: 9037: 8558: 8265: 7715: 7531: 7429:" which means Citizen Tipu. In parts of India, an important movement called the " 7413:

was an enlightened monarch, who "was one of the founding members of the (French)

7307: 7055: 7040: 6980:

and "was particularly impressed by Raynal's prediction of the coming of a 'Black

6930: 6902: 6766: 6643: 6424: 6380: 6238: 6126: 6115:

in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model

6060: 6039:

society to a commercial and civil society without agreeing to a social contract.

6036: 6000:

argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the

5967: 5924: 5904: 5736: 5681: 5643: 5623: 5444: 5411: 5240: 5236: 5208: 5150: 5042: 5034: 5030: 4840: 4835: 4780: 4587: 4547: 4379: 4349: 4334: 4284: 4254: 4189: 4129: 4089: 4011: 4001: 3901: 3645: 3635: 3410: 2706: 2696: 2681: 2601: 2591: 2571: 2463: 2443: 2403: 2378: 2288: 2182: 2170: 2160: 2101: 1961: 1956: 1827: 1728: 1573: 1478: 1435: 1415: 1410: 1400: 1395: 1317: 1112: 372: 20594: 15794: 14740: 14475:

The Creation of the Modern World: The Untold Story of the British Enlightenment.

14318:

Bronner, Stephen (1995). "The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics".

13592:

Living the Enlightenment: Free masonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe

12787:

12, 13. For a more detailed description of French censorship laws, see Darnton,

10852:

British Philosophy and the Age of Enlightenment: Routledge History of Philosophy

8847:

systematic creed with its own myths, values, and rituals originated in Scotland

8747: 8727:

recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published

8312: 8175: 7604: 7596: 7526:

The idea of the Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to

7476:"oversaw the publication of hundreds of European works in the Arabic language." 6134:, a social reformer, was publicly executed in 1772 for usurping royal authority. 5502: 5286: 24500: 24361: 24186: 23980: 23955: 23919: 23859: 23852: 23847: 23837: 23691: 23676: 23615: 23491: 23481: 23237: 22874: 22565: 21984: 21612: 21608: 21259: 20877: 20816: 20656: 20127: 19961: 19749: 19737: 19423: 19308: 18984: 18969: 18959: 18861: 18763: 18721: 18641: 18596: 18536: 18501: 18293: 18206: 18111: 18019: 17810: 17644: 17567: 17351: 17341: 17336: 17331: 17311: 17301: 17216: 17159: 17052: 17015: 16391: 16340: 16318: 16313: 16298: 16288: 16281: 15917: 15867: 15725: 15602: 15597: 15587: 15483: 15409: 15318: 15313: 15136: 15111: 15091: 15076: 15061: 15046: 14430: 14371: 14339:

Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind

13987: 13852: 13716:

Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe

13466: 13261:

A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England,

11282:

The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity

11113:

The creation of the modern world: the untold story of the British Enlightenment

10690: 10017:"Oxford University Press: Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment: Alan Charles Kors" 9624:

I. Bernard Cohen, "Scientific Revolution and Creativity in the Enlightenment."

8864: 8724: 8720: 8634:

conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light

8593: 8339: 8338:

systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of

8330: 8224:, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world. 7946: 7872: 7800: 7783: 7749: 7638: 7511: 7493: 7485: 7390: 7295: 7220: 7155: 7091: 6934: 6843: 6551: 6499: 6455: 6428: 6420: 6412: 6388: 6277:

Several novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including

6225: 5848: 5776: 5566: 5544: 5220: 4795: 4687: 4657: 4647: 4572: 4542: 4537: 4527: 4414: 4394: 4354: 4324: 4264: 4204: 4179: 4119: 3806: 3615: 3378: 3351: 3346: 3319: 3275: 2621: 2556: 2408: 2383: 2348: 2298: 2238: 2165: 2066: 2027: 2017: 1891: 1859: 1681: 1666: 1636: 1558: 1054: 899: 889: 819: 804: 799: 456: 23554: 22814: 14288: 13486: 13082: 11698:

Chapter 23, "Scientific Traveller." New York: Cambridge University Press 1991

10534:

Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies, 1760–1815

10279: 8033: 7507: 6731:

The ideas of the Enlightenment also appeared in literature and theater works.

5296:). Published between 1751 and 1772 in 35 volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, 4692: 2611: 2433: 1420: 24419: 24245: 24171: 24137: 24121: 24081: 23764: 23739: 23515: 23425: 23410: 23332: 22954: 22906: 22348: 21974: 20137: 19461: 19442: 19386: 19340: 19328: 19323: 19318: 19172: 19167: 19044: 19037: 18676: 18561: 18476: 18421: 18281: 18201: 18096: 17946: 17939: 17832: 17785: 17678: 17534: 17447: 17246: 16913: 16852: 15945: 15902: 15872: 15852: 15516: 15442: 15369: 15272: 15202: 15116: 15071: 15056: 14953: 14902: 14492:

Philadelphia's Enlightenment, 1740–1800: Kingdom of Christ, Empire of Reason.

13504: 11755: 11692: 11440: 11430: 11150: 10896:"God, Locke and Equality: Christian Foundations of Locke's Political Thought" 9494: 9366: 9077: 8910: 8898: 8716: 8662: 8567: 8445:

Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers.

8290: 8170: 8157: 7841: 7723: 7663: 7434: 7418: 7378: 7370: 7362: 7350: 7224: 7059: 6835: 6705: 6532: 6447: 6416: 6290: 6252: 5971: 5939: 5928: 5772: 5756: 5579: 5571: 5256: 5252: 5244: 5216: 5204: 5143: 5115: 5104: 5038: 4820: 4815: 4682: 4632: 4612: 4607: 4582: 4557: 4454: 4359: 4279: 4199: 4174: 4099: 4036: 3871: 3670: 3334: 2656: 2616: 2546: 2516: 2483: 2478: 2458: 2338: 2263: 2175: 2038: 1854: 1671: 1543: 1503: 1375: 1039: 939: 919: 664: 17503: 13901:

Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790

11142: 10266:(2012). "The Politics of Enlightenment: From Peter Gay to Jonathan Israel". 9829:"Northern Lights: How modern life emerged from eighteenth-century Edinburgh" 9357: 8638:

The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the

6886:, the last Spanish Habsburg monarch, died his successor was from the French 6689: 6450:, Voltaire, or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Gibbon, 6349: 5688:

introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the

5574:, one of the most influential figures of Enlightenment and modern philosophy 5483:

launched the popular and scholarly Enlightenment critique of religion. As a

4104: 24355: 24230: 24086: 24050: 23789: 23711: 23555: 23301: 23296: 23291: 23279: 21072: 20719: 20541: 20384: 20240: 19689: 19647: 19576: 19313: 19198: 19152: 19140: 19083: 19049: 18711: 18511: 18416: 18262: 18236: 18145: 17827: 17815: 17763: 17723: 17718: 17582: 17577: 17406: 17236: 17107: 17025: 16444: 15955: 15950: 15897: 15887: 15862: 15842: 15562: 15531: 15478: 15473: 15257: 15167: 15106: 15086: 14973: 14897: 14552:

Mozart and the Enlightenment: Truth, Virtue, and Beauty in Mozart's Operas.

13963: 12722:

The Commerce of Everyday Life: Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator

11611:

Pier Luigi Porta, "Lombard enlightenment and classical political economy."

11200:

Media and the Mind: Art, Science and Notebooks as Paper Machines, 1700–1830

10893: 10110: 9583:

Media and the Mind: Art, Science and Notebooks as Paper Machines, 1700–1830

9486: 9151: 8667: 8467: 7993: 7931: 7698:(1687), which built upon the work of earlier scientists and formulated the 7689: 7515: 7422: 7338: 7291: 7272: 7032: 6805: 6740: 6678: 6667: 6511: 6451: 6302: 6286: 6163:(1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under 6119:

expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before

5979: 5693: 5665:

Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and

5480: 5272: 5228: 5166: 5086: 5046: 4562: 4512: 4507: 4492: 4449: 4434: 4404: 4329: 4314: 4289: 4249: 4209: 4184: 4149: 4064: 3368: 2701: 2676: 2606: 2453: 2283: 2273: 2076: 1593: 1533: 1460: 1244: 1019: 929: 408: 352: 21: 9219:

For example, Robert Darnton, Roger Chartier, Brian Cowan, Donna T. Andrew.

6872: 6673:

German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers

6666:

greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious

4552: 24156: 23985: 23960: 23935: 23908: 23895: 23804: 23706: 23393: 23073: 21355: 20997: 20973: 20343: 20331: 20253: 19829: 19642: 19446: 19182: 19130: 19105: 19088: 19027: 18651: 18399: 18394: 18386: 18371: 18196: 18101: 17912: 17748: 17713: 17693: 17673: 17651: 17616: 17391: 17269: 17254: 17226: 17062: 16579: 16054: 15907: 15692: 15488: 15262: 15101: 14980: 14963: 14958: 14749: 14581: 13535:

The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747

9111: 8906: 8836: 8806: 8802: 8707: 8654: 8379: 8069: 7825: 7774: 7770: 7659: 7410: 7398: 7303: 6717: 6663: 6547: 6463: 6233: 6179: 6017: 5521: 5508: 5407: 5403: 5260: 5199:

The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the

5179: 5123: 4995: 4987: 4785: 4667: 4502: 4464: 4444: 4384: 4344: 4309: 4244: 4234: 4214: 4169: 4084: 4054: 4016: 3911: 3754: 3684: 3550: 2686: 2488: 2473: 2448: 2243: 2228: 2135: 1988: 1936: 1676: 1578: 1498: 1254: 949: 904: 874: 829: 724: 423: 22245: 14922: 14097:

The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments

11158: 11126: 10251:

The Enlightenment Past: reconstructing eighteenth-century French thought

8827: 8415:

Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerk- und Handlungs-Lexicon

8242:

La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain

7951:

A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period

7898:"the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and 7553: 6800: 6598: 5203:. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included 3405: 23940: 23525: 22911: 21918: 21561: 21131: 19793: 19381: 19135: 19093: 19079: 18947: 18932: 18182: 18170: 18140: 18106: 18046: 17728: 17154: 15912: 15892: 15877: 15847: 15096: 15007: 14864: 14839: 14829: 14767: 14744: 14709: 14689: 14679: 14626: 14538: 14519: 14478: 14447:

The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment

14366: 14342: 14312: 14302:

The Scottish Enlightenment: The Historical Age of the Historical Nation

14172:

Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress

14153: 14120: 14039: 14028: 13874:

Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750

13833: 13378: 13316: 12571:

The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment

10953: 10191:

The Illusion of Free Markets, Bernard E. Harcourt, p. 260, notes 11–14.

9959: 9025: 8969: 8872: 8856: 8627: 8365: 8361: 7864: 7791: 7643: 7457: 7276: 6514:, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist. 6507: 6478: 6442: 6077: 6009: 6005: 5900: 5852: 5655: 5419: 5399: 5268: 5248: 5224: 5066: 5007: 4991: 4755: 4662: 4399: 4229: 3931: 3886: 3324: 3290: 3285: 2955: 2468: 2258: 2233: 2140: 1993: 1973: 1779: 1656: 1365: 1186: 1117: 775: 596: 431: 62: 16002: 14243: 11406:(Dec 2017) 35#4 pp. 588–602, round table discussion of historiography. 10152: 9245:"The Age of Enlightenment: A History From Beginning to End: Chapter 3" 8787:

Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.

8397: 7828:

in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of

7223:) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on aristocratic 7066:. During the 18th century, enlightened literary movements such as the 5942:

and the state), the view that all legitimate political power must be "

21838: 20962: 20839: 20669: 20152: 19483: 19162: 19157: 19120: 19115: 18979: 18922: 18907: 18776: 18616: 18453: 18188: 18150: 17743: 17557: 17201: 16569: 16564: 16416: 14938: 14859: 14653: 14020: 11483:

Owens, Samantha; Reul, Barbara M.; Stockigt, Janice B., eds. (2011).

11306:

Michael Atiyah, "Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment,"

10180:

Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics

9136:

Marie Louise Nicole Élisabeth de La Rochefoucauld, Duchesse d'Anville

8612: 8387: 7851: 7346: 7212: 6981: 6495: 6298: 6164: 5982:, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens. 5768: 5705: 5677:

coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

5639: 5556: 5139: 5096: 5069:. Some date the beginning of the Enlightenment to the publication of 5050: 4750: 4592: 4424: 4134: 3971: 3956: 3846: 3826: 3816: 3461: 3393: 3191: 2393: 1913: 1696: 1686: 1631: 1455: 1390: 1234: 982: 789: 16930: 14511: 14015:

The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture

13370: 13308: 13274:

Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life

12143:"PHYS 200 – Lecture 3 – Newton's Laws of Motion – Open Yale Courses" 11389:

Katrin Keller, "Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism."

8166: 6541:

imagines the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress.

70: 24399: 23754: 23508: 23496: 22513: 21256: 19177: 19125: 18606: 18302: 18123: 17951: 17866: 17805: 17768: 17411: 17206: 16544: 16532: 15297: 14892: 14885: 13847:

The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse

13828:

Andrew, Donna T. "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780."

13391:

Donna T. Andrew, "Popular Culture and Public Debate: London 1780,"

13151:

Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding

13137:

A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier

13120: 13106:

Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543–1630

13066: 12801: 11198: 10302: 10144: 9581: 9041: 8937: 8557:. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by 8211: 7868: 7765:

Extending Horkheimer and Adorno's argument, intellectual historian

7711: 7534:

during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions.

7489: 7389:

During this time, Korea "aimed at isolation" and was known as the "

7333:

The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.

7208: 6817: 6271: 6251:, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the 6209: 6194:

not all children of the same father and creatures of the same God?

5966:, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the 5811: 5751:," which was expressed historically in works by authors including 5590: 5472: 5276: 5135: 5003: 3329: 3302: 3206: 2997: 2248: 2091: 1523: 1430: 884: 794: 466: 26: 14295:

The Enlightenment Past: Reconstructing 18th-Century French Thought

10767: 10204:. History-world.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2013 9546:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 3–4. 8835:

Historians have debated the extent to which the secret network of

7782:

after the fact; that the Enlightenment did not see an increase in

6204: 5871:. Many of the major political and intellectual figures behind the 5732: 24011: 23625: 23247: 18964: 18942: 18892: 18796: 18732: 18521: 18376: 18288: 17281: 17092: 16091: 14409:

Golinski, Jan (2011). "Science in the Enlightenment, Revisited".

14080:

European Thought in the 18th Century: From Montesquieu to Lessing

12101:

Postmodern theory and biblical theology: vanquishing God's shadow

11926:

Lough, John (1985). "Reflections on Enlightenment and Lumieres".

11083:

Karen O'Brien, "English Enlightenment Histories, 1750–c.1815" in

10412:

Marx and the postmodernism debates: an agenda for critical theory

8909:. People took inspiration from it and revived classical art into 8902: 8738:

as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the

8457:

most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.

8435:(1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons. 8368:. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including 7829: 7816: 7670: 7414: 7263: 7031:'s riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets (the 6813: 6773:

In Italy the main centers of diffusion of the Enlightenment were

6736: 6716:'s brief reign was marked by this conflict, with his ideology of 6282: 6263: 5666: 5659: 5651: 5647: 5635: 5484: 5111: 5062: 5058: 4999: 4482: 3961: 3941: 2438: 2044: 1978: 1711: 824: 14596:

American Enlightenments: Pursuing Happiness in the Age of Reason

12695:"history of publishing :: Developments in the 18th century" 12295:

The End of the Old Regime in Europe 1768–1776: The First Crisis.

10612:

Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001, Introduction, pp. 1–72.

8570:

wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled

7086:

was also an important Enlightenment figure, contributing to the

6258:

Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of

24177:

Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary

23620: 23530: 23435: 19397: 18974: 18887: 18541: 14968: 14378:. Translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Duke University Press, 1991. 13474: 12745:

In particular, see Chapter 6, "Reading, Writing and Publishing"

11485:

Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities

9341:"Enlightenment in Global History: A Historiographical Critique" 9171: 8574:(1782), which was published for many years in eleven editions. 8391: 8016:

a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:

7613: 7328: 7028: 6897:

and established missions deeper inland in South America. Under

6825:

Della diceosina, o sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto

6774: 5559:: David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the 5054: 4487: 2108: 1723: 413: 14573:

Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century

14231:

Warman, Caroline; et al. (2016), Warman, Caroline (ed.),

12019: 12017: 11626:

Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century

10756:

Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion,

10014:

ed. Alan Charles Kors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)

9807: 9805: 9751: 8118:

data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation

6769:, considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment 6642:

broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the

5949:

Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in

4927: 4898: 20032: 19929: 19790: 18912: 18506: 18496: 18491: 17963: 17958: 14854: 14647:

The Encyclopédie of Diderot and D'Alembert: Selected Articles

14365:

1955. a highly influential study by a neoKantian philosopher

12456:

J. Peter Burkholder, Donald J. Grout, and Claude V. Palisca,

12130:

The Newton Wars and the Beginning of the French Enlightenment

11321:

Atlantic Cousins: Benjamin Franklin and His Visionary Friends

11088:

The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800

10238:

Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present,

8953: 8495: 8426: 8073: 7795:

even religion appears somewhat taboo in intellectual strata.

7609: 7302:; China was posited as the incarnation of an enlightened and 6970:. Toussaint had read the critique of European colonialism in 6778: 6294: 6278: 5895: 5463: 5452: 4299: 909: 418: 14214:

A Global Enlightenment: Western Progress and Chinese Science

6473: 6142: 5085:("I think, therefore I am"). Others cite the publication of 18917: 18636: 14638:

Diderot, Denis. "Letter on the Blind" in Tunstall, Kate E.

14545:

The Dialogues of the Dead of the Early German Enlightenment

12206: 12014: 10698: 10398:

Enlightenment, Britain and the Creation of the Modern World

9802: 9780: 9778: 8784:

Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric.

8354:: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. 7824:, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and 7488:

in the 1830s and continued into the late 19th century. The

5614:

There were immediate practical results. The experiments of

5127: 3732: 12167:

Histoire et dictionnaire du temps des Lumières (1715–1789)

11173:"The Enlightenment (1650–1800): The English Enlightenment" 10930: 10894:

ENR // AgencyND // University of Notre Dame (4 May 2003).

8382:

edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The

5578:

Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief,

5235:. Some of the major figures of the Enlightenment included 5146:, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment. 24066:

Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

13991:

The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers.

13940:. London: Allen Lane, 2020; New York: HarperCollins, 2021 13473:. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 8. 12869: 12845: 12066: 12042: 11868:

Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991.

11775: 10167:

A Hotbed of Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment, 1730–1790

9695:

The Dream of Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Philosophy

8522: 5390:, widely considered a seminal figure in the emergence of 5049:, among others, as well as the rationalist philosophy of 21380: 14087:

From Enlightenment to Romanticism in 18th Century Europe

13788:

Neil L. York, "Freemasons and the American Revolution,"

12269:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 61–62. 12242:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–61. 12030: 11877:

Keith Thomas, "The Great Fight Over the Enlightenment,"

9790: 9775: 8144:

Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the

5775:(and thus the U.S. Constitution), and as popularised by 22674:

Professionalization and institutionalization of history

18621: 14454:

The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern

14187:

The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790.

13430: 13428: 12584:

The Other Enlightenment: How French Women Became Modern

12460:(New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2006), 475. 12116:

Crisis theory and world order: Heideggerian reflections

11718:

vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.

11613:

The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought

11043:

A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present,

10072: 8933:

European and American voyages of scientific exploration

7669:

Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and

7433:" led to Enlightenment reforms beginning in the 1820s. 6728:'s rule was primarily marked by relations with France. 5800:

Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth

5307:

A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge

5099:

of France in 1715 and its end with the outbreak of the

14143:

Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794

13938:

The Enlightenment: The Pursuit of Happiness, 1680–1790

13865:

The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Philosophy

12857: 8755:

The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for

8529:

The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the

8276:

was the earliest academic journal published in Europe.

8030:

arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic."

5875:

associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment:

5684:

of science among an increasingly literate population.

24097:

Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary

22966:

Heroic theory of invention and scientific development

14309:

The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment

14195:

Histoire de Paris: Politique, urbanisme, civilisation

12983:

Jacob, (1988), p. 191; Melton, (2001), pp. 82–83

12898: 12896: 12886: 12884: 11513:

Van Dulmen, Richard; Williams, Anthony, eds. (1992).

11127:"Locating the 1650s in England's Seventeenth Century" 10663: 8450:

Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot,

7658:

Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the

7337:

found "origins of modern Japan in certain strands of

6020:

to every problem is considered the essential change.

5903:

argued that the authority of government stems from a

21814:

Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe

14586:

Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment

14356:

The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment

13538:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 83–92. 13425: 12840:

Making sex: body and gender from the Greeks to Freud

12054: 11376:

Charles W. Ingrao, "A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg."

10918: 10906: 10731:

Spinoza's Modernity: Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Heine

10101:

Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World

9763: 9739: 9544:

European socialism: a concise history with documents

8163:

read, discussed, and even produced on the premises.

8008:" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal 7070:(lasting from 1756 until 1776, then replaced by the 6857: 6147:

The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the

5622:

enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a

13263:

Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

12403:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 12. 12376:

The Cambridge Companion to the French Enlightenment

12320:

The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere,

12213:

Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical Fragments

12163:

Historians and eighteenth-century Europe, 1715–1789

11716:

Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture,

9408:

The Enlightenment and Its Effects on Modern Society

8703:

English coffeehouses in the 17th and 18th centuries

8260: 8012:Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of 7790:; and that a blur in the early modern ideas of the 7014:) was heavily marked by the rule of Prime Minister 6929:on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the 6320:

Separation of church and state in the United States

5991:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

5025:The Enlightenment was preceded by and overlaps the 2737:

Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party

23170: 21774:Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia 21632: 19414: 14387:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1989. 13803: 13777:The Age of the Democratic Revolution: The Struggle 12893: 12881: 12766: 12764: 11714:Thiessen, Heather. "Spain: Constitution of 1812." 11512: 9956:Integration and Enlightenment: Scotland, 1746–1832 9598: 5911:. According to Locke, the authority of government 5282:One influential Enlightenment publication was the 22432: 14384:Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution 14038:(1969, 2nd ed. 1995), a highly influential study 13832:, Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423. 11482: 11308:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 11070:Roy Porter, "England" in Alan Charles Kors, ed., 10194: 8301: 6309: 5539:, a moral philosopher and founding figure of the 24417: 24167:Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII 14166:(2006), emphasis on Germany; heavily illustrated 12542:Chartier, 26, 26. Kant, "What is Enlightenment?" 12092: 11891: 11889: 10794: 10610:The Enlightenment: Brief History with Documents, 10010:James E. McClellan III, "Learned Societies," in 9475:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 9462:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 8572:The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature 8188:narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by 8052:in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male 8014:Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, 6590:Hymnody of continental Europe § Rationalism 6576:from which he removed all supernatural aspects. 5727: 5149:The central doctrines of the Enlightenment were 16:17th- to 18th-century European cultural movement 22998: 19241:Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought 12816:Emma Spary, "The 'Nature' of Enlightenment" in 12761: 12262: 12235: 11360:"The Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity" 11026:David N. Livingstone and Charles W.J. Withers, 10502:Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters 10441:. Cambridge University Press. pp. xiv–xv. 8743:different order than any university tutorial." 7848:), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts. 7688:("I think, therefore I am"), which shifted the 7365:interaction." In Japan in particular, the term 7078:. A distinct member of this group was the poet 7054:who spent a considerable amount of his life in 16550:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 14456:. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. 14332:British Philosophy in the Age of Enlightenment 14025:The Enlightenment: The Rise of Modern Paganism 13909:The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe 13531: 12520: 12518: 12516: 12502: 12500: 12498: 12484: 12482: 12468: 12466: 12434:'Public Opinion' at the End of the Old Regime" 12307:The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe 10712:"Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism" 10636: 10530: 10434: 9698:. W. W. Norton & Company. 30 August 2016. 9086:Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes 8345:The first technical dictionary was drafted by 6662:, a poet and historian. The theatre principal 5987:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury 5172:Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment? 23156: 22822:Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church 22692:Western European colonialism and colonization 21241: 18748: 17533: 17519: 16946: 16018: 14783: 14376:The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution 14262:The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment. 14107:Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 13840:Science in the Enlightenment: An Encyclopædia 12372: 12178: 11886: 11840:"The Polish Literature of the Enlightenment." 11583: 11038: 11036: 10768:Ellen Judy Wilson; Peter Hanns Reill (2004). 10670:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–68. 10573:Chartier, 8. See also Alexis de Tocqueville, 8086:Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the 7425:, and asked to be addressed as 'Tipu Citoyen, 6477:One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was 5718:Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books 4952: 3430: 2762:International Alliance of Libertarian Parties 2732:Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe 1748: 744: 565: 21152: 14912: 14883: 14869: 14658:The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology 14178:Reill, Peter Hanns, and Wilson, Ellen Judy. 13801: 12621:Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 21, 23. 12458:A History of Western Music, Seventh Edition, 12289:Outram, 6. See also, A. Owen Alridge (ed.), 11770:Modern Russian History & Historiography, 11563:(in Italian). Gius.Laterza & Figli Spa. 11059:The Enlightenment: A comprehensive anthology 10952:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29 ("It took 10096: 9424:Princeton: Princeton University Press 2019 1 9251:. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017 8616: 8490:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 8482: 8281: 8269: 8219: 7602:— An engraving from the 1772 edition of the 7275:worked with several Chinese elites, such as 7207:, as the Polish middle class was weaker and 5284: 5187: 21255: 16540:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages 14978: 14568:. George Macaulay Trevelyan Lecture, (1971) 14405:(University of Chicago Press; 2010) 209 pp. 13810:. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. pp. 12513: 12495: 12479: 12463: 12207:Theodor W. Adorno; Horkheimer, Max (1947). 11974:Immanuel Kant, "What is Enlightenment?", 1. 11084: 10825:The Enlightenment: And Why it Still Matters 10709: 10300: 8577: 8060:In France, the established men of letters ( 7906: 6735:was an important representative. In music, 6063:would not go against one's natural rights. 5716:committed the Newtonian system to verse in 5177: 24182:Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary 24132:Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart 23163: 23149: 21248: 21234: 18755: 18741: 17526: 17512: 16953: 16939: 16025: 16011: 14790: 14776: 14676:The Enlightenment: A Sourcebook and Reader 14234:Tolerance: The Beacon of the Enlightenment 14065:(2004). 714 pp. 39 essays by scholars 14045:Greensides F., Hyland P., Gomez O. (ed.). 13998:Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment 13862: 13857:The Literary Underground of the Old Regime 12793: 11683:Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012. 11657:Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1971. 11234: 11091:. Oxford, England: OUP. pp. 518–535. 11033: 10489:Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, 10400:, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, p. 3 10130: 9796: 9784: 9596: 9405: 9082:Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune 7472:and expanding the Enlightenment in Egypt, 6925:abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother 6820:, where among others, Pompeo Neri worked. 6517: 5414:applied in philosophic areas leading to a 5194:List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment 4959: 4945: 3437: 3423: 1755: 1741: 751: 737: 572: 558: 21877:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 14354:Campbell, R.S. and Skinner, A.S., (eds.) 14349:Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 14242: 14036:The Enlightenment: The Science of Freedom 13914: 13464: 13395:Vol. 39, No. 2. (June 1996), pp. 405–423. 12724:(Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1998), 16. 11745: 11415: 11274: 10727: 10090: 9811: 9356: 7976: 7510:, a political activist and member of the 7484:The Enlightenment began to influence the 6609:, a tribute to The Enlightenment and the 6406:Georgian era § English Enlightenment 6143:American Revolution and French Revolution 6066: 5931:ushered in this new debate with his work 5890: 5563:and empiricist traditions of philosophy. 2767:International Federation of Liberal Youth 23096:Historical geographic information system 19862: 14797: 14759:Collection: Art of the Enlightenment Era 14623:The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology 14598:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016) 14408: 13980: 13950:(2nd ed.), Macmillan Education UK, 13849:. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005 13157:Continuum International Publishing Group 12674:Darnton, "The Literary Underground," 16. 11730:"Six Sermons, written by António Vieira" 11260:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 92. 11253: 10828:. Oxford University Press. p. 100. 10734:. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 126. 10643:. Oxford University Press. p. 179. 10559:Thomas Jefferson. A Revolutionary World. 10069:see Hall (1954), iii; Mason (1956), 223. 9822: 9820: 9662: 9660: 9541: 8826: 8626: 8607: 8513:Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds 8494: 8396: 8305: 8264: 8210: 8165: 8110: 8032: 7987: 7914: 7850: 7815: 7595: 7448: 7341:thinking, a 'functional analogue to the 7262: 7187: 7137: 6871: 6760: 6747:were associated with the Enlightenment. 6597: 6527: 6481:, the father of modern economic science. 6472: 6348: 6203: 6125: 6076: 6031:An Essay on the History of Civil Society 5894: 5731: 5673:societies. In reference to this growth, 5565: 5410:foundation was not as successful as his 5382: 635:Classical education in the Eastern world 630:Classical education in the Western world 20: 16032: 14497: 14317: 14211: 14192: 14052: 13802:Janson, H. W.; Janson, Anthony (2003). 13681: 13558: 13360: 12343:Alexander Von Humboldt: A Metabiography 11954:Discours préliminaire de l'Encyclopédie 11468: 11418:Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790 11242:How the Scots Invented the Modern World 11203:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 10262: 9849: 9459:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 9455: 8965:Witch trials in the early modern period 8563:A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy 8466:gained popularity, it was published in 8010:Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. 7177: 6586:History of Germany § Enlightenment 6159:" philosophy as delineated by Locke in 2747:Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats 24418: 22736:English historical school of economics 20788:Historical Series of the Bank of Italy 18842: 14566:Utopia and Reform in the Enlightenment 14169: 14119:(4 vol. 1990; 2nd ed. 2003), 1984 pp. 13943: 13898: 13889: 13880: 13871: 13594:(Oxford University Press, 1991) p. 49. 13434: 13214:vol. 64 (mai-juin 2009), n. 3, 633–62. 13103: 12875: 12863: 12851: 12347:" University of Chicago Press. p. 138 12060: 12048: 12036: 12008: 11983: 11928:Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 11781: 11213: 10936: 10924: 10912: 10821: 10491:1983, Vol. 10 Issue 2, pp. 83–110 10463:Aspects of European history, 1494–1789 10395: 9769: 9757: 9745: 9718: 9641:Oxford: Oxford University Press 2011,9 9472: 9379: 9338: 9046:Charles-Augustin de Ferriol d'Argental 8526:] Rules and Astronomical Tables." 7999: 7811: 7706:. French historians usually place the 7193:Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of 1791 6999: 6344: 6339:Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom 5680:Another important development was the 23144: 23052: 22997: 22932:Revisionist school of Islamic studies 22771:Historical reliability of the Gospels 22629: 22156: 21229: 21218: 19861: 19604: 19368: 19007: 18841: 18736: 17507: 16960: 16934: 16006: 15028: 14809: 14771: 14055:The Enlightenment: History of an Idea 13792:Volume: 55. Issue: 2. 1993, pp. 315+. 13294: 13212:Annales. Histoire, Sciences sociales, 12595:Crébillon fils, quoted from Darnton, 12165:(Oxford UP, 1979); Jean de Viguerie, 12079:For up to Descartes ... a particular 11925: 11728:Cohen, Thomas M. (15 November 2018). 11727: 11497: 11124: 10875: 10855:. Taylor & Francis. p. 256. 10848: 10664:Ole Peter Grell; Porter, Roy (2000). 10621: 10378:Discourse on the Origin of Inequality 10354:An Intellectual History of Liberalism 10319:The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820 10202:"The Enlightenment throughout Europe" 9911: 9870:"Kant's essay What is Enlightenment?" 9826: 9817: 9657: 9334: 9332: 9330: 9328: 9326: 9324: 9322: 9320: 9318: 9316: 9314: 9312: 9310: 9308: 9306: 9304: 9302: 9300: 8766: 8584:Education in the Age of Enlightenment 8535:Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, 8364:along with the physical sciences and 6921:When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, 6051:right to preserve life and property. 5832:Considerazioni sul processo criminale 5739:, father of classical criminal theory 5493:influenced many of the Enlightenment 4728:International socialist organizations 3676:To each according to his contribution 24476:Philosophical schools and traditions 23124: 21219: 20749:More Irish than the Irish themselves 16689:Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) 14763:University of Michigan Museum of Art 14363:The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 14269: 14136:Women, Catholicism and Enlightenment 13118: 13064: 12799: 11997:The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 11556: 11196: 10774:. Infobase Publishing. p. 148. 10387: 10051:See Gillispie, (1980), "Conclusion." 9940:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 9601:The Enlightenment: An Interpretation 9579: 9517:"British Library- The Enlightenment" 9339:Conrad, Sebastian (1 October 2012). 9298: 9296: 9294: 9292: 9290: 9288: 9286: 9284: 9282: 9280: 9144:François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis 8603: 8403:Figurative system of human knowledge 7894:contrasted "opinion" with populace, 7195:, Europe's first modern constitution 6699: 6375:fueled by slave labor. In 1791, the 5596:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 5425:Essay Concerning Human Understanding 24036:Suppression of the Society of Jesus 21819:Functionalism–intentionalism debate 19008: 17468:History of the Mediterranean region 16899:History of the Mediterranean region 16102:International relations (1648–1814) 14754:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 14733:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 14652: 13351:(New York: Viking, 2004), 188, 189. 12929:Headrick, (2000), pp. 150–152. 12818:The Sciences in Enlightened Europe, 11832: 11772:2009, Vol. 2 Issue 2, pp. 1–26 11471:The Literature of Weimar Classicism 10942: 10801:. Infobase Publishing. p. 26. 10172: 10165:D. Daiches, P. Jones and J. Jones, 9719:Rahman, Shoaib (20 November 2023). 9176:Jeanne Julie Éléonore de Lespinasse 9062:Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville 8173:is best known as the editor of the 7963:Music and Reason in Western Society 7820:A medal minted during the reign of 7231:(second half of the 18th century). 7058:denouncing discriminations against 6008:, the scientific method, religious 5609:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 5490:Dictionnaire Historique et Critique 5192:For a more comprehensive list, see 2787:Liberal South East European Network 13: 23591:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran 22832:Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II 20776:Fourth Italian War of Independence 18762: 14614: 14180:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment. 13975: 13915:Petitfils, Jean-Christian (2005). 13272:Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, 13108:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11940:10.1111/j.1754-0208.1985.tb00093.x 11310:(Dec 2006) 150#4 pp. 591–606. 10667:Toleration in Enlightenment Europe 10012:Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment, 9916:. Historyguide.org. Archived from 9725:(Hardcover ed.). Fadew, Inc. 9386:, Getty Publications, p. 29, 9148:Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon 8206: 7326:of Japan enforced a policy called 6572:and Thomas Jefferson in his short 6554:. There was a great emphasis upon 14: 24522: 18717:Western European and Others Group 16656:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 16223:Journalism of Early Modern Europe 14722: 14716: 14686:The Portable Enlightenment Reader 14117:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment 14061:Fitzpatrick, Martin et al., eds. 14005:Encyclopædia of the Enlightenment 13762:Richard Weisberger et al., eds., 12911:Porter, (2003), pp. 249–250. 11655:The Ibero-American Enlightenment. 11642:Journal of Modern Italian Studies 11557:Mori, Massimo (1 February 2015). 11347:Montesquieu in America, 1760–1801 11284:(Basic Books, 2003), pp. 117–143. 11072:Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment 10969:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, p. 29 10798:Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment 10771:Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment 10758:1804, Internet History Sourcebook 10575:L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution, 10474:Nicholas Henderson, "Joseph II," 10307:. Nelson Cengage. pp. 34–35. 10240:Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 457 10097:M. Magnusson (10 November 2003), 9277: 9184:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 8822: 8421:(1721) was better known than the 8230:René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 8199:, condemned by both the King and 8135:rates, particularly among women. 7521: 7479: 7022:from 1756 to 1777. Following the 6858:Bourbon Spain and Spanish America 6804:(1762–1766), founded by brothers 2777:Liberal Network for Latin America 2210:(contributions to liberal theory) 539:Social and political philosophers 24398: 24386: 23717:Fourth Council of Constantinople 23672:Second Council of Constantinople 23123: 23114: 23113: 22630: 22130: 22129: 21971:Palestinian expulsion and flight 20483:5000-year civilization assertion 20059:Nadir of American race relations 17453:Bibliography of European history 17048:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 15986: 15985: 14278:The Ibero-American Enlightenment 13795: 13782: 13769: 13756: 13743: 13730: 13721: 13718:(Oxford University Press, 1991.) 13708: 13675: 13666: 13650: 13641: 13632: 13619: 13610: 13597: 13584: 13571: 13552: 13525: 13511: 13458: 13449: 13440: 13416: 13407: 13398: 13385: 13354: 13341: 13332: 13323: 13288: 13279: 13266: 13253: 13235: 13226: 13217: 13204: 13191: 13182: 13169: 13142: 13129: 13112: 13097: 13058: 13049: 13040: 13031: 13022: 13013: 13004: 12995: 12986: 12977: 12968: 12959: 12950: 12941: 12932: 12923: 12914: 12905: 12832: 12823: 12810: 12777: 12748: 12739: 12727: 12714: 12705: 12687: 12677: 12668: 12659: 12646: 12637: 12624: 12615: 12602: 12589: 12576: 12563: 12554: 12545: 12536: 12527: 12506:Burkholder, Grout, and Palisca, 12450: 12447:(New York: Routledge, 2005), 58. 12437: 12424: 12415: 12406: 12393: 12366: 12357: 12334: 12325: 12312: 12299: 12291:The Ibero-American Enlightenment 12283: 12256: 12229: 12200: 12172: 12153: 12135: 12122: 12107: 12025:A History of Western Philosophy. 12002: 11989: 11977: 11968: 11958: 11946: 11919: 11907: 11898: 11871: 11858: 11820: 11800: 11787: 11762: 11721: 11708: 11686: 11673: 11660: 11647: 11634: 11618: 11605: 11592: 11577: 11550: 11537: 11521: 11506: 11491: 11476: 11462: 11424: 11409: 11396: 11383: 11370: 11352: 11339: 11326: 11313: 11300: 11287: 11247: 11207: 11190: 11165: 11118: 11105: 11077: 11064: 11051: 10978: 10531:Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2007). 10133:The British Journal of Sociology 9914:"Mary Wollstonecraft, 1759–1797" 9839:from the original on 6 June 2011 9827:Denby, David (11 October 2004), 9213: 9014:Guillaume Thomas François Raynal 8261:Scientific and literary journals 8106: 7465:Napoleon's expedition into Egypt 7239:and reformers Piotr Switkowski, 6972:Guillaume Thomas François Raynal 6579: 6394: 6289:, deism is the simple belief in 5826:wrote important studies such as 5459:which sought a return to faith. 5300:, and a team of 150 others. The 4926: 4914: 4897: 3468: 3404: 3392: 1786: 1722: 1710: 603: 83: 69: 42:Anicet Charles Gabriel Lemonnier 23687:Third Council of Constantinople 23611:First Council of Constantinople 22960:Protestant Ethic and Capitalism 21834:Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust 21769:Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising 21576:Causes of the Armenian genocide 19885:Pyramid construction techniques 19452:Comparative historical research 19369: 19070:Library and information science 17478:History of Western civilization 17081:Christianity in the Middle Ages 16889:History of Western civilization 16175:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 14635:(2008) excerpt and text search. 14633:Rameau's Nephew and other Works 14500:Journal of the History of Ideas 14485:The Enlightenment and Community 14216:. University of Chicago Press. 14197:. Editions Jean-Paul Gisserot. 12443:David Beard and Kenneth Gloag, 12379:. Cambridge UP. pp. 91ff. 12263:Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). 12236:Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). 11469:Richter, Simon J., ed. (2005), 11244:(Crown Publishing Group, 2001). 11020: 11008: 10996: 10984: 10972: 10959: 10887: 10869: 10842: 10815: 10788: 10761: 10748: 10721: 10703: 10684: 10657: 10630: 10615: 10602: 10589: 10580: 10567: 10551: 10524: 10507: 10494: 10481: 10468: 10455: 10428: 10417: 10404: 10381: 10372: 10359: 10346: 10324: 10311: 10294: 10256: 10243: 10230: 10185: 10159: 10124: 10081: 10063: 10054: 10045: 10036: 10004: 9995: 9986: 9977: 9964: 9948: 9932: 9912:Kreis, Steven (13 April 2012). 9905: 9892: 9862: 9843: 9712: 9686: 9673: 9644: 9631: 9618: 9590: 9573: 9560: 9535: 9509: 9140:Philippe Jules François Mancini 9132:Louis François, Prince of Conti 9124:Bernard Le Bouyer de Fontenelle 8696: 8537:published by Voltaire in 1738. 8317:published between 1751 and 1766 8234:Histoire naturelle des insectes 7733: 7039:, became collectively known as 7010:The Enlightenment in Portugal ( 7006:History of Portugal (1640–1777) 6901:, the crown began to implement 6646:movement of proto-Romanticism. 6603:Weimar's Courtyard of the Muses 6353:Europe at the beginning of the 5816:classical school of criminology 5638:and a conglomerate grouping of 5184:('dare to know') can be found. 23926:Dissolution of the monasteries 23192:History of the Catholic Church 22972:Gunpowder and gun transmission 22922:Religionsgeschichtliche Schule 22731:Historical school of economics 22668:Nationalism in the Middle Ages 22106:Gunpowder and gun transmission 21980:Zionism as settler colonialism 20985:Limpieza de sangre controversy 19952:Metropolitan-hinterland thesis 17322:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 17265:Christianity in the modern era 17036:Christianity in late antiquity 16518:Christianity in the modern era 16304:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 14403:The Enlightenment: A Genealogy 14027:(1966, 2nd ed. 1995), 592 pp. 13993:(1932), a famous short classic 13607:(Routledge, 2004) pp. 272–287. 13363:The American Historical Review 12785:The Business of Enlightenment, 12363:Melton, 4, 5. Habermas, 14–26. 12209:"The Concept of Enlightenment" 12169:(Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995). 11560:Storia della filosofia moderna 11436:Dictionary of German Biography 11254:Harrison, Lawrence E. (2012). 10695:Theologico-Political Treatise, 10624:Reasonableness of Christianity 10577:1850, Book Three, Chapter One. 9586:. University of Chicago Press. 9466: 9449: 9427: 9414: 9399: 9373: 9345:The American Historical Review 9237: 9098:Jean-Jacques Dortous de Mairan 9050:Jean François de Saint-Lambert 8982: 8759:public noise or rumour. These 8302:Encyclopedias and dictionaries 7492:was a period of reform in the 7217:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 7080:Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage 6895:Spanish missions in California 6868:Spanish American Enlightenment 6383:by emancipated slaves against 6316:Separation of church and state 6310:Separation of church and state 5830:(Political Essays, 1783); and 5786:In 1776, Adam Smith published 5589:was one of England's earliest 5355:The Theory of Moral Sentiments 5020:separation of church and state 2151:Separation of church and state 1: 23800:Fourth Council of the Lateran 23775:Second Council of the Lateran 23384:Apostles in the New Testament 22781:Opposition to Papal supremacy 22157: 19969:Indigenous population history 17473:History of the European Union 16863:History of the European Union 16701:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 16491:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 16455:War of the Spanish Succession 14468:The Enlightenment in America. 14461:Science and the Enlightenment 14164:Panorama of the Enlightenment 14057:. Princeton University Press. 14040:excerpt and text search vol 2 14029:excerpt and text search vol 1 13867:. Cambridge University Press. 13119:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). 13065:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). 12800:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). 11668:Colonial Latin America Review 11197:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2022). 11014: 9605:, W.W. Norton & Company, 9580:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2022). 9383:Panorama of the Enlightenment 9226: 9090:Armand de Vignerot du Plessis 9030:Charles-Jean-François Hénault 9010:Charles Marie de La Condamine 8848: 8419:Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon 8064:) had fused with the elites ( 7822:Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor 7546: 7084:António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches 6355:War of the Spanish Succession 6337:in Virginia and authored the 6061:lawful captive in time of war 5728:Sociology, economics, and law 5378: 4994:and political ideals such as 3561:Critique of political economy 1514:Critique of political economy 1172:Critique of political economy 45: 23914:Catholic Counter-Reformation 23780:Third Council of the Lateran 23770:First Council of the Lateran 23226:Catholic ecumenical councils 22697:Desacralization of knowledge 20968:Carlism in the Francoist era 20936:Holodomor in modern politics 19605: 16766:Early Netherlandish painting 15029: 14915:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 14547:(Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2022) 13899:Israel, Jonathan I. (2011). 13890:Israel, Jonathan I. (2010). 13881:Israel, Jonathan I. (2006). 13872:Israel, Jonathan I. (2001). 13663:p. 62, (The MIT Press, 1988) 13625:Fitzpatrick and Jones, eds. 13297:Huntington Library Quarterly 13285:Shapin and Schaffer, 58, 59. 13177:France in the Enlightenment, 13010:Phillips, (1991), pp. 85, 90 12735:An Early Information Society 12445:Musicology, The Key Concepts 12074:The Age of the World Picture 11747:10.1163/22141332-00504010-11 11670:15, no. 1 (June 2006) 55–79. 