Horizontal gene transfer

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need to maintain the organization of the rest of its genome. Horizontally transferred genes are typically concentrated in only ~1% of the chromosome (in regions called hotspots). This concentration increases with genome size and with the rate of transfer. Hotspots diversify by rapid gene turnover; their chromosomal distribution depends on local contexts (neighboring core genes), and content in mobile genetic elements. Hotspots concentrate most changes in gene repertoires, reduce the trade-off between genome diversification and organization, and should be treasure troves of strain-specific adaptive genes. Most mobile genetic elements and antibiotic resistance genes are in hotspots, but many hotspots lack recognizable mobile genetic elements and exhibit frequent homologous recombination at flanking core genes. Overrepresentation of hotspots with fewer mobile genetic elements in naturally transformable bacteria suggests that homologous recombination and horizontal gene transfer are tightly linked in genome evolution.

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p-aminophenol and phenol having a maximum increase of 9-fold). This increase in HGT is on average less than the compounds ibuprofen, naproxen, gemfibrozil, diclofenac, propranolol, o-xylene, ethylbenzene, trioxymethylene, styrene, 2,4-dichloroaniline, and malachite green but their increases is still significant. The study that came to this conclusion is similar to the study on horizontal gene transfer and non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals in that it was done in 2021 and leaves room for more research, specifically in the focus of the study which is

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gene since its sequences tend to be conserved among members with close phylogenetic distances, but variable enough that differences can be measured. However, in recent years it has also been argued that 16s rRNA genes can also be horizontally transferred. Although this may be infrequent, the validity

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One study identified approximately 100 of humans' approximately 20,000 total genes which likely resulted from horizontal gene transfer, but this number has been challenged by several researchers arguing these candidate genes for HGT are more likely the result of gene loss combined with differences in

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Before it is transformed, a bacterium is susceptible to antibiotics. A plasmid can be inserted when the bacteria is under stress, and be incorporated into the bacterial DNA creating antibiotic resistance. When the plasmids are prepared they are inserted into the bacterial cell by either making pores

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Other organic pollutants commonly found in wastewater have been the subject of similar experiments. A 2021 study used similar methods of using plasmid in a donor and mixing that with a receptor in the presence of compound in order to test horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance genes

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The arrival of a new TE in a host genome can have detrimental consequences because TE mobility may induce mutation. However, HTT can also be beneficial by introducing new genetic material into a genome and promoting the shuffling of genes and TE domains among hosts, which can be co-opted by the host

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The acquisition of new genes has the potential to disorganize the other genetic elements and hinder the function of the bacterial cell, thus affecting the competitiveness of bacteria. Consequently, bacterial adaptation lies in a conflict between the advantages of acquiring beneficial genes, and the

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and recipient cells are introduced to each other in the presence of one of the pharmaceuticals. Non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals were also found to cause some responses in bacteria similar to those responses to antibiotics, such as increasing expression of the genes lexA, umuC, umuD and soxR involved

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can exchange and recombine chromosomal markers at temperatures up to 84 °C. UV exposure induces pili formation and cellular aggregation. Cells with the ability to aggregate have greater survival than mutants lacking pili that are unable to aggregate. The frequency of recombination is increased

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A bacteriophage-mediated mechanism transfers genes between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Nuclear localization signals in bacteriophage terminal proteins (TP) prime DNA replication and become covalently linked to the viral genome. The role of virus and bacteriophages in HGT in bacteria, suggests that

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and cross contamination due to crowding have been proposed to favor HTT in both plants and animals. In plants, the interaction between lianas and trees has been shown to facilitate HTT in natural ecosystems. Successful transfer of a transposable element requires delivery of DNA from donor to host

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HTT has been shown to occur between species and across continents in both plants and animals (Ivancevic et al. 2013), though some TEs have been shown to more successfully colonize the genomes of certain species over others. Both spatial and taxonomic proximity of species has been proposed to favor

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cells aggregate preferentially with other cells of their own species. Frols et al. and Ajon et al. suggested that UV-inducible DNA transfer is likely an important mechanism for providing increased repair of damaged DNA via homologous recombination. This process can be regarded as a simple form of

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Dunning Hotopp JC, Clark ME, Oliveira DC, Foster JM, Fischer P, Muñoz Torres MC, Giebel JD, Kumar N, Ishmael N, Wang S, Ingram J, Nene RV, Shepard J, Tomkins J, Richards S, Spiro DJ, Ghedin E, Slatko BE, Tettelin H, Werren JH (September 2007). "Widespread lateral gene transfer from intracellular

