Afro-Cubans - Knowledge

886:. He is quoted as saying: "One of the most just battles that must be fought, a battle that must be emphasized more and more, which I might call the fourth battle--the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers. I repeat: the battle to end racial discrimination at work centers. Of all the forms of racial discrimination the worst is the one that limits the colored Cuban's access to jobs. " Castro pointed to the distinction between social segregation and employment, while placing great emphasis on correcting the latter. In response to the large amount of racism that existed in the job market, Castro issued anti-discrimination laws. In addition, he attempted to close the class gap between wealthy white Cubans and Afro-Cubans with a massive literacy campaign among other egalitarian reforms in the early and mid-1960s. Two years after his 1959 speech at the Havana Labor Rally, Castro declared that the age of racism and discrimination was over. In a speech given at the 697: 2143: 779:. Despite official institutional support from the Castro's regime, Afro-Cuban music was treated mostly with ambivalence throughout the second half of the 20th century. Audiences looked down on traditional and religious Afro-Cuban music as primitive and anti-revolutionary, music educators continued pre-revolutionary indifference toward afro-Cuban folklore, and the religious nature of Afro-Cuban music led to criticisms of the government's whitening and de-Africanization of the music. Religious concerts declined, musical instruments related to 863:, who has written extensively on the issue, says that "There is an unstated threat, Afro-cubans in Cuba know that whenever you raise race in Cuba, you go to jail. Therefore the struggle in Cuba is different. There cannot be a civil rights movement. You will have instantly 10,000 black people dead. The government is frightened to the extent to which it does not understand African Cubans today. You have a new generation of Afro-Cubans who are looking at politics in another way." 5902: 4537: 4547: 3316: 2129: 3520: 4557: 5912: 50: 588: 902:

triggered by the change in government focus." The government's announcement easily allowed the Cuban public to deny discrimination without first correcting the stereotypes that remained in the minds of those who grew up in a Cuba that was racially and economically divided. Many who argue that racism does not exist in Cuba base their claims on the idea of Latin American

859:, describes race as a "social bomb" and says that "If the Cuban government were to permit Afro-Cubans to organize and raise their problems before ... totalitarianism would fall". Esteban Morales Domínguez, a professor at the University of Havana, says that "The absence of the debate on the racial problem already threatens ... the revolution's social project". 894:, Castro declared that the "just laws of the revolution ended unemployment, put an end to villages without hospitals and schools, enacted laws which ended discrimination, control by monopolies, humiliation, and the suffering of the people." Although inspiring, many would consider the claim to be premature." 652:

combined European influences with sub-Saharan African elements. Cuban music evolved markedly away from the traditional European model towards improvisational African traditions. Afro-Cuban musicians have taken pre-existing genres such as trova, country and rap and added their own realities of life in

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Beatriz Marcheco-Teruel, Esteban J. Parra, Evelyn Fuentes-Smith, Antonio Salas, Henriette N. Buttenschøn, Ditte Demontis, María Torres-Español, Lilia C. Marín-Padrón, Enrique J. Gómez-Cabezas, Vanesa Álvarez-Iglesias, Ana Mosquera-Miguel, Antonio Martínez-Fuentes, Ángel Carracedo, Anders D. Børglum,

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and Mark Sawyer in 2003, suggests that social discrimination is still prevalent, despite the low levels of economic discrimination. After considering the issue solved, the Cuban government moved beyond the issue of racism. His message marked a shift in Cuban society's perception of racism that was

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This empowerment became a catalyst for the second stage to be characterized by Afro-Cuban artists making art that truly reflected what it meant to be Afro-Cuban. Beginning in the 1930s this stage depicted a more serious view of black culture like African religions and the struggles associated with

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were confiscated and destroyed, afro-Cuban celebrations were banned outright, and strict limits were placed on the quantity of religious music heard on the radio and television. These attitudes softened in the 1970s and 1980s as the afro-Cuban community began to fuse religious elements into their

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classification persists. That is, biracial persons are typically classified by others as belonging to the race or ethnicity with lower social status, even if their ancestry is majority European. They found that persons with up to 69% European ancestry and the remainder African or African-American

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Before the revolution, authorities considered Afro-Cuban religious music a lesser culture; religious drummers were persecuted and instruments were confiscated. After the revolution, Afro-Cuban music could be practiced more openly, but authorities were suspicious due to its relation to Afro-Cuban

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In the years between the triumph of the revolution and the victory at Playa Girón the Cuban government was one of the world's most proactive regimes in the fight against discrimination. It achieved significant gains in racial equality through a series of egalitarian reforms early in the 1960s.

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who included African spirituals in his early repertory. Music in Cuba is encouraged both as a scholarly exercise and a popular enjoyment. To Cubans, music and study of it are integral parts of the revolution. Audiences are proud of mixed ethnicity that makes up the music from the Afro-Cuban

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Poems and essays by Afro-Cuban writers began to be published in the 1930s in newspapers, magazines and books, where they discussed their own personal heritage. Afro-Cuban and Afro-Cuban heritage artists such as Nicolás Guillén, Alberto Arredondo and Emilio Ballagas brought light to the

848:, racism is entrenched in Cuba. Afro-Cubans are systematically excluded from positions in tourism-related jobs, where they could earn tips in hard currencies. According to the EU study, Afro-Cubans are relegated to poor housing, and African Cubans are excluded from managerial positions. 979:

The movement evolved from an interest in the rediscovery of African heritage. It developed in two very different and parallel stages. One stage stemmed from European artists and intellectuals who were interested in African art and musical folk forms. This stage paralleled the

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in the 1950s was working class and lived in restricted areas, ethnic enclaves in the vicinity of Tampa's hundreds of cigar factories. African Cubans were tolerated to an extent in the Latin quarter (where most neighborhoods and cigar factories were integrated).

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Afro-Cuban arts emerged in the early 1960s with musicians spearheading an amateur movement bringing African-influenced drumming to the forefront of Cuban music. For example, Enrique Bonne's drumming ensembles took inspiration from Cuban folklore, traditional

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For years, many Haitians and their descendants in Cuba did not identify as such or speak Creole, which is based in French and African languages. In the eastern part of the island, many Haitians suffered discrimination among the majority Spanish speakers.