11584:D'Onofrio, Federico (2015). 11420:. pp. 217–234, 375–395. 11402:"The German Enlightenment," 11295:The Enlightenment in America 10515:Enlightenment and Revolution 10438:Voltaire: Political Writings 10435:David Williams, ed. (1994). 10301:von Guttner, Darius (2015). 9942:(Renascence Editions, 2000) 9231: 9128:Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 8551:Il Newtonianism per le dame, 8096:Charles Théveneau de Morande 7677: 7456:, considered the founder of 7229:Stanisław August Poniatowski 7064:indigenous peoples in Brazil 6935:A war of national resistance 6877:Spanish Constitution of 1812 6419:, John Locke, Isaac Newton, 6411:such major intellectuals as 5467:ground under the support of 4831:Socialist calculation debate 4801:List of socialist economists 4776:Economic calculation problem 3661:Socialist mode of production 3518:Socialist calculation debate 1564:Periodizations of capitalism 38:Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 7: 24451:History of Europe by period 23089:Historiographic metafiction 23053: 22999:Organizations, publications 22788:Proto-orthodox Christianity 21738:German resistance to Nazism 21594:Persian famine of 1917–1919 21004:Islamic revolution of Spain 20931:Holodomor genocide question 20807:Revisionism of Risorgimento 20801:Rerum italicarum scriptores 20782:Historiae Patriae Monumenta 20549:Self-Strengthening Movement 19699:decolonization of knowledge 17432:Russian invasion of Ukraine 17043:Crisis of the Third Century 16407:Absolute monarchy in France 16351:Lands of the Bohemian Crown 14884: 14285:The Enlightenment in France 14212:Statman, Alexander (2023). 13968:France in the Enlightenment 12508:A History of Western Music, 12373:Daniel Brewer, ed. (2014). 12340:Nicolaas A. Rupke (2008). " 12098:Ingraffia, Brian D. (1995) 11545:Modern Intellectual History 11416:Gagliardo, John G. (1991). 11028:Geography and Enlightenment 10710:Mendelssohn, Moses (1783). 10369:New York: NYU, 1990. Print. 9992:Burns (2003), entry: 7,103. 9192:Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 9174:at the desk reading aloud, 8990:Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gresset 8916: 8863:," chosen to reflect their 8831:Masonic initiation ceremony 8685:Historiography of the salon 8218:is best remembered for his 7565:"), the German term became 7500:in 1839 and ended with the 6640:Johann Gottfried von Herder 6538:Declaration of Independence 6485: 6186: 6161:Two Treatises of Government 5952:Two Treatises of Government 5885:Declaration of Independence 5837: 1260:Simple commodity production 10: 24527: 23260:History of the Roman Curia 22886:Wissenschaft des Judentums 22863:Criticism of Protestantism 21743:Nazi foreign policy debate 21174:Second colonial occupation 20921:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 20559:Tibetan sovereignty debate 20103:Progressive-era historians 19538:Nationalization of history 19489:Historical-critical method 17488:Military history of Europe 17483:Maritime history of Europe 16873:Military history of Europe 16868:Maritime history of Europe 16761:Dutch and Flemish painting 16672:Science in the Renaissance 14810: 14431:10.1177/007327531104900204 14129:The Catholic Enlightenment 14053:Ferrone, Vincenzo (2017). 13903:. Oxford University Press. 13885:. Oxford University Press. 13876:. Oxford University Press. 13821: 13672:Thomas Munck, 1994, p. 70. 13349:Paris: Biography of a City 11914:Oxford English Dictionary, 11115:(2000), pp. 1–12, 482–484. 11002: 10990: 10537:. Greenwood. p. 190. 10078:Burns, (2003), entry: 158. 10033:(accessed on 8 June 2008). 10001:Gillispie, (1980), p. xix. 9668:European History Quarterly 9542:Smaldone, William (2014). 9422:The Secular Enlightenment. 9406:Zafirovski, Milan (2010), 9200:Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton 9110:Front row, right to left: 9102:Henri François d'Aguesseau 8949:Modern Greek Enlightenment 8805:, Reformed (Calvinist) or 8770: 8700: 8682: 8581: 8405:," the structure that the 7741:Dialectic of Enlightenment 7181: 7127:Liberal Revolution of 1820 7003: 6951:universal manhood suffrage 6903:serious structural changes 6861: 6754: 6656:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 6583: 6521: 6403: 6399: 6313: 6121:the nation was partitioned 6113:Johann Friedrich Struensee 6070: 5795:Anne Robert Jacques Turgot 5692:and the popularization of 5606: 5602: 5517:United States Constitution 5346:(1762); Cesare Beccaria's 5325:A Treatise of Human Nature 5191: 1569:Perspectives on capitalism 703:Between World War I and II 695:20th-century neoclassicism 24461:History of libertarianism 24381: 24281: 24147: 24074: 24009: 23996:European wars of religion 23893: 23828: 23730: 23652: 23543: 23466: 23326: 23315: 23307:Eastern Catholic Churches 23182: 23108: 23059: 23048: 23004: 22993: 22942: 22746: 22705: 22636: 22625: 22481: 22167: 22163: 22152: 22124: 22093: 22057: 21951: 21905: 21891:Second Sino-Japanese War 21869: 21799: 21751: 21713: 21673: 21549: 21371: 21290: 21266: 21225: 21214: 21190: 21088: 21055: 20946: 20870: 20827: 20768: 20733: 20705: 20696:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 20640: 20567: 20473: 20401: 20115: 20044: 19977: 19939: 19872: 19868: 19857: 19682: 19615: 19611: 19600: 19377: 19364: 19191: 19058: 19020: 19016: 19003: 18880: 18854: 18850: 18837: 18770: 18487:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 18467: 18385: 18222: 18057: 17928:Standard Average European 17796: 17625: 17545: 17458:Genetic history of Europe 17440: 17245: 17061: 17001: 16968: 16911: 16881: 16858:Genetic history of Europe 16845: 16838: 16780: 16730: 16723: 16680: 16664: 16628: 16619: 16607:European wars of religion 16510: 16503: 16468: 16450:Second Hundred Years' War 16427: 16371: 16247: 16240: 16210: 16203: 16162: 16155: 16110: 16047: 16040: 15972: 15926: 15828: 15785: 15764: 15711: 15680: 15664: 15611: 15545: 15497: 15461: 15428: 15347: 15306: 15150: 15039: 15035: 15024: 14929:Methodological skepticism 14820: 14816: 14805: 14674:Gomez, Olga, et al. eds. 14276:Aldridge, A. Owen (ed.). 14193:Sarmant, Thierry (2012). 13863:Haakonssen, Knud (2008). 13738:History of European Ideas 13487:10.1163/9789004273122_008 13083:10.1017/s0269889713000045 13055:Phillips, (1991), p. 107. 12938:Headrick, (2000), p. 153. 12920:Headrick, (2000), p. 168. 12902:Headrick, (2000), p. 172. 12890:Headrick, (2000), p. 144. 12772:The Literary Underground, 12756:The Literary Underground, 12654:The Literary Underground, 12632:The Literary Underground, 12610:The Literary Underground, 12597:The Literary Underground, 12293:(1971)., Franco Venturi, 12072:Martin Heidegger (2002) 11952:Jean le Rond d'Alembert, 11854:Retrieved 7 October 2011. 11734:Journal of Jesuit Studies 11600:History of European ideas 11380:20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286. 11085:José Rabasa, ed. (2012). 10795:Wilson and Reill (2004). 10728:Goetschel, Willi (2004). 10280:10.1017/s0018246x12000301 10222:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 10099:"Review of James Buchan, 9639:Democratic Enlightenment. 9437:. Encyclopædia Britannica 9269:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 8988:Back row, left to right: 8773:London Debating Societies 8689:Salons were places where 8678: 8483:Popularization of science 8324:encyclopedic dictionaries 7959:Deconstructive Variations 7454:Jean-François Champollion 7249:Third Partition of Poland 7145:visits Russian scientist 7133: 6502:, physician and chemist; 5808:Of Crimes and Punishments 5704:; a new understanding of 5462:In the mid-18th century, 5373: 5349:On Crimes and Punishments 5233:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 5188:Influential intellectuals 5016:constitutional government 4826:Socialism and LGBT rights 3770:Socialist-oriented market 3718:Socialist planned economy 3621:Material balance planning 3374:Sexually liberal feminism 3281:Bias in American academia 2752:European Democratic Party 2208:List of liberal theorists 286:Middle Eastern philosophy 24441:Enlightenment philosophy 24127:Mary of the Divine Heart 23750:Clash against the empire 23702:Second Council of Nicaea 23596:Old St. Peter's Basilica 22646:Crisis of historiography 21809:Auschwitz bombing debate 21495:Indian Rebellion of 1857 21346:Late Bronze Age collapse 21280:List of military museums 20883:Pre-Revolutionary Russia 20855:Polish People's Republic 20690:Sybel-Ficker controversy 20054:African-American history 20027:Colonial Spanish America 19816:Second Thirty Years' War 18627:Lancaster House Treaties 18117:Christian existentialism 18077:Ancient Roman philosophy 18067:Ancient Greek philosophy 14621:Broadie, Alexander, ed. 14237:, Open Book Publishers, 13907:Melton, James Van Horn. 13740:10 no. 3 (1989): 283–94. 13393:This Historical Journal, 13046:Phillips, (1991), p. 92. 13019:Phillips, (1991), p. 90. 13001:Headrick, (2000), p. 19. 12789:The Literary Underground 12182:The age of Enlightenment 11965:support the later model. 10822:Pagden, Anthony (2013). 10597:A Treatise on Toleration 10424:Of the Original Contract 10087:Thomson, (1786), p. 203. 9760:, pp. vii–viii, 19. 9654:New York: Messner (1955) 9380:Outram, Dorinda (2006), 9058:Jacques-Germain Soufflot 8975: 8578:Schools and universities 8040:The Gentleman's Magazine 7907:Implications in the arts 7786:or the dominance of the 7502:First Constitutional Era 7444: 7404: 7384: 7317: 7258: 7100:José de Azeredo Coutinho 6956: 6914:gave Prussian scientist 6750: 6025:Of the Original Contract 5418:of mind and matter. His 5319:Philosophical Dictionary 3765:Socialist market economy 3690:Workers' self-management 3656:Socialism in one country 3503:Age of the Enlightenment 2033:Labor theory of property 840:Economic interventionism 24393:Vatican City portal 23745:Investiture Controversy 23601:First Council of Nicaea 21759:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 21618:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 21169:Porter–MacKenzie debate 20926:Causes of the Holodomor 20463:Problem of two emperors 20411:Catilinarian conspiracy 19638:Historical significance 19499:Indiscipline of history 19474:Historical anthropology 18405:Equality before the law 17612:Romano-Germanic culture 17463:History of Christianity 16894:History of Christianity 16476:French–Habsburg rivalry 16435:French Wars of Religion 14710:excerpt and text search 14701:(1965) online, excerpts 14690:excerpt and text search 14680:excerpt and text search 14627:excerpt and text search 14539:excerpt and text search 14479:excerpt and text search 14367:excerpt and text search 14343:excerpt and text search 14313:excerpt and text search 14260:Yolton, John W. et al. 14182:(2nd ed. 2004). 670 pp. 14170:Pinker, Steven (2018). 14154:excerpt and text search 14121:excerpt and text search 14101:excerpt and text search 14063:The Enlightenment World 13883:Enlightenment Contested 13682:Diderot, Denis (1769). 13627:The Enlightenment World 13605:The Enlightenment World 13561:Eighteenth-Century Life 13532:J.A. Leo Lemay (2013). 13519:Alexander Pope: A Life, 13471:Handbook of Freemasonry 13104:Hotson, Howard (2007). 13037:Porter, (2003), p. 101. 13028:Porter, (2003), p. 300. 12992:Headrick, (2000), p. 15 12965:Darnton, (1979), p. 37. 12699:Encyclopædia Britannica 12305:James Van Horn Melton, 12211:. In G.S. Noerr (ed.). 12113:Norman K. Swazo (2002) 11808:Acta Poloniae Historica 11653:Aldridge, Alfred Owen. 11498:Kuehn, Manfred (2001). 11364:Encyclopædia Britannica 11143:10.1111/1468-229X.00016 10637:R.B. Bernstein (2003). 10608:Margaret C. Jacob, ed. 10465:(1990) pp. 258–266 10367:Social Contract Theory. 9960:excerpt and text search 9626:Eighteenth-Century Life 9168:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 9160:Claude-Adrien Helvétius 9094:Pierre Louis Maupertuis 8998:Jean-François Marmontel 8928:Early modern philosophy 8672:experimental philosophy 8440:universal encyclopedias 8432:Encyclopædia Britannica 8238:Jacques Gautier d'Agoty 7955:Rose Rosengard Subotnik 7943:Dictionnaire de musique 7934:and Mozart, with their 7622:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 7409:In 18th-century India, 7373:and the rationality of 7322:From 1641 to 1853, the 7108:Cláudio Manoel da Costa 6977:Histoire des deux Indes 6947:constitutional monarchy 6745:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 6683:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 6613:depicting German poets 6518:Anglo-American colonies 6157:consent of the governed 6016:in particular to apply 5964:consent of the governed 5958:Discourse on Inequality 5917:consent of the governed 5865:Frederick II of Prussia 5844:political modernization 5561:skeptical philosophical 5422:was refined by Locke's 5367:Critique of Pure Reason 5337:Discourse on Inequality 5298:Jean le Rond d'Alembert 5076:Discourse on the Method 4766:Criticism of capitalism 3777:Participatory economics 3611:Labour-time calculation 2742:Arab Liberal Federation 1932:Consent of the governed 1509:Criticism of capitalism 24405:Catholicism portal 24216:Second Vatican Council 24102:Our Lady of La Salette 23909:Protestant Reformation 23896:Protestant Reformation 23815:Second Council of Lyon 23204:Ecclesiastical history 22853:Protestant Reformation 22827:Second Vatican Council 22805:Succession to Muhammad 22800:Criticism of the Quran 22551:Religious perspectives 22285:Klemens von Metternich 21882:"Battle for Australia" 21764:Soviet offensive plans 21733:Broad vs. narrow front 21572:Late Ottoman genocides 20505:Century of humiliation 20286:Goguryeo controversies 20264:2,500-year celebration 19922:Double genocide theory 19709:Historical negationism 19533:Ancestral civilisation 19521:Historical materialism 19479:Historical determinism 19429:History of mentalities 18567:Eastern European Group 18156:Continental philosophy 18087:Judeo-Christian ethics 18072:Hellenistic philosophy 17553:Cradle of civilization 17287:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 16639:Renaissance philosophy 16555:Protestant Reformation 16363:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 16170:Fall of Constantinople 14979: 14913: 14879:Enlightened absolutism 14870: 14660:. Simon and Schuster. 13830:The Historical Journal 13806:A Basic History of Art 13638:Jacob, pp. 20, 73, 89. 13148:Peter Barrett (2004), 12974:Darnton, (1979), p. 6. 12956:Darnton, (1979), p. 7. 12179:Frost, Martin (2008), 12132:(2008), "Introduction" 12089: 11845:5 October 2011 at the 10965:Feldman, Noah (2005). 10948:Feldman, Noah (2005). 10876:Bayle, Pierre (1741). 10849:Brown, Stuart (2003). 10060:Porter, (2003), p. 90. 10042:Porter, (2003), p. 91. 9487:10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006 9188:Françoise de Graffigny 9006:Antoine Léonard Thomas 8960:Renaissance philosophy 8944:Midlands Enlightenment 8940:, Jewish Enlightenment 8892: 8832: 8635: 8624: 8617: 8541:'s translation of the 8503: 8459: 8410: 8318: 8282: 8277: 8270: 8225: 8220: 8180: 8119: 8045: 8023: 7996: 7977:Dissemination of ideas 7922: 7920:George Frideric Handel 7860: 7857:Alexander von Humboldt 7833: 7799:Intellectuals such as 7763: 7617: 7563:What is Enlightenment? 7460: 7286: 7196: 7150: 7090:and being part of the 7037:earthquake engineering 7027:His reconstruction of 7024:1755 Lisbon earthquake 6916:Alexander von Humboldt 6879: 6864:Enlightenment in Spain 6852:Francesco Mario Pagano 6830:Science flourished as 6770: 6629: 6542: 6524:American Enlightenment 6492:Scottish Enlightenment 6482: 6358: 6217: 6196: 6135: 6086: 6073:Enlightened absolutism 6067:Enlightened absolutism 6059:that enslavement of a 5920: 5891:Theories of government 5869:enlightened absolutism 5857:Catherine II of Russia 5824:Francesco Mario Pagano 5747:thinkers developed a " 5745:Scottish Enlightenment 5740: 5575: 5541:Scottish Enlightenment 5395: 5331:The Spirit of the Laws 5328:(1740); Montesquieu's 5313:Letters on the English 5285: 5178: 5157:, in opposition to an 4771:Criticism of socialism 3723:Decentralized planning 3626:Peer‑to‑peer economics 2757:European Liberal Youth 2727:Africa Liberal Network 1952:Economic globalization 1539:Exploitation of labour 1250:Primitive accumulation 509:Aesthetic philosophers 51: 24491:Scientific Revolution 24456:History of liberalism 24112:First Vatican Council 23810:First Council of Lyon 23574:Constantine the Great 23270:Christian monasticism 22977:Torsion mangonel myth 22880:Modern Jewish history 22875:Jesuit historiography 22868:Protestant work ethic 22848:Hesychast controversy 22713:Industrial Revolution 22663:Library of Alexandria 22581:The Lord of the Rings 22231:Constantine the Great 22111:Torsion mangonel myth 22043:Sri Lankan Civil War 21122:Storm over the gentry 21023:Colonies or Provinces 20554:Sprouts of capitalism 19628:Historic preservation 19623:Change and continuity 18687:Three Seas Initiative 18662:Pacific Islands Forum 18527:British–Irish Council 18275:Greek Orthodox Church 17734:Industrial Revolution 17704:Scientific Revolution 17367:Industrial Revolution 16918:History of philosophy 16793:Industrial Revolution 16191:Scientific Revolution 14845:Counter-Enlightenment 14684:Kramnick, Issac, ed. 13981:Reference and surveys 13125:. Aldershot: Ashgate. 12733:See Mackie, Darnton, 12077: 11602:32.4 (2006): 385–405. 11433:, "Seyler, Abel", in 11393:20.3 (2002): 309–331. 11319:Jack Fruchtman, Jr., 11214:Towsey, Mark (2010). 11125:Hirst, Derek (1996). 10517:, Pluralism Project, 10478:(March 1991) 41:21–27 10365:Lessnoff, Michael H. 10304:The French Revolution 9983:Porter (2003), 79–80. 9938:Mary Wollstonecraft, 9358:10.1093/ahr/117.4.999 9204:Georges-Louis Leclerc 9180:Anne-Marie du Boccage 9164:Charles-André van Loo 9066:Anne Claude de Caylus 9018:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 8830: 8630: 8619:Académie des sciences 8611: 8508:Bernard de Fontenelle 8501:Bernard de Fontenelle 8498: 8454: 8400: 8309: 8268: 8214: 8169: 8114: 8036: 8018: 7991: 7918: 7884:Industrial Revolution 7854: 7819: 7788:mechanistic worldview 7779:Counter-Enlightenment 7767:Jason Josephson Storm 7758: 7704:universal gravitation 7695:Principia Mathematica 7626:Preliminary Discourse 7599: 7452: 7266: 7199:Enlightenment ideas ( 7191: 7168:Russian Enlightenment 7141: 7112:Tomás Antônio Gonzaga 7076:University of Coimbra 6875: 6796:Parthenopean Republic 6764: 6757:Italian Enlightenment 6733:Joseph von Sonnenfels 6675:Johann Sebastian Bach 6601: 6584:Further information: 6531: 6522:Further information: 6476: 6404:Further information: 6352: 6245:resurrection of Jesus 6232:, one of the English 6207: 6191: 6175:Alexis de Tocqueville 6169:divine right of kings 6129: 6080: 6054:Locke argues against 6037:hunting and gathering 5898: 5789:The Wealth of Nations 5735: 5675:Bernard de Fontenelle 5569: 5457:Counter-Enlightenment 5386: 5361:The Wealth of Nations 5352:(1764); Adam Smith's 5265:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 5201:Scientific Revolution 5092:Principia Mathematica 5027:Scientific Revolution 3399:Liberalism portal 3271:Anti-authoritarianism 2772:Liberal International 1717:Capitalism portal 1529:Culture of capitalism 1484:Capitalist propaganda 1240:Industrial Revolution 1230:Commercial Revolution 90:Philosophy portal 24: 24436:Classical liberalism 24426:Age of Enlightenment 24289:Sexual abuse scandal 24198:Mit brennender Sorge 24041:Age of Enlightenment 23820:Bernard of Clairvaux 23697:Byzantine Iconoclasm 23636:Council of Chalcedon 23416:Council of Jerusalem 23285:Role in civilization 23265:Religious institutes 23197:By country or region 23064:Commemorative plaque 22280:Juan Manuel de Rosas 21728:"Blitzkrieg" concept 21599:Powder keg of Europe 21474:Franco-Prussian War 21144:Winter of Discontent 21127:Suffragette Campaign 20794:Italiani brava gente 20760:Revolutionary period 20582:Frankish Interregnum 20515:"Chineseness" debate 20448:Byzantine succession 20433:Fall of Western Rome 20374:Executed Renaissance 19863:By country or region 19807:Age of Enlightenment 19781:Vaticinium ex eventu 19728:Modernisation theory 19562:Quantitative history 18938:Historical documents 18682:Special Relationship 18092:Christian philosophy 18037:Western Christianity 17699:Age of Enlightenment 17573:Hellenistic Kingdoms 17422:European debt crisis 17417:European integration 17357:Age of Enlightenment 17197:Republic of Florence 16644:Renaissance humanism 16528:Bohemian Reformation 16486:Treaties of Nijmegen 16097:Age of Enlightenment 14799:Age of Enlightenment 14750:Age of Enlightenment 14741:Age of Enlightenment 14704:Schmidt, James, ed. 14695:Manuel, Frank Edward 14594:Winterer, Caroline. 14490:Reid-Maroney, Nina. 14307:Broadie, Alexander. 14300:Broadie, Alexander. 14185:Robertson, Ritchie. 14093:Himmelfarb, Gertrude 13944:Porter, Roy (2001), 13684:"D'Alembert's Dream" 13656:Reinhart Koselleck, 13481:. pp. 100–116. 13422:Andrew, 406–08, 411. 13135:Elizabeth Williams, 12838:See Thomas Laqueur, 11797:37.4 (2010): 360–77. 11679:Bleichmar, Daniela. 11644:10.2 (2005): 142–67. 11615:18.4 (2011): 521–50. 11547:5.2 (2008): 195–223. 10939:, pp. vii–viii. 10622:Locke, John (1695). 10410:Lorraine Y. Landry, 10396:Porter, Roy (2000), 10334:. Plato.stanford.edu 10317:Robert A. Ferguson, 9853:(28 November 2006), 9851:Barroso, José Manuel 9670:22.2 (1992): 247–55. 9637:Israel, Jonathan I. 9156:Charles Pinot Duclos 9120:Claude Joseph Vernet 9022:Jean-Philippe Rameau 8956:, Arab Enlightenment 8923:Atlantic Revolutions 8730:The Spectator (1711) 8651:concours académiques 8092:Le Gazetier cuirassé 7965:) compares Mozart's 7498:Gülhane Hatt-ı Şerif 7496:that began with the 7215:) together with the 7211:(nobility) culture ( 7184:Polish Enlightenment 7178:Poland and Lithuania 7119:invasion of Portugal 7104:José da Silva Lisboa 6968:Toussaint Louverture 6943:Constitution of 1812 6931:Bayonne Constitution 6385:French colonial rule 6117:constitution of 1791 6056:indentured servitude 5861:Joseph II of Austria 5781:classical liberalism 5620:Montgolfier brothers 5513:separation of powers 5477:Siècle des Lumières, 5112:scientific academies 4973:Age of Enlightenment 4921:Communism portal 4904:Socialism portal 3596:Industrial democracy 3546:Collective ownership 2203:Age of Enlightenment 2156:Separation of powers 1692:Right-libertarianism 1622:Classical liberalism 1589:Venture philanthropy 1225:Capitalism and Islam 1220:Age of Enlightenment 815:Capital accumulation 656:Age of Enlightenment 626:Classical education 534:Philosophers of mind 24117:Papal infallibility 24107:Our Lady of Lourdes 24056:Shimabara Rebellion 23900:Counter-Reformation 22893:Schools of thought 22858:Proto-Protestantism 22727:School of Thoughts 22609:William Shakespeare 22594:Robert Falcon Scott 22499:Friedrich Nietzsche 22337:Cult of personality 22322:Neville Chamberlain 22182:Alexander the Great 22064:Russo-Georgian War 22037:Sovereignty dispute 22016:Iranian Revolution 21846:"Polish death camp" 21823:In relation to the 21532:Myth of English aid 21523:War of the Pacific 21300:Albigensian Crusade 20725:Indigenous Aryanism 20421:Constantinian shift 19957:Residential schools 19714:Historian's fallacy 19633:Historic recurrence 19131:Numismatics (Money) 18903:Archaeological site 18827:theories of history 18707:West Nordic Council 18572:Eastern Partnership 18161:Analytic philosophy 17862:Classical tradition 17684:Early modern period 17640:Classical antiquity 17635:European Bronze Age 17387:Revolutions of 1848 17317:Early modern France 17098:Anglo-Saxon England 17003:Classical antiquity 16830:Revolutions of 1848 16751:Florentine painting 16602:Counter-Reformation 16523:Proto-Protestantism 16481:Peace of Westphalia 16324:Seventeen Provinces 16183:Printing Revolution 16077:Early modern Europe 16072:Early modern period 16034:Early modern Europe 15805:Feijóo y Montenegro 15756:Vorontsova-Dashkova 14543:Suitner, Riccarda. 14459:Hankins, Thomas L. 14423:2011HisSc..49..217G 14330:Brown, Stuart, ed. 14283:Artz, Frederick B. 13714:Margaret C. Jacob, 13696:on 29 November 2014 13659:Critique and Crisis 13365:. 105#1 (1): 1–35. 12412:Outram 2005, p. 13. 12322:(1989), pp. 36, 37. 12023:Russell, Bertrand. 11880:The New York Review 11810:100 (2009): 57–77. 11045:Second Edition, by 10562:Library of Congress 9880:on 17 February 2020 9597:Gay, Peter (1996), 9435:"The Enlightenment" 9420:Jacob, Margaret C. 8547:Francesco Algarotti 8284:Journal des sçavans 8272:Journal des sçavans 8141:bibliothèque bleue, 8132:reading revolution. 8006:Republic of Letters 8000:Republic of Letters 7992:French philosopher 7877:Republic of Letters 7812:Society and culture 7708:Siècle des Lumières 7655:Counter-Reformation 7559:Jean-Baptiste Dubos 7237:Stanislaw II August 7123:evacuated to Brazil 7000:Portugal and Brazil 6564:religious tolerance 6345:National variations 6214:religious tolerance 6208:French philosopher 6149:American Revolution 6130:Denmark's minister 6090:other words, be a " 5873:American Revolution 5634:, was divided into 5587:Mary Wollstonecraft 5570:German philosopher 5469:Madame de Pompadour 5364:(1776); and Kant's 5343:The Social Contract 5334:(1748); Rousseau's 5310:(1710), Voltaire's 5155:religious tolerance 4806:Market abolitionism 4791:Left-libertarianism 3728:Inclusive Democracy 3695:Workplace democracy 3541:Calculation in kind 3523:Socialist economics 3513:Revolutions of 1848 3411:Politics portal 2114:Civil and political 2087:Popular sovereignty 1947:Economic liberalism 1729:Business portal 845:Economic liberalism 835:Competitive markets 613:Classical antiquity 544:Women in philosophy 274:Indigenous American 57:Part of a series on 32:The Orphan of China 24162:Our Lady of Fátima 23951:Ignatius of Loyola 23875:Catherine of Siena 23843:Pope Boniface VIII 23662:Benedict of Nursia 23631:Council of Ephesus 23468:Ante-Nicene period 23421:Split with Judaism 23255:Crusading movement 23084:Historical realism 23079:Historical fiction 23024:History institutes 23014:Historical society 23009:Heritage registers 22897:Biblical criticism 22810:Islamic golden age 22761:Early Christianity 22641:Bears in antiquity 22529:Medieval Christian 22327:Pedro II of Brazil 22275:José de San Martín 22079:Syrian revolution 21991:Malayan Emergency 21966:1948 Palestine war 21699:Spanish Civil War 21649:War guilt question 21458:American Civil War 21438:Invasion of Russia 21414:New Russian School 21198:Colonial Australia 20914:October Revolution 20677:Strukturgeschichte 20613:Location of Alésia 20532:Hua–Yi distinction 20453:Moscow, third Rome 20069:Reconstruction era 19890:Black Egypt Thesis 19812:European Civil War 19768:Translatio imperii 19723:Invented tradition 18844:Historical sources 18166:Post-structuralism 18129:Christian humanism 17759:Universal suffrage 17493:Crusading movement 17397:Russian Revolution 17232:Hundred Years' War 17128:Maritime republics 17031:Early Christianity 17021:Hellenistic period 16978:Paleolithic Europe 16560:Ninety-five Theses 16346:Kingdom of Bohemia 16260:Free imperial city 16228:The General Crisis 14944:Natural philosophy 14557:Tunstall, Kate E. 14483:Redkop, Benjamin. 