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suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research" therefore "biologists should use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use the metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative

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Horizontal gene transfer is recognized as a pervasive evolutionary process that distributes genes between divergent prokaryotic lineages and can also involve eukaryotes. It is postulated that HGT promotes the maintenance of a universal life biochemistry and, subsequently, the universality of the

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hotspots. HTT detection is a difficult task because it is an ongoing phenomenon that is constantly changing in frequency of occurrence and composition of TEs inside host genomes. Furthermore, few species have been analyzed for HTT, making it difficult to establish patterns of HTT events between

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have also been found to promote conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. The paper that led to the discovery of this was done in 2017 during the emerging field of horizontal gene transfer assisting compound research. Metals assist in the spread of antibiotic resistance through both

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of bacterial growth. Competence appears to be an adaptation for DNA repair. Transformation in bacteria can be viewed as a primitive sexual process, since it involves interaction of homologous DNA from two individuals to form recombinant DNA that is passed on to succeeding generations. Although

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of one gene. For example, given two distantly related bacteria that have exchanged a gene a phylogenetic tree including those species will show them to be closely related because that gene is the same even though most other genes are dissimilar. For this reason, it is often ideal to use other

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is a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer (HGT) that depends on the expression of numerous bacterial genes whose products are responsible for this process. In general, transformation is a complex, energy-requiring developmental process. In order for a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine

1672:.) If there had been continued and extensive gene transfer, there would be a complex network with many ancestors, instead of a tree of life with sharply delineated lineages leading back to a LUCA. However, a LUCA can be identified, so horizontal transfers must have been relatively limited. 803:

which then facilitates cellular aggregation. Exposure to chemical agents that cause DNA damage also induces cellular aggregation. Other physical stressors, such as temperature shift or pH, do not induce aggregation, suggesting that DNA damage is a specific inducer of cellular aggregation.

123:, subsequently arming the antibiotic resistant genes' recipient against antibiotics. The rapid spread of antibiotic resistance genes in this manner is becoming a challenge to manage in the field of medicine. Ecological factors may also play a role in the HGT of antibiotic resistant genes. 1437:

during the wastewater treatment process. Additionally, HGT increases in frequency in the presence of the compounds p-nitrophenol (PNP), p-aminophenol (PAP), and phenol. These compounds result in a 2- to 9-fold increase in HGT (p-nitrophenol being on the lower side of 2-fold increases and

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protein, and may or may not have a promoter sequence. Those that do not have promoter sequences encoded within the mobile region rely on adjacent host promoters for expression. Horizontal transfer is thought to play an important role in the TE life cycle. In plants, it appears that

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About 40 genes were found to be exclusively shared by humans and bacteria and are candidate examples of horizontal transfer from bacteria to vertebrates. Gene loss combined with sample size effects and evolutionary rate variation provide an alternative, more biologically plausible

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1: Donor bacterium cell (F+ cell) 2: Bacterium that receives the plasmid (F- cell) 3: Plasmid that will be moved to the other bacterium 4: Pilus. Conjugation in bacteria using a sex pilus; then the bacterium that received the plasmid can go give it to other bacteria as

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in the bacteria's SOS response as well as other genes also expressed during exposure to antibiotics. These findings are from 2021 and due to the widespread use of non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals, more research needs to be done in order to further understanding on the issue.

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Sloan, D. B., Nakabachi, A., Richards, S., Qu, J., Murali, S. C., Gibbs, R. A., & Moran, N. A. (2014). Parallel histories of horizontal gene transfer facilitated extreme reduction of endosymbiont genomes in sap-feeding insects. Molecular biology and evolution, 31(4),

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all regions of the chromosome are transferred with comparable efficiencies. Substantial blending of the parental genomes was found as a result of conjugation, and this blending was regarded as reminiscent of that seen in the meiotic products of sexual reproduction.