571:(Spanish for "manual laborers") cutting cane in the fields and processing it during harvest. Their living and working conditions were not much better than under slavery. Although many workers had planned to return to Haiti, most stayed on in Cuba. 742:

combines African instruments and playing styles with the meter and rhythm of Spanish poetic forms. While much of the music is performed in cut-time, artists typically use an array of time signatures like 6/8 for drumming beats. On the other hand,

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art form that used aesthetics from both European and African culture. Although the actual movement of Afrocubanismo faded by the early 1940s, Afro-Cuban culture continues to play a vital role in the identity of Cuba. It has been the

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have been settling in Cuba. Most of them settle in the eastern part of the island, due to its proximity to their home countries, and further contributing to the already high percentage of ethnic blacks on that side of the island.

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noted "The danger starts with his example: after all, a young, Afro-cuban, progressive politician has no chance of reaching the highest office in Cuba, although a majority of the island's people are of mostly African descent"

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music. In the 1990s, Afro-Cuban music became a mainstay of Cuba's tourism economy. Members of religious groups earned their living by performing and teaching ritual drumming, song, and dance, to tourists visiting the country.

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In the 21st century, classes in Haitian Creole are offered in Guantanamo, Matanzas and the City of Havana, in an effort to preserve the traditional language of the Afro-Haitians. There is also a Creole-language radio program.

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has had more recent immigrant communities of Afro-Cubans, known as Amparos. They are descendants of Afro-Cuban soldiers who were transported to serve as military in the country in 1975 as a result of Cuban involvement in the

479:(by way of voluntary arrangement). When there were an insufficient number of volunteers, the colonial government arranged a June 20, 1861, deportation from Cuba. In Spanish Guinea, the indentured servants became part of the 914:. For many Cubans this translates into an argument of "racial harmony", often referred to as racial democracy. In the case of Cuba, ideas of Latin American Exceptionalism have delayed the progress of true racial harmony. 755:, dance music, and American Jazz. Pello de Afrokan created a new dance rhythm called Mozambique that increased in popularity after his predominantly afro-Cuban folklore troupe performed in 1964. Afro-Cuban artists 3269:

Henken, Ted. "Cuban Literature-The Avant-Garde vs the Vanguard: Colonial Literature," Cuba: A Global Studies Handbook Global Studies :Latin America & The Caribbean. Santa Barbara: ABC_CLIO, 2008: 363–385.

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system. In addition, in current society, classification may simply be made based on visible attributes; thus, a person who looks white is likely classified as white, especially if educated and middle class.

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Moore, Robin D. "The Minorista vanguard: Moderism and Afrocubanismo" Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubansimo and artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940.Pittsburg: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997:

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of Cuban identity. The Revolution has funded many projects that restore the work of Afro-Cubans in an effort to accommodate an African-driven identity within the new anti-racist Cuban society.

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African music and Afro-Cuban music mutually exchanged rhythmic patterns, melodies, and cultural elements, creating a dynamic musical interchange. African artists, particularly those from the

1694:— songwriter, arranger, and pianist with Sonora Matancera; son of Pablo "Bubú" Vázquez Gobín and brother of Elpidio Vázquez, he succeeded Lino Frías on piano as a member of Sonora Matancera 992:, and coincided with stylistic European Vanguard (like Cubism and its representation of African masks). It was characterized by the participation of white intellectuals such as Cubans 5622: 767:, were influential figures in shaping the Afro-Cuban community and its music. Bauzá, a trumpeter and composer, pioneered the fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with jazz, giving rise to the 3934: 3276:

Ródriguez-Mangual, Edna M. "Introduction" Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro Cuban Cultural Identity. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2004: 1–167.

937:, were areas that bordered on other restricted sections-areas for U.S. blacks or whites only. In this Latin quarter, there existed racial discrimination despite its subtleness. 436:

says that "An objective assessment of the situation of Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution".

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that opened up a space for extended research of African ethnic roots in Cuba. The rhetoric of the Revolution incorporates black history and its contribution as an important

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resulted in a wave of ethnic French settlers fleeing to Cuba, and often taking numerous African slaves with them. These refugees settled mainly in the east, and especially

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once-marginalized African race and culture. It became a symbol of empowerment and individuality for Afro-Cubans within the established Western culture of the Americas.

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a socialist country and as black persons. Genres like Nueva Trova are seen as live representations of the revolution and have been affected by Afro-Cuban musicians like

2285: 2217: 3266:"Literature of the Recolutionary Era", Encyclopedia of Cuba: People, history, culture. Ed. Luis Martinez Ternandez 1st Vol. Wesport: Greenwood Press, 2003: 345–346. 3279:"Afrocubanismo", Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. Ed. Lenard S. Klein. 2nd ed. 4thvol. Continuum: Continuum Publishing Company, 1989: 20–21. 1928:— professional boxer; he held the unified IBF and Ring magazine cruiserweight titles between 2011 and 2015, as well as the WBA interim cruiserweight title in 2011. 327:

estimated the proportion of people as having some black ancestry is more likely about 62%. They note that complex attitudes toward racial identification, and the

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fused Afro-Cuban musical influences with their traditions, crafting distinct sounds. The result was an array of genres popular in West and Central Africa namely

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is influenced by African rhythms. Cuban popular music, and much of the art music, combines influences from Spain and Africa in ways unique to Cuba. For example

906:. According to the argument of Latin American Exceptionality, a social history of intermarriage and mixing of the races is unique to Latina America. The large 323:

There has been much scholarly discussion about the demographic composition of the island. A study by the Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at the

791:. Cuban hip-hop focused on criticism of the Cuban state and the global economic order, including racism, colonialism, imperialism, and global capitalism. 3717: 3244:

Arnedo-Gómez, Miguel. "Introduction", Writing Rumba: The Afrocubanista Movement in Poetry. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. 2006: 1–170.

882:'s first public address on racism after his rise to power was on March 23, 1959, at a labor rally in Havana, less than three months after he defeated 398:

of the largely white (or ethnic European) Cuban professional class, who were subject to violence, takeovers and losing their businesses and property.

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During the 1920s and 1930s Cuba experienced a movement geared towards Afro-Cuban culture called Afrocubanismo. The movement had a large impact on

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Afro-Cubans are predominantly Roman Catholic, with minorities of Protestant. Afro-Cuban religion can be broken down into three main currents:

4001: 1024:. The African-inspired art tended to represent Afro-Cubans with cliché images such as a black man sitting beneath a palm tree with a cigar. 1751:; served as a member of the committee of consultations that drafted and amended the Constitution of 1901 and as a Representative and Senator 4044: 2855: 1904:- Boxer:two-time cruiserweight world champion, having held the WBA title from 2017 to 2018 and the IBF title from 2019 to September 2020. 538:

language and culture first entered Cuba with the arrival of immigrants from Saint-Domingue at the start of the 19th century. This was a

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that focused on one particular theme: African culture. Specifically it highlighted the struggle for independence from Spain, African

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In spite of all the promises and speeches by government leaders, racial discrimination against Afro-Cubans continues to be a major

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religions. The first revolutionary institution created for the performing "national folklore" (Afro-Cuban artistic traditions) was

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Saunders, Tanya (2012). "Black Thoughts, Black Activism: Cuban Underground Hip-Hop and Afro-Latino Countercultures of Modernity".

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Other cultural elements considered to be Afro-Cuban can be found in language (including syntax, vocabulary, and style of speech).

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According to the 2002 national census that surveyed 11.2 million Cubans, 1 million or 11% of Cubans identified as Afro-Cuban or

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In Cuba, there are many terms to classify Afro-Cubans of varying portions of African descent, related to the historic Spanish

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Since the mid-19th century, innovations within Cuban music have been attributed to the Afro-Cuban community. Genres such as

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cultivation, and constructed sugar refineries. They also developed coffee plantations for another important commodity crop.

3837: 5073: 4049: 2296: 2228: 1320:— trumpeter and bandleader; when Arsenio Rodríguez left Cuba never to return he handed over to him leadership of his group 5769: 4990: 4811: 4028: 3968: 2162: 433: 2435:"Cuba: Exploring the History of Admixture and the Genetic Basis of Pigmentation Using Autosomal and Uniparental Markers" 5961: 4995: 3677: 3598: 3282: 2813:"A barrier for Cuba's black people – New attitudes on once-taboo race questions emerge with a fledgling black movement" 921:

issue for the Cuban government, even resulting in riots in Central Havana, a mostly black neighborhood in the capital.

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movement which gained considerable popularity in the United States, Europe, and the Caribbean in the mid 20th century.

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racial hierarchy that has existed on the island, have influenced the lower figures of self-identification as black.

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when their tenure was over, most settled in these countries, marrying into the local African indigenous tribes.

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community, despite there being a boundary of distrust and uncertainty between Cubans and Afro-Cuban culture.

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During the 17th century, ex-slaves from Cuba and Brazil were transported to Africa to work for colonists as

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populations that result from high levels of interracial union common to Latin America are often linked to

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Although Afro-Cubans can be found throughout Cuba, they comprise a higher proportion of the population in

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society without racism. His government promised equal opportunities for education, health care and work.

256: 31: 2820: 2384: 2348: 1413:— songwriter; known for his lyrics "Ella y yo" and "La rosa roja;" cousin of Alberto Arredondo's mother 1005: 5794: 5698: 5658: 5333: 4933: 4918: 4701: 4407: 4267: 4131: 4006: 3424: 3057: 517:

to support a faction of society. As a result of this era, a small Spanish-speaking community formed in

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Afro-Cuban music can be divided into religious and profane. Religious music includes the chants,

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By contrast, in the contemporary United States, a 2010 Harvard study showed that the practice of

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In the 21st century, many native African immigrants have been going to Cuba, especially from

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Moore, Robin (2006). "Black Music in a Raceless Society: Afrocuban Folklore and Socialism".

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on the island of Hispaniola. The violence associated with the final years of the 1791–1804

284: 2043: 1919: 1907: 1697: 1603: 8: 5567: 5558: 5523: 5299: 4928: 4733: 4289: 4084: 4011: 3912: 3682: 3651: 1728: 1585:— "the king of mambo," composer, and the creator of the bachata rhythm, a variant of the 1347: 1231: 445: 324: 117: 105: 4716: 3312: 2114: 1937: 1627: 1416: 1404: 1159: 1013: 487: 401:

A small percentage of Afro-Cubans left Cuba, mostly for the United States (particularly

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Henken, T. "Cuban Literature-The Avant-Garde vs the Vanguard: Colonial Literature", in

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Breaing the Chains Forging the Nation: The Afro-Cuban Fight for Freedom and Equality.

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Speech given by Fidel Castro on April 8, 1961. Text provided by Havana FIEL Network.

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Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920-1940

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García, Cristina. "Introduction", Cubanismo! New York: Vintage Books, 2002: 1–364.

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Guevara, Gema R. (2005). "Narratives of Racial Authority in Cuban Popular Music".

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used in rituals of the religious currents mentioned above. Profane music includes

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of the population of Cuba to be 72% European, 20% African and 8% Native American.

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The lasting reputation of the Afrocubanismo movement was the establishment of a

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The Afro-Cuban religions all maintain some degree of use of African languages.

788: 744: 729: 535: 457: 421:. Relatively few Afro-Cubans resided in the nearby Spanish-speaking country of 113: 3058:"African-Americans: Blacks in Cuba 'treated with callous disregard' - CNN.com" 1977: 1669: 1267: 1237: 756: 5930: 5572: 5497: 5433: 5363: 5224: 5214: 5194: 5182: 5150: 4945: 4866: 4799: 4728: 4689: 4540: 4412: 4346: 4324: 4279: 4252: 4201: 3367: 3346: 3095: 3015: 2981: 2764: 2178: 2148: 2099: 2065: 1931: 1892: 1760: 1609: 1552: 1534: 1075: 1017: 1009: 946: 869: 733: 645: 641: 539: 530: 453: 200: 196: 176: 164: 1983: 1615: 1540: 1171: 1141: 547: 143: 5829: 5824: 5663: 5321: 5311: 5043: 4649: 3499: 2109: 2055: 1955: 1784: 1649: 1546: 1428: 1105: 898: 879: 864: 760: 510: 391: 313: 290: 272: 2568: 2524: 1449: 1335: 985: 721: 5846: 5688: 5512: 5475: 5465: 5438: 5053: 4965: 4196: 3919: 3524: 3467: 2173: 2134: 2019: 2001: 1852: 1840: 1738: 1658: 1489: 1312: 1207: 1177: 1129: 1033: 827: 738: 717: 481: 469: 465: 426: 395: 345: 188: 184: 97: 3144:. Ed. Lenard S Klein. Continuum: Continuum Publishing Company, 2008: 20. 2970:"Opinion | Fidel Castro and communism's flawed record with black people" 1940:— most prolific home run hitter in the history of amateur Cuban baseball 803: 780: 607: 591: 151: 5814: 5485: 5425: 5143: 4750: 4738: 4319: 4111: 3722: 3712: 3328: 2477: 2049: 1965: 1639: 1493: 1432: 1329: 1135: 1111: 1081: 934: 637: 611: 599: 551: 302: 2628:

Garland, Phyl (1977). "Cuban Music: An Instrument of the Revolution".

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Rap was adopted in 1999 and solidified with the rise of hip-hop group

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In the 19th century, the former slaves were taken to Africa under the

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in Eastern Cuba than in other parts of the island. As the major city,

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Lydia Cabrera and the Construction of an Afro-Cuban Cultural Identity

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and include individuals of all origins. Santería is syncretized with

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The percentage of Afro-Cubans on the island increased after the 1959

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Moore, R. "The Minorista Vanguard: Modernism and Afrocubanismo."

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Unbecoming Blackness: The Diaspora Cultures of Afro-Cuban America

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Although the indentured workers were nominally free to return to

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while incorporating preserved African cultural practices. (1850)

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Solventando las diferencias: la ideología del mestizaje en Cuba

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has the largest population of Afro-Cubans of any city in Cuba.

364: 236: 5553: 5177: 3253:. Madrid, Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main, Vervuert, 2003. 1425:— violinist, composer, and inventor of the cha-cha-chá rhythm 810:

both have large parts of their liturgy in African languages (

752: 682: 379: 336: 49: 1757:— part of the Cuban Independence War; Antonio Maceo's mother 405:). They and their U.S.-born children are known variously as 255:

and other cultural elements found in Cuban society, such as

251:

associated with this community, and the combining of native

3566: 3315: 2913:

Racial Democracy in the Americas: A Latin and US Comparison

2590:

Benmayor, Rina (1981). "La "Nueva Trova": New Cuban Song".

2183: 1709: 1446:— trumpeter, songwriter, and arranger with Sonora Matancera 956: 587: 495: 248: 3131:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006: 1. 2944:"The Cuban Revolution and the Myth of Racial Inclusivity" 2730:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 199. 1579:— Afro-Cuban/jazz percussionist, composer, and bandleader 513:, deployed thousands of troops to the country during the 3260:

Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2019.

2268:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

3157:. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997:200. 2851:

Speech at Havana Labor Rally . Transcript available on

2728:

Music and Revolution: Cultural Change in Socialist Cuba

851:

Enrique Patterson, an Afro-Cuban journalist and former

485:. In the area of present-day Nigeria, they were called 2464:"Cuba's Other Internationalism: Angola 25 Years Later" 3004:"Afro-Cuban Activists Fight Racism Between Two Fires" 247:

can also refer to historical or cultural elements in

3142:

Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century

2529:

World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples

2124: 1747:— 1890s revolutionary leader, close collaborator of 1270:— musician and songwriter; brother-in-law of Machito 521:of Afro-Cubans; they number about 100,000 persons. 448:or workers. They were taken largely to present-day 439: 3118:. Houston, Texas: Arte Publico Press, 130. Print. 2656:"The African Roots of Cuban Music - the Elephant" 2448: 2446: 1371:— musical director of the Buena Vista Social Club 5928: 2891: 2889: 1252:— trumpeter and bandleader; cousin of Benny Moré 2853:The University of Texas at Austin - Web Central 1737:— Cuban revolutionary and second-in-command to 844:According to anthropologists dispatched by the 728:(carnival music) and lesser styles such as the 3181:Encyclopedia of Cuba: People, history, culture 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2488: 2443: 2389:A Rising Voice: Afro-Latin Americans (5 Parts) 557:By 1804, some 30,000 Frenchmen were living in 4587: 3586: 3551: 3298: 3248: 2911:Pena, Y., Jim Sidanis and Mark Sawyer. 2003. 2886: 2461: 4045:Committees for the Defense of the Revolution 3221:. California/International Arts Foundation. 2271:, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 1338:— percussionist and former member of Irakere 747:uses a polymetric 7/8 + 5/8 time signature. 2930:Racial Politics in Post- Revolutionary Cuba 2779: 2531:. Minority Rights Group International. 2008 1843:— Olympic wrestler and mixed martial artist 1474:— pianist and songwriter; brother of Cachao 4594: 4580: 3558: 3544: 3305: 3291: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2794:"'Obama Effect' Highlights Racism in Cuba" 2377: 2022:— boxer; former WBA Featherweight Champion 1910:— boxer; former WBC Cruiserweight Champion 1258:— percussionist with Israel "Cachao" López 1043: 974: 48: 3205:Rodríguez-Mangual, E. "Introduction", 18. 3084:"Cuba Begins to Answer Its Race Question" 3001: 1849:— Olympic Judoka and mixed martial artist 1657:- record producer and rapper, founder of 1387:Francisco Raúl "Machito" Gutiérrez Grillo 1069: 349:were still being classified as 'black'. 4055:Military Counterintelligence Directorate 3256:Finch, Aisha and Fannie Rushing (eds.), 3081: 2750: 2589: 1634:Ramón "Monguito el Único" Sardiñas Quián 695: 586: 3179:"Literature of the Revolutionary Era", 2941: 2800: 2775:– via WorldCat Discovery Service. 2685:– via WorldCat Discovery Service. 2668: 2644:– via WorldCat Discovery Service. 2627: 2614:– via WorldCat Discovery Service. 2579:– via WorldCat Discovery Service. 2335: 2333: 2331: 1958:— only bodybuilder to have ever beaten 1600:— percussionist, singer, and bandleader 1311:" — percussionist and former member of 897:Research conducted by Yesilernis Peña, 833: 14: 5929: 4174: 3218:Memoria: Cuban Art of the 20th Century 3214: 3192:Rodríguez-Mangual, E. "Introduction", 2796:. New America Media. 15 December 2008. 2369:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2320:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2252:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 1630:— musician, songwriter, and bandleader 1606:— musician, bandleader, and songwriter 1282:— singer, composer and record producer 1064: 1036:during this stage of the movement was 4575: 3539: 3286: 3170:. Santa Barbara: ABC_CLIO, 2008: 363. 3082:Robinson, Eugene (12 November 2000). 2725: 2721: 2719: 2623: 2621: 2554: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2494: 2409: 1492:— singer, humanitarian, and widow of 632:Music of Cuba § African heritage 594:icons at an open place of worship in 5911: 4601: 2403: 2385:"Part 4 A Barrier for Cuba's Blacks" 2328: 1704:Lupe Victoria "La Lupe" Yolí Raymond 1567:— musician, bandleader, and composer 1507:— composer; cousin of Cheo Marquetti 1238:Federico A. "Tata Güines" Soto Alejo 550:. There the French later introduced 72:Regions with significant populations 4029:National Revolutionary Police Force 3987:Revolutionary Armed Forces (MINFAR) 3930:National Assembly of People's Power 2942:Mirabal, Nancy (10 November 2017). 2872:Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution 2462:Kevin Edmonds (27 September 2013). 1592:Francisco "Compay Segundo" Repilado 434:Minority Rights Group International 24: 3678:United States embargo against Cuba 3238: 3002:Fernandes, Sujatha (24 May 2016). 2716: 2618: 2543: 2273:Random House Unabridged Dictionary 2040:— world record holder in high jump 1968:— MLB, three time batting champion 1573:— singer (Buena Vista Social Club) 1389:— singer, musician, and bandleader 1365:— singer (Buena Vista Social Club) 477:Royal Orders of September 13, 1845 352:A DNA study in 2014 estimated the 25: 5978: 5942:African diaspora in the Caribbean 4050:Dirección General de Inteligencia 3565: 3127:Arnedo-Gómez, M. "Introduction." 2967: 1873:— boxer; WBC Lightweight Champion 1829:Javier Arenas (American football) 1787:— writer and political journalist 628:Music of African heritage in Cuba 524: 5910: 5901: 5900: 4783:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 4555: 4545: 4536: 4535: 3518: 3314: 2683:10.1111/j.1524-2226.2005.00045.x 2671:Journal of Popular Music Studies 2410:Bradt, Steve (9 December 2010). 2141: 2127: 1763:– author and community organizer 1700:— guitarist, singer and composer 940: 924:Most of the Latin population of 814:and Ñañigo, respectively) while 440:Afro-Cuban descendants in Africa 293:. Some 3 million identified as " 5957:Cuban people of African descent 4546: 3208: 3199: 3186: 3173: 3168:Cuba: A Global Studies Handbook 3160: 3147: 3134: 3121: 3109: 3075: 3050: 3029: 2995: 2961: 2935: 2922: 2905: 2877: 2864: 2845: 2827: 2744: 2702: 2689: 2662: 2648: 2583: 2517: 2470: 1916:— MLB, half-brother of El Duque 1383:— singer; stepsister of Machito 971:into traditional modes of art. 278: 2697:Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti 2642:10.1080/00064246.1977.11413920 2455: 2426: 2278: 2260: 2210: 1861:— MLB, cousin of José Cardenal 1300:— tres player and singer with 1250:Alfredo "Chocolate" Armenteros 1240:— percussionist and bandleader 888:Confederation of Cuban Workers 396:mass migration from the island 163:, Islam, Muslim minorities of 65:(9.3% of the Cuban Population) 13: 1: 2478:"Race & Identity in Cuba" 1537:— singer, pianist and actress 602:practiced by many Afro-Cubans 3698:Cuban intervention in Angola 2391:. Miami Herald. 20 June 2007 2204: 1962:in a Mr. Olympia competition 1920:Orlando "El Duque" Hernández 1775:— 1890s revolutionary leader 1356:— flute player, a member of 1288:— singer-songwriter, actress 1132:- actress, singer and dancer 777:Conjunto Folklórico Nacional 663:Democratic Republic of Congo 7: 3116:Black Cuban, Black American 2753:Latin American Perspectives 2592:Latin American Music Review 2120: 1716: 1678:— conga player and composer 1513:- American dance music icon 1393:Marcelino "Rapindey" Guerra 794: 582: 32:Afro-Cuban (disambiguation) 10: 5983: 5795:African diaspora religions 4919:Indigenous Black Canadians 4007:Territorial Troops Militia 3215:Veigas, José, ed. (2002). 3037:"CUBA – Race and Equality" 2699:. Ibadan University Press. 2412:"'One-drop rule' persists" 2275:, Random House, Inc. 2006. 1803: 1793:— Cuban Communist guerilla 1399:Orlando "Cascarita" Guerra 1326:— percussionist and singer 1220: 944: 837: 625: 528: 425:and the U.S. territory of 282: 29: 5962:People of African descent 5896: 5785: 5770:African Hebrew Israelites 5755: 5709: 5646: 5635: 5615: 5546:Afro-Asians in South Asia 5511: 5424: 5259: 5109: 4894: 4820: 4630: 4616: 4609: 4531: 4466: 4368: 4359: 4170: 4161: 4080: 4071: 4037: 4021: 3979: 3863: 3859: 3850: 3798: 3789: 3731: 3718:Fidel's transfer of power 3670: 3619:Cuban War of Independence 3577: 3513: 3460: 3417: 3386: 3355: 3327: 2968:Starr, Terrell Jermaine. 2874:, New York. 2006, p. 326. 2695:King, Anthony (1961:14). 1816: 1731:— politician and composer 509:. Cuba's Prime Minister, 175: 170: 128: 123: 88: 83: 76: 71: 61: 56: 47: 5937:African diaspora in Cuba 4812:Turks and Caicos Islands 2917:University of California 2765:10.1177/0094582X11428062 2710:"Frank "Machito" Grillo" 1684:— pianist and leader of 1628:Ramón "Mongo" Santamaría 1478:Orlando "Cachaíto" López 700:Afro-Cubans celebrating 621: 374:. Also, immigrants from 2495:Lopez, Antonio (2012). 1781:— human rights activist 1779:Jorge Luis García Pérez 1648:— rapper and member of 1598:Orlando "Puntilla" Ríos 1501:— singer and bandleader 1486:— singer and bandleader 1454:Buena Vista Social Club 1417:Generoso "Tojo" Jiménez 1369:Juan de Marcos González 1264:— singer and bandleader 1120:- singer, dancer, actor 1044:Results of the movement 975:History of the movement 27:Ethnic minority in Cuba 5800:Anti-African sentiment 4127:International rankings 3964:Prime Minister of Cuba 3959:Vice President of Cuba 3249: 2163:Black Latino Americans 1791:Harry "Pombo" Villegas 1767:Esteban Lazo Hernández 1676:Carlos "Patato" Valdes 1395:— singer and composer 1304:; son of Valentín Cané 1088:Pastor Argudín Pedroso 1070:Arts and entertainment 705: 603: 228: 5952:Ethnic groups in Cuba 5852:Civil rights movement 5740:Afro-Caribbean people 5049:Chestnut Ridge people 4971:African-American Jews 4773:Saint Kitts and Nevis 3247:Duno-Gottberg, Luis, 2858:21 March 2009 at the 2726:Moore, Robin (2006). 2569:10.1353/cub.2007.0009 2499:. NYU Press. p. 2414:. The Harvard Gazette 2070:Baseball Hall of Fame 1960:Arnold Schwarzenegger 1897:Baseball Hall of Fame 1810:Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez 1739:Ernesto "Che" Guevara 1472:Orestes "Macho" López 1466:Israel "Cachao" López 1452:— singer-songwriter ( 1216:- artist and comedian 1204:- actor and filmmaker 1002:Fortunato Vizcarrondo 933:and its counterpart, 699: 590: 171:Related ethnic groups 5810:Atlantic slave trade 5498:United Arab Emirates 4330:Association Football 4315:Scouting and Guiding 4107:Dual economy of Cuba 3878:Council of Ministers 3838:World Heritage Sites 3693:Cuban Missile Crisis 3688:Bay of Pigs Invasion 3632:Spanish–American War 2899:Communist Revolution 2897:Afro-Cubans and the 2525:"Cuba – Afro-Cubans" 2157:Afro-Latin Americans 1926:Yoan Pablo Hernández 1745:Juan Gualberto Gómez 1723:Salvador Valdés Mesa 1688:, son of Bebo Valdés 1577:Luciano "Chano" Pozo 1555:— singer and pianist 1227:Afro-Cuban All Stars 1148:Herizen F. Guardiola 853:University of Havana 834:Racial consciousness 407:Afro-Cuban Americans 394:, because there was 285:Demographics of Cuba 131:Afro-Cuban religions 30:For other uses, see 5699:Sierra Leone Creole 5550:India and Pakistan 4795:Trinidad and Tobago 4645:Antigua and Barbuda 3683:Escambray rebellion 2841:. 30 December 2008. 2345:www.miamiherald.com 2165:– the United States 2105:Julio César La Cruz 2090:Aricheell Hernández 2062:Cristóbal Torriente 2058:— volleyball player 1729:Juan Almeida Bosque 1232:Francisco Aguabella 1065:Notable Afro-Cubans 1032:slavery. The main 446:indentured servants 325:University of Miami 243:ancestry. The term 241:sub-Saharan African 239:of full or partial 118:Cuban Sign Language 44: 5967:Cuban entertainers 5842:Black Lives Matter 5449:Ethiopian Israelis 5099:African immigrants 5074:Louisiana Redbones 5010:Chickasaw freedmen 4939:African immigrants 4707:Dominican Republic 4132:Telecommunications 3997:Revolutionary Navy 3992:Revolutionary Army 3873:Corruption in Cuba 3599:Colonial governors 3505:Indigenous peoples 2008:Ana Fidelia Quirot 1992:— amateur wrestler 1990:Anthony Echemendia 1986:— MLB Hall of Fame 1855:— Olympic wrestler 1583:Dámaso Pérez Prado 998:Rómulo Lachatañeré 982:Harlem Renaissance 857:Marxist philosophy 818:uses a mixture of 706: 604: 544:Haitian Revolution 452:, the home of the 423:Dominican Republic 415:Hispanic Americans 213:Afro–Puerto Ricans 193:Cape Verdean Cuban 42: 5924: 5923: 5892: 5891: 5805:Anti-Black racism 5745:British Jamaicans 5735:African Americans 5720:African Americans 5674:Americo-Liberians 5659:African Americans 5631: 5630: 5454:Sudanese refugees 5255: 5254: 5025:Seminole freedmen 5005:Cherokee freedmen 4986:Black Southerners 4961:African Americans 4909:African Americans 4569: 4568: 4527: 4526: 4523: 4522: 4355: 4354: 4157: 4156: 4067: 4066: 4063: 4062: 3947:President of Cuba 3925:Political parties 3908:Human trafficking 3893:Foreign relations 3846: 3845: 3785: 3784: 3739:History of Havana 3533: 3532: 3228:978-0-917571-11-4 3140:"Afrocubanismo", 2630:The Black Scholar 2510:978-0-8147-6547-0 2437:, July 24, 2014. 2351:on 21 August 2013 2189:Angolan Civil War 2044:Teófilo Stevenson 1908:Juan Carlos Gómez 1698:María Teresa Vera 1622:Gonzalo Rubalcaba 1604:Arsenio Rodríguez 1256:Guillermo Barreto 1108:- television host 890:in observance of 884:Fulgencio Batista 616:Roman Catholicism 515:Angolan Civil War 462:Equatorial Guinea 419:African Americans 354:genetic admixture 316:, who promised a 312:brought to power 218: 217: 156:Popular religions 16:(Redirected from 5974: 5914: 5913: 5904: 5903: 5644: 5643: 5032:Creoles of color 5015:Choctaw freedmen 4981:Black Mennonites 4914:Black Mennonites 4761:Jamaican Maroons 4717:Samaná Americans 4628: 4627: 4614: 4613: 4603:African diaspora 4596: 4589: 4582: 4573: 4572: 4559: 4558: 4549: 4548: 4539: 4538: 4489:Baseball players 4366: 4365: 4172: 4171: 4168: 4167: 4120:Convertible peso 4115: 4078: 4077: 3883:Council of State 3861: 3860: 3857: 3856: 3796: 3795: 3775:Santiago de Cuba 3584: 3583: 3560: 3553: 3546: 3537: 3536: 3523: 3522: 3521: 3319: 3318: 3307: 3300: 3293: 3284: 3283: 3252: 3233: 3232: 3212: 3206: 3203: 3197: 3190: 3184: 3177: 3171: 3164: 3158: 3151: 3145: 3138: 3132: 3125: 3119: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3079: 3073: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3024: 3022: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2939: 2933: 2926: 2920: 2909: 2903: 2895:Moore, C. 1995. 2893: 2884: 2881: 2875: 2870:Perez, Louis A. 2868: 2862: 2849: 2843: 2842: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2819:. 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Archived from 2222: 2214: 2151: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2137: 2132: 2131: 2130: 2115:Marcel Hernández 2038:Javier Sotomayor 2026:Alexis Rubalcaba 1938:Orestes Kindelán 1755:Mariana Grajales 1712:— female bassist 1405:Amaury Gutiérrez 1348:Addys D'Mercedes 1318:Félix Chappottín 1302:Sonora Matancera 1286:Christina Milian 1262:Abelardo Barroso 1166:Georgina Herrera 1160:Nestor Hernández 1055:Cuban Revolution 1014:Luis Palés Matos 994:Alejo Carpentier 990:French Caribbean 953:Cuban literature 912:racial democracy 732:. Virtually all 598:. Santería is a 388:Cuban revolution 361:Oriente Province 310:Cuban Revolution 66: 57:Total population 52: 45: 41: 21: 5982: 5981: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5972: 5971: 5947:Society of Cuba 5927: 5926: 5925: 5920: 5888: 5862:Genetic history 5787: 5781: 5757: 5751: 5731:United Kingdom 5705: 5684:Afro-Brazilians 5639: 5637: 5627: 5611: 5516: 5507: 5420: 5263: 5251: 5111: 5105: 4976:Alabama Creoles 4896: 4890: 4822: 4816: 4621: 4605: 4600: 4570: 4565: 4556: 4519: 4462: 4351: 4295:Public holidays 4285:Musical theater 4153: 4113: 4090:Agrarian reform 4059: 4033: 4022:Law enforcement 4017: 3975: 3842: 3781: 3727: 3703:Mariel boatlift 3671:Post-Revolution 3666: 3637:Platt Amendment 3624:Sinking of USS 3573: 3564: 3534: 3529: 3525:Cuba portal 3519: 3517: 3509: 3456: 3413: 3382: 3351: 3323: 3313: 3311: 3241: 3239:Further reading 3236: 3229: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3200: 3191: 3187: 3178: 3174: 3165: 3161: 3152: 3148: 3139: 3135: 3126: 3122: 3114: 3110: 3100: 3098: 3088:Washington Post 3080: 3076: 3066: 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2046:— amateur boxer 2034:— amateur boxer 2028:— amateur boxer 1914:Liván Hernández 1902:Yuniel Dorticos 1877:Aroldis Chapman 1859:Bert Campaneris 1835:Randy Arozarena 1819: 1806: 1719: 1655:SpaceGhostPurrp 1571:Omara Portuondo 1565:Ignacio Piñeiro 1561:— percussionist 1549:— jazz musician 1523:Celeste Mendoza 1438:Xiomara Laugart 1411:Óscar Hernández 1358:Orquesta Aragón 1294:— percussionist 1276:— percussionist 1234:— percussionist 1223: 1154:Nicolás Guillén 1094:Renny Arozarena 1072: 1067: 1046: 1038:Nicolás Guillén 1022:Roger de Lauria 1012:, Puerto Rican 977: 949: 943: 842: 836: 797: 769:Afro-Cuban jazz 671:Congolese rumba 634: 626:Main articles: 624: 585: 533: 527: 442: 411:Cuban Americans 287: 281: 209:Afro-Dominicans 158: 154: 134: 64: 63: 40: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5980: 5970: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5922: 5921: 5919: 5918: 5908: 5897: 5894: 5893: 5890: 5889: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5884: 5874: 5872:Pan-Africanism 5869: 5864: 5859: 5857:Creole peoples 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5838: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5791: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5773: 5772: 5761: 5759: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5749: 5748: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5729: 5728: 5727: 5722: 5713: 5711: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5703: 5702: 5701: 5693: 5692: 5691: 5686: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5668: 5667: 5666: 5661: 5652: 5650: 5641: 5633: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5625: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5607: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5581: 5580: 5575: 5573:Black Dutchmen 5565: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5561: 5548: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5536: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5494: 5493: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5457: 5456: 5451: 5441: 5436: 5430: 5428: 5422: 5421: 5419: 5418: 5417: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5389:United Kingdom 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5314: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5271: 5269: 5257: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5238: 5237: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5170: 5165: 5164: 5163: 5153: 5148: 5147: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5126: 5121: 5115: 5113: 5107: 5106: 5104: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5022: 5020:Creek freedmen 5017: 5012: 5007: 4993: 4991:Black Hispanic 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4957:United States 4955: 4954: 4953: 4943: 4942: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4900: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4876: 4871: 4870: 4869: 4862:Miskito people 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4826: 4824: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4802: 4792: 4791: 4790: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4736: 4726: 4721: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4672: 4670:Cayman Islands 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4636: 4634: 4625: 4611: 4607: 4606: 4599: 4598: 4591: 4584: 4576: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4563: 4553: 4543: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4517: 4516: 4515: 4505: 4504: 4503: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4481: 4476: 4470: 4468: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4369: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4352: 4350: 4349: 4344: 4343: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4249: 4248: 4238: 4237: 4236: 4231: 4221: 4220: 4219: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4178: 4176: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4151: 4150: 4149: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4123: 4122: 4117: 4104: 4099: 4098: 4097: 4092: 4081: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4065: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4041: 4039: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4031: 4025: 4023: 4019: 4018: 4016: 4015: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3983: 3981: 3977: 3976: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3971: 3961: 3956: 3955: 3954: 3944: 3939: 3938: 3937: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3864: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3808:Municipalities 3805: 3799: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3779: 3778: 3777: 3748: 3747: 3746: 3735: 3733: 3729: 3728: 3726: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3708:Special Period 3705: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3674: 3672: 3668: 3667: 3665: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3652:1932 hurricane 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3609:Ten Years' War 3606: 3601: 3596: 3590: 3588: 3587:Pre-Revolution 3581: 3575: 3574: 3563: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3540: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3527: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3508: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3486: 3485: 3475: 3470: 3464: 3462: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3452: 3447: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3421: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3390: 3388: 3384: 3383: 3381: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3359: 3357: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3333: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3310: 3309: 3302: 3295: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3254: 3245: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3234: 3227: 3207: 3198: 3185: 3172: 3159: 3146: 3133: 3120: 3108: 3074: 3049: 3028: 2994: 2960: 2934: 2921: 2919:, Los Angeles. 2904: 2885: 2876: 2863: 2844: 2826: 2799: 2778: 2743: 2736: 2715: 2701: 2688: 2677:(3): 255–274. 2661: 2647: 2617: 2604:10.2307/780148 2582: 2542: 2516: 2509: 2487: 2469: 2454: 2442: 2439:PLOS Genetics. 2425: 2402: 2376: 2327: 2302:on 3 June 2014 2277: 2259: 2234:on 3 June 2014 2208: 2206: 2203: 2202: 2201: 2199:Racism in Cuba 2196: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2169:Cabildo (Cuba) 2166: 2160: 2153: 2152: 2138: 2122: 2119: 2118: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2095:Pedro Pichardo 2092: 2087: 2085:Alexis Copello 2082: 2077: 2075:Odisnel Cooper 2072: 2059: 2053: 2047: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2023: 2017: 2014:Alexei Ramírez 2011: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1953: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1917: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1886: 1883:José Contreras 1880: 1874: 1871:Joel Casamayor 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1847:Héctor Lombard 1844: 1838: 1832: 1826: 1823:Gilbert Arenas 1818: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1797:Enrique Tarrio 1794: 1788: 1782: 1776: 1770: 1764: 1758: 1752: 1742: 1732: 1726: 1718: 1715: 1714: 1713: 1707: 1701: 1695: 1692:Javier Vázquez 1689: 1679: 1673: 1667: 1664:Gustavo Tamayo 1661: 1652: 1643: 1637: 1631: 1625: 1624:— jazz pianist 1619: 1613: 1607: 1601: 1595: 1589: 1580: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1559:Armando Peraza 1556: 1550: 1544: 1538: 1532: 1526: 1520: 1517:Mellow Man Ace 1514: 1508: 1505:Luis Marquetti 1502: 1499:Cheo Marquetti 1496: 1487: 1484:Antonio Machín 1481: 1475: 1469: 1463: 1460:Olivia Longott 1457: 1447: 1444:Calixto Leicea 1441: 1435: 1426: 1423:Enrique Jorrín 1420: 1414: 1408: 1402: 1396: 1390: 1384: 1378: 1375:Rubén González 1372: 1366: 1363:Ibrahim Ferrer 1360: 1351: 1345: 1342:Barbarito Diez 1339: 1333: 1327: 1324:Julito Collazo 1321: 1315: 1305: 1295: 1292:Cándido Camero 1289: 1283: 1280:Descemer Bueno 1277: 1274:Ignacio Berroa 1271: 1265: 1259: 1253: 1247: 1241: 1235: 1229: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1217: 1211: 1205: 1199: 1193: 1190:Mellow Man Ace 1187: 1184:Otmara Marrero 1181: 1175: 1169: 1163: 1162:- photographer 1157: 1151: 1145: 1139: 1133: 1127: 1121: 1118:Sammy Davis Jr 1115: 1109: 1103: 1100:Gastón Baquero 1097: 1091: 1085: 1079: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1045: 1042: 1016:and Spaniards 1006:Fernando Ortiz 976: 973: 945:Main article: 942: 939: 904:Exceptionalism 846:European Union 840:Racism in Cuba 838:Main article: 835: 832: 796: 793: 730:tumba francesa 623: 620: 584: 581: 536:Haitian Creole 529:Main article: 526: 525:Haitian-Cubans 523: 464:) home of the 458:Spanish Guinea 456:cultures, and 441: 438: 301:", meaning of 283:Main article: 280: 277: 216: 215: 173: 172: 168: 167: 161:Roman Catholic 159:Predominantly 140:Arará religion 126: 125: 121: 120: 114:Haitian Creole 86: 85: 81: 80: 74: 73: 69: 68: 59: 58: 54: 53: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5979: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5934: 5932: 5917: 5909: 5907: 5899: 5898: 5895: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5784: 5778: 5775: 5771: 5768: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5754: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5717: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5708: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5695:Sierra Leone 5694: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5675: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5649: 5645: 5642: 5638:Afro-American 5634: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5614: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5514: 5510: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5391: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5262: 5258: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5174: 5173:French Guiana 5171: 5169: 5166: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5116: 5114: 5108: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5089:Somali Bantus 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4997: 4996:Black Indians 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4966:Affrilachians 4964: 4963: 4962: 4959: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4924:New Brunswick 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4906: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4893: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4868: 4867:Miskito Sambu 4865: 4864: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4836: 4833: 4832: 4831: 4828: 4827: 4825: 4819: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4800:Dougla people 4798: 4797: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4786: 4785: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4748: 4747: 4744: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4731: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4690:Ganga-Longoba 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4623:Latin America 4619: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4597: 4592: 4590: 4585: 4583: 4578: 4577: 4574: 4562: 4554: 4552: 4544: 4542: 4534: 4533: 4530: 4514: 4511: 4510: 4509: 4506: 4502: 4499: 4498: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4467:By occupation 4465: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4370: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4358: 4348: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4247: 4244: 4243: 4242: 4239: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4226: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4179: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4160: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4121: 4118: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4087: 4086: 4083: 4082: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4042: 4040: 4036: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4020: 4013: 4012:National Army 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3978: 3970: 3967: 3966: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3950: 3949: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3936: 3933: 3932: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3900: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3865: 3862: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3849: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3800: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3788: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3751: 3750:Other cities 3749: 3745: 3742: 3741: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3627: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3561: 3556: 3554: 3549: 3547: 3542: 3541: 3538: 3526: 3516: 3515: 3512: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3481: 3480: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3442: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3422: 3420: 3416: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3391: 3389: 3385: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3348: 3347:Ganga-Longoba 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3308: 3303: 3301: 3296: 3294: 3289: 3288: 3285: 3278: 3275: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3262: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3243: 3242: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3219: 3211: 3202: 3195: 3189: 3182: 3176: 3169: 3163: 3156: 3150: 3143: 3137: 3130: 3129:Writing Rumba 3124: 3117: 3112: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3078: 3063: 3059: 3053: 3038: 3032: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2998: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2949: 2945: 2938: 2931: 2928:Mark Sawyer. 2925: 2918: 2914: 2908: 2901: 2900: 2892: 2890: 2880: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2857: 2854: 2848: 2840: 2839:The Economist 2836: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2795: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2747: 2739: 2737:9781423789666 2733: 2729: 2722: 2720: 2711: 2705: 2698: 2692: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2657: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2624: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2586: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2557:Cuban Studies 2551: 2549: 2547: 2530: 2526: 2520: 2512: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2491: 2483: 2479: 2473: 2465: 2458: 2449: 2447: 2440: 2436: 2429: 2413: 2406: 2390: 2386: 2380: 2372: 2366: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2323: 2317: 2298: 2294: 2287: 2281: 2274: 2270: 2269: 2263: 2255: 2249: 2230: 2226: 2219: 2213: 2209: 2200: 2197: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2179:Haitian Cuban 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2154: 2150: 2149:Africa portal 2139: 2136: 2125: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2101: 2100:Havana Solaun 2098: 2096: 2093: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2083: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2066:Negro leagues 2063: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2015: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1944:Minnie Miñoso 1942: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1932:Kid Chocolate 1930: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1893:Negro leagues 1890: 1889:Martín Dihigo 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1865:José Cardenal 1863: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1842: 1839: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1798: 1795: 1792: 1789: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1773:Antonio Maceo 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1761:Evelio Grillo 1759: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1733: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1720: 1711: 1708: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1682:Chucho Valdés 1680: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1610:Yotuel Romero 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1553:Bola de Nieve 1551: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1535:Rita Montaner 1533: 1530: 1529:Pablo Milanés 1527: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1418: 1415: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1354:Richard Egües 1352: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1303: 1299: 1298:Humberto Cané 1296: 1293: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1215: 1214:Alexis Valdés 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1196:Nancy Morejón 1194: 1191: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1125: 1124:Ángel Escobar 1122: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1077: 1076:Carlos Acosta 1074: 1073: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1029: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1018:Pablo Picasso 1015: 1011: 1010:Lydia Cabrera 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 984:in New York, 983: 972: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 948: 947:Afrocubanismo 941:Afrocubanismo 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