14411:History of Science 14134:Lehner, Ulrich L. 14113:Kors, Alan Charles 13934:Robertson, Ritchie 13775:Robert R. Palmer, 13753:(1996) pp. 634–635 13581:(1996) pp. 634–635 13232:Caradonna, 653–54. 13223:Caradonna, 634–36. 13071:Science in Context 12878:, pp. 150–51. 12854:, pp. 143–44. 12189:on 10 October 2007 12051:, pp. v–viii. 11784:, pp. 609–32. 10519:Harvard University 10268:Historical Journal 10182:(Routledge, 1992). 9972:Histoire de Paris, 9970:Sarmant, Thierry, 9920:on 11 January 2014 9814:, pp. 99–105. 9628:7.2 (1982): 41–54. 9249:publishinghau5.com 9196:Bernard de Jussieu 8994:Pierre de Marivaux 8833: 8767:Debating societies 8640:Academy of Science 8636: 8625: 8566:scientific works. 8539:Émilie du Châtelet 8504: 8411: 8319: 8310:First page of the 8278: 8226: 8221:Histoire naturelle 8181: 8146:bibliothèque bleue 8125:bibliothèque bleue 8120: 8046: 7997: 7936:Viennese Classical 7923: 7861: 7834: 7724:global integration 7618: 7461: 7431:Bengal Renaissance 7324:Tokugawa shogunate 7310:for criticisms of 7287: 7245:Gracjan Piotrowski 7219:political system ( 7203:) emerged late in 7197: 7160:Peter Simon Pallas 7151: 6963:Haitian Revolution 6880: 6791:Gaetano Filangieri 6787:Ferdinando Galiani 6771: 6739:musicians such as 6660:Friedrich Schiller 6630: 6543: 6483: 6377:Haitian Revolution 6373:plantation economy 6359: 6260:organized religion 6218: 6136: 6109:Pombal in Portugal 6087: 5921: 5741: 5698:Émilie du Châtelet 5632:natural philosophy 5580:individual freedom 5576: 5471:, the mistress of 5416:dualistic doctrine 5396: 5151:individual liberty 4811:Marxist philosophy 3631:Production for use 3601:Input–output model 3566:Economic democracy 2082:Permissive society 2062:Limited government 1489:Capitalist realism 880:Goods and services 860:Fictitious capital 237:Eastern philosophy 52: 24413: 24412: 24373:COVID-19 pandemic 24351:Pope Benedict XVI 24256:Pope John Paul II 24031:Pope Benedict XIV 24017:French Revolution 24001:Thirty Years' War 23991:Robert Bellarmine 23976:John of the Cross 23880:Pope Alexander VI 23865:Council of Vienne 23795:Francis of Assisi 23785:Pope Innocent III 23654:Early Middle Ages 23648: 23647: 23644: 23643: 23586:Arian controversy 23539: 23538: 23487:Apostolic Fathers 23138: 23137: 23104: 23103: 23044: 23043: 22989: 22988: 22985: 22984: 22902:Catholic theology 22756:Avestan geography 22621: 22620: 22617: 22616: 22604:Søren Kierkegaard 22477: 22476: 22388:Warren G. Harding 22148: 22147: 22144: 22143: 21947: 21946: 21825:Armenian genocide 21688:Polish–Soviet War 21683:Burning of Smyrna 21669: 21668: 21659:Reichstag inquiry 21582:Patriotic consent 21453: 21452: 21428:War in the Vendée 21392:French Revolution 21374:century conflicts 21363:Peloponnesian War 21324:Eighty Years' War 21210: 21209: 21206: 21205: 21186: 21185: 21182: 21181: 21115:Westminster Stone 20812:Southern question 20651:Alltagsgeschichte 20601:Legendary Saracen 20303:Early settlements 20111: 20110: 20091:Political history 20076:Consensus history 19853: 19852: 19849: 19848: 19845: 19844: 19835:Continuity thesis 19774:Translatio studii 19660:Theory of history 19596: 19595: 19592: 19591: 19550:Subaltern Studies 19435:Nouvelle histoire 19360: 19359: 19356: 19355: 19272:Medieval churches 19259:Geistesgeschichte 19203:Paleoanthropology 19111:Encyclopaedistics 18999: 18998: 18995: 18994: 18867:Secondary sources 18730: 18729: 18557:Council of Europe 18459:International law 18412:Constitutionalism 18270:Eastern Orthodoxy 17776:Post–Cold War era 17709:Age of Revolution 17563:Greco-Roman world 17501: 17500: 17427:COVID-19 pandemic 17372:French Revolution 17347:Habsburg monarchy 17327:Cossack Hetmanate 17307:Portuguese Empire 17297:Absolute monarchy 17292:Thirty Years' War 17187:Holy Roman Empire 17112:Bulgarian Empire 17071:Early Middle Ages 16988:Bronze Age Europe 16962:History of Europe 16928: 16927: 16922:History of Europe 16907: 16906: 16803:French Revolution 16798:Age of Revolution 16776: 16775: 16756:Venetian painting 16719: 16718: 16711:Leonardo da Vinci 16615: 16614: 16499: 16498: 16440:Thirty Years' War 16379:Habsburg monarchy 16336:Habsburg monarchy 16309:Cossack Hetmanate 16294:Portuguese Empire 16255:Holy Roman Empire 16236: 16235: 16218:Absolute monarchy 16199: 16198: 16151: 16150: 16000: 15999: 15968: 15967: 15964: 15963: 15020: 15019: 15016: 15015: 14993:Scientific method 14850:Critical thinking 14699:The Enlightenment 14642:(Continuum, 2011) 14607:978-84-16473-45-8 14571:Venturi, Franco. 14564:Venturi, Franco. 14561:(Continuum, 2011) 14533:Staloff, Darren. 14394:978-0-87099-451-7 14361:Cassirer, Ernst. 14358:, Edinburgh, 1982 14270:Specialty studies 14254:978-1-78374-203-5 14244:10.11647/OBP.0088 14204:978-2-7558-0330-3 14162:Outram, Dorinda. 14150:The Enlightenment 14148:Outram, Dorinda. 14126:Lehner, Ulrich L. 14105:Jacob, Margaret. 14070:The Enlightenment 14068:Hampson, Norman. 14047:The Enlightenment 13996:Chisick, Harvey. 13957:978-0-333-94505-6 13947:The Enlightenment 13926:978-2-7441-9130-5 13751:Europe: A History 13579:Europe: A History 13545:978-0-8122-0929-7 13496:978-90-04-21833-8 12947:d'Alembert, p. 4. 12701:. 5 October 2023. 12488:Beard and Gloag, 12472:Beard and Gloag, 12401:The Enlightenment 12399:Outram, Dorinda. 12386:978-1-316-19432-4 12318:Jürgen Habermas, 12276:978-0-226-40336-6 12249:978-0-226-40336-6 12222:978-1-85984-154-9 12039:, pp. 49–50. 11916:3rd Edn (revised) 11570:978-88-581-1845-0 11500:Kant: A Biography 11449:Walter de Gruyter 11345:Paul M. Spurlin, 11332:Charles C. Mann, 11267:978-1-4422-1964-9 11098:978-0-19-921917-9 10862:978-0-415-30877-9 10835:978-0-19-966093-3 10808:978-1-4381-1021-9 10781:978-1-4381-1021-9 10741:978-0-299-19083-5 10697:"Preface," 1677, 10677:978-0-521-65196-7 10650:978-0-19-975844-9 10500:Giles MacDonogh, 10448:978-0-521-43727-1 10388:Rand, B. (1900), 10264:De Dijn, Annelien 9954:Bruce P. Lenman, 9900:Kant: A Biography 9732:979-8-8681-1641-4 9553:978-1-4422-0909-1 9523:on 24 August 2023 9116:Sophie d'Houdetot 9002:Joseph-Marie Vien 8911:neo-classical art 8886:George Washington 8632:Antoine Lavoisier 8604:Learned academies 8423:Handlungs-Lexicon 8358:Lexicon Technicum 8352:Lexicon Technicum 7754:Theodor W. Adorno 7738:In the 1947 book 7540:Ritchie Robertson 7470:Islamic modernism 7395:Independence Club 7314:rule in Europe." 7282:Euclid's Elements 7279:, in translating 7164:serfdom in Russia 7147:Mikhail Lomonosov 7143:Empress Elizabeth 7096:Portuguese Empire 7016:Marquis of Pombal 6848:Giambattista Vico 6840:Joseph Schumpeter 6700:Habsburg monarchy 6648:Weimar Classicism 6611:Weimar Classicism 6569:The Age of Reason 6387:in the colony of 6335:Church of England 6330:American colonies 6268:Moses Mendelssohn 6226:Word of God alone 6222:Thirty Years' War 6153:French Revolution 6098:Great of Russia, 6083:Marquis of Pombal 5915:and required the 5877:Benjamin Franklin 5779:was the basis of 5765:William Robertson 5714:Richard Blackmore 5646:, which included 5616:Antoine Lavoisier 5553:scientific method 5537:Francis Hutcheson 5531:French Revolution 5392:modern philosophy 5176:where the phrase 5163:scientific method 5159:absolute monarchy 5101:French Revolution 5018:, and the formal 4981:the Enlightenment 4969: 4968: 4761:Communist society 4733:Socialist parties 3992:Saint-Simonianism 3581:Equal opportunity 3571:Economic planning 3508:French Revolution 3447: 3446: 3286:Bias in the media 2802:Regional variants 2119:Natural and legal 1765: 1764: 1584:Spontaneous order 1554:History of theory 1197:New institutional 1167:Market monetarism 1102:Economic theories 935:Supply and demand 870:Free price system 761: 760: 670:Weimar Classicism 622:Greco-Roman world 582: 581: 390: 389: 24518: 24496:Secular humanism 24403: 24402: 24391: 24390: 24389: 24368:Patriarch Kirill 24241:Pope John Paul I 24046:Anti-clericalism 24026:Pope Innocent XI 23946:Society of Jesus 23931:Council of Trent 23885:Age of Discovery 23830:Late Middle Ages 23732:High Middle Ages 23722:East–West Schism 23606:Pope Sylvester I 23552: 23551: 23541: 23540: 23451:General epistles 23446:Pauline epistles 23379:John the Baptist 23362:Great Commission 23324: 23323: 23275:Catholic culture 23165: 23158: 23151: 23142: 23141: 23127: 23126: 23117: 23116: 23069:Documentary film 23050: 23049: 23029:History journals 22995: 22994: 22968: 22840: 22776:Primacy of Peter 22723:Great Depression 22703: 22702: 22676: 22654: 22627: 22626: 22575:J. R. R. Tolkien 22430: 22429: 22425: 22413: 22401: 22383:Ulysses S. Grant 22378:Thomas Jefferson 22369: 22345: 22308: 22271: 22259: 22227: 22215: 22207:Chiang Ching-kuo 22197:Cato the Younger 22187:Amin al-Husseini 22165: 22164: 22154: 22153: 22133: 22132: 22116:War and genocide 21940: 21926:Résistancialisme 21913:Battle of France 21895:Nanjing Massacre 21749: 21748: 21630: 21629: 21626: 21590: 21540: 21422: 21405: 21378: 21377: 21305:Catharism debate 21291:pre-18th century 21273:Military history 21250: 21243: 21236: 21227: 21226: 21220:By war, conflict 21216: 21215: 21164:Cambridge School 21150: 21149: 21048: 21036: 21012: 20993: 20903: 20891: 20863: 20685: 20663:Historikerstreit 20633: 20621: 20609: 20590: 20576:Cordon sanitaire 20522:New Qing History 20510:Conquest dynasty 20501: 20416:Christianization 20399: 20398: 20318: 20231: 20219: 20207: 20185: 20173: 20165:Byzantine Empire 20020:Iquicha Royalism 20009: 19975: 19974: 19898: 19870: 19869: 19859: 19858: 19802:Age of Discovery 19791:Periodization of 19788: 19787: 19762:Transhistoricity 19757:Thirty-year rule 19668: 19656: 19613: 19612: 19602: 19601: 19582:Great Man theory 19545:People's history 19507: 19412: 19411: 19404:Three-age system 19366: 19365: 19066:Archival science 19018: 19017: 19005: 19004: 18872:Tertiary sources 18852: 18851: 18839: 18838: 18788:by area of study 18757: 18750: 18743: 18734: 18733: 18602:EU Customs Union 18134:Secular humanism 18082:Christian ethics 18032:East–West Schism 18015:Physical culture 17739:Great Divergence 17689:Age of Discovery 17528: 17521: 17514: 17505: 17504: 17362:Great Divergence 17277:Age of Discovery 17222:Late Middle Ages 17192:High Middle Ages 17103:Byzantine Empire 17086:Christianization 17076:Migration Period 17011:Classical Greece 16983:Neolithic Europe 16955: 16948: 16941: 16932: 16931: 16843: 16842: 16788:Great Divergence 16746:Italian painting 16728: 16727: 16626: 16625: 16508: 16507: 16460:Seven Years' War 16402:House of Bourbon 16358:Protestant Union 16329:Economic history 16245: 16244: 16208: 16207: 16160: 16159: 16087:Age of Discovery 16067:High Renaissance 16045: 16044: 16027: 16020: 16013: 16004: 16003: 15989: 15988: 15037: 15036: 15026: 15025: 14984: 14918: 14889: 14875: 14818: 14817: 14807: 14806: 14792: 14785: 14778: 14769: 14768: 14737: 14724:Zalta, Edward N. 14671: 14645:Diderot, Denis. 14631:Diderot, Denis. 14550:Till, Nicholas. 14523: 14442: 14401:Edelstein, Dan. 14398: 14351:13, no. 4: 3–28. 14327: 14293:Brewer, Daniel. 14257: 14246: 14227: 14208: 14175: 14174:. Penguin Books. 14058: 13960: 13930: 13904: 13895: 13886: 13877: 13868: 13838:Burns, William. 13816: 13815: 13809: 13799: 13793: 13786: 13780: 13773: 13767: 13760: 13754: 13747: 13741: 13734: 13728: 13725: 13719: 13712: 13706: 13705: 13703: 13701: 13695: 13689:. Archived from 13688: 13679: 13673: 13670: 13664: 13654: 13648: 13645: 13639: 13636: 13630: 13623: 13617: 13614: 13608: 13601: 13595: 13588: 13582: 13575: 13569: 13568: 13556: 13550: 13549: 13529: 13523: 13515: 13509: 13508: 13479:Brill Publishers 13462: 13456: 13453: 13447: 13444: 13438: 13432: 13423: 13420: 13414: 13411: 13405: 13402: 13396: 13389: 13383: 13382: 13358: 13352: 13345: 13339: 13336: 13330: 13327: 13321: 13320: 13292: 13286: 13283: 13277: 13270: 13264: 13257: 13251: 13250: 13247:royalsociety.org 13243:"Royal Charters" 13239: 13233: 13230: 13224: 13221: 13215: 13208: 13202: 13195: 13189: 13186: 13180: 13173: 13167: 13146: 13140: 13133: 13127: 13126: 13116: 13110: 13109: 13101: 13095: 13094: 13062: 13056: 13053: 13047: 13044: 13038: 13035: 13029: 13026: 13020: 13017: 13011: 13008: 13002: 12999: 12993: 12990: 12984: 12981: 12975: 12972: 12966: 12963: 12957: 12954: 12948: 12945: 12939: 12936: 12930: 12927: 12921: 12918: 12912: 12909: 12903: 12900: 12891: 12888: 12879: 12873: 12867: 12861: 12855: 12849: 12843: 12836: 12830: 12827: 12821: 12814: 12808: 12807: 12797: 12791: 12781: 12775: 12768: 12759: 12752: 12746: 12743: 12737: 12731: 12725: 12718: 12712: 12709: 12703: 12702: 12691: 12685: 12681: 12675: 12672: 12666: 12663: 12657: 12650: 12644: 12641: 12635: 12628: 12622: 12619: 12613: 12606: 12600: 12593: 12587: 12580: 12574: 12567: 12561: 12558: 12552: 12549: 12543: 12540: 12534: 12531: 12525: 12522: 12511: 12504: 12493: 12486: 12477: 12470: 12461: 12454: 12448: 12441: 12435: 12433: 12428: 12422: 12419: 12413: 12410: 12404: 12397: 12391: 12390: 12370: 12364: 12361: 12355: 12338: 12332: 12329: 12323: 12316: 12310: 12303: 12297: 12287: 12281: 12280: 12260: 12254: 12253: 12233: 12227: 12226: 12204: 12198: 12197: 12196: 12194: 12185:, archived from 12176: 12170: 12157: 12151: 12150: 12139: 12133: 12126: 12120: 12111: 12105: 12096: 12090: 12070: 12064: 12058: 12052: 12046: 12040: 12034: 12028: 12027:pp. 492–494 12021: 12012: 12006: 12000: 11995:Ernst Cassirer, 11993: 11987: 11981: 11975: 11972: 11966: 11962: 11956: 11950: 11944: 11943: 11923: 11917: 11911: 11905: 11902: 11896: 11893: 11884: 11875: 11869: 11864:Ronald P. Toby, 11862: 11856: 11855: 11836: 11830: 11824: 11818: 11804: 11798: 11791: 11785: 11779: 11773: 11766: 11760: 11759: 11749: 11725: 11719: 11712: 11706: 11690: 11684: 11677: 11671: 11664: 11658: 11651: 11645: 11638: 11632: 11624:Franco Venturi, 11622: 11616: 11609: 11603: 11596: 11590: 11589: 11581: 11575: 11574: 11554: 11548: 11541: 11535: 11525: 11519: 11518: 11510: 11504: 11503: 11495: 11489: 11488: 11480: 11474: 11473: 11466: 11460: 11428: 11422: 11421: 11413: 11407: 11400: 11394: 11387: 11381: 11374: 11368: 11367: 11356: 11350: 11343: 11337: 11330: 11324: 11317: 11311: 11304: 11298: 11291: 11285: 11278: 11272: 11271: 11251: 11245: 11238: 11232: 11231: 11211: 11205: 11204: 11194: 11188: 11187: 11185: 11183: 11169: 11163: 11162: 11137:(263): 359–383. 11122: 11116: 11109: 11103: 11102: 11081: 11075: 11074:(2003) 1:409–15. 11068: 11062: 11055: 11049: 11040: 11031: 11024: 11018: 11012: 11006: 11000: 10994: 10988: 10982: 10976: 10970: 10963: 10957: 10946: 10940: 10934: 10928: 10922: 10916: 10910: 10904: 10903: 10891: 10885: 10884: 10873: 10867: 10866: 10846: 10840: 10839: 10819: 10813: 10812: 10792: 10786: 10785: 10765: 10759: 10752: 10746: 10745: 10725: 10719: 10718: 10716: 10707: 10701: 10688: 10682: 10681: 10661: 10655: 10654: 10640:Thomas Jefferson 10634: 10628: 10627: 10619: 10613: 10606: 10600: 10593: 10587: 10584: 10578: 10571: 10565: 10555: 10549: 10548: 10528: 10522: 10511: 10505: 10498: 10492: 10485: 10479: 10472: 10466: 10461:Stephen J. Lee, 10459: 10453: 10452: 10432: 10426: 10421: 10415: 10408: 10402: 10401: 10393: 10385: 10379: 10376: 10370: 10363: 10357: 10356:(1994) pp. 20–38 10350: 10344: 10343: 10341: 10339: 10328: 10322: 10315: 10309: 10308: 10298: 10292: 10291: 10260: 10254: 10247: 10241: 10234: 10228: 10227: 10221: 10213: 10211: 10209: 10198: 10192: 10189: 10183: 10176: 10170: 10163: 10157: 10156: 10128: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10118: 10109:, archived from 10094: 10088: 10085: 10079: 10076: 10070: 10067: 10061: 10058: 10052: 10049: 10043: 10040: 10034: 10032: 10030: 10028: 10023:on 30 March 2012 10019:. Archived from 10008: 10002: 9999: 9993: 9990: 9984: 9981: 9975: 9968: 9962: 9952: 9946: 9936: 9930: 9929: 9927: 9925: 9909: 9903: 9896: 9890: 9889: 9887: 9885: 9876:. Archived from 9866: 9860: 9859: 9847: 9841: 9840: 9824: 9815: 9809: 9800: 9794: 9788: 9782: 9773: 9767: 9761: 9755: 9749: 9743: 9737: 9736: 9716: 9710: 9709: 9690: 9684: 9679:Robert Darnton, 9677: 9671: 9664: 9655: 9648: 9642: 9635: 9629: 9622: 9616: 9615: 9604: 9594: 9588: 9587: 9577: 9571: 9564: 9558: 9557: 9539: 9533: 9532: 9530: 9528: 9519:. Archived from 9513: 9507: 9506: 9470: 9464: 9463: 9453: 9447: 9446: 9444: 9442: 9431: 9425: 9418: 9412: 9411: 9403: 9397: 9396: 9377: 9371: 9370: 9360: 9336: 9275: 9274: 9268: 9260: 9258: 9256: 9241: 9220: 9217: 9211: 9074:François Quesnay 9070:Fortunato Felice 9034:Étienne François 8986: 8853: 8850: 8661:In England, the 8622: 8555:Elizabeth Carter 8370:Ephraim Chambers 8287: 8275: 8244:(1746). Outside 8223: 7855:German explorer 7746:Frankfurt School 7685:Cogito, ergo sum 7662:that began with 7650:Bertrand Russell 7573:=to illuminate; 7440: 7428: 7421:, had planted a 7356: 7343:Protestant Ethic 7308:instrumentalized 7241:Antoni Poplawski 7082:. The physician 7068:Arcádia Lusitana 6987: 6927:Joseph Bonaparte 6888:House of Bourbon 6832:Alessandro Volta 6810:Alessandro Verri 6783:Antonio Genovesi 6710:Habsburg monarch 6652:Weimarer Klassik 6607:Theobald von Oer 6574:Jefferson Bible, 6200: 6151:of 1776 and the 6132:Johann Struensee 6092:philosopher-king 6048:Second Treatise, 6002:market mechanism 5976:private property 5881:Thomas Jefferson 5820:criminal justice 5696:by Voltaire and 5549:consequentialist 5543:, described the 5529:and shaping the 5290: 5183: 5082:Cogito, ergo sum 5029:and the work of 4961: 4954: 4947: 4933:Organized Labour 4931: 4930: 4919: 4918: 4917: 4902: 4901: 4846:Workers' council 4483:Gracchi Brothers 4007:Social democracy 3750:Market socialism 3738:Project Cybersyn 3666:Soviet democracy 3651:Social ownership 3606:Internationalism 3586:Free association 3556:Common ownership 3472: 3449: 3448: 3439: 3432: 3425: 3409: 3408: 3397: 3396: 3315:Economic freedom 3308:Radical centrism 2146:Secular humanism 2072:Natural monopoly 2023:Internationalism 1840:Internationalist 1790: 1767: 1766: 1757: 1750: 1743: 1727: 1726: 1715: 1714: 1519:Critique of work 1494:Capitalist state 1177:Critique of work 1060:Regulated market 962:Economic systems 915:Private property 865:Financial market 855:Entrepreneurship 850:Economic surplus 763: 762: 753: 746: 739: 607: 584: 583: 574: 567: 560: 279:Aztec philosophy 158:Ancient Egyptian 140: 139: 92: 88: 87: 86: 73: 54: 53: 50: 47: 36:in the salon of 24526: 24525: 24521: 24520: 24519: 24517: 24516: 24515: 24511:Western culture 24446:Historical eras 24416: 24415: 24414: 24409: 24397: 24387: 24385: 24377: 24299:World Youth Day 24277: 24266:World Youth Day 24210:Pacem in terris 24204:Pope John XXIII 24143: 24070: 24061:Edict of Nantes 24019: 24015: 24005: 23971:Teresa of Ávila 23966:Tridentine Mass 23902: 23898: 23889: 23870:Knights Templar 23824: 23726: 23682:Gregorian chant 23640: 23566: 23563: 23560: 23558: 23547: 23535: 23462: 23331: 23319: 23311: 23178: 23176:Catholic Church 23169: 23139: 23134: 23133: 23100: 23055: 23040: 23000: 22981: 22964: 22947: 22938: 22834: 22742: 22718:Great Recession 22701: 22672: 22648: 22632: 22613: 22504:H. P. Lovecraft 22473: 22435: 22428: 22419: 22407: 22395: 22363: 22339: 22312:Muammar Gaddafi 22302: 22290:Leonid Brezhnev 22265: 22253: 22236:Gregory Palamas 22221: 22219:Chiang Kai Shek 22209: 22169: 22159: 22140: 22139: 22120: 22101:Conflict thesis 22089: 22053: 21943: 21934: 21901: 21865: 21795: 21747: 21709: 21675:Interwar period 21665: 21635: 21628: 21620: 21604:Schlieffen Plan 21584: 21545: 21534: 21449: 21416: 21399: 21384: 21373: 21367: 21351:Dorian invasion 21336:Fall of Babylon 21292: 21286: 21285: 21262: 21254: 21221: 21202: 21178: 21155: 21148: 21110:Kingdom of Alba 21091: 21084: 21051: 21042: 21030: 21028:Spanish decline 21006: 20987: 20942: 20897: 20885: 20866: 20857: 20823: 20764: 20729: 20715:Greater Magadha 20701: 20679: 20636: 20627: 20615: 20603: 20584: 20563: 20537:Four Barbarians 20495: 20469: 20397: 20354:Götaland theory 20322:Lusotropicalism 20312: 20293:North Macedonia 20225: 20213: 20201: 20179: 20167: 20107: 20086:Frontier thesis 20081:Cyclical theory 20064:Neoabolitionism 20040: 20003: 19973: 19935: 19912:Greater Morocco 19892: 19864: 19841: 19792: 19786: 19678: 19662: 19650: 19607: 19588: 19501: 19416: 19410: 19392:Historical eras 19373: 19352: 19187: 19084:Writing systems 19054: 19012: 19010:Fields of study 18991: 18985:Service records 18970:Religious texts 18876: 18862:Primary sources 18846: 18833: 18832: 18766: 18761: 18731: 18726: 18692:UKUSA Agreement 18632:Lublin Triangle 18517:Baltic Assembly 18469: 18463: 18381: 18218: 18053: 17923:Eurolinguistics 17792: 17781:Information age 17754:Interwar period 17621: 17541: 17532: 17502: 17497: 17436: 17402:Interwar period 17377:Napoleonic Wars 17241: 17212:Mongol invasion 17165:Crown of Aragon 17057: 16997: 16993:Iron Age Europe 16964: 16959: 16929: 16924: 16903: 16877: 16834: 16772: 16738:Renaissance art 16715: 16706:Matteo Palmieri 16676: 16660: 16649:Northern Europe 16621: 16611: 16495: 16464: 16423: 16387:House of Stuart 16367: 16232: 16195: 16147: 16118:Northern Europe 16106: 16082:Elizabethan era 16036: 16031: 16001: 15996: 15995: 15982: 15960: 15922: 15824: 15781: 15760: 15707: 15676: 15672:Carvalho e Melo 15660: 15607: 15541: 15493: 15457: 15424: 15343: 15302: 15146: 15031: 15012: 14998:Spanish America 14872:Encyclopédistes 14835:Civil liberties 14812: 14801: 14796: 14728:"Enlightenment" 14719: 14714: 14668: 14617: 14615:Primary sources 14612: 14526:Sorkin, David. 14512:10.2307/3654234 14445:Goodman, Dena. 14395: 14381: 14372:Chartier, Roger 14337:Buchan, James. 14272: 14267: 14264:(1992). 581 pp. 14255: 14230: 14224: 14205: 14152:(1995) 157 pp. 14141:Munck, Thomas. 14007:(2001) 1480 pp. 14003:Delon, Michel. 13988:Becker, Carl L. 13983: 13978: 13976:Further reading 13973: 13958: 13927: 13853:Darnton, Robert 13824: 13819: 13800: 13796: 13787: 13783: 13774: 13770: 13761: 13757: 13748: 13744: 13735: 13731: 13726: 13722: 13713: 13709: 13699: 13697: 13693: 13686: 13680: 13676: 13671: 13667: 13655: 13651: 13646: 13642: 13637: 13633: 13624: 13620: 13615: 13611: 13602: 13598: 13589: 13585: 13577:Norman Davies, 13576: 13572: 13557: 13553: 13546: 13530: 13526: 13516: 13512: 13497: 13467:Jacob, Margaret 13465:Crow, Matthew; 13463: 13459: 13454: 13450: 13446:Andrew, 412–15. 13445: 13441: 13433: 13426: 13421: 13417: 13412: 13408: 13403: 13399: 13390: 13386: 13371:10.2307/2652433 13359: 13355: 13346: 13342: 13337: 13333: 13328: 13324: 13309:10.2307/3817904 13293: 13289: 13284: 13280: 13271: 13267: 13259:Steven Shapin, 13258: 13254: 13241: 13240: 13236: 13231: 13227: 13222: 13218: 13209: 13205: 13196: 13192: 13187: 13183: 13174: 13170: 13147: 13143: 13134: 13130: 13117: 13113: 13102: 13098: 13063: 13059: 13054: 13050: 13045: 13041: 13036: 13032: 13027: 13023: 13018: 13014: 13009: 13005: 13000: 12996: 12991: 12987: 12982: 12978: 12973: 12969: 12964: 12960: 12955: 12951: 12946: 12942: 12937: 12933: 12928: 12924: 12919: 12915: 12910: 12906: 12901: 12894: 12889: 12882: 12874: 12870: 12866:, pp. 142. 12862: 12858: 12850: 12846: 12837: 12833: 12828: 12824: 12815: 12811: 12798: 12794: 12782: 12778: 12769: 12762: 12753: 12749: 12744: 12740: 12732: 12728: 12719: 12715: 12710: 12706: 12693: 12692: 12688: 12682: 12678: 12673: 12669: 12665:Outram, 17, 20. 12664: 12660: 12651: 12647: 12642: 12638: 12629: 12625: 12620: 12616: 12607: 12603: 12594: 12590: 12581: 12577: 12568: 12564: 12559: 12555: 12550: 12546: 12541: 12537: 12532: 12528: 12523: 12514: 12505: 12496: 12487: 12480: 12471: 12464: 12455: 12451: 12442: 12438: 12431: 12429: 12425: 12420: 12416: 12411: 12407: 12398: 12394: 12387: 12371: 12367: 12362: 12358: 12339: 12335: 12330: 12326: 12317: 12313: 12304: 12300: 12288: 12284: 12277: 12261: 12257: 12250: 12234: 12230: 12223: 12205: 12201: 12192: 12190: 12177: 12173: 12160:Anderson, M. S. 12158: 12154: 12141: 12140: 12136: 12127: 12123: 12112: 12108: 12097: 12093: 12071: 12067: 12059: 12055: 12047: 12043: 12035: 12031: 12022: 12015: 12007: 12003: 11994: 11990: 11982: 11978: 11973: 11969: 11963: 11959: 11951: 11947: 11924: 11920: 11912: 11908: 11903: 11899: 11894: 11887: 11876: 11872: 11863: 11859: 11853: 11847:Wayback Machine 11837: 11833: 11825: 11821: 11805: 11801: 11795:Russian History 11792: 11788: 11780: 11776: 11767: 11763: 11726: 11722: 11713: 11709: 11691: 11687: 11678: 11674: 11665: 11661: 11652: 11648: 11639: 11635: 11623: 11619: 11610: 11606: 11597: 11593: 11582: 11578: 11571: 11555: 11551: 11542: 11538: 11528:Thomas P. Saine 11526: 11522: 11511: 11507: 11496: 11492: 11481: 11477: 11467: 11463: 11445:Rudolf Vierhaus 11429: 11425: 11414: 11410: 11401: 11397: 11388: 11384: 11375: 11371: 11358: 11357: 11353: 11344: 11340: 11331: 11327: 11318: 11314: 11305: 11301: 11292: 11288: 11279: 11275: 11268: 11252: 11248: 11239: 11235: 11228: 11212: 11208: 11195: 11191: 11181: 11179: 11171: 11170: 11166: 11123: 11119: 11110: 11106: 11099: 11082: 11078: 11069: 11065: 11057:Peter Gay, ed. 11056: 11052: 11047:Teresa A. Meade 11041: 11034: 11025: 11021: 11013: 11009: 11001: 10997: 10989: 10985: 10977: 10973: 10967:Divided by God. 10964: 10960: 10950:Divided by God. 10947: 10943: 10935: 10931: 10923: 10919: 10911: 10907: 10892: 10888: 10874: 10870: 10863: 10847: 10843: 10836: 10820: 10816: 10809: 10793: 10789: 10782: 10766: 10762: 10753: 10749: 10742: 10726: 10722: 10714: 10708: 10704: 10689: 10685: 10678: 10662: 10658: 10651: 10635: 10631: 10620: 10616: 10607: 10603: 10594: 10590: 10585: 10581: 10572: 10568: 10556: 10552: 10545: 10529: 10525: 10512: 10508: 10499: 10495: 10486: 10482: 10473: 10469: 10460: 10456: 10449: 10433: 10429: 10422: 10418: 10409: 10405: 10386: 10382: 10377: 10373: 10364: 10360: 10352:Pierre Manent, 10351: 10347: 10337: 10335: 10330: 10329: 10325: 10316: 10312: 10299: 10295: 10261: 10257: 10249:Daniel Brewer, 10248: 10244: 10235: 10231: 10215: 10214: 10207: 10205: 10200: 10199: 10195: 10190: 10186: 10177: 10173: 10164: 10160: 10129: 10125: 10116: 10114: 10095: 10091: 10086: 10082: 10077: 10073: 10068: 10064: 10059: 10055: 10050: 10046: 10041: 10037: 10026: 10024: 10015: 10009: 10005: 10000: 9996: 9991: 9987: 9982: 9978: 9969: 9965: 9953: 9949: 9937: 9933: 9923: 9921: 9910: 9906: 9898:Manfred Kuehn, 9897: 9893: 9883: 9881: 9868: 9867: 9863: 9848: 9844: 9825: 9818: 9810: 9803: 9797:Haakonssen 2008 9795: 9791: 9785:Haakonssen 2008 9783: 9776: 9768: 9764: 9756: 9752: 9744: 9740: 9733: 9717: 9713: 9706: 9692: 9691: 9687: 9678: 9674: 9665: 9658: 9650:Sootin, Harry. 9649: 9645: 9636: 9632: 9623: 9619: 9613: 9595: 9591: 9578: 9574: 9565: 9561: 9554: 9540: 9536: 9526: 9524: 9515: 9514: 9510: 9471: 9467: 9454: 9450: 9440: 9438: 9433: 9432: 9428: 9419: 9415: 9404: 9400: 9394: 9378: 9374: 9351:(4): 999–1027. 9337: 9278: 9262: 9261: 9254: 9252: 9243: 9242: 9238: 9234: 9229: 9224: 9223: 9218: 9214: 9208:Comte de Buffon 9109: 9106:Alexis Clairaut 9054:Edmé Bouchardon 9038:duc de Choiseul 8987: 8983: 8978: 8919: 8895: 8865:original intent 8851: 8825: 8775: 8769: 8757:bruits publics, 8705: 8699: 8687: 8681: 8606: 8586: 8580: 8559:Henry Pemberton 8485: 8390:, brewing, and 8304: 8263: 8209: 8207:Natural history 8109: 8062:gens de lettres 8002: 7979: 7967:Die Zauberflöte 7909: 7814: 7805:Jürgen Habermas 7736: 7716:Napoleonic Wars 7690:epistemological 7680: 7616: 7557:(used first by 7549: 7532:Reign of Terror 7524: 7482: 7474:Rifa al-Tahtawi 7447: 7438: 7426: 7407: 7387: 7354: 7320: 7261: 7186: 7180: 7136: 7117:The Napoleonic 7056:colonial Brazil 7041:Pombaline style 7008: 7002: 6985: 6959: 6939:Cortes de Cádiz 6870: 6862:Main articles: 6860: 6767:Cesare Beccaria 6759: 6753: 6702: 6644:Sturm und Drang 6592: 6582: 6526: 6520: 6488: 6437:Anthony Collins 6425:Joshua Reynolds 6408: 6402: 6397: 6381:slave rebellion 6347: 6322: 6314:Main articles: 6312: 6291:God the Creator 6285:. According to 6239:Jefferson Bible 6230:Anthony Collins 6202: 6199:Voltaire (1763) 6198: 6189: 6145: 6075: 6069: 5968:state of nature 5925:social contract 5905:social contract 5893: 5840: 5743:Hume and other 5737:Cesare Beccaria 5730: 5644:natural history 5624:hot air balloon 5611: 5605: 5496:Encyclopédistes 5449:Christian Wolff 5445:Jonathan Israel 5412:method of doubt 5402:and Descartes' 5381: 5376: 5322:(1764); Hume's 5241:George Berkeley 5237:Cesare Beccaria 5209:Pierre Gassendi 5197: 5190: 5120:literary salons 5043:Pierre Gassendi 5035:Galileo Galilei 5031:Johannes Kepler 4965: 4925: 4915: 4913: 4896: 4889: 4888: 4859: 4851: 4850: 4841:Socialist state 4836:Socialist Party 4781:Economic system 4746: 4738: 4737: 4723: 4713: 4712: 4478: 4470: 4469: 4050: 4042: 4041: 3857:Democratic road 3792: 3782: 3781: 3708: 3700: 3699: 3646:Social dividend 3636:Sharing economy 3536: 3528: 3527: 3498: 3490: 3443: 3403: 3391: 3384: 3383: 3266: 3258: 3257: 3060:North Macedonia 2804: 2794: 2793: 2792: 2791: 2782:Liberal parties 2720: 2712: 2711: 2502: 2494: 2493: 2224: 2214: 2213: 2198: 2188: 2187: 2183:State of nature 2171:Social services 2161:Social contract 2124:To own property 1927: 1919: 1918: 1798: 1761: 1721: 1709: 1702: 1701: 1607: 1599: 1598: 1574:Post-capitalism 1479:Anti-capitalism 1474: 1466: 1465: 1361: 1353: 1352: 1273: 1265: 1264: 1215: 1207: 1206: 1103: 1095: 1094: 1085:State-sponsored 963: 955: 954: 820:Capital markets 785: 757: 578: 549: 548: 514:Epistemologists 504: 503: 492: 491: 428: 404: 403: 392: 391: 137: 136: 125: 84: 82: 81: 48: 17: 12: 11: 5: 24524: 24514: 24513: 24508: 24503: 24498: 24493: 24488: 24483: 24478: 24473: 24471:Libertarianism 24468: 24463: 24458: 24453: 24448: 24443: 24438: 24433: 24428: 24411: 24410: 24408: 24407: 24395: 24382: 24379: 24378: 24376: 24375: 24370: 24365: 24358: 24353: 24348: 24347: 24346: 24341: 24336: 24331: 24326: 24321: 24316: 24311: 24306: 24296: 24291: 24285: 24283: 24279: 24278: 24276: 24275: 24274: 24273: 24263: 24258: 24253: 24248: 24243: 24238: 24228: 24223: 24218: 24213: 24206: 24201: 24194: 24189: 24187:Lateran Treaty 24184: 24179: 24174: 24169: 24164: 24159: 24153: 24151: 24145: 24144: 24142: 24141: 24134: 24129: 24124: 24119: 24114: 24109: 24104: 24099: 24094: 24089: 24084: 24078: 24076: 24072: 24071: 24069: 24068: 24063: 24058: 24053: 24048: 24043: 24038: 24033: 24028: 24022: 24020: 24012:Baroque period 24010: 24007: 24006: 24004: 24003: 23998: 23993: 23988: 23983: 23981:Peter Canisius 23978: 23973: 23968: 23963: 23958: 23956:Francis Xavier 23953: 23948: 23943: 23938: 23933: 23928: 23923: 23920:Exsurge Domine 23916: 23911: 23905: 23903: 23894: 23891: 23890: 23888: 23887: 23882: 23877: 23872: 23867: 23862: 23860:Pope Clement V 23857: 23856: 23855: 23853:Avignon Papacy 23848:Western Schism 23845: 23840: 23838:Thomas Aquinas 23834: 23832: 23826: 23825: 23823: 23822: 23817: 23812: 23807: 23802: 23797: 23792: 23787: 23782: 23777: 23772: 23767: 23762: 23757: 23752: 23747: 23742: 23736: 23734: 23728: 23727: 23725: 23724: 23719: 23714: 23709: 23704: 23699: 23694: 23692:Saint Boniface 23689: 23684: 23679: 23677:Pope Gregory I 23674: 23669: 23664: 23658: 23656: 23650: 23649: 23646: 23645: 23642: 23641: 23639: 23638: 23633: 23628: 23623: 23618: 23616:Biblical canon 23613: 23608: 23603: 23598: 23593: 23588: 23583: 23582: 23581: 23570: 23568: 23549: 23545:Late antiquity 23537: 23536: 23534: 23533: 23528: 23523: 23518: 23513: 23512: 23511: 23506: 23505: 23504: 23499: 23494: 23492:Pope Clement I 23482:Church Fathers 23479: 23473: 23471: 23464: 23463: 23461: 23460: 23459: 23458: 23453: 23448: 23443: 23438: 23433: 23423: 23418: 23413: 23408: 23407: 23406: 23401: 23396: 23391: 23381: 23376: 23371: 23366: 23365: 23364: 23359: 23354: 23349: 23338: 23336: 23321: 23313: 23312: 23310: 23309: 23304: 23299: 23294: 23289: 23288: 23287: 23282: 23272: 23267: 23262: 23257: 23252: 23251: 23250: 23245: 23243:Biblical canon 23238:Catholic Bible 23235: 23234: 23233: 23223: 23222: 23221: 23211: 23206: 23201: 23200: 23199: 23188: 23186: 23180: 23179: 23168: 23167: 23160: 23153: 23145: 23136: 23135: 23132: 23131: 23121: 23110: 23109: 23106: 23105: 23102: 23101: 23099: 23098: 23093: 23092: 23091: 23086: 23076: 23071: 23066: 23060: 23057: 23056: 23046: 23045: 23042: 23041: 23039: 23038: 23037: 23036: 23026: 23021: 23011: 23005: 23002: 23001: 22991: 22990: 22987: 22986: 22983: 22982: 22980: 22979: 22974: 22969: 22962: 22957: 22951: 22949: 22940: 22939: 22937: 22936: 22935: 22934: 22929: 22924: 22919: 22914: 22909: 22904: 22899: 22891: 22890: 22889: 22877: 22872: 22871: 22870: 22865: 22860: 22850: 22845: 22844: 22843: 22842: 22841: 22819: 22818: 22817: 22812: 22807: 22802: 22792: 22791: 22790: 22785: 22784: 22783: 22773: 22768: 22758: 22752: 22750: 22744: 22743: 22741: 22740: 22739: 22738: 22733: 22725: 22720: 22715: 22709: 22707: 22700: 22699: 22694: 22689: 22682: 22677: 22670: 22665: 22660: 22655: 22643: 22637: 22634: 22633: 22623: 22622: 22619: 22618: 22615: 22614: 22612: 22611: 22606: 22601: 22596: 22591: 22586: 22585: 22584: 22572: 22571: 22570: 22569: 22568: 22563: 22558: 22548: 22543: 22533: 22532: 22531: 22526: 22521: 22511: 22506: 22501: 22496: 22494:Charles Darwin 22491: 22485: 22483: 22479: 22478: 22475: 22474: 22472: 22471: 22466: 22464:United Kingdom 22461: 22456: 22454:Modern Germany 22451: 22446: 22440: 22438: 22427: 22426: 22414: 22402: 22390: 22385: 22380: 22375: 22373:Thomas Aquinas 22370: 22358: 22353: 22352: 22351: 22346: 22329: 22324: 22319: 22314: 22309: 22297: 22292: 22287: 22282: 22277: 22272: 22260: 22248: 22243: 22241:Horatio Nelson 22238: 22233: 22228: 22216: 22204: 22199: 22194: 22189: 22184: 22179: 22173: 22171: 22161: 22160: 22150: 22149: 22146: 22145: 22142: 22141: 22138: 22137: 22126: 22125: 22122: 22121: 22119: 22118: 22113: 22108: 22103: 22097: 22095: 22091: 22090: 22088: 22087: 22086: 22085: 22077: 22076: 22075: 22073:Responsibility 22070: 22061: 22059: 22055: 22054: 22052: 22051: 22050: 22049: 22041: 22040: 22039: 22029: 22024: 22023: 22022: 22014: 22013: 22012: 22004: 21999: 21998: 21997: 21989: 21988: 21987: 21985:New Historians 21982: 21977: 21963: 21957: 21955: 21949: 21948: 21945: 21944: 21942: 21941: 21929: 21922: 21915: 21909: 21907: 21903: 21902: 21900: 21899: 21898: 21897: 21889: 21884: 21879: 21873: 21871: 21867: 21866: 21864: 21863: 21858: 21853: 21851:Responsibility 21848: 21843: 21842: 21841: 21831: 21821: 21816: 21811: 21805: 21803: 21797: 21796: 21794: 21793: 21792: 21791: 21786: 21776: 21771: 21766: 21761: 21755: 21753: 21746: 21745: 21740: 21735: 21730: 21725: 21719: 21717: 21711: 21710: 21708: 21707: 21706: 21705: 21697: 21696: 21695: 21685: 21679: 21677: 21671: 21670: 21667: 21666: 21664: 21663: 21662: 21661: 21656: 21646: 21640: 21638: 21627: 21615: 21609:Spirit of 1914 21606: 21601: 21596: 21591: 21579: 21569: 21566:Fischer thesis 21555: 21553: 21547: 21546: 21544: 21543: 21542: 21541: 21529: 21521: 21520: 21519: 21509: 21507:Paraguayan War 21504: 21503: 21502: 21492: 21487: 21486: 21485: 21480: 21472: 21471: 21470: 21465: 21454: 21451: 21450: 21448: 21447: 21446: 21445: 21440: 21433:Napoleonic era 21430: 21425: 21424: 21423: 21411: 21406: 21397:Pre-revolution 21388: 21386: 21382:Coalition Wars 21375: 21369: 21368: 21366: 21365: 21360: 21359: 21358: 21353: 21343: 21338: 21333: 21332: 21331: 21321: 21320: 21319: 21309: 21308: 21307: 21296: 21294: 21288: 21287: 21284: 21283: 21276: 21268: 21267: 21264: 21263: 21260:historiography 21253: 21252: 21245: 21238: 21230: 21223: 21222: 21212: 21211: 21208: 21207: 21204: 21203: 21201: 21200: 21194: 21192: 21188: 21187: 21184: 21183: 21180: 21179: 21177: 21176: 21171: 21166: 21160: 21158: 21147: 21146: 21141: 21140: 21139: 21129: 21124: 21119: 21118: 21117: 21112: 21102: 21096: 21094: 21086: 21085: 21083: 21082: 21081: 21080: 21078:Decline thesis 21075: 21068:Ottoman Empire 21065: 21059: 21057: 21053: 21052: 21050: 21049: 21037: 21025: 21020: 21015: 21014: 21013: 20994: 20982: 20977: 20970: 20965: 20960: 20950: 20948: 20944: 20943: 20941: 20940: 20939: 20938: 20933: 20928: 20918: 20917: 20916: 20906: 20905: 20904: 20895:Skeptic School 20880: 20878:Anti-Normanism 20874: 20872: 20868: 20867: 20865: 20864: 20852: 20847: 20842: 20837: 20835:Golden Liberty 20831: 20829: 20825: 20824: 20822: 20821: 20820: 20819: 20817:Neo-Bourbonism 20809: 20804: 20797: 20790: 20785: 20778: 20772: 20770: 20766: 20765: 20763: 20762: 20757: 20752: 20745: 20739: 20737: 20731: 20730: 20728: 20727: 20722: 20717: 20711: 20709: 20703: 20702: 20700: 20699: 20692: 20687: 20673: 20666: 20659: 20657:Borussian myth 20654: 20646: 20644: 20638: 20637: 20635: 20634: 20622: 20610: 20598: 20591: 20579: 20571: 20569: 20565: 20564: 20562: 20561: 20556: 20551: 20546: 20545: 20544: 20539: 20529: 20524: 20519: 20518: 20517: 20507: 20502: 20490: 20485: 20479: 20477: 20471: 20470: 20468: 20467: 20466: 20465: 20460: 20455: 20450: 20440: 20435: 20430: 20425: 20424: 20423: 20413: 20407: 20405: 20396: 20395: 20394: 20393: 20388: 20378: 20377: 20376: 20368: 20363: 20358: 20357: 20356: 20348: 20347: 20346: 20336: 20335: 20334: 20326: 20325: 20324: 20307: 20306: 20305: 20295: 20290: 20289: 20288: 20283: 20273: 20268: 20267: 20266: 20258: 20257: 20256: 20246: 20245: 20244: 20234: 20233: 20232: 20220: 20208: 20193: 20188: 20187: 20186: 20162: 20157: 20156: 20155: 20147: 20142: 20141: 20140: 20132: 20131: 20130: 20128:Dealbanisation 20119: 20117: 20113: 20112: 20109: 20108: 20106: 20105: 20100: 20099: 20098: 20088: 20083: 20078: 20073: 20072: 20071: 20066: 20061: 20050: 20048: 20042: 20041: 20039: 20038: 20037: 20036: 20024: 20023: 20022: 20012: 20011: 20010: 19998: 19992:May Revolution 19983: 19981: 19972: 19971: 19966: 19965: 19964: 19962:Staples thesis 19959: 19954: 19943: 19941: 19937: 19936: 19934: 19933: 19926: 19925: 19924: 19916: 19915: 19914: 19906: 19901: 19900: 19899: 19887: 19878: 19876: 19866: 19865: 19855: 19854: 19851: 19850: 19847: 19846: 19843: 19842: 19840: 19839: 19838: 19837: 19827: 19818: 19809: 19804: 19798: 19796: 19794:modern history 19785: 19784: 19777: 19764: 19759: 19754: 19753: 19752: 19740: 19738:Paradigm shift 19735: 19730: 19725: 19720: 19711: 19706: 19701: 19692: 19686: 19684: 19680: 19679: 19677: 19676: 19671: 19670: 19669: 19645: 19640: 19635: 19630: 19625: 19619: 19617: 19609: 19608: 19598: 19597: 19594: 19593: 19590: 19589: 19587: 19586: 19585: 19584: 19574: 19569: 19564: 19559: 19554: 19553: 19552: 19542: 19541: 19540: 19535: 19525: 19524: 19523: 19513: 19508: 19496: 19491: 19486: 19481: 19476: 19471: 19466: 19465: 19464: 19454: 19449: 19440: 19439: 19438: 19431: 19424:Annales school 19420: 19418: 19409: 19408: 19407: 19406: 19401: 19394: 19384: 19378: 19375: 19374: 19362: 19361: 19358: 19357: 19354: 19353: 19351: 19350: 19349: 19348: 19343: 19338: 19337: 19336: 19326: 19321: 19316: 19311: 19306: 19296: 19295: 19294: 19289: 19287:Constitutional 19279: 19274: 19269: 19264: 19263: 19262: 19250: 19249: 19248: 19243: 19238: 19233: 19223: 19210: 19205: 19195: 19193: 19189: 19188: 19186: 19185: 19180: 19175: 19170: 19165: 19163:Postage stamps 19160: 19155: 19150: 19149: 19148: 19138: 19133: 19128: 19123: 19118: 19113: 19108: 19103: 19102: 19101: 19091: 19086: 19077: 19062: 19060: 19056: 19055: 19053: 19052: 19047: 19042: 19041: 19040: 19030: 19024: 19022: 19014: 19013: 19001: 19000: 18997: 18996: 18993: 18992: 18990: 18989: 18988: 18987: 18977: 18972: 18967: 18962: 18960:Oral tradition 18957: 18956: 18955: 18945: 18940: 18935: 18930: 18925: 18920: 18915: 18910: 18905: 18900: 18895: 18890: 18884: 18882: 18878: 18877: 18875: 18874: 18869: 18864: 18858: 18856: 18848: 18847: 18835: 18834: 18831: 18830: 18823: 18816: 18809: 18801: 18800: 18793: 18792: 18791: 18772: 18771: 18768: 18767: 18764:Historiography 18760: 18759: 18752: 18745: 18737: 18728: 18727: 18725: 18724: 18722:Westernization 18719: 18714: 18709: 18704: 18702:Visegrád Group 18699: 18694: 18689: 18684: 18679: 18674: 18669: 18664: 18659: 18654: 18649: 18644: 18642:Nordic Council 18639: 18634: 18629: 18624: 18619: 18614: 18609: 18604: 18599: 18594: 18589: 18584: 18579: 18574: 18569: 18564: 18559: 18554: 18549: 18544: 18539: 18537:Bucharest Nine 18534: 18529: 18524: 18519: 18514: 18509: 18504: 18502:Arctic Council 18499: 18494: 18489: 18484: 18479: 18473: 18471: 18465: 18464: 18462: 18461: 18456: 18451: 18450: 18449: 18444: 18439: 18434: 18429: 18424: 18414: 18409: 18408: 18407: 18397: 18391: 18389: 18383: 18382: 18380: 18379: 18374: 18369: 18368: 18367: 18362: 18357: 18352: 18347: 18346: 18345: 18340: 18335: 18330: 18320: 18315: 18310: 18300: 18299: 18298: 18297: 18296: 18286: 18285: 18284: 18279: 18278: 18277: 18267: 18266: 18265: 18255: 18254: 18253: 18228: 18226: 18220: 18219: 18217: 18216: 18215: 18214: 18204: 18199: 18194: 18193: 18192: 18180: 18179: 18178: 18168: 18163: 18158: 18153: 18148: 18143: 18138: 18137: 18136: 18131: 18121: 18120: 18119: 18112:Existentialism 18109: 18104: 18099: 18094: 18089: 18084: 18079: 18074: 18069: 18063: 18061: 18055: 18054: 18052: 18051: 18050: 18049: 18044: 18039: 18034: 18024: 18023: 18022: 18012: 18011: 18010: 18005: 17995: 17994: 17993: 17983: 17978: 17977: 17976: 17971: 17966: 17956: 17955: 17954: 17944: 17943: 17942: 17932: 17931: 17930: 17925: 17915: 17910: 17905: 17900: 17899: 17898: 17888: 17883: 17882: 17881: 17871: 17870: 17869: 17859: 17858: 17857: 17847: 17842: 17841: 17840: 17830: 17825: 17824: 17823: 17818: 17813: 17802: 17800: 17794: 17793: 17791: 17790: 17789: 17788: 17783: 17773: 17772: 17771: 17766: 17761: 17756: 17751: 17746: 17741: 17736: 17731: 17726: 17721: 17716: 17711: 17706: 17701: 17696: 17691: 17686: 17676: 17671: 17670: 17669: 17664: 17659: 17649: 17648: 17647: 17645:Late antiquity 17637: 17631: 17629: 17623: 17622: 17620: 17619: 17614: 17609: 17604: 17599: 17598: 17597: 17596: 17595: 17590: 17580: 17575: 17570: 17560: 17555: 17549: 17547: 17543: 17542: 17531: 17530: 17523: 17516: 17508: 17499: 17498: 17496: 17495: 17490: 17485: 17480: 17475: 17470: 17465: 17460: 17455: 17450: 17444: 17442: 17438: 17437: 17435: 17434: 17429: 17424: 17419: 17414: 17409: 17404: 17399: 17394: 17389: 17384: 17379: 17374: 17369: 17364: 17359: 17354: 17352:Russian Empire 17349: 17344: 17342:British Empire 17339: 17337:Dutch Republic 17334: 17332:Swedish Empire 17329: 17324: 17319: 17314: 17312:Spanish Empire 17309: 17304: 17302:Ottoman Empire 17299: 17294: 17289: 17284: 17279: 17274: 17273: 17272: 17262: 17257: 17251: 17249: 17243: 17242: 17240: 17239: 17234: 17229: 17224: 17219: 17217:Serbian Empire 17214: 17209: 17204: 17199: 17194: 17189: 17184: 17162: 17157: 17152: 17151: 17150: 17145: 17140: 17135: 17125: 17124: 17123: 17118: 17110: 17105: 17100: 17095: 17090: 17089: 17088: 17078: 17073: 17067: 17065: 17059: 17058: 17056: 17055: 17053:Late antiquity 17050: 17045: 17040: 17039: 17038: 17028: 17023: 17018: 17016:Roman Republic 17013: 17007: 17005: 16999: 16998: 16996: 16995: 16990: 16985: 16980: 16974: 16972: 16966: 16965: 16958: 16957: 16950: 16943: 16935: 16926: 16925: 16912: 16909: 16908: 16905: 16904: 16902: 16901: 16896: 16891: 16885: 16883: 16879: 16878: 16876: 16875: 16870: 16865: 16860: 16855: 16849: 16847: 16840: 16836: 16835: 16833: 16832: 16827: 16822: 16821: 16820: 16815: 16808:Coalition Wars 16805: 16800: 16795: 16790: 16784: 16782: 16778: 16777: 16774: 16773: 16771: 16770: 16769: 16768: 16763: 16758: 16753: 16748: 16740: 16734: 16732: 16725: 16721: 16720: 16717: 16716: 16714: 16713: 16708: 16703: 16698: 16692: 16684: 16682: 16678: 16677: 16675: 16674: 16668: 16666: 16662: 16661: 16659: 16658: 16653: 16652: 16651: 16641: 16636: 16632: 16630: 16623: 16617: 16616: 16613: 16612: 16610: 16609: 16604: 16599: 16598: 16597: 16592: 16587: 16582: 16577: 16572: 16567: 16562: 16552: 16547: 16542: 16537: 16536: 16535: 16525: 16520: 16514: 16512: 16505: 16501: 16500: 16497: 16496: 16494: 16493: 16488: 16483: 16478: 16472: 16470: 16466: 16465: 16463: 16462: 16457: 16452: 16447: 16442: 16437: 16431: 16429: 16425: 16424: 16422: 16421: 16420: 16419: 16414: 16409: 16404: 16396: 16395: 16394: 16392:House of Tudor 16389: 16381: 16375: 16373: 16369: 16368: 16366: 16365: 16360: 16355: 16354: 16353: 16343: 16341:Russian Empire 16338: 16333: 16332: 16331: 16326: 16319:Dutch Republic 16316: 16314:Swedish Empire 16311: 16306: 16301: 16299:Spanish Empire 16296: 16291: 16289:Ottoman Empire 16286: 16285: 16284: 16282:British Empire 16274: 16269: 16264: 16263: 16262: 16251: 16249: 16242: 16238: 16237: 16234: 16233: 16231: 16230: 16225: 16220: 16214: 16212: 16205: 16204:Social history 16201: 16200: 16197: 16196: 16194: 16193: 16188: 16185: 16180: 16179:Technological: 16177: 16172: 16166: 16164: 16157: 16153: 16152: 16149: 16148: 16146: 16145: 16140: 16135: 16130: 16125: 16120: 16114: 16112: 16108: 16107: 16105: 16104: 16099: 16094: 16089: 16084: 16079: 16074: 16069: 16064: 16063: 16062: 16051: 16049: 16042: 16038: 16037: 16030: 16029: 16022: 16015: 16007: 15998: 15997: 15994: 15993: 15975: 15974: 15973: 15970: 15969: 15966: 15965: 15962: 15961: 15959: 15958: 15953: 15948: 15943: 15938: 15932: 15930: 15924: 15923: 15921: 15920: 15915: 15910: 15905: 15900: 15895: 15890: 15885: 15880: 15875: 15870: 15865: 15860: 15855: 15850: 15845: 15840: 15834: 15832: 15826: 15825: 15823: 15822: 15817: 15812: 15807: 15802: 15797: 15791: 15789: 15783: 15782: 15780: 15779: 15774: 15768: 15766: 15762: 15761: 15759: 15758: 15753: 15748: 15743: 15738: 15733: 15728: 15723: 15717: 15715: 15709: 15708: 15706: 15705: 15700: 15695: 15690: 15684: 15682: 15678: 15677: 15675: 15674: 15668: 15666: 15662: 15661: 15659: 15658: 15653: 15648: 15643: 15638: 15633: 15628: 15623: 15617: 15615: 15609: 15608: 15606: 15605: 15600: 15595: 15590: 15585: 15580: 15575: 15570: 15565: 15560: 15555: 15549: 15547: 15543: 15542: 15540: 15539: 15534: 15529: 15524: 15519: 15514: 15509: 15503: 15501: 15495: 15494: 15492: 15491: 15486: 15481: 15476: 15471: 15465: 15463: 15459: 15458: 15456: 15455: 15450: 15445: 15440: 15434: 15432: 15426: 15425: 15423: 15422: 15417: 15412: 15407: 15402: 15397: 15392: 15387: 15382: 15377: 15372: 15367: 15362: 15357: 15351: 15349: 15345: 15344: 15342: 15341: 15336: 15331: 15326: 15321: 15316: 15310: 15308: 15304: 15303: 15301: 15300: 15295: 15290: 15285: 15280: 15275: 15270: 15265: 15260: 15255: 15250: 15245: 15240: 15235: 15230: 15225: 15220: 15215: 15210: 15205: 15200: 15195: 15190: 15185: 15180: 15175: 15170: 15165: 15160: 15154: 15152: 15148: 15147: 15145: 15144: 15142:Wollstonecraft 15139: 15134: 15129: 15124: 15119: 15114: 15109: 15104: 15099: 15094: 15089: 15084: 15079: 15074: 15069: 15064: 15059: 15054: 15049: 15043: 15041: 15033: 15032: 15022: 15021: 15018: 15017: 15014: 15013: 15011: 15010: 15005: 15000: 14995: 14990: 14985: 14976: 14971: 14966: 14961: 14956: 14951: 14946: 14941: 14936: 14931: 14926: 14919: 14910: 14905: 14900: 14895: 14890: 14881: 14876: 14867: 14862: 14857: 14852: 14847: 14842: 14837: 14832: 14827: 14821: 14814: 14813: 14803: 14802: 14795: 14794: 14787: 14780: 14772: 14766: 14765: 14756: 14747: 14738: 14718: 14717:External links 14715: 14713: 14712: 14702: 14692: 14682: 14672: 14666: 14656:, ed. (1973). 14650: 14643: 14636: 14629: 14618: 14616: 14613: 14611: 14610: 14599: 14592: 14579: 14569: 14562: 14555: 14548: 14541: 14537:2005. 419 pp. 14531: 14524: 14506:(3): 421–443. 14495: 14488: 14481: 14477:2000. 608 pp. 14471: 14466:May, Henry F. 14464: 14457: 14452:Hesse, Carla. 14450: 14443: 14417:(2): 217–231. 14406: 14399: 14393: 14379: 14369: 14359: 14352: 14345: 14335: 14328: 14315: 14305: 14298: 14291: 14281: 14273: 14271: 14268: 14266: 14265: 14258: 14253: 14228: 14223:978-0226825762 14222: 14209: 14203: 14190: 14183: 14176: 14167: 14160: 14146: 14139: 14132: 14123: 14110: 14103: 14090: 14085:Hesmyr, Atle. 14083: 14078:Hazard, Paul. 14076: 14066: 14059: 14050: 14043: 14032: 14018: 14008: 14001: 13994: 13984: 13982: 13979: 13977: 13974: 13972: 13971: 13961: 13956: 13941: 13931: 13925: 13912: 13905: 13896: 13887: 13878: 13869: 13860: 13850: 13845:Cowan, Brian, 13843: 13836: 13825: 13823: 13820: 13818: 13817: 13794: 13781: 13768: 13755: 13742: 13729: 13720: 13707: 13674: 13665: 13649: 13647:Jacob, 145–47. 13640: 13631: 13618: 13609: 13596: 13583: 13570: 13551: 13544: 13524: 13517:Maynard Mack, 13510: 13495: 13457: 13448: 13439: 13424: 13415: 13406: 13397: 13384: 13353: 13340: 13338:Cowan, 90, 91. 13331: 13322: 13287: 13278: 13265: 13252: 13234: 13225: 13216: 13203: 13197:Caradonna JL. 13190: 13188:Roche, 515–16. 13181: 13168: 13141: 13128: 13111: 13096: 13077:(2): 215–245. 13057: 13048: 13039: 13030: 13021: 13012: 13003: 12994: 12985: 12976: 12967: 12958: 12949: 12940: 12931: 12922: 12913: 12904: 12892: 12880: 12868: 12856: 12844: 12831: 12829:Spary, 289–93. 12822: 12809: 12792: 12776: 12760: 12747: 12738: 12726: 12713: 12704: 12686: 12676: 12667: 12658: 12645: 12636: 12623: 12614: 12601: 12588: 12575: 12569:Dena Goodman, 12562: 12553: 12544: 12535: 12526: 12512: 12494: 12478: 12462: 12449: 12436: 12423: 12414: 12405: 12392: 12385: 12365: 12356: 12333: 12324: 12311: 12298: 12282: 12275: 12255: 12248: 12228: 12221: 12199: 12171: 12152: 12134: 12121: 12119:pp. 97–99 12106: 12091: 12065: 12053: 12041: 12029: 12013: 12001: 11988: 11976: 11967: 11957: 11945: 11918: 11906: 11897: 11885: 11870: 11857: 11838:Jerzy Snopek, 11831: 11819: 11799: 11786: 11774: 11761: 11740:(4): 692–695. 11720: 11707: 11693:Brading, D. A. 11685: 11672: 11659: 11646: 11633: 11617: 11604: 11591: 11576: 11569: 11549: 11536: 11520: 11505: 11490: 11475: 11461: 11423: 11408: 11404:German History 11395: 11391:German History 11382: 11378:German History 11369: 11351: 11338: 11325: 11312: 11299: 11293:Henry F. May, 11286: 11273: 11266: 11246: 11233: 11226: 11206: 11189: 11164: 11117: 11104: 11097: 11076: 11063: 11050: 11032: 11019: 11015:Cogliano, 2003 11007: 10995: 10983: 10971: 10958: 10941: 10929: 10917: 10915:, pp. 11. 10905: 10886: 10883:. p. 778. 10868: 10861: 10841: 10834: 10814: 10807: 10787: 10780: 10760: 10754:Thomas Paine, 10747: 10740: 10720: 10702: 10691:Baruch Spinoza 10683: 10676: 10656: 10649: 10629: 10614: 10601: 10588: 10579: 10566: 10550: 10543: 10523: 10506: 10493: 10480: 10467: 10454: 10447: 10427: 10416: 10403: 10380: 10371: 10358: 10345: 10323: 10310: 10293: 10274:(3): 785–805. 10255: 10242: 10236:Roland Sarti, 10229: 10193: 10184: 10171: 10158: 10145:10.2307/588406 10139:(2): 164–180. 10123: 10113:on 6 June 2011 10089: 10080: 10071: 10062: 10053: 10044: 10035: 10003: 9994: 9985: 9976: 9963: 9947: 9931: 9904: 9891: 9861: 9842: 9833:The New Yorker 9816: 9812:Petitfils 2005 9801: 9789: 9774: 9762: 9750: 9738: 9731: 9711: 9704: 9685: 9672: 9656: 9643: 9630: 9617: 9611: 9589: 9572: 9559: 9552: 9534: 9508: 9465: 9448: 9426: 9413: 9398: 9393:978-0892368617 9392: 9372: 9276: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9222: 9221: 9212: 8980: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8973: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8918: 8915: 8894: 8891: 8824: 8823:Masonic lodges 8821: 8795: 8794: 8788: 8785: 8782: 8771:Main article: 8768: 8765: 8725:Richard Steele 8721:Joseph Addison 8701:Main article: 8698: 8695: 8683:Main article: 8680: 8677: 8605: 8602: 8594:associationism 8582:Main article: 8579: 8576: 8499:A portrait of 8484: 8481: 8340:egalitarianism 8331:Charles Porset 8303: 8300: 8262: 8259: 8216:Georges Buffon 8208: 8205: 8108: 8105: 8037:Front page of 8001: 7998: 7978: 7975: 7947:Charles Burney 7908: 7905: 7873:self-awareness 7813: 7810: 7801:Robert Darnton 7784:disenchantment 7750:Max Horkheimer 7735: 7732: 7700:laws of motion 7679: 7676: 7639:Ernst Cassirer 7630:l'Encyclopédie 7601: 7589:(Spanish) and 7575:sich aufklären 7548: 7545: 7523: 7522:Historiography 7520: 7512:Young Ottomans 7494:Ottoman Empire 7486:Ottoman Empire 7481: 7480:Ottoman Empire 7478: 7446: 7443: 7406: 7403: 7391:hermit kingdom 7386: 7383: 7319: 7316: 7260: 7257: 7221:Golden Liberty 7182:Main article: 7179: 7176: 7172:prosveshchenie 7156:Leonhard Euler 7135: 7132: 7060:New Christians 7052:António Vieira 7004:Main article: 7001: 6998: 6958: 6955: 6907:comercio libre 6859: 6856: 6844:Franco Venturi 6816:, Veneto, and 6755:Main article: 6752: 6749: 6701: 6698: 6581: 6578: 6552:Matthew Tindal 6519: 6516: 6504:James Anderson 6500:William Cullen 6487: 6484: 6456:Samuel Johnson 6429:Jonathan Swift 6421:Alexander Pope 6413:Joseph Addison 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6389:Saint-Domingue 6346: 6343: 6311: 6308: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6167:known as the " 6144: 6141: 6071:Main article: 6068: 6065: 6044:natural rights 5944:representative 5909:natural rights 5892: 5889: 5849:Robert Darnton 5839: 5836: 5828:Saggi politici 5777:Dugald Stewart 5749:science of man 5729: 5726: 5682:popularization 5607:Main article: 5604: 5601: 5388:René Descartes 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5221:Baruch Spinoza 5213:René Descartes 5189: 5186: 5116:Masonic lodges 5071:René Descartes 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4956: 4949: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4936: 4935: 4923: 4911: 4891: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4849: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4796:Libertarianism 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4747: 4745:Related topics 4744: 4743: 4740: 4739: 4736: 4735: 4730: 4724: 4719: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4468: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4051: 4048: 4047: 4044: 4043: 4040: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3793: 3788: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3780: 3779: 3774: 3773: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3747: 3746: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3715: 3709: 3706: 3705: 3702: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3616:Labour voucher 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3537: 3534: 3533: 3530: 3529: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3499: 3496: 3495: 3492: 3491: 3489: 3488: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3473: 3465: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3434: 3427: 3419: 3416: 3415: 3414: 3413: 3401: 3386: 3385: 3382: 3381: 3379:Utilitarianism 3376: 3371: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3359: 3352:Libertarianism 3349: 3347:Land value tax 3344: 3343: 3342: 3332: 3327: 3322: 3320:Egalitarianism 3317: 3312: 3311: 3310: 3300: 3299: 3298: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3276:Anti-communism 3273: 3267: 3265:Related topics 3264: 3263: 3260: 3259: 3256: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3239: 3238: 3233: 3232: 3231: 3221: 3219:Arizona School 3211: 3210: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3187:United Kingdom 3184: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3098: 3097: 3087: 3082: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3052: 3047: 3042: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3007: 3002: 3001: 3000: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2959: 2958: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2923: 2918: 2913: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2877: 2876: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2805: 2800: 2799: 2796: 2795: 2790: 2789: 2784: 2779: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2723: 2722: 2721: 2718: 2717: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2519: 2514: 2509: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2496: 2495: 2492: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2421: 2416: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2326: 2321: 2316: 2314:Wollstonecraft 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2225: 2220: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2205: 2199: 2194: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2186: 2185: 2180: 2179: 2178: 2173: 2166:Social justice 2163: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2132: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2116: 2106: 2105: 2104: 2099: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2069: 2067:Market economy 2064: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2052: 2042: 2035: 2030: 2028:Invisible hand 2025: 2020: 2018:Harm principle 2015: 2014: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1991: 1976: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1917: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1799: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1783: 1782: 1776: 1775: 1763: 1762: 1760: 1759: 1752: 1745: 1737: 1734: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1719: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1682:Ordoliberalism 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1601: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1559:Market economy 1556: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1475: 1473:Related topics 1472: 1471: 1468: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1345: 1343:State monopoly 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1115: 1110: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 964: 961: 960: 957: 956: 953: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 900:Liberalization 897: 892: 890:Invisible hand 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 805:Businessperson 802: 800:Business cycle 797: 792: 786: 783: 782: 779: 778: 772: 771: 759: 758: 756: 755: 748: 741: 733: 730: 729: 728: 727: 722: 717: 712: 706: 705: 697: 696: 692: 691: 690: 689: 684: 679: 673: 672: 667: 659: 658: 652: 651: 650: 649: 644: 639: 638: 637: 632: 624: 616: 615: 609: 608: 600: 599: 593: 592: 580: 579: 577: 576: 569: 562: 554: 551: 550: 547: 546: 541: 536: 531: 529:Metaphysicians 526: 521: 516: 511: 505: 499: 498: 497: 494: 493: 490: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 457:Metaphilosophy 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 427: 426: 421: 416: 411: 405: 399: 398: 397: 394: 393: 388: 387: 386: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 342: 341: 335: 334: 333: 332: 331: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 295: 294: 293: 283: 282: 281: 271: 270: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 244: 234: 233: 232: 227: 222: 209: 208: 202: 201: 200: 199: 198: 197: 192: 182: 177: 172: 167: 166: 165: 160: 147: 146: 138: 132: 131: 130: 127: 126: 124: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 78: 75: 74: 66: 65: 59: 58: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 24523: 24512: 24509: 24507: 24504: 24502: 24499: 24497: 24494: 24492: 24489: 24487: 24484: 24482: 24479: 24477: 24474: 24472: 24469: 24467: 24464: 24462: 24459: 24457: 24454: 24452: 24449: 24447: 24444: 24442: 24439: 24437: 24434: 24432: 24429: 24427: 24424: 24423: 24421: 24406: 24401: 24396: 24394: 24384: 24383: 24380: 24374: 24371: 24369: 24366: 24364: 24363: 24359: 24357: 24354: 24352: 24349: 24345: 24342: 24340: 24337: 24335: 24332: 24330: 24327: 24325: 24322: 24320: 24317: 24315: 24312: 24310: 24307: 24305: 24302: 24301: 24300: 24297: 24295: 24292: 24290: 24287: 24286: 24284: 24280: 24272: 24269: 24268: 24267: 24264: 24262: 24259: 24257: 24254: 24252: 24249: 24247: 24246:Mother Teresa 24244: 24242: 24239: 24236: 24232: 24229: 24227: 24224: 24222: 24219: 24217: 24214: 24212: 24211: 24207: 24205: 24202: 24200: 24199: 24195: 24193: 24190: 24188: 24185: 24183: 24180: 24178: 24175: 24173: 24172:Pope Pius XII 24170: 24168: 24165: 24163: 24160: 24158: 24155: 24154: 24152: 24150: 24146: 24140: 24139: 24138:Rerum novarum 24135: 24133: 24130: 24128: 24125: 24123: 24122:Pope Leo XIII 24120: 24118: 24115: 24113: 24110: 24108: 24105: 24103: 24100: 24098: 24095: 24093: 24092:United States 24090: 24088: 24085: 24083: 24082:Pope Pius VII 24080: 24079: 24077: 24073: 24067: 24064: 24062: 24059: 24057: 24054: 24052: 24049: 24047: 24044: 24042: 24039: 24037: 24034: 24032: 24029: 24027: 24024: 24023: 24021: 24018: 24013: 24008: 24002: 23999: 23997: 23994: 23992: 23989: 23987: 23984: 23982: 23979: 23977: 23974: 23972: 23969: 23967: 23964: 23962: 23959: 23957: 23954: 23952: 23949: 23947: 23944: 23942: 23939: 23937: 23934: 23932: 23929: 23927: 23924: 23922: 23921: 23917: 23915: 23912: 23910: 23907: 23906: 23904: 23901: 23897: 23892: 23886: 23883: 23881: 23878: 23876: 23873: 23871: 23868: 23866: 23863: 23861: 23858: 23854: 23851: 23850: 23849: 23846: 23844: 23841: 23839: 23836: 23835: 23833: 23831: 23827: 23821: 23818: 23816: 23813: 23811: 23808: 23806: 23803: 23801: 23798: 23796: 23793: 23791: 23788: 23786: 23783: 23781: 23778: 23776: 23773: 23771: 23768: 23766: 23765:Scholasticism 23763: 23761: 23758: 23756: 23753: 23751: 23748: 23746: 23743: 23741: 23740:Pope Urban II 23738: 23737: 23735: 23733: 23729: 23723: 23720: 23718: 23715: 23713: 23710: 23708: 23705: 23703: 23700: 23698: 23695: 23693: 23690: 23688: 23685: 23683: 23680: 23678: 23675: 23673: 23670: 23668: 23665: 23663: 23660: 23659: 23657: 23655: 23651: 23637: 23634: 23632: 23629: 23627: 23624: 23622: 23619: 23617: 23614: 23612: 23609: 23607: 23604: 23602: 23599: 23597: 23594: 23592: 23589: 23587: 23584: 23580: 23577: 23576: 23575: 23572: 23571: 23569: 23565: 23557: 23553: 23550: 23546: 23542: 23532: 23529: 23527: 23524: 23522: 23519: 23517: 23516:Justin Martyr 23514: 23510: 23507: 23503: 23500: 23498: 23495: 23493: 23490: 23489: 23488: 23485: 23484: 23483: 23480: 23478: 23475: 23474: 23472: 23469: 23465: 23457: 23454: 23452: 23449: 23447: 23444: 23442: 23439: 23437: 23434: 23432: 23429: 23428: 23427: 23426:New Testament 23424: 23422: 23419: 23417: 23414: 23412: 23409: 23405: 23402: 23400: 23397: 23395: 23392: 23390: 23389:Commissioning 23387: 23386: 23385: 23382: 23380: 23377: 23375: 23372: 23370: 23367: 23363: 23360: 23358: 23355: 23353: 23350: 23348: 23345: 23344: 23343: 23340: 23339: 23337: 23334: 23333:Apostolic Age 23329: 23325: 23322: 23318: 23314: 23308: 23305: 23303: 23300: 23298: 23295: 23293: 23290: 23286: 23283: 23281: 23278: 23277: 23276: 23273: 23271: 23268: 23266: 23263: 23261: 23258: 23256: 23253: 23249: 23246: 23244: 23241: 23240: 23239: 23236: 23232: 23229: 23228: 23227: 23224: 23220: 23219:Papal primacy 23217: 23216: 23215: 23212: 23210: 23207: 23205: 23202: 23198: 23195: 23194: 23193: 23190: 23189: 23187: 23185: 23181: 23177: 23173: 23166: 23161: 23159: 23154: 23152: 23147: 23146: 23143: 23130: 23122: 23120: 23112: 23111: 23107: 23097: 23094: 23090: 23087: 23085: 23082: 23081: 23080: 23077: 23075: 23072: 23070: 23067: 23065: 23062: 23061: 23058: 23051: 23047: 23035: 23032: 23031: 23030: 23027: 23025: 23022: 23019: 23015: 23012: 23010: 23007: 23006: 23003: 22996: 22992: 22978: 22975: 22973: 22970: 22967: 22963: 22961: 22958: 22956: 22955:Merton thesis 22953: 22952: 22950: 22945: 22941: 22933: 22930: 22928: 22925: 22923: 22920: 22918: 22915: 22913: 22910: 22908: 22907:Panbabylonism 22905: 22903: 22900: 22898: 22895: 22894: 22892: 22888: 22887: 22883: 22882: 22881: 22878: 22876: 22873: 22869: 22866: 22864: 22861: 22859: 22856: 22855: 22854: 22851: 22849: 22846: 22838: 22833: 22830: 22829: 22828: 22825: 22824: 22823: 22820: 22816: 22813: 22811: 22808: 22806: 22803: 22801: 22798: 22797: 22796: 22793: 22789: 22786: 22782: 22779: 22778: 22777: 22774: 22772: 22769: 22767: 22764: 22763: 22762: 22759: 22757: 22754: 22753: 22751: 22749: 22745: 22737: 22734: 22732: 22729: 22728: 22726: 22724: 22721: 22719: 22716: 22714: 22711: 22710: 22708: 22704: 22698: 22695: 22693: 22690: 22688: 22687: 22683: 22681: 22678: 22675: 22671: 22669: 22666: 22664: 22661: 22659: 22656: 22652: 22647: 22644: 22642: 22639: 22638: 22635: 22628: 22624: 22610: 22607: 22605: 22602: 22600: 22597: 22595: 22592: 22590: 22587: 22583: 22582: 22578: 22577: 22576: 22573: 22567: 22564: 22562: 22559: 22557: 22554: 22553: 22552: 22549: 22547: 22544: 22542: 22539: 22538: 22537: 22534: 22530: 22527: 22525: 22522: 22520: 22517: 22516: 22515: 22512: 22510: 22507: 22505: 22502: 22500: 22497: 22495: 22492: 22490: 22487: 22486: 22484: 22480: 22470: 22469:United States 22467: 22465: 22462: 22460: 22457: 22455: 22452: 22450: 22447: 22445: 22442: 22441: 22439: 22437: 22431: 22423: 22418: 22415: 22411: 22406: 22403: 22399: 22394: 22391: 22389: 22386: 22384: 22381: 22379: 22376: 22374: 22371: 22367: 22362: 22359: 22357: 22354: 22350: 22349:Bolivarianism 22347: 22343: 22338: 22335: 22334: 22333: 22332:Simon Bolivar 22330: 22328: 22325: 22323: 22320: 22318: 22315: 22313: 22310: 22306: 22301: 22298: 22296: 22293: 22291: 22288: 22286: 22283: 22281: 22278: 22276: 22273: 22269: 22264: 22263:Joseph Stalin 22261: 22257: 22252: 22249: 22247: 22244: 22242: 22239: 22237: 22234: 22232: 22229: 22225: 22220: 22217: 22213: 22208: 22205: 22203: 22200: 22198: 22195: 22193: 22190: 22188: 22185: 22183: 22180: 22178: 22175: 22174: 22172: 22166: 22162: 22155: 22151: 22136: 22128: 22127: 22123: 22117: 22114: 22112: 22109: 22107: 22104: 22102: 22099: 22098: 22096: 22092: 22084: 22081: 22080: 22078: 22074: 22071: 22069: 22066: 22065: 22063: 22062: 22060: 22058:Post-Cold War 22056: 22048: 22045: 22044: 22042: 22038: 22035: 22034: 22033: 22032:Falklands War 22030: 22028: 22027:Iran–Iraq War 22025: 22021: 22018: 22017: 22015: 22011: 22008: 22007: 22005: 22003: 22000: 21996: 21993: 21992: 21990: 21986: 21983: 21981: 21978: 21976: 21975:Ongoing Nakba 21972: 21969: 21968: 21967: 21964: 21962: 21959: 21958: 21956: 21954: 21950: 21938: 21933: 21930: 21928: 21927: 21923: 21921: 21920: 21916: 21914: 21911: 21910: 21908: 21906:Western Front 21904: 21896: 21893: 21892: 21890: 21888: 21887:Bengal famine 21885: 21883: 21880: 21878: 21875: 21874: 21872: 21868: 21862: 21859: 21857: 21854: 21852: 21849: 21847: 21844: 21840: 21837: 21836: 21835: 21832: 21830: 21826: 21822: 21820: 21817: 21815: 21812: 21810: 21807: 21806: 21804: 21802: 21801:The Holocaust 21798: 21790: 21787: 21785: 21782: 21781: 21780: 21777: 21775: 21772: 21770: 21767: 21765: 21762: 21760: 21757: 21756: 21754: 21752:Eastern Front 21750: 21744: 21741: 21739: 21736: 21734: 21731: 21729: 21726: 21724: 21721: 21720: 21718: 21716: 21712: 21704: 21701: 21700: 21698: 21694: 21691: 21690: 21689: 21686: 21684: 21681: 21680: 21678: 21676: 21672: 21660: 21657: 21655: 21652: 21651: 21650: 21647: 21645: 21642: 21641: 21639: 21637: 21631: 21624: 21619: 21616: 21614: 21610: 21607: 21605: 21602: 21600: 21597: 21595: 21592: 21588: 21583: 21580: 21577: 21573: 21570: 21567: 21563: 21559: 21556: 21554: 21552: 21548: 21538: 21533: 21530: 21528: 21525: 21524: 21522: 21518: 21515: 21514: 21513: 21510: 21508: 21505: 21501: 21498: 21497: 21496: 21493: 21491: 21488: 21484: 21483:Paris Commune 21481: 21479: 21476: 21475: 21473: 21469: 21468:Turning point 21466: 21464: 21461: 21460: 21459: 21456: 21455: 21444: 21441: 21439: 21436: 21435: 21434: 21431: 21429: 21426: 21420: 21415: 21412: 21410: 21407: 21403: 21398: 21395: 21394: 21393: 21390: 21389: 21387: 21383: 21379: 21376: 21372:18th and 19th 21370: 21364: 21361: 21357: 21354: 21352: 21349: 21348: 21347: 21344: 21342: 21339: 21337: 21334: 21330: 21327: 21326: 21325: 21322: 21318: 21317:Islamic views 21315: 21314: 21313: 21310: 21306: 21303: 21302: 21301: 21298: 21297: 21295: 21289: 21282: 21281: 21277: 21275: 21274: 21270: 21269: 21265: 21261: 21258: 21251: 21246: 21244: 21239: 21237: 21232: 21231: 21228: 21224: 21217: 21213: 21199: 21196: 21195: 21193: 21189: 21175: 21172: 21170: 21167: 21165: 21162: 21161: 21159: 21157: 21151: 21145: 21142: 21138: 21135: 21134: 21133: 21130: 21128: 21125: 21123: 21120: 21116: 21113: 21111: 21108: 21107: 21106: 21103: 21101: 21098: 21097: 21095: 21093: 21087: 21079: 21076: 21074: 21071: 21070: 21069: 21066: 21064: 21061: 21060: 21058: 21054: 21046: 21041: 21040:Ser de España 21038: 21034: 21029: 21026: 21024: 21021: 21019: 21016: 21010: 21005: 21002: 21001: 21000: 20999: 20995: 20991: 20986: 20983: 20981: 20978: 20976: 20975: 20971: 20969: 20966: 20964: 20961: 20959: 20955: 20952: 20951: 20949: 20945: 20937: 20934: 20932: 20929: 20927: 20924: 20923: 20922: 20919: 20915: 20912: 20911: 20910: 20907: 20901: 20896: 20893: 20892: 20889: 20884: 20881: 20879: 20876: 20875: 20873: 20869: 20861: 20856: 20853: 20851: 20848: 20846: 20843: 20841: 20838: 20836: 20833: 20832: 20830: 20826: 20818: 20815: 20814: 20813: 20810: 20808: 20805: 20803: 20802: 20798: 20796: 20795: 20791: 20789: 20786: 20784: 20783: 20779: 20777: 20774: 20773: 20771: 20767: 20761: 20758: 20756: 20753: 20750: 20746: 20744: 20741: 20740: 20738: 20736: 20732: 20726: 20723: 20721: 20718: 20716: 20713: 20712: 20710: 20708: 20704: 20698: 20697: 20693: 20691: 20688: 20686: 20683: 20678: 20674: 20672: 20671: 20667: 20665: 20664: 20660: 20658: 20655: 20653: 20652: 20648: 20647: 20645: 20643: 20639: 20631: 20626: 20623: 20619: 20614: 20611: 20607: 20602: 20599: 20597: 20596: 20592: 20588: 20583: 20580: 20578: 20577: 20573: 20572: 20570: 20566: 20560: 20557: 20555: 20552: 20550: 20547: 20543: 20540: 20538: 20535: 20534: 20533: 20530: 20528: 20525: 20523: 20520: 20516: 20513: 20512: 20511: 20508: 20506: 20503: 20499: 20494: 20491: 20489: 20486: 20484: 20481: 20480: 20478: 20476: 20472: 20464: 20461: 20459: 20458:Ottoman claim 20456: 20454: 20451: 20449: 20446: 20445: 20444: 20441: 20439: 20438:Prosopography 20436: 20434: 20431: 20429: 20426: 20422: 20419: 20418: 20417: 20414: 20412: 20409: 20408: 20406: 20404: 20400: 20392: 20391:Trưng sisters 20389: 20387: 20386: 20382: 20381: 20379: 20375: 20372: 20371: 20369: 20367: 20364: 20362: 20359: 20355: 20352: 20351: 20349: 20345: 20342: 20341: 20340: 20337: 20333: 20330: 20329: 20327: 20323: 20320: 20319: 20316: 20311: 20308: 20304: 20301: 20300: 20299: 20296: 20294: 20291: 20287: 20284: 20282: 20279: 20278: 20277: 20274: 20272: 20269: 20265: 20262: 20261: 20259: 20255: 20252: 20251: 20250: 20247: 20243: 20242: 20238: 20237: 20235: 20229: 20224: 20221: 20217: 20212: 20209: 20205: 20200: 20197: 20196: 20194: 20192: 20189: 20183: 20178: 20175: 20174: 20171: 20166: 20163: 20161: 20158: 20154: 20151: 20150: 20148: 20146: 20143: 20139: 20138:Habsburg myth 20136: 20135: 20133: 20129: 20126: 20125: 20124: 20121: 20120: 20118: 20114: 20104: 20101: 20097: 20094: 20093: 20092: 20089: 20087: 20084: 20082: 20079: 20077: 20074: 20070: 20067: 20065: 20062: 20060: 20057: 20056: 20055: 20052: 20051: 20049: 20047: 20046:United States 20043: 20035: 20034: 20030: 20029: 20028: 20025: 20021: 20018: 20017: 20016: 20013: 20007: 20002: 19999: 19997: 19993: 19990: 19989: 19988: 19985: 19984: 19982: 19980: 19979:Latin America 19976: 19970: 19967: 19963: 19960: 19958: 19955: 19953: 19950: 19949: 19948: 19945: 19944: 19942: 19938: 19932: 19931: 19927: 19923: 19920: 19919: 19917: 19913: 19910: 19909: 19907: 19905: 19902: 19896: 19891: 19888: 19886: 19883: 19882: 19880: 19879: 19877: 19875: 19871: 19867: 19860: 19856: 19836: 19833: 19832: 19831: 19828: 19826: 19822: 19819: 19817: 19813: 19810: 19808: 19805: 19803: 19800: 19799: 19797: 19795: 19789: 19783: 19782: 19778: 19776: 19775: 19770: 19769: 19765: 19763: 19760: 19758: 19755: 19751: 19748: 19747: 19746: 19745: 19741: 19739: 19736: 19734: 19731: 19729: 19726: 19724: 19721: 19719: 19715: 19712: 19710: 19707: 19705: 19702: 19700: 19696: 19693: 19691: 19688: 19687: 19685: 19681: 19675: 19672: 19666: 19661: 19658: 19657: 19654: 19649: 19646: 19644: 19641: 19639: 19636: 19634: 19631: 19629: 19626: 19624: 19621: 19620: 19618: 19614: 19610: 19603: 19599: 19583: 19580: 19579: 19578: 19575: 19573: 19572:Transnational 19570: 19568: 19565: 19563: 19560: 19558: 19555: 19551: 19548: 19547: 19546: 19543: 19539: 19536: 19534: 19531: 19530: 19529: 19526: 19522: 19519: 19518: 19517: 19514: 19512: 19509: 19505: 19500: 19497: 19495: 19492: 19490: 19487: 19485: 19482: 19480: 19477: 19475: 19472: 19470: 19467: 19463: 19462:Decoloniality 19460: 19459: 19458: 19455: 19453: 19450: 19448: 19444: 19443:Historiometry 19441: 19437: 19436: 19432: 19430: 19427: 19426: 19425: 19422: 19421: 19419: 19413: 19405: 19402: 19400: 19399: 19395: 19393: 19390: 19389: 19388: 19387:Periodization 19385: 19383: 19380: 19379: 19376: 19372: 19367: 19363: 19347: 19344: 19342: 19339: 19335: 19332: 19331: 19330: 19327: 19325: 19322: 19320: 19317: 19315: 19312: 19310: 19307: 19305: 19302: 19301: 19300: 19297: 19293: 19290: 19288: 19285: 19284: 19283: 19280: 19278: 19275: 19273: 19270: 19268: 19265: 19261: 19260: 19256: 19255: 19254: 19251: 19247: 19244: 19242: 19239: 19237: 19234: 19232: 19229: 19228: 19227: 19224: 19222: 19218: 19214: 19211: 19209: 19206: 19204: 19200: 19197: 19196: 19194: 19190: 19184: 19181: 19179: 19176: 19174: 19173:Sigillography 19171: 19169: 19168:Prosopography 19166: 19164: 19161: 19159: 19156: 19154: 19151: 19147: 19144: 19143: 19142: 19139: 19137: 19134: 19132: 19129: 19127: 19124: 19122: 19119: 19117: 19114: 19112: 19109: 19107: 19104: 19100: 19097: 19096: 19095: 19092: 19090: 19087: 19085: 19081: 19078: 19075: 19071: 19067: 19064: 19063: 19061: 19057: 19051: 19048: 19046: 19045:Local history 19043: 19039: 19038:Human history 19036: 19035: 19034: 19033:World history 19031: 19029: 19026: 19025: 19023: 19019: 19015: 19011: 19006: 19002: 18986: 18983: 18982: 18981: 18978: 18976: 18973: 18971: 18968: 18966: 18963: 18961: 18958: 18954: 18951: 18950: 18949: 18946: 18944: 18941: 18939: 18936: 18934: 18931: 18929: 18926: 18924: 18921: 18919: 18916: 18914: 18911: 18909: 18906: 18904: 18901: 18899: 18896: 18894: 18891: 18889: 18886: 18885: 18883: 18879: 18873: 18870: 18868: 18865: 18863: 18860: 18859: 18857: 18853: 18849: 18845: 18840: 18836: 18829: 18828: 18824: 18822: 18821: 18817: 18815: 18814: 18810: 18808: 18807: 18803: 18802: 18799: 18798: 18794: 18790: 18789: 18785: 18781: 18780: 18779: 18778: 18774: 18773: 18769: 18765: 18758: 18753: 18751: 18746: 18744: 18739: 18738: 18735: 18723: 18720: 18718: 18715: 18713: 18710: 18708: 18705: 18703: 18700: 18698: 18695: 18693: 18690: 18688: 18685: 18683: 18680: 18678: 18675: 18673: 18670: 18668: 18667:PROSUR/PROSUL 18665: 18663: 18660: 18658: 18655: 18653: 18650: 18648: 18645: 18643: 18640: 18638: 18635: 18633: 18630: 18628: 18625: 18623: 18620: 18618: 18615: 18613: 18610: 18608: 18605: 18603: 18600: 18598: 18595: 18593: 18590: 18588: 18585: 18583: 18580: 18578: 18575: 18573: 18570: 18568: 18565: 18563: 18562:Craiova Group 18560: 18558: 18555: 18553: 18550: 18548: 18545: 18543: 18540: 18538: 18535: 18533: 18530: 18528: 18525: 18523: 18520: 18518: 18515: 18513: 18510: 18508: 18505: 18503: 18500: 18498: 18495: 18493: 18490: 18488: 18485: 18483: 18480: 18478: 18477:ABCANZ Armies 18475: 18474: 18472: 18466: 18460: 18457: 18455: 18452: 18448: 18445: 18443: 18440: 18438: 18435: 18433: 18430: 18428: 18425: 18423: 18420: 18419: 18418: 18415: 18413: 18410: 18406: 18403: 18402: 18401: 18398: 18396: 18393: 18392: 18390: 18388: 18384: 18378: 18375: 18373: 18370: 18366: 18363: 18361: 18358: 18356: 18353: 18351: 18348: 18344: 18341: 18339: 18336: 18334: 18331: 18329: 18326: 18325: 18324: 18321: 18319: 18316: 18314: 18311: 18309: 18306: 18305: 18304: 18301: 18295: 18292: 18291: 18290: 18287: 18283: 18282:Protestantism 18280: 18276: 18273: 18272: 18271: 18268: 18264: 18261: 18260: 18259: 18256: 18252: 18248: 18245: 18244: 18243: 18240: 18239: 18238: 18235: 18234: 18233: 18230: 18229: 18227: 18225: 18221: 18213: 18210: 18209: 18208: 18205: 18203: 18202:Sovereigntism 18200: 18198: 18195: 18191: 18190: 18186: 18185: 18184: 18181: 18177: 18174: 18173: 18172: 18169: 18167: 18164: 18162: 18159: 18157: 18154: 18152: 18149: 18147: 18144: 18142: 18139: 18135: 18132: 18130: 18127: 18126: 18125: 18122: 18118: 18115: 18114: 18113: 18110: 18108: 18105: 18103: 18100: 18098: 18097:Scholasticism 18095: 18093: 18090: 18088: 18085: 18083: 18080: 18078: 18075: 18073: 18070: 18068: 18065: 18064: 18062: 18060: 18056: 18048: 18045: 18043: 18040: 18038: 18035: 18033: 18030: 18029: 18028: 18025: 18021: 18018: 18017: 18016: 18013: 18009: 18006: 18004: 18001: 18000: 17999: 17996: 17992: 17989: 17988: 17987: 17984: 17982: 17979: 17975: 17972: 17970: 17967: 17965: 17962: 17961: 17960: 17957: 17953: 17950: 17949: 17948: 17945: 17941: 17938: 17937: 17936: 17933: 17929: 17926: 17924: 17921: 17920: 17919: 17916: 17914: 17911: 17909: 17906: 17904: 17901: 17897: 17894: 17893: 17892: 17889: 17887: 17884: 17880: 17877: 17876: 17875: 17872: 17868: 17865: 17864: 17863: 17860: 17856: 17853: 17852: 17851: 17848: 17846: 17843: 17839: 17836: 17835: 17834: 17831: 17829: 17826: 17822: 17819: 17817: 17814: 17812: 17809: 17808: 17807: 17804: 17803: 17801: 17799: 17795: 17787: 17786:War on terror 17784: 17782: 17779: 17778: 17777: 17774: 17770: 17767: 17765: 17762: 17760: 17757: 17755: 17752: 17750: 17747: 17745: 17742: 17740: 17737: 17735: 17732: 17730: 17727: 17725: 17722: 17720: 17717: 17715: 17712: 17710: 17707: 17705: 17702: 17700: 17697: 17695: 17692: 17690: 17687: 17685: 17682: 17681: 17680: 17679:Modern period 17677: 17675: 17672: 17668: 17665: 17663: 17660: 17658: 17655: 17654: 17653: 17650: 17646: 17643: 17642: 17641: 17638: 17636: 17633: 17632: 17630: 17628: 17624: 17618: 17615: 17613: 17610: 17608: 17605: 17603: 17600: 17594: 17591: 17589: 17586: 17585: 17584: 17581: 17579: 17576: 17574: 17571: 17569: 17566: 17565: 17564: 17561: 17559: 17556: 17554: 17551: 17550: 17548: 17544: 17540: 17536: 17535:Western world 17529: 17524: 17522: 17517: 17515: 17510: 17509: 17506: 17494: 17491: 17489: 17486: 17484: 17481: 17479: 17476: 17474: 17471: 17469: 17466: 17464: 17461: 17459: 17456: 17454: 17451: 17449: 17448:Art of Europe 17446: 17445: 17443: 17439: 17433: 17430: 17428: 17425: 17423: 17420: 17418: 17415: 17413: 17410: 17408: 17405: 17403: 17400: 17398: 17395: 17393: 17390: 17388: 17385: 17383: 17380: 17378: 17375: 17373: 17370: 17368: 17365: 17363: 17360: 17358: 17355: 17353: 17350: 17348: 17345: 17343: 17340: 17338: 17335: 17333: 17330: 17328: 17325: 17323: 17320: 17318: 17315: 17313: 17310: 17308: 17305: 17303: 17300: 17298: 17295: 17293: 17290: 17288: 17285: 17283: 17280: 17278: 17275: 17271: 17268: 17267: 17266: 17263: 17261: 17258: 17256: 17253: 17252: 17250: 17248: 17247:Modern period 17244: 17238: 17235: 17233: 17230: 17228: 17225: 17223: 17220: 17218: 17215: 17213: 17210: 17208: 17205: 17203: 17200: 17198: 17195: 17193: 17190: 17188: 17185: 17182: 17178: 17174: 17170: 17166: 17163: 17161: 17158: 17156: 17153: 17149: 17146: 17144: 17141: 17139: 17136: 17134: 17131: 17130: 17129: 17126: 17122: 17119: 17117: 17114: 17113: 17111: 17109: 17106: 17104: 17101: 17099: 17096: 17094: 17091: 17087: 17084: 17083: 17082: 17079: 17077: 17074: 17072: 17069: 17068: 17066: 17064: 17060: 17054: 17051: 17049: 17046: 17044: 17041: 17037: 17034: 17033: 17032: 17029: 17027: 17024: 17022: 17019: 17017: 17014: 17012: 17009: 17008: 17006: 17004: 17000: 16994: 16991: 16989: 16986: 16984: 16981: 16979: 16976: 16975: 16973: 16971: 16967: 16963: 16956: 16951: 16949: 16944: 16942: 16937: 16936: 16933: 16923: 16919: 16915: 16914:Human history 16910: 16900: 16897: 16895: 16892: 16890: 16887: 16886: 16884: 16880: 16874: 16871: 16869: 16866: 16864: 16861: 16859: 16856: 16854: 16853:Art of Europe 16851: 16850: 16848: 16844: 16841: 16837: 16831: 16828: 16826: 16823: 16819: 16816: 16814: 16813:Revolutionary 16811: 16810: 16809: 16806: 16804: 16801: 16799: 16796: 16794: 16791: 16789: 16786: 16785: 16783: 16781:End of period 16779: 16767: 16764: 16762: 16759: 16757: 16754: 16752: 16749: 16747: 16744: 16743: 16741: 16739: 16736: 16735: 16733: 16729: 16726: 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15914: 15911: 15909: 15906: 15904: 15901: 15899: 15896: 15894: 15891: 15889: 15886: 15884: 15881: 15879: 15876: 15874: 15871: 15869: 15866: 15864: 15861: 15859: 15856: 15854: 15851: 15849: 15846: 15844: 15841: 15839: 15836: 15835: 15833: 15831: 15827: 15821: 15818: 15816: 15813: 15811: 15808: 15806: 15803: 15801: 15798: 15796: 15793: 15792: 15790: 15788: 15784: 15778: 15775: 15773: 15770: 15769: 15767: 15763: 15757: 15754: 15752: 15749: 15747: 15744: 15742: 15739: 15737: 15734: 15732: 15729: 15727: 15724: 15722: 15719: 15718: 15716: 15714: 15710: 15704: 15701: 15699: 15696: 15694: 15691: 15689: 15688:Budai-Deleanu 15686: 15685: 15683: 15679: 15673: 15670: 15669: 15667: 15663: 15657: 15654: 15652: 15649: 15647: 15644: 15642: 15639: 15637: 15634: 15632: 15629: 15627: 15624: 15622: 15619: 15618: 15616: 15614: 15610: 15604: 15601: 15599: 15596: 15594: 15591: 15589: 15586: 15584: 15581: 15579: 15576: 15574: 15571: 15569: 15566: 15564: 15561: 15559: 15556: 15554: 15551: 15550: 15548: 15544: 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15164: 15161: 15159: 15156: 15155: 15153: 15149: 15143: 15140: 15138: 15135: 15133: 15130: 15128: 15125: 15123: 15120: 15118: 15115: 15113: 15110: 15108: 15105: 15103: 15100: 15098: 15095: 15093: 15090: 15088: 15085: 15083: 15080: 15078: 15075: 15073: 15070: 15068: 15065: 15063: 15060: 15058: 15055: 15053: 15052:Ashley-Cooper 15050: 15048: 15045: 15044: 15042: 15038: 15034: 15027: 15023: 15009: 15006: 15004: 15001: 14999: 14996: 14994: 14991: 14989: 14986: 14983: 14982: 14977: 14975: 14972: 14970: 14967: 14965: 14962: 14960: 14957: 14955: 14954:Progressivism 14952: 14950: 14947: 14945: 14942: 14940: 14937: 14935: 14932: 14930: 14927: 14925: 14924: 14920: 14917: 14916: 14911: 14909: 14906: 14904: 14903:Individualism 14901: 14899: 14896: 14894: 14891: 14888: 14887: 14882: 14880: 14877: 14874: 14873: 14868: 14866: 14863: 14861: 14858: 14856: 14853: 14851: 14848: 14846: 14843: 14841: 14838: 14836: 14833: 14831: 14828: 14826: 14823: 14822: 14819: 14815: 14808: 14804: 14800: 14793: 14788: 14786: 14781: 14779: 14774: 14773: 14770: 14764: 14760: 14757: 14755: 14751: 14748: 14746: 14742: 14739: 14735: 14734: 14729: 14725: 14721: 14720: 14711: 14707: 14703: 14700: 14696: 14693: 14691: 14687: 14683: 14681: 14677: 14673: 14669: 14663: 14659: 14655: 14651: 14648: 14644: 14641: 14637: 14634: 14630: 14628: 14624: 14620: 14619: 14608: 14604: 14600: 14597: 14593: 14591: 14587: 14583: 14580: 14578: 14574: 14570: 14567: 14563: 14560: 14556: 14554:1993. 384 pp. 14553: 14549: 14546: 14542: 14540: 14536: 14532: 14529: 14525: 14521: 14517: 14513: 14509: 14505: 14501: 14496: 14494:2001. 199 pp. 14493: 14489: 14486: 14482: 14480: 14476: 14473:Porter, Roy. 14472: 14470:1976. 419 pp. 14469: 14465: 14462: 14458: 14455: 14451: 14448: 14444: 14440: 14436: 14432: 14428: 14424: 14420: 14416: 14412: 14407: 14404: 14400: 14396: 14390: 14386: 14385: 14380: 14377: 14373: 14370: 14368: 14364: 14360: 14357: 14353: 14350: 14346: 14344: 14340: 14336: 14333: 14329: 14325: 14321: 14316: 14314: 14310: 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13746: 13739: 13733: 13724: 13717: 13711: 13692: 13685: 13678: 13669: 13662: 13660: 13653: 13644: 13635: 13628: 13622: 13613: 13606: 13600: 13593: 13587: 13580: 13574: 13566: 13562: 13555: 13547: 13541: 13537: 13536: 13528: 13520: 13514: 13506: 13502: 13498: 13492: 13488: 13484: 13480: 13476: 13472: 13468: 13461: 13452: 13443: 13436: 13431: 13429: 13419: 13410: 13401: 13394: 13388: 13380: 13376: 13372: 13368: 13364: 13357: 13350: 13347:Colin Jones, 13344: 13335: 13326: 13318: 13314: 13310: 13306: 13302: 13298: 13291: 13282: 13275: 13269: 13262: 13256: 13248: 13244: 13238: 13229: 13220: 13213: 13207: 13200: 13194: 13185: 13178: 13175:Daniel Roche, 13172: 13166: 13165:0-567-08969-X 13162: 13158: 13154: 13152: 13145: 13138: 13132: 13124: 13123: 13115: 13107: 13100: 13092: 13088: 13084: 13080: 13076: 13072: 13068: 13061: 13052: 13043: 13034: 13025: 13016: 13007: 12998: 12989: 12980: 12971: 12962: 12953: 12944: 12935: 12926: 12917: 12908: 12899: 12897: 12887: 12885: 12877: 12872: 12865: 12860: 12853: 12848: 12841: 12835: 12826: 12819: 12813: 12805: 12804: 12796: 12790: 12786: 12780: 12773: 12767: 12765: 12757: 12754:See Darnton, 12751: 12742: 12736: 12730: 12723: 12720:Erin Mackie, 12717: 12711:Outram, 27–29 12708: 12700: 12696: 12690: 12680: 12671: 12662: 12655: 12649: 12640: 12633: 12627: 12618: 12611: 12605: 12598: 12592: 12585: 12582:Carla Hesse, 12579: 12572: 12566: 12557: 12548: 12539: 12533:Chartier, 26. 12530: 12521: 12519: 12517: 12509: 12503: 12501: 12499: 12491: 12485: 12483: 12475: 12469: 12467: 12459: 12453: 12446: 12440: 12427: 12421:Chartier, 27. 12418: 12409: 12402: 12396: 12388: 12382: 12378: 12377: 12369: 12360: 12354: 12353:0-226-73149-9 12350: 12346: 12344: 12337: 12328: 12321: 12315: 12309:(2001), p. 4. 12308: 12302: 12296: 12292: 12286: 12278: 12272: 12268: 12267: 12259: 12251: 12245: 12241: 12240: 12232: 12224: 12218: 12214: 12210: 12203: 12188: 12184: 12183: 12175: 12168: 12164: 12161: 12156: 12148: 12144: 12138: 12131: 12128:Shank, J. B. 12125: 12118: 12117: 12110: 12103: 12102: 12095: 12088: 12086: 12082: 12075: 12069: 12063:, pp. 3. 12062: 12057: 12050: 12045: 12038: 12033: 12026: 12020: 12018: 12010: 12005: 11999:(1951), p. vi 11998: 11992: 11985: 11980: 11971: 11961: 11955: 11949: 11941: 11937: 11933: 11929: 11922: 11915: 11910: 11901: 11892: 11890: 11883: 11882:April 3, 2014 11881: 11874: 11867: 11861: 11852: 11849:(PDF 122 KB) 11848: 11844: 11841: 11835: 11829: 11823: 11817: 11813: 11809: 11803: 11796: 11790: 11783: 11778: 11771: 11765: 11757: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11739: 11735: 11731: 11724: 11717: 11711: 11705: 11704:0-521-39130-X 11701: 11697: 11694: 11689: 11682: 11676: 11669: 11663: 11656: 11650: 11643: 11637: 11631: 11627: 11621: 11614: 11608: 11601: 11595: 11587: 11580: 11572: 11566: 11562: 11561: 11553: 11546: 11540: 11533: 11529: 11524: 11516: 11509: 11501: 11494: 11486: 11479: 11472: 11465: 11458: 11454: 11450: 11446: 11442: 11441:Walther Killy 11438: 11437: 11432: 11431:Wilhelm Kosch 11427: 11419: 11412: 11405: 11399: 11392: 11386: 11379: 11373: 11365: 11361: 11355: 11348: 11342: 11335: 11329: 11322: 11316: 11309: 11303: 11296: 11290: 11283: 11280:J. Repcheck, 11277: 11269: 11263: 11259: 11258: 11250: 11243: 11237: 11229: 11227:9789004193512 11223: 11219: 11218: 11210: 11202: 11201: 11193: 11178: 11174: 11168: 11160: 11156: 11152: 11148: 11144: 11140: 11136: 11132: 11128: 11121: 11114: 11108: 11100: 11094: 11090: 11089: 11080: 11073: 11067: 11060: 11054: 11048: 11044: 11039: 11037: 11029: 11023: 11016: 11011: 11004: 10999: 10992: 10987: 10980: 10979:Ferling, 2000 10975: 10968: 10962: 10955: 10951: 10945: 10938: 10933: 10927:, p. 19. 10926: 10921: 10914: 10909: 10901: 10897: 10890: 10882: 10881: 10872: 10864: 10858: 10854: 10853: 10845: 10837: 10831: 10827: 10826: 10818: 10810: 10804: 10800: 10799: 10791: 10783: 10777: 10773: 10772: 10764: 10757: 10751: 10743: 10737: 10733: 10732: 10724: 10713: 10706: 10700: 10699:gutenberg.com 10696: 10692: 10687: 10679: 10673: 10669: 10668: 10660: 10652: 10646: 10642: 10641: 10633: 10625: 10618: 10611: 10605: 10599: 10598: 10592: 10586:Chartier, 13. 10583: 10576: 10570: 10563: 10560: 10554: 10546: 10544:9780313049514 10540: 10536: 10535: 10527: 10520: 10516: 10510: 10504:(2001) p. 341 10503: 10497: 10490: 10484: 10477: 10476:History Today 10471: 10464: 10458: 10450: 10444: 10440: 10439: 10431: 10425: 10420: 10413: 10407: 10399: 10392:, p. 353 10391: 10384: 10375: 10368: 10362: 10355: 10349: 10333: 10327: 10320: 10314: 10306: 10305: 10297: 10289: 10285: 10281: 10277: 10273: 10269: 10265: 10259: 10252: 10246: 10239: 10233: 10225: 10219: 10203: 10197: 10188: 10181: 10175: 10168: 10162: 10154: 10150: 10146: 10142: 10138: 10134: 10127: 10112: 10108: 10107:New Statesman 10104: 10102: 10093: 10084: 10075: 10066: 10057: 10048: 10039: 10022: 10018: 10013: 10007: 9998: 9989: 9980: 9973: 9967: 9961: 9957: 9951: 9945: 9941: 9935: 9919: 9915: 9908: 9901: 9895: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9865: 9858: 9857: 9852: 9846: 9838: 9834: 9830: 9823: 9821: 9813: 9808: 9806: 9799:, p. 34. 9798: 9793: 9787:, p. 33. 9786: 9781: 9779: 9772:, p. 11. 9771: 9766: 9759: 9754: 9748:, p. 15. 9747: 9742: 9734: 9728: 9724: 9723: 9715: 9707: 9705:9781631492082 9701: 9697: 9696: 9689: 9682: 9676: 9669: 9663: 9661: 9653: 9652:Isaac Newton. 9647: 9640: 9634: 9627: 9621: 9614: 9612:0-393-00870-3 9608: 9603: 9602: 9593: 9585: 9584: 9576: 9569: 9566:Eugen Weber, 9563: 9555: 9549: 9545: 9538: 9522: 9518: 9512: 9504: 9500: 9496: 9492: 9488: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9469: 9461: 9460: 9452: 9436: 9430: 9423: 9417: 9410:, p. 144 9409: 9402: 9395: 9389: 9385: 9384: 9376: 9368: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9335: 9333: 9331: 9329: 9327: 9325: 9323: 9321: 9319: 9317: 9315: 9313: 9311: 9309: 9307: 9305: 9303: 9301: 9299: 9297: 9295: 9293: 9291: 9289: 9287: 9285: 9283: 9281: 9272: 9266: 9250: 9246: 9240: 9236: 9216: 9209: 9205: 9201: 9197: 9193: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9177: 9173: 9169: 9165: 9161: 9157: 9153: 9149: 9145: 9141: 9137: 9133: 9129: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9113: 9107: 9103: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9079: 9078:Denis Diderot 9075: 9071: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9047: 9043: 9039: 9035: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9015: 9011: 9007: 9003: 8999: 8995: 8991: 8985: 8981: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8920: 8914: 8912: 8908: 8904: 8900: 8899:Classical art 8890: 8887: 8881: 8877: 8874: 8868: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8844: 8842: 8838: 8829: 8820: 8817: 8811: 8808: 8804: 8799: 8792: 8789: 8786: 8783: 8780: 8779: 8778: 8774: 8764: 8762: 8758: 8754: 8753:Encyclopédie. 8749: 8744: 8741: 8735: 8733: 8731: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8712: 8709: 8704: 8694: 8692: 8686: 8676: 8673: 8669: 8664: 8663:Royal Society 8659: 8656: 8652: 8647: 8645: 8641: 8633: 8629: 8621: 8620: 8615:visiting the 8614: 8610: 8601: 8597: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8575: 8573: 8569: 8568:Sarah Trimmer 8564: 8560: 8556: 8552: 8548: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8532: 8527: 8525: 8524: 8519: 8515: 8514: 8509: 8502: 8497: 8493: 8491: 8480: 8477: 8473: 8469: 8465: 8458: 8453: 8451: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8434: 8433: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8416: 8408: 8404: 8399: 8395: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8376: 8371: 8367: 8363: 8359: 8355: 8353: 8349:and entitled 8348: 8343: 8341: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8325: 8316: 8314: 8308: 8299: 8295: 8293: 8292: 8291:lingua franca 8286: 8285: 8274: 8273: 8267: 8258: 8256: 8250: 8247: 8246:Ancien Régime 8243: 8239: 8235: 8231: 8222: 8217: 8213: 8204: 8202: 8198: 8193: 8191: 8187: 8179: 8177: 8172: 8171:Denis Diderot 8168: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8158:The Spectator 8154: 8153: 8147: 8142: 8136: 8133: 8128: 8126: 8117: 8113: 8107:Book industry 8104: 8102: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8085: 8083: 8077: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8058: 8055: 8051: 8043: 8041: 8035: 8031: 8029: 8022: 8017: 8015: 8011: 8007: 7995: 7990: 7986: 7984: 7974: 7970: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7939: 7937: 7933: 7929: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7904: 7901: 7897: 7893: 7887: 7885: 7880: 7878: 7874: 7870: 7866: 7858: 7853: 7849: 7847: 7843: 7842:public sphere 7838: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7818: 7809: 7806: 7802: 7796: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7768: 7762: 7757: 7755: 7751: 7748:philosophers 7747: 7744: 7742: 7731: 7729: 7725: 7719: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7696: 7691: 7687: 7686: 7675: 7672: 7667: 7665: 7664:Martin Luther 7661: 7656: 7651: 7647: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7606: 7598: 7594: 7592: 7588: 7585:o (Italian), 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7555: 7544: 7541: 7535: 7533: 7529: 7519: 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7477: 7475: 7471: 7466: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7442: 7436: 7435:Ram Mohan Roy 7432: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7402: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7382: 7380: 7379:globalization 7376: 7372: 7371:laissez-faire 7368: 7364: 7358: 7352: 7351:Tsuda Mamichi 7348: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7335:Robert Bellah 7332: 7330: 7325: 7315: 7313: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7285:into Chinese. 7284: 7283: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7265: 7256: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7232: 7230: 7226: 7225:republicanism 7222: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7194: 7190: 7185: 7175: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7131: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7115: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7092:Russian court 7089: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7048: 7046: 7045:Távora affair 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7007: 6997: 6995: 6989: 6983: 6979: 6978: 6973: 6969: 6964: 6954: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6937:erupted. The 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6923:Ferdinand VII 6919: 6917: 6913: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6891: 6889: 6885: 6878: 6874: 6869: 6865: 6855: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6836:Luigi Galvani 6833: 6828: 6826: 6821: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6748: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6729: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6706:Maria Theresa 6704:The reign of 6697: 6693: 6691: 6686: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6671: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6635: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6591: 6587: 6580:German states 6577: 6575: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6561: 6560:republicanism 6557: 6553: 6549: 6540: 6539: 6534: 6533:John Trumbull 6530: 6525: 6515: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6480: 6475: 6471: 6469: 6468:coffee houses 6465: 6462:According to 6460: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6444: 6440: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6417:Edward Gibbon 6414: 6407: 6395:Great Britain 6392: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6368: 6365: 6356: 6351: 6342: 6340: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6317: 6307: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6275: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6256: 6254: 6253:New Testament 6250: 6246: 6242: 6240: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6215: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6195: 6184: 6181: 6176: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6140: 6133: 6128: 6124: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6101: 6095: 6093: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6064: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6049: 6045: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6032: 6026: 6021: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5994: 5992: 5988: 5983: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5972:right to life 5969: 5965: 5961: 5959: 5954: 5953: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5940:civil society 5936: 5935: 5930: 5929:Thomas Hobbes 5926: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5897: 5888: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5845: 5835: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5818:by promoting 5817: 5813: 5809: 5804: 5802: 5801: 5797:'s drafts of 5796: 5792: 5790: 5784: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5773:James Madison 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5757:Adam Ferguson 5754: 5753:James Burnett 5750: 5746: 5738: 5734: 5725: 5723: 5722:James Thomson 5719: 5715: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5678: 5676: 5670: 5668: 5663: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5627: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5610: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5581: 5573: 5572:Immanuel Kant 5568: 5564: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5504: 5499: 5497: 5492: 5491: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5475:. Called the 5474: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5443:According to 5441: 5439: 5438: 5433: 5432: 5427: 5426: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5371: 5369: 5368: 5363: 5362: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5350: 5345: 5344: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5321: 5320: 5315: 5314: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5289: 5288: 5280: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5257:Lord Monboddo 5254: 5253:Immanuel Kant 5250: 5246: 5245:Denis Diderot 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5217:Thomas Hobbes 5214: 5210: 5206: 5205:Francis Bacon 5202: 5195: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5175: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5147: 5145: 5144:neoclassicism 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5128:printed books 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5108: 5106: 5105:Immanuel Kant 5102: 5098: 5094: 5093: 5088: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5077: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5039:Francis Bacon 5036: 5032: 5028: 5023: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4984: 4982: 4978: 4977:Age of Reason 4974: 4962: 4957: 4955: 4950: 4948: 4943: 4942: 4940: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4922: 4912: 4909: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4894: 4893: 4892: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4864:Related lists 4862: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4821:Progressivism 4819: 4817: 4816:Nanosocialism 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4748: 4742: 4741: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4722: 4721:Organizations 4717: 4716: 4709: 4708:Ocasio-Cortez 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4628:van der Lubbe 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4165:Chernyshevsky 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4052: 4049:Intellectuals 4046: 4045: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3982:Revolutionary 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3917:Laissez-faire 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3822:Authoritarian 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3785: 3778: 3775: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3752: 3751: 3748: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3720: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3710: 3704: 3703: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3671:Strike action 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3576:Equal liberty 3574: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3500: 3494: 3493: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3478: 3476: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3466: 3463: 3460: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3450: 3440: 3435: 3433: 3428: 3426: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3389: 3388: 3387: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3354: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3338: 3337: 3336: 3335:Individualism 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3309: 3306: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3297: 3294: 3293: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3237: 3234: 3230: 3227: 3226: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3216: 3215: 3214:United States 3212: 3208: 3205: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3189: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3096: 3093: 3092: 3091: 3088: 3086: 3083: 3081: 3078: 3076: 3073: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3056: 3053: 3051: 3048: 3046: 3043: 3041: 3038: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2996: 2995: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2912: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2882: 2879: 2875: 2872: 2871: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2814:Latin America 2812: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2803: 2798: 2797: 2788: 2785: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2775: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2724: 2719:Organizations 2716: 2715: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2504: 2498: 2497: 2490: 2487: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2462: 2460: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2427: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2405: 2402: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2335: 2332: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2235: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2226: 2223: 2218: 2217: 2209: 2206: 2204: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2192: 2191: 2184: 2181: 2177: 2176:Welfare state 2174: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2134: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2103: 2100: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2078: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2068: 2065: 2063: 2060: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2043: 2041: 2040: 2039:Laissez-faire 2036: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2012: 2009: 2007: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1929: 1923: 1922: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1829: 1826: 1825: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1794: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1768: 1758: 1753: 1751: 1746: 1744: 1739: 1738: 1736: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1707: 1706: 1705: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1672:Neoliberalism 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1617:Authoritarian 1615: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1555: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1545: 1544:Globalization 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1504:Crisis theory 1502: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1476: 1470: 1469: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1363: 1360:Intellectuals 1357: 1356: 1349: 1348:Technological 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1269: 1268: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1226: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1211: 1210: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1140:Institutional 1138: 1136: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1099: 1098: 1091: 1088: 1086: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 1000: 999:Laissez-faire 996: 994: 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 973:Authoritarian 971: 969: 966: 965: 959: 958: 951: 948: 946: 943: 941: 940:Surplus value 938: 936: 933: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 920:Privatization 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 787: 781: 780: 777: 774: 773: 769: 765: 764: 754: 749: 747: 742: 740: 735: 734: 732: 731: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 707: 704: 701: 700: 699: 698: 694: 693: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 674: 671: 668: 666: 665:Neoclassicism 663: 662: 661: 660: 657: 654: 653: 648: 645: 643: 640: 636: 633: 631: 628: 627: 625: 623: 620: 619: 618: 617: 614: 611: 610: 606: 602: 601: 598: 595: 594: 590: 586: 585: 575: 570: 568: 563: 561: 556: 555: 553: 552: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 506: 502: 496: 495: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 472:Phenomenology 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 429: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 406: 402: 396: 395: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 345: 344: 343: 340: 337: 336: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 300: 299: 296: 292: 289: 288: 287: 284: 280: 277: 276: 275: 272: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 239: 238: 235: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 217: 216: 213: 212: 211: 210: 207: 204: 203: 196: 193: 191: 188: 187: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 164: 163:Ancient Greek 161: 159: 156: 155: 154: 151: 150: 149: 148: 145: 142: 141: 135: 129: 128: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 91: 80: 79: 77: 76: 72: 68: 67: 64: 61: 60: 56: 55: 43: 39: 35: 33: 28: 23: 19: 24360: 24356:Pope Francis 24282:21st century 24231:Pope Paul VI 24208: 24196: 24149:20th century 24136: 24087:Pope Pius IX 24075:19th century 24051:Pope Pius VI 24040: 23918: 23790:Latin Empire 23760:Universities 23712:Pope Leo III 23579:Christianity 23564:state church 23556:Great Church 23357:Resurrection 23320:(30–325/476) 23317:Early Church 23302:Latin Church 23297:Papal States 23292:Vatican City 22884: 22686:The Simpsons 22684: 22631:Other topics 22579: 22556:Christianity 22546:Resurrection 22177:Adolf Hitler 22006:Six-Day War 22002:Algerian War 21973: / 21932:Vichy France 21924: 21917: 21827: / 21715:World War II 21611: / 21278: 21271: 21073:Ghaza thesis 20996: 20972: 20958:White legend 20956: / 20954:Black legend 20909:Soviet Union 20799: 20792: 20780: 20743:Great Famine 20720:Indocentrism 20694: 20675: 20668: 20661: 20649: 20595:Grand Siècle 20593: 20574: 20542:Sinocentrism 20403:Ancient Rome 20383: 20241:Aryan Kartli 20239: 20031: 19994: / 19928: 19825:19th century 19823: / 19814: / 19806: 19779: 19772: 19771: / 19766: 19742: 19716: / 19690:Black legend 19648:Historiology 19445: / 19433: 19396: 19334:Quantitative 19257: 19253:Intellectual 19219: / 19215: / 19201: / 19199:Anthropology 19153:Phaleristics 19146:preservation 19141:Oral history 19082: / 19068: / 19050:Microhistory 18825: 18818: 18811: 18804: 18795: 18786: / 18782: 18775: 18712:Western Bloc 18512:AUSCANNZUKUS 18468:Contemporary 18417:Human rights 18263:Latin Church 18237:Christianity 18187: 18146:Conservatism 17991:contemporary 17828:Architecture 17764:World War II 17724:Emancipation 17719:Abolitionism 17698: 17607:Romanization 17602:Roman legacy 17583:Roman Empire 17407:World War II 17356: 17260:Early modern 17237:Kalmar Union 17108:Papal States 17026:Roman Empire 16694: 16687: 16445:Cabinet wars 16096: 15976: 15721:Catherine II 15173:Beaumarchais 15003:Universality 14974:Reductionism 14921: 14898:Human rights 14798: 14731: 14705: 14698: 14685: 14675: 14657: 14646: 14639: 14632: 14622: 14595: 14585: 14582:Wills, Garry 14572: 14565: 14558: 14551: 14544: 14534: 14527: 14503: 14499: 14491: 14484: 14474: 14467: 14460: 14453: 14446: 14414: 14410: 14402: 14383: 14375: 14362: 14355: 14348: 14338: 14331: 14323: 14320:New Politics 14319: 14308: 14301: 14294: 14284: 14277: 14261: 14233: 14213: 14194: 14186: 14179: 14171: 14163: 14149: 14142: 14135: 14128: 14116: 14106: 14096: 14086: 14079: 14069: 14062: 14054: 14046: 14035: 14034:Gay, Peter. 14024: 14014: 14011:Dupré, Louis 14004: 13997: 13990: 13967: 13946: 13937: 13916: 13908: 13900: 13894:. Princeton. 13891: 13882: 13873: 13864: 13856: 13846: 13839: 13829: 13805: 13797: 13789: 13784: 13779:(1970) p. 53 13776: 13771: 13763: 13758: 13750: 13745: 13737: 13732: 13723: 13715: 13710: 13698:. Retrieved 13691:the original 13677: 13668: 13657: 13652: 13643: 13634: 13626: 13621: 13612: 13604: 13599: 13591: 13586: 13578: 13573: 13564: 13560: 13554: 13534: 13527: 13518: 13513: 13470: 13460: 13455:Andrew, 422. 13451: 13442: 13437:, p. 4. 13418: 13413:Andrew, 408. 13409: 13400: 13392: 13387: 13362: 13356: 13348: 13343: 13334: 13325: 13303:(1): 31–51. 13300: 13296: 13290: 13281: 13273: 13268: 13260: 13255: 13246: 13237: 13228: 13219: 13211: 13206: 13198: 13193: 13184: 13179:(1998), 420. 13176: 13171: 13149: 13144: 13139:(2003) p. 50 13136: 13131: 13121: 13114: 13105: 13099: 13074: 13070: 13060: 13051: 13042: 13033: 13024: 13015: 13006: 12997: 12988: 12979: 12970: 12961: 12952: 12943: 12934: 12925: 12916: 12907: 12871: 12859: 12847: 12839: 12834: 12825: 12817: 12812: 12802: 12795: 12788: 12784: 12779: 12771: 12755: 12750: 12741: 12734: 12729: 12721: 12716: 12707: 12698: 12689: 12679: 12670: 12661: 12653: 12648: 12639: 12631: 12626: 12617: 12609: 12604: 12596: 12591: 12583: 12578: 12570: 12565: 12556: 12547: 12538: 12529: 12507: 12489: 12473: 12457: 12452: 12444: 12439: 12430:Mona Ozouf, 12426: 12417: 12408: 12400: 12395: 12375: 12368: 12359: 12341: 12336: 12327: 12319: 12314: 12306: 12301: 12294: 12290: 12285: 12265: 12258: 12238: 12231: 12212: 12202: 12191:, retrieved 12187:the original 12181: 12174: 12166: 12162: 12155: 12147:oyc.yale.edu 12146: 12137: 12129: 12124: 12115: 12109: 12100: 12094: 12084: 12080: 12078: 12073: 12068: 12056: 12044: 12032: 12024: 12011:, p. 70 12004: 11996: 11991: 11979: 11970: 11960: 11953: 11948: 11931: 11927: 11921: 11913: 11909: 11900: 11895:Thomas, 2014 11879: 11873: 11865: 11860: 11850: 11834: 11822: 11807: 11802: 11794: 11789: 11777: 11769: 11764: 11737: 11733: 11723: 11715: 11710: 11695: 11688: 11680: 11675: 11667: 11662: 11654: 11649: 11641: 11636: 11625: 11620: 11612: 11607: 11599: 11594: 11585: 11579: 11559: 11552: 11544: 11539: 11531: 11523: 11514: 11508: 11499: 11493: 11484: 11478: 11470: 11464: 11434: 11426: 11417: 11411: 11403: 11398: 11390: 11385: 11377: 11372: 11363: 11354: 11346: 11341: 11333: 11328: 11320: 11315: 11307: 11302: 11294: 11289: 11281: 11276: 11256: 11249: 11241: 11236: 11216: 11209: 11199: 11192: 11180:. Retrieved 11176: 11167: 11134: 11130: 11120: 11112: 11111:Roy Porter, 11107: 11087: 11079: 11071: 11066: 11061:(1973) p. 14 11058: 11053: 11042: 11027: 11022: 11010: 10998: 10986: 10974: 10966: 10961: 10949: 10944: 10932: 10920: 10908: 10899: 10889: 10878: 10871: 10851: 10844: 10824: 10817: 10797: 10790: 10770: 10763: 10755: 10750: 10730: 10723: 10705: 10694: 10686: 10666: 10659: 10639: 10632: 10623: 10617: 10609: 10604: 10596: 10591: 10582: 10574: 10569: 10553: 10533: 10526: 10509: 10501: 10496: 10488: 10483: 10475: 10470: 10462: 10457: 10437: 10430: 10423: 10419: 10411: 10406: 10397: 10389: 10383: 10374: 10366: 10361: 10353: 10348: 10336:. Retrieved 10326: 10318: 10313: 10303: 10296: 10271: 10267: 10258: 10253:(2008), p. 1 10250: 10245: 10237: 10232: 10206:. Retrieved 10196: 10187: 10179: 10174: 10166: 10161: 10136: 10132: 10126: 10115:, retrieved 10111:the original 10106: 10100: 10092: 10083: 10074: 10065: 10056: 10047: 10038: 10025:. Retrieved 10021:the original 10011: 10006: 9997: 9988: 9979: 9971: 9966: 9955: 9950: 9939: 9934: 9922:. Retrieved 9918:the original 9907: 9899: 9894: 9882:. Retrieved 9878:the original 9873: 9864: 9855: 9845: 9832: 9792: 9765: 9753: 9741: 9721: 9714: 9694: 9688: 9680: 9675: 9667: 9651: 9646: 9638: 9633: 9625: 9620: 9600: 9592: 9582: 9575: 9567: 9562: 9543: 9537: 9525:. Retrieved 9521:the original 9511: 9481:(1): 35–52. 9478: 9474: 9468: 9458: 9451: 9439:. Retrieved 9429: 9421: 9416: 9407: 9401: 9382: 9375: 9348: 9344: 9253:. Retrieved 9248: 9239: 9215: 9152:Alexis Piron 9040:, a bust of 8984: 8896: 8882: 8878: 8869: 8845: 8834: 8815: 8812: 8800: 8796: 8776: 8760: 8756: 8752: 8748:Café Procope 8745: 8739: 8736: 8728: 8713: 8708:Coffeehouses 8706: 8697:Coffeehouses 8690: 8688: 8668:Robert Boyle 8660: 8650: 8648: 8637: 8598: 8591: 8587: 8571: 8562: 8550: 8542: 8534: 8530: 8528: 8521: 8517: 8511: 8505: 8489: 8486: 8476:Encyclopédie 8475: 8472:Encyclopédie 8471: 8464:Encyclopédie 8463: 8460: 8455: 8449: 8444: 8437: 8430: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8412: 8407:Encyclopédie 8406: 8383: 8373: 8357: 8350: 8344: 8336:hierarchical 8328: 8320: 8313:Encyclopédie 8311: 8296: 8289: 8279: 8254: 8251: 8241: 8233: 8227: 8197:Encyclopédie 8196: 8194: 8186:Encyclopédie 8185: 8182: 8176:Encyclopédie 8174: 8156: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8137: 8131: 8129: 8121: 8100: 8091: 8087: 8080: 8078: 8065: 8061: 8059: 8054:philosophes. 8053: 8049: 8047: 8044:January 1731 8038: 8028:Encyclopédie 8027: 8024: 8019: 8013: 8009: 8003: 7994:Pierre Bayle 7982: 7980: 7971: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7950: 7942: 7940: 7924: 7910: 7888: 7881: 7862: 7839: 7835: 7797: 7764: 7759: 7739: 7737: 7734:Modern study 7720: 7707: 7693: 7683: 7681: 7668: 7648: 7634:Encyclopédie 7633: 7629: 7625: 7619: 7605:Encyclopédie 7603: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7579:les Lumières 7578: 7574: 7570: 7566: 7552: 7550: 7536: 7528:Keith Thomas 7525: 7516:Ernest Renan 7506: 7483: 7462: 7423:liberty tree 7419:Seringapatam 7408: 7388: 7366: 7359: 7327: 7321: 7306:society—and 7304:meritocratic 7288: 7280: 7273:Matteo Ricci 7233: 7200: 7198: 7171: 7152: 7116: 7088:Encyclopédie 7087: 7072:Nova Arcádia 7049: 7033:Lisbon Baixa 7011: 7009: 6990: 6975: 6960: 6920: 6906: 6892: 6881: 6829: 6824: 6822: 6799: 6772: 6741:Joseph Haydn 6730: 6708:, the first 6703: 6694: 6687: 6679:Joseph Haydn 6672: 6668:German opera 6651: 6638: 6633: 6631: 6602: 6593: 6573: 6567: 6544: 6536: 6512:Joseph Black 6489: 6461: 6452:Edmund Burke 6441: 6433:Freethinking 6409: 6369: 6363: 6360: 6327: 6323: 6303:Pierre Bayle 6287:Thomas Paine 6281:and talk of 6276: 6257: 6237: 6234:freethinkers 6219: 6197: 6192: 6173: 6160: 6146: 6137: 6096: 6088: 6053: 6047: 6041: 6029: 6024: 6022: 6013: 5997: 5995: 5984: 5980:general will 5956: 5950: 5948: 5932: 5922: 5899:Philosopher 5841: 5831: 5827: 5807: 5805: 5798: 5787: 5785: 5742: 5717: 5710: 5694:Newtonianism 5690:Encyclopédie 5689: 5685: 5679: 5671: 5664: 5628: 5612: 5594: 5585: 5577: 5535: 5520: 5519:. While the 5503:Encyclopédie 5501: 5494: 5488: 5481:Pierre Bayle 5476: 5461: 5442: 5435: 5430: 5423: 5408:metaphysical 5397: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5302:Encyclopédie 5301: 5294:Encyclopedia 5293: 5287:Encyclopédie 5283: 5281: 5273:Hugo Grotius 5229:Pierre Bayle 5198: 5170: 5167:reductionism 5148: 5124:coffeehouses 5109: 5090: 5087:Isaac Newton 5080: 5074: 5047:Isaac Newton 5024: 4985: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4970: 3877:Evolutionary 3797:21st-century 3591:Freed market 3502: 3369:Pirate Party 3229:Jeffersonian 3137:South Africa 2627:Lloyd George 2222:Philosophers 2202: 2129:To bear arms 2077:Open society 2037: 1808:Conservative 1594:Wage slavery 1534:Evergreening 1245:Mercantilism 1219: 1192:Neoclassical 1020:Mercantilist 997: 930:Rent seeking 895:Visible hand 655: 501:Philosophers 409:Epistemology 230:South Africa 185:Contemporary 134:Philosophies 40:in 1755, by 30: 29:'s tragedy, 18: 24362:Laudato si' 24157:Pope Pius X 23986:Philip Neri 23961:Pope Pius V 23936:Thomas More 23805:Inquisition 23707:Charlemagne 23667:Monasticism 23477:Persecution 23369:Holy Spirit 23352:Crucifixion 23231:First seven 23074:Hagiography 22835: [ 22795:Early Islam 22649: [ 22541:Historicity 22519:Historicity 22509:Jane Austen 22489:The Beatles 22459:Netherlands 22420: [ 22417:Zhuge Liang 22408: [ 22396: [ 22393:Yuan Shikai 22364: [ 22361:Sun Yat Tse 22340: [ 22303: [ 22266: [ 22254: [ 22251:Jiang Zemin 22222: [ 22210: [ 22202:Che Guevara 21935: [ 21870:Pacific War 21654:Article 231 21644:Reparations 21621: [ 21585: [ 21562:Color books 21551:World War I 21535: [ 21512:War of 1812 21417: [ 21400: [ 21385:(1792–1815) 21356:Sea Peoples 21341:Gallic Wars 21043: [ 21031: [ 21018:Revisionist 21007: [ 20998:Reconquista 20988: [ 20980:Inquisition 20974:Convivencia 20898: [ 20886: [ 20858: [ 20755:Revisionism 20680: [ 20628: [ 20616: [ 20604: [ 20585: [ 20527:Golden ages 20496: [ 20493:Wunu School 20488:Archaeology 20361:Switzerland 20344:Kosovo Myth 20332:Great Union 20313: [ 20298:Philippines 20281:Nationalist 20254:Ages of Man 20226: [ 20214: [ 20202: [ 20180: [ 20168: [ 20004: [ 20001:Revisionist 19893: [ 19830:Renaissance 19695:Coloniality 19663: [ 19651: [ 19643:Historicity 19567:Revisionist 19557:Pop history 19528:Nationalist 19502: [ 19447:Cliometrics 19415:Approaches, 19371:Methodology 19267:Linguistics 19217:Environment 19183:Vexillology 19106:Diplomatics 19089:Chorography 19028:Big History 18980:War diaries 18953:Illuminated 18948:Manuscripts 18933:Hieroglyphs 18813:historicity 18652:Open Balkan 18470:integration 18400:Rule of law 18395:Natural law 18372:Agnosticism 18350:Hellenistic 18328:Anglo-Saxon 18258:Catholicism 18197:Atlanticism 18102:Rationalism 17908:Immigration 17891:Esotericism 17749:World War I 17714:Romanticism 17694:Reformation 17674:Renaissance 17652:Middle Ages 17617:Christendom 17546:Foundations 17392:World War I 17382:Nationalism 17270:Reformation 17255:Renaissance 17227:Black Death 17160:Kievan Rus' 17063:Middle Ages 16825:Nationalism 16635:Philosophy: 16590:Switzerland 16580:Lutheranism 16055:Renaissance 15978:Romanticism 15800:Charles III 15641:Poniatowski 15578:Leeuwenhoek 15558:de la Court 15546:Netherlands 15390:Mendelssohn 15385:Lichtenberg 15263:Montesquieu 14981:Sapere aude 14964:Rationalism 14959:Rationality 14949:Objectivity 13727:Roche, 437. 13700:17 November 13616:Roche, 436. 13435:Israel 2001 12876:Israel 2001 12864:Israel 2001 12852:Israel 2001 12643:Outram, 22. 12586:(2001), 42. 12573:(1994), 53. 12560:Goodman, 3. 12551:Outram, 23. 12524:Outram, 21. 12490:Musicology, 12474:Musicology, 12061:Israel 2001 12049:Israel 2006 12037:Israel 2010 12009:Porter 2001 11986:, p. 1 11984:Porter 2001 11934:(1): 1–15. 11782:Israel 2011 11240:A. Herman, 11182:18 December 11003:Hayes, 2008 10991:Mayer, 1994 10937:Israel 2010 10925:Israel 2010 10913:Israel 2011 10414:(2000) p. 7 9874:mnstate.edu 9770:Israel 2010 9758:Israel 2010 9746:Israel 2006 9441:16 November 9112:Montesquieu 8907:Herculaneum 8861:enlightened 8852: 1600 8837:Freemasonry 8816:status quo. 8791:John Henley 8691:philosophes 8655:Middle Ages 8384:Cyclopaedia 8375:Cyclopaedia 8347:John Harris 8201:Clement XII 8190:Malesherbes 8101:philosophes 8070:Grub Street 8050:salonnières 7983:philosophes 7961:(subtitled 7826:Protestants 7775:Romanticism 7771:Renaissance 7761:triumphant. 7587:ilustración 7508:Namik Kemal 7411:Tipu Sultan 7253:Romanticism 7018:under King 6899:Charles III 6718:Josephinism 6664:Abel Seyler 6548:John Toland 6464:Derek Hirst 6364:philosophes 6212:argued for 6180:bourgeoisie 6018:rationality 6014:philosophes 5998:philosophes 5913:was limited 5761:John Millar 5686:Philosophes 5654:, geology, 5545:utilitarian 5522:philosophes 5509:natural law 5434:(1670) and 5404:rationalist 5394:and science 5358:(1759) and 5340:(1754) and 5316:(1733) and 5261:Montesquieu 5180:sapere aude 4996:natural law 4988:rationalism 4908:WikiProject 4786:French Left 4578:Spiridonova 4477:Politicians 4390:Castoriadis 4070:Saint-Simon 4022:Third World 4017:Syndicalism 3952:Nationalist 3927:Libertarian 3892:Free-market 3755:Lange model 3743:Soviet-type 3713:Communalism 3685:Vanguardism 3641:Spontaneism 3551:Cooperative 3497:Development 3197:Gladstonian 3157:Switzerland 3142:South Korea 3085:Philippines 3045:New Zealand 3040:Netherlands 2697:Verhofstadt 2692:Balcerowicz 2501:Politicians 2429:Collingwood 2369:Tocqueville 2244:Montesquieu 2136:Rule of law 1937:Due process 1677:Objectivism 1662:Libertarian 1579:Speculation 1499:Consumerism 1333:Progressive 1272:Development 1255:Physiocracy 1202:Supply-side 1010:Libertarian 988:Free-market 968:Anglo-Saxon 950:Wage labour 905:Marginalism 875:Free market 830:Corporation 424:Metaphysics 339:By religion 195:Continental 175:Renaissance 49: 1812 25:Reading of 24420:Categories 24235:coronation 23941:Pope Leo X 23526:Tertullian 23456:Revelation 23431:Background 23129:Multimedia 22948:Technology 22912:Urreligion 22815:Kharijites 22766:Background 22434:Historical 22405:Zhou Enlai 22300:Mao Zedong 22295:Louis Riel 22068:Background 21919:Guilty Men 21861:Uniqueness 21784:Background 21779:Winter War 21703:Background 21636:Versailles 21490:Great Game 21137:Ricardians 21132:Tudor myth 20850:Partitions 20443:Succession 19733:Narratives 19718:Presentism 19674:Philosophy 19494:Humanistic 19382:Case study 19314:Indigenous 19292:Diplomatic 19236:Capitalism 19136:Onomastics 19094:Chronology 18923:Facsimiles 18908:Chronicles 18806:historians 18777:Historians 18672:Rio Treaty 18183:Relativism 18141:Liberalism 18107:Empiricism 18059:Philosophy 18047:Secularism 17998:Philosophy 17935:Literature 17729:Capitalism 17155:Viking Age 16970:Prehistory 16818:Napoleonic 16742:Painting: 16629:Philosophy 16111:By country 15820:Villarroel 15815:Jovellanos 15751:Radishchev 15698:Micu-Klein 15636:Niemcewicz 15603:Swammerdam 15593:Nieuwentyt 15583:Mandeville 15438:Farmakidis 15324:Burlamaqui 15233:La Mettrie 15208:Fontenelle 15163:d'Argenson 15158:d'Alembert 15082:Harrington 15008:Utopianism 14908:Liberalism 14865:Empiricism 14840:Classicism 14830:Capitalism 14745:PhilPapers 14667:0671217070 14654:Gay, Peter 14021:Gay, Peter 13919:. Perrin. 13329:Klein, 35. 12806:. Ashgate. 12331:Melton, 8. 12193:18 January 12085:sub-iectum 12081:sub-iectum 12076:quotation: 11851:Poland.pl. 11457:3110966298 11447:, Vol. 9, 11177:SparkNotes 10954:John Locke 10394:quoted in 10338:14 January 10027:16 October 9924:14 January 9884:4 November 9227:References 9026:La Clairon 8970:Illuminism 8857:Illuminati 8717:Noah's Ark 8549:published 8543:Principia, 8366:navigation 8362:arithmetic 8066:les grands 8004:The term " 7900:d'Alembert 7865:capitalism 7792:humanities 7773:and later 7644:Roy Porter 7591:Aufklärung 7583:illuminism 7581:(French), 7547:Definition 7458:Egyptology 7399:Yu Kilchun 7312:absolutist 7277:Xu Guangqi 7201:oświecenie 7098:, such as 7012:Iluminismo 6912:Charles IV 6884:Charles II 6765:Statue of 6726:Francis II 6722:Leopold II 6690:Königsberg 6688:In remote 6634:Aufklärung 6508:agronomist 6479:Adam Smith 6443:Roy Porter 6264:Judaic law 6100:Leopold II 6006:capitalism 5901:John Locke 5853:Roy Porter 5656:mineralogy 5527:Old Regime 5420:skepticism 5400:empiricism 5379:Philosophy 5269:Adam Smith 5249:David Hume 5225:John Locke 5067:John Locke 5012:fraternity 5008:toleration 4992:empiricism 4975:(also the 4879:Socialists 4874:By country 4756:Capitalism 4638:Mitterrand 4603:Gerhardsen 4548:Liebknecht 4533:Markievicz 4460:Varoufakis 4410:Fotopoulos 4080:Saint-Just 4075:Buonarroti 4060:Campanella 3997:Scientific 3932:Marhaenism 3887:Fourierism 3872:Ecological 3852:Democratic 3325:Empiricism 3296:Democratic 3291:Capitalism 3202:Manchester 3035:Montenegro 3020:Luxembourg 2956:Venizelism 2886:Costa Rica 2141:Secularism 1974:Federalism 1926:Principles 1818:Democratic 1780:Liberalism 1657:Liberalism 1642:Humanistic 1627:Democratic 1606:Ideologies 1441:Schumpeter 1187:Monetarist 1118:Chartalism 1065:Regulatory 1040:Neoliberal 993:Humanistic 776:Capitalism 725:Philosophy 597:Classicism 432:Aesthetics 121:Categories 63:Philosophy 24486:Reasoning 24251:Communism 24221:Ecumenism 23567:(380–451) 23559:(180–451) 23548:(313–476) 23470:(100–325) 22917:Perennial 22706:Economics 22658:Feudalism 22444:Australia 22192:Aurangzeb 22168:Political 22158:By person 21839:Pius Wars 21634:Treaty of 21293:conflicts 21100:Poor Laws 20963:Hispanism 20840:Sarmatism 20670:Sonderweg 20428:Expansion 20153:Litvinism 19987:Argentina 19821:Long 18th 19704:Dark Ages 19484:Historism 19282:Political 19221:Geography 19158:Philology 19121:Genealogy 19116:Epigraphy 19059:By source 18898:Artifacts 18617:Five Eyes 18612:EU–UK TCA 18454:Democracy 18343:Old Norse 18232:Abrahamic 18189:Peritrope 18171:Tolerance 18151:Socialism 17981:Mythology 17969:Classical 17918:Languages 17896:Astrology 17744:Modernism 17558:Old World 17202:Feudalism 17173:Catalonia 16620:Academic 16570:Huguenots 16565:Calvinism 16511:Overviews 16469:Diplomacy 16417:Louis XIV 16248:Countries 16163:Political 16041:Overviews 15941:Jefferson 15883:Hutcheson 15772:Obradović 15741:Lomonosov 15736:Kheraskov 15646:Śniadecki 15410:Weishaupt 15405:Thomasius 15395:Pufendorf 15238:Lavoisier 15223:d'Holbach 15218:Helvétius 15198:Descartes 15193:Condorcet 15188:Condillac 15122:Priestley 14939:Modernity 14860:Democracy 14761:from the 14449:. (1994). 14439:142886527 13970:. (1998). 13917:Louis XVI 13911:. (2001). 13859:. (1982). 13505:1874-6691 13091:147123263 12783:Darnton, 12770:Darnton, 12652:Darnton, 12630:Darnton, 12608:Darnton, 11816:0001-6829 11756:2214-1324 11220:. Brill. 11151:0018-2648 10288:145439970 9503:145282986 9495:0035-9149 9367:0002-8762 9232:Citations 8740:virtuosi, 8644:mesmerism 8613:Louis XIV 8531:Principia 8518:Astronomy 8388:engraving 7896:Marmontel 7892:Condorcet 7728:diffusion 7678:Time span 7571:aufklären 7567:Aufklärun 7504:in 1876. 7347:Max Weber 7339:Confucian 7294:emperors 7213:Sarmatism 6982:Spartacus 6714:Joseph II 6496:Calvinist 6249:his death 6165:feudalism 6010:tolerance 5934:Leviathan 5907:based on 5769:modernity 5706:magnetism 5667:academies 5640:chemistry 5626:in 1783. 5557:Edinburgh 5431:Tractatus 5140:socialism 5136:pamphlets 5097:Louis XIV 5051:Descartes 4751:Anarchism 4673:Gorbachev 4523:Malatesta 4518:Bernstein 4295:Pankhurst 4275:Pannekoek 4265:Luxemburg 4220:Plekhanov 4195:Carpenter 4190:Kropotkin 3987:Ricardian 3977:Religious 3972:Reformism 3957:Nkrumaism 3947:Municipal 3847:Communism 3842:Christian 3827:Blanquism 3817:Anarchism 3760:Mutualism 3462:Socialism 3340:Anarchist 3248:Venezuela 3224:Classical 3192:Cobdenism 3095:Cracovian 3050:Nicaragua 3015:Lithuania 2874:Hong Kong 2829:Australia 2667:Roosevelt 2637:Ståhlberg 2632:Venizelos 2587:Sarmiento 2577:Gladstone 2537:Lamartine 2507:Jefferson 2359:Martineau 2309:De Gouges 2294:Condorcet 2279:Priestley 1942:Democracy 1914:Third Way 1875:Christian 1870:Religious 1803:Classical 1697:Third Way 1687:Privatism 1647:Inclusive 1632:Dirigisme 1426:von Mises 1313:Illiberal 1293:Corporate 1288:Community 1235:Feudalism 1145:Keynesian 1135:Classical 978:Corporate 790:Austerity 715:Economics 677:Economics 524:Logicians 519:Ethicists 477:Political 437:Education 358:Christian 353:Confucian 252:Indonesia 206:By region 144:By period 24481:Progress 24466:Learning 24431:Autonomy 24261:HIV/AIDS 23755:Crusades 23509:Irenaeus 23502:Ignatius 23497:Polycarp 23347:Ministry 23335:(30–100) 23209:Timeline 23119:Category 23034:template 22748:Religion 22599:Socrates 22514:Muhammed 22436:rankings 22317:Napoleon 22135:Category 21953:Cold War 21856:Slovakia 21443:Waterloo 21312:Crusades 21257:Military 21105:Scotland 21063:Kemalist 20385:Nam tiến 20380:Vietnam 20370:Ukraine 20328:Romania 20310:Portugal 20236:Georgia 20211:Medieval 20160:Bulgaria 20149:Belarus 20134:Austria 19940:Americas 19908:Morocco 19904:Ethiopia 19683:Specific 19606:Concepts 19511:Leninist 19469:Feminist 19457:Critical 19304:Feminism 19277:Military 19231:Business 19226:Economic 19208:Cultural 19192:By topic 19178:Toponymy 19126:Heraldry 19074:template 19021:By scale 18943:Logbooks 18928:Features 18893:Archives 18677:Schengen 18607:Eurozone 18447:Property 18442:Religion 18333:Frankish 18323:Germanic 18303:Paganism 18224:Religion 18212:European 18124:Humanism 18027:Religion 17986:Painting 17952:Internet 17903:Folklore 17874:Clothing 17845:Calendar 17821:Cyrillic 17806:Alphabet 17769:Cold War 17441:See also 17412:Cold War 17207:Crusades 17177:Valencia 16839:See also 16585:Scottish 16545:Haskalah 16533:Hussites 16504:Religion 16383:England 16272:Germany 16241:Politics 16211:Concepts 15991:Category 15936:Franklin 15903:Playfair 15873:Ferguson 15830:Scotland 15777:Mrazović 15731:Kantemir 15726:Fonvizin 15665:Portugal 15631:Krasicki 15626:Konarski 15621:Kołłątaj 15573:Koerbagh 15522:Genovesi 15507:Beccaria 15469:Berkeley 15400:Schiller 15365:Humboldt 15339:Saussure 15334:Rousseau 15298:Voltaire 15253:Maréchal 15228:Jaucourt 15183:Châtelet 15178:Chamfort 15127:Reynolds 15030:Thinkers 14934:Midlands 14923:Lumières 14893:Humanism 14886:Haskalah 14326:: 65–86. 13834:in JSTOR 13749:Davies, 13567:(1): 81. 13199:Annales, 11843:Archived 11459:, p. 308 11451:, 2005, 11159:24423269 10981:, p. 158 10218:cite web 10208:25 March 10178:M. Fry, 10117:27 April 9837:archived 9265:cite web 9042:Voltaire 8938:Haskalah 8917:See also 8873:Jacobite 8807:Anglican 8803:Lutheran 8088:libelles 7869:autonomy 7846:critical 7712:Louis XV 7554:Lumières 7490:Tanzimat 7417:Club in 7300:Qianlong 7267:Italian 7209:szlachta 7062:and the 7020:Joseph I 6974:'s book 6818:Piedmont 6801:Il Caffè 6737:Austrian 6615:Schiller 6486:Scotland 6299:orthodox 6210:Voltaire 6187:Religion 5838:Politics 5814:and the 5812:penology 5702:taxonomy 5599:(1791). 5591:feminist 5473:Louis XV 5440:(1677). 5398:Bacon's 5370:(1781). 5277:Voltaire 5132:journals 5004:progress 4869:Category 4608:Erlander 4568:Kerensky 4538:Connolly 4395:Thompson 4380:Bookchin 4370:Montseny 4320:Vanzetti 4285:Einstein 4255:Landauer 4160:Saltykov 4155:Lassalle 4115:Proudhon 3897:Gandhian 3882:Feminist 3832:Buddhist 3812:Agrarian 3790:Variants 3454:a series 3452:Part of 3330:Humanism 3303:Centrism 3253:Zimbabwe 3207:Whiggism 3167:Thailand 3132:Slovenia 3127:Slovakia 3102:Portugal 3075:Paraguay 2998:Liberism 2963:Honduras 2881:Colombia 2854:Bulgaria 2647:Rathenau 2622:Milyukov 2542:Macaulay 2512:Kołłątaj 2484:Kymlicka 2464:Friedman 2409:Cassirer 2399:Hobhouse 2334:Constant 2329:Humboldt 2289:Beccaria 2254:Rousseau 2249:Voltaire 2092:Property 2055:Positive 2050:Negative 2006:Religion 1984:Economic 1957:Equality 1880:Catholic 1850:National 1845:Muscular 1823:Feminist 1813:Cultural 1772:a series 1770:Part of 1524:Cronyism 1436:Rothbard 1411:Marshall 1396:Friedman 1328:Merchant 1283:Consumer 1278:Advanced 1113:Austrian 1108:American 1035:National 1030:Monopoly 983:Dirigist 885:Investor 795:Business 784:Concepts 768:a series 766:Part of 647:Language 589:a series 587:Part of 482:Religion 467:Ontology 447:Language 401:Branches 348:Buddhist 303:American 225:Ethiopia 190:Analytic 170:Medieval 111:Glossary 96:Contents 27:Voltaire 24226:Judaism 23626:Vulgate 23436:Gospels 23411:Stephen 23328:Origins 23248:Vulgate 23184:General 23174:of the 23172:History 23054:Related 22944:Science 22589:Madonna 22561:Judaism 22524:Judaism 22356:Saladin 22246:Hypatia 22170:leaders 22094:Related 22047:Origins 22010:Origins 21961:Origins 21517:Origins 21463:Origins 21329:Origins 21191:Oceania 21154:British 21092:Kingdom 20735:Ireland 20642:Germany 20350:Sweden 20223:New Age 20199:Ancient 20195:Europe 20191:Croatia 20123:Albania 20116:Eurasia 19918:Rwanda 19616:General 19516:Marxist 19417:schools 19246:Thought 19213:Ecology 18975:Scrolls 18913:Codices 18881:Sources 18820:history 18797:History 18522:Benelux 18427:Thought 18377:Atheism 18318:Finnish 18294:Culture 18289:Judaism 18251:Eastern 18247:Western 18242:Culture 18176:Paradox 18042:Decline 18003:Science 17879:History 17867:Studies 17850:Cuisine 17838:Periods 17798:Culture 17627:History 17593:Eastern 17588:Western 17539:culture 17282:Baroque 17181:Majorca 17093:Francia 16731:General 16695:Authors 16665:Science 16595:Radical 16575:English 16398:France 16372:Leaders 16277:Britain 16138:Germany 16123:England 16092:Baroque 16060:Outline 15946:Madison 15918:Stewart 15858:Burnett 15853:Boswell 15838:Beattie 15810:Moratín 15795:Cadalso 15746:Novikov 15681:Romania 15656:Wybicki 15651:Staszic 15598:Spinoza 15568:Huygens 15563:Grotius 15517:Galvani 15512:Galiani 15462:Ireland 15443:Feraios 15415:Wieland 15380:Lessing 15375:Leibniz 15348:Germany 15329:Prévost 15314:Abauzit 15278:Quesnay 15268:Morelly 15258:Meslier 15243:Leclerc 15203:Diderot 15092:Johnson 15067:Collins 15062:Bentham 15047:Addison 15040:England 14988:Science 14825:Atheism 14752:at the 14726:(ed.). 14708:(1996) 14688:(1995) 14678:(2001) 14625:(2001) 14588:(1984) 14575:(1972) 14520:3654234 14463:(1985). 14419:Bibcode 14341:(2004) 14311:(2003) 14287:(1998) 14280:(1971). 14189:(2021). 14156:; also 14099:(2004) 14072:(1981) 13822:Sources 13812:458–474 13379:2652433 13317:3817904 13155:p. 14, 12842:(1990). 12774:135–47. 12612:19, 20. 11628:(1972) 11439:, eds. 11131:History 11017:, p. 14 11005:, p. 10 10321:(1994). 10169:(1986). 9974:p. 120. 9958:(1993) 9902:(2001). 9683:(2009). 9570:(1992). 9527:21 June 9255:3 April 8903:Pompeii 8841:Lessing 8255:le goût 8082:libelle 7830:serfdom 7756:argue: 7671:Marxian 7415:Jacobin 7345:' that 7271:priest 6814:Tuscany 6619:Wieland 6556:liberty 6490:In the 6448:Diderot 6400:England 6283:atheism 6104:Tuscany 5660:zoology 5652:biology 5648:anatomy 5636:physics 5603:Science 5485:skeptic 5453:deistic 5126:and in 5063:Leibniz 5059:Spinoza 5000:liberty 4990:and of 4703:Sánchez 4688:Sankara 4648:Mandela 4633:Kreisky 4623:Allende 4618:Senghor 4613:Douglas 4598:Durruti 4563:Trotsky 4455:Graeber 4435:Hampton 4405:Chomsky 4350:Marcuse 4335:Gramsci 4325:Bordiga 4315:Polanyi 4270:Russell 4260:Berkman 4250:Goldman 4240:Du Bois 4210:Kautsky 4205:Bellamy 4170:Tolstoy 4145:Wallace 4130:Bakunin 4120:Greeley 4110:Blanqui 4090:Fourier 4037:Zionist 4027:Utopian 3967:Popular 3962:Owenism 3942:Marxism 3922:Liberal 3907:Islamic 3867:Ethical 3862:Digital 3837:Chinese 3802:African 3486:Outline 3481:History 3243:Uruguay 3182:Ukraine 3172:Tunisia 3117:Senegal 3107:Romania 3055:Nigeria 3030:Moldova 2973:Iceland 2968:Hungary 2946:Germany 2941:Georgia 2931:Finland 2926:Estonia 2916:Ecuador 2911:Denmark 2906:Czechia 2891:Croatia 2844:Bolivia 2839:Belgium 2834:Austria 2824:Armenia 2819:Albania 2687:Jenkins 2682:Kennedy 2672:Pearson 2657:Einaudi 2642:Gokhale 2602:Itagaki 2597:Naoroji 2592:Mommsen 2572:Lincoln 2562:Mazzini 2547:Kossuth 2532:Broglie 2527:Bolívar 2522:Artigas 2517:Madison 2379:Spencer 2364:Emerson 2354:Bastiat 2339:Ricardo 2299:Bentham 2239:Spinoza 2196:History 2097:Private 2045:Liberty 1979:Freedom 1899:Secular 1887:Islamic 1865:Radical 1797:Schools 1652:Liberal 1612:Anarcho 1549:History 1381:Malthus 1376:Ricardo 1338:Rentier 1323:Marxist 1303:Finance 1214:Origins 1182:Marxist 1130:Chicago 1090:Welfare 1050:Private 1005:Liberal 825:Company 810:Capital 687:Physics 642:Element 487:Science 442:History 368:Islamic 328:Russian 323:Italian 308:British 298:Western 291:Iranian 267:Vietnam 242:Chinese 215:African 153:Ancient 116:History 101:Outline 24506:Virtue 24192:Nazism 24014:to the 23621:Jerome 23531:Origen 23214:Papacy 22680:Salons 22482:Others 22449:Canada 22083:Causes 22020:Causes 21995:Causes 21789:Spirit 21723:Causes 21693:Causes 21558:Causes 21527:Causes 21500:Causes 21478:Causes 21409:Causes 21156:Empire 21090:United 21056:Turkey 20871:Russia 20845:Deluge 20828:Poland 20568:France 20366:Taiwan 20339:Serbia 20145:Balhae 19996:Causes 19947:Canada 19881:Egypt 19874:Africa 19398:Tarikh 19319:Labour 19309:Gender 19299:Social 19099:dating 18965:Papyri 18888:Annals 18542:CANZUK 18432:Speech 18360:Slavic 18338:Gothic 18313:Celtic 18308:Baltic 18207:Values 18008:Values 17568:Greece 17169:Aragon 17148:Amalfi 17133:Venice 17121:Second 16846:Europe 16622:fields 16267:France 16156:Events 16133:France 16128:Papacy 15898:Newton 15888:Hutton 15868:Cullen 15765:Serbia 15713:Russia 15703:Șincai 15613:Poland 15553:Bekker 15527:Pagano 15489:Toland 15453:Korais 15448:Kairis 15430:Greece 15360:Herder 15355:Goethe 15319:Bonnet 15307:Geneva 15293:Turgot 15283:Raynal 15273:Pascal 15213:Gouges 15151:France 15137:Tindal 15132:Sidney 15107:Newton 15102:Milton 15077:Godwin 15072:Gibbon 14969:Reason 14811:Topics 14697:, ed. 14664: 14605: 14590:online 14577:online 14530:(2008) 14518: 14487:, 1999 14437: 14391: 14334:(2002) 14304:(2007) 14297:(2008) 14289:online 14251: 14220: 14201: 14158:online 14145:(1994) 14138:(2017) 14131:(2016) 14089:(2018) 14082:(1965) 14074:online 14049:(2002) 14017:(2004) 14000:(2005) 13954: 13923: 13842:(2003) 13766:(2002) 13629:p. 281 13542: 13503: 13493: 13475:Leiden 13377: 13315: 13163: 13089: 12684:1974). 12656:35–40. 12383: 12351: 12273: 12246: 12219: 12104:p. 126 11828:online 11814: 11754: 11702: 11630:online 11567: 11534:(1997) 11455: 11349:(1941) 11336:(2005) 11323:(2007) 11297:(1978) 11264: 11224: 11157: 11149: 11095: 11030:(1999) 10900:Nd.edu 10859: 10832: 10805: 10778: 10738: 10674: 10647: 10541: 10445: 10286: 10153:588406 10151: 9944:online 9729: 9702: 9609: 9550: 9501: 9493: 9390: 9365: 9172:Lekain 8761:bruits 8679:Salons 8561:. 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