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In prokaryotes, restriction-modification systems are known to provide immunity against horizontal gene transfer and in stabilizing mobile genetic elements. Genes encoding restriction modification systems have been reported to move between prokaryotic genomes within

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to another between genomes by means other than parent-to-offspring inheritance. Horizontal gene transfer has long been thought to be crucial to prokaryotic evolution, but there is a growing amount of data showing that HTT is a common and widespread phenomenon in

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certain compounds have been observed to promote horizontal gene transfer. Antibiotics given to bacteria at non-lethal levels have been known to be a cause of antibiotic resistance but emerging research is now showing that certain non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals

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species of bacteria. Strategies to combat certain bacterial infections by targeting these specific virulence factors and mobile genetic elements have been proposed. For example, horizontally transferred genetic elements play important roles in the virulence of

7418: 1679:(FUCA), earliest ancestor of LUCA, had other descendants that had their own lineages. These now-extinct sister lineages of LUCA descending from FUCA are thought to have horizontally transferred some of their genes into the genome of early descendants of LUCA. 403:

and RNA can circulate in bodily fluid. Many proposed vectors include arthropods, viruses, freshwater snails (Ivancevic et al. 2013), endosymbiotic bacteria, and intracellular parasitic bacteria. In some cases, even TEs facilitate transport for other TEs.

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Aubin E, Llauro C, Garrigue J, Mirouze M, Panaud O, El Baidouri M (2023) Genome-wide analysis of horizontal transfer in non-model wild species from a natural ecosystem reveals new insights into genetic exchange in plants. PLoS Genet 19(10): e1010964.

1473:. The presence of these metals triggered SOS response from bacterial cells and made the cells more permeable. These are the mechanisms that make even low levels of heavy metal pollution in the environment impact HGT and therefore the spread of ARGs. 1021:

insects) contained genes which the researchers concluded had been transferred from bacteria and fungi by horizontal gene transfer. The researchers estimated that for some nematodes and Drosophila insects these genes had been acquired relatively

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UV-induced cellular aggregation mediates intercellular chromosomal HGT marker exchange with high frequency, and UV-induced cultures display recombination rates that exceed those of uninduced cultures by as much as three orders of magnitude.

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Land plants and their close relatives, the charophycean green algae, share a set of glycosyl hydrolases. These enzymes were likely transferred from bacteria and fungi to the last common ancestor of these organisms before the origin of land

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cell (and to the germ line for multi-cellular organisms), followed by integration into the recipient host genome. Though the actual mechanism for the transportation of TEs from donor cells to host cells is unknown, it is established that

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when one bacterial cell acquires resistance, and the resistance genes are transferred to other species. Transposition and horizontal gene transfer, along with strong natural selective forces have led to multi-drug resistant strains of

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methods, either by identifying atypical sequence signatures ("parametric" methods) or by identifying strong discrepancies between the evolutionary history of particular sequences compared to that of their hosts. The transferred gene

345:(TE) (also called a transposon or jumping gene) is a mobile segment of DNA that can sometimes pick up a resistance gene and insert it into a plasmid or chromosome, thereby inducing horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance. 1354:, etc.) also have a role in promoting antibiotic resistance through their ability to promote horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of genes responsible for antibiotic resistance. The transfer of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) through 9172:

Smallpox knows how to make a mouse protein. How did smallpox learn that? 'The poxviruses are promiscuous at capturing genes from their hosts,' Esposito said. 'It tells you that smallpox was once inside a mouse or some other small

1250:. Two biosynthetic genes involved in the production of α-amanitin are P450-29 and FMO1. Phylogenetic and genetic analyses of these genes strongly indicate that they were transferred between the genera via horizontal gene transfer. 7324:"Evidence for a natural gene transfer from the ponyfish to its bioluminescent bacterial symbiont Photobacter leiognathi. The close relationship between bacteriocuprein and the copper-zinc superoxide dismutase of teleost fishes" 357:

evolution as well. On the transposable element side, spreading between genomes via horizontal transfer may be viewed as a strategy to escape purging due to purifying selection, mutational decay and/or host defense mechanisms.

294:). This process is relatively common in bacteria, but less so in eukaryotes. Transformation is often used in laboratories to insert novel genes into bacteria for experiments or for industrial or medical applications. See also 8523: 7096:

Jaramillo, V. D. A., Vargas, W. A., Sukno, S. A., & Thon, M. R. (2013). New insights into the evolution and structure of Colletotrichum plant-like subtilisins (CPLSs). Communicative & Integrative Biology, 6(6),

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Ginolhac, A., Jarrin, C., Robe, P., Perrière, G., Vogel, T. M., Simonet, P., & Nalin, R. (2005). Type I polyketide synthases may have evolved through horizontal gene transfer. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 60(6),

7408: 1648:—the organism in question is a definite Archaean, with all the cell lipids and transcription machinery that are expected of an Archaean, but whose HMGCoA genes are of bacterial origin. Scientists are broadly agreed on 2574:

Varga M, Kuntová L, Pantůček R, Mašlaňová I, Růžičková V, Doškař J (July 2012). "Efficient transfer of antibiotic resistance plasmids by transduction within methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 clone".

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Agrobacterium, a pathogenic bacterium that causes cells to proliferate as crown galls and proliferating roots is an example of a bacterium that can transfer genes to plants and this plays an important role in plant

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from vertical to horizontal gene transfer. He uses the term "Darwinian Threshold" for the time of major transition of evolutionary mechanisms from mostly horizontal to mostly vertical transfer, and the "origin of

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state: "Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) has played a major role in bacterial evolution and is fairly common in certain unicellular eukaryotes. However, the prevalence and importance of HGT in the evolution of

81:). HGT is an important factor in the evolution of many organisms. HGT is influencing scientific understanding of higher-order evolution while more significantly shifting perspectives on bacterial evolution. 7109:

Nikolaidis, N., Doran, N., & Cosgrove, D. J. (2014). Plant expansins in bacteria and fungi: evolution by horizontal gene transfer and independent domain fusion. Molecular biology and evolution, 31(2),

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La Scola B, Desnues C, Pagnier I, Robert C, Barrassi L, Fournous G, Merchat M, Suzan-Monti M, Forterre P, Koonin E, Raoult D (September 2008). "The virophage as a unique parasite of the giant mimivirus".

175:. In the mid-1980s, Syvanen postulated that biologically significant lateral gene transfer has existed since the beginning of life on Earth and has been involved in shaping all of evolutionary history. 6569: 5485: 610:

strains through either major transpositions or genome rearrangements, and increasing mutation rates. In a study on the effects of long-term exposure of simulated microgravity on non-pathogenic

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Woloszynska M, Bocer T, Mackiewicz P, Janska H (November 2004). "A fragment of chloroplast DNA was transferred horizontally, probably from non-eudicots, to mitochondrial genome of Phaseolus".

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Ivancevic AM, Walsh AM, Kortschak RD, Adelson DL (December 2013). "Jumping the fine LINE between species: horizontal transfer of transposable elements in animals catalyses genome evolution".

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1: Donor bacterium 2: Bacterium who will receive the gene 3: The red portion represents the gene that will be transferred. Transformation in bacteria happens in a certain environment.

622:), the results showed transposon-mediated rearrangements (TMRs), disrupting genes involved in bacterial adhesion, and deleting an entire segment of several genes involved with motility and 6907:

Schwartz JA, Curtis NE, Pierce SK (December 2014). "FISH labeling reveals a horizontally transferred algal (Vaucheria litorea) nuclear gene on a sea slug (Elysia chlorotica) chromosome".

783:. A large amount of their genome, 126 composite gene families, are derived from genetic material from bacterial genomes. This has allowed them to adapt to extremely salty environments. 7917: 3455: 390:

of the Copia superfamilies, especially those with low copy numbers from the Ale and Ivana lineages, are more likely to undergo horizontal transfer between different plant species.

8520: 7940:"Genomic analysis of Hyphomonas neptunium contradicts 16S rRNA gene-based phylogenetic analysis: implications for the taxonomy of the orders 'Rhodobacterales' and Caulobacterales" 7562:

Jiao YN, Chen H, Gao RX, Zhu YG, Rensing C (October 2017). "Organic compounds stimulate horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in mixed wastewater treatment systems".

8974:"Variation suggestive of horizontal gene transfer at a lipopolysaccharide (lps) biosynthetic locus in Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, the bacterial leaf blight pathogen of rice" 5977:

Discusses theories on how mitochondria and chloroplast genes are transferred into the nucleus, and also what steps a gene needs to go through in order to complete this process.

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because they do not encode the proteins required for their own mobilization. The structure of these non-autonomous elements generally consists of an intronless gene encoding a

1668:, and other gene transfers may have affected early eukaryotes. (In contrast, multicellular eukaryotes have mechanisms to prevent horizontal gene transfer, including separated 1542:

information to infer robust phylogenies such as the presence or absence of genes or, more commonly, to include as wide a range of genes for phylogenetic analysis as possible.

167:(that patients could be infected with the bacteria but not have any symptoms, and then suddenly convert later or never), and giving the first example for the relevance of the 7301: 3732: 369:

are more likely to be capable of HTT because both have a stable, double-stranded DNA intermediate that is thought to be sturdier than the single-stranded RNA intermediate of

691:

requires expression of about 40 genes. The DNA integrated into the host chromosome is usually (but with infrequent exceptions) derived from another bacterium of the same

3143:

Ochiai K, Yamanaka T, Kimura K, Sawada O (1959). "Inheritance of drug resistance (and its transfer) between Shigella strains and Between Shigella and E. coli strains".

171:. Inter-bacterial gene transfer was first described in Japan in a 1959 publication that demonstrated the transfer of antibiotic resistance between different species of 6885: 7620:

Ma X, Zhang X, Xia J, Sun H, Zhang X, Ye L (December 2021). "Phenolic compounds promote the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in activated sludge".

3532: 111:. Genes responsible for antibiotic resistance in one species of bacteria can be transferred to another species of bacteria through various mechanisms of HGT such as 8956:

This article proposes using the presence or absence of a set of genes to infer phylogenies, in order to avoid confounding factors such as horizontal gene transfer.

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cells after UV exposure, Wolferen et al. considered that transfer of DNA likely takes place in order to repair UV-induced DNA damages by homologous recombination.

5195: 3671: 1046:. New examples have recently been reported demonstrating that Wolbachia bacteria represent an important potential source of genetic material in arthropods and 488:

reveals further insight into its biology. Although 13 of its genes show little similarity to any other known genes, three are closely related to mimivirus and

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Neochrome, a gene in some ferns that enhances their ability to survive in dim light. Believed to have been acquired from algae sometime during the Cretaceous.

1515:

transposons to invade genomes of extremely diverse species. The SB system has been used to introduce genetic sequences into a wide variety of animal genomes.

178:

As Jian, Rivera and Lake (1999) put it: "Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred between

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HTTs in plants and animals. It is unknown how the density of a population may affect the rate of HTT events within a population, but close proximity due to

3126: 508:

Horizontal gene transfer is common among bacteria, even among very distantly related ones. This process is thought to be a significant cause of increased

1635:

as a third domain of life. Indeed, it was while examining the new three-domain view of life that horizontal gene transfer arose as a complicating issue:

7676:"Sub-inhibitory concentrations of heavy metals facilitate the horizontal transfer of plasmid-mediated antibiotic resistance genes in water environment" 5273:"Distributive conjugal transfer in mycobacteria generates progeny with meiotic-like genome-wide mosaicism, allowing mapping of a mating identity locus" 8478:

Avrain L, Vernozy-Rozand C, Kempf I (2004). "Evidence for natural horizontal transfer of tetO gene between Campylobacter jejuni strains in chickens".

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It has been remarked that, despite the complications, the detection of horizontal gene transfers brings valuable phylogenetic and dating information.

244:, which can insert its DNA into the human genome. It has been suggested that lateral gene transfer to humans from bacteria may play a role in cancer. 8651: 9159: 6950:

Rauch C, Vries J, Rommel S, Rose LE, Woehle C, Christa G, Laetz EM, Wägele H, Tielens AG, Nickelsen J, Schumann T, Jahns P, Gould SB (August 2015).

1425:, the ARGs present in wastewater are transferred at a higher rate due to the addition of textile dyeing compounds increasing the occurrence of HGT. 865:'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes." 7821:

Izsvák Z, Ivics Z, Plasterk RH (September 2000). "Sleeping Beauty, a wide host-range transposon vector for genetic transformation in vertebrates".

3243: 9327: 3701: 652:

provide modular organizations of associated genes making these bacteria well-adapted to acquire and discard helpful modular modifications via HGT.

186:

as well. As Bapteste et al. (2005) observe, "additional evidence suggests that gene transfer might also be an important evolutionary mechanism in

9364: 7001:"Genome analysis of Elysia chlorotica Egg DNA provides no evidence for horizontal gene transfer into the germ line of this Kleptoplastic Mollusc" 5023:

Gross, H., & Loper, J. E. (2009). Genomics of secondary metabolite production by Pseudomonas spp. Natural product reports, 26(11), 1408-1446.

1421:

when bacteria and plasmid (with donor) are introduced in the presence of these molecules. When textile wastewater combines with wastewater from

8751: 7914: 3451: 9516: 5626: 3476:

Gasmi L, Boulain H, Gauthier J, Hua-Van A, Musset K, Jakubowska AK, Aury JM, Volkoff AN, Huguet E, Herrero S, Drezen JM (September 2015).

318:, a process that involves the transfer of DNA via a plasmid from a donor cell to a recombinant recipient cell during cell-to-cell contact. 8960: 7856:

Kurtti TJ, Mattila JT, Herron MJ, Felsheim RF, Baldridge GD, Burkhardt NY, Blazar BR, Hackett PB, Meyer JM, Munderloh UG (October 2008).

4592: 1496:, in which electric currents create the holes in the membrane. After conditions return to normal the holes in the membrane close and the 9337: 9332: 695:, and is thus homologous to the resident chromosome. The capacity for natural transformation occurs in at least 67 prokaryotic species. 413:

species. These issues can lead to the underestimation or overestimation of HTT events between ancestral and current eukaryotic species.

9243:"The transferome of metabolic genes explored: analysis of the horizontal transfer of enzyme encoding genes in unicellular eukaryotes" 9210: 7494:"Non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals promote the transmission of multidrug resistance plasmids through intra- and intergenera conjugation" 3772:

Renner SS, Bellot S (2012). "Horizontal Gene Transfer in Eukaryotes: Fungi-to-Plant and Plant-to-Plant Transfers of Organellar DNA".

348:

Horizontal transposon transfer (HTT) refers to the passage of pieces of DNA that are characterized by their ability to move from one

7386: 6313:

Acuña R, Padilla BE, Flórez-Ramos CP, Rubio JD, Herrera JC, Benavides P, Lee SJ, Yeats TH, Egan AN, Doyle JJ, Rose JK (March 2012).

2612:"Molecular characterization of a new efficiently transducing bacteriophage identified in meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus" 629:

Horizontal gene transfer is particularly active in bacterial genomes around the production of secondary or specialized metabolites.

626:. Both these studies have implications for microbial growth, adaptation to and antibiotic resistance in real time space conditions. 7293: 4766: 3728: 157:

Horizontal genetic transfer was then described in Seattle in 1951, in a paper demonstrating that the transfer of a viral gene into

147: 2539:

Naik GA, Bhat LN, Chpoade BA, Lynch JM (1994). "Transfer of broad-host-range antibiotic resistance plasmids in soil microcosms".

3041: 861:"Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many genes among diverse species including across the boundaries of 618:

strain was exposed to a combination of simulated microgravity and trace (background) levels of (the broad spectrum) antibiotic (

2653:"Ecology determines how low antibiotic concentration impacts community composition and horizontal transfer of resistance genes" 142:, was the first experiment suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as 7048:

Xia J, Guo Z, Yang Z, Han H, Wang S, Xu H, Yang X, Yang F, Wu Q, Xie W, Zhou X, Dermauw W, Turlings TC, Zhang Y (April 2021).

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Stearns, S. C., & Hoekstra, R. F. (2005). Evolution: An introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford, NY: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 38-40.

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in their diet. LGT in Sacoglossa is now thought to be an artifact and no trace of LGT was found upon sequencing the genome of

9511: 8685: 8244: 7797: 6825:

Yoshida S, Maruyama S, Nozaki H, Shirasu K (May 2010). "Horizontal gene transfer by the parasitic plant Striga hermonthica".

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Fröls S, Ajon M, Wagner M, Teichmann D, Zolghadr B, Folea M, Boekema EJ, Driessen AJ, Schleper C, Albers SV (November 2008).

4830: 4327: 4249: 3789: 1524: 1500:

are trapped inside the bacteria where they become part of the genetic material and their genes are expressed by the bacteria.

1492:

in the plasma membrane with temperature extremes and chemical treatments, or making it semi permeable through the process of

1155: 496:

could perform horizontal gene transfer between viruses, paralleling the way that bacteriophages ferry genes between bacteria.

17: 3704:. The Microbial World: Lectures in Microbiology, Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Archived from 755:(Hfr), mycobacterial conjugation is a type of HGT that is chromosome rather than plasmid based. Furthermore, in contrast to 6877: 5486:"UV-inducible cellular aggregation of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is mediated by pili formation" 3980:

El Baidouri M, Carpentier MC, Cooke R, Gao D, Lasserre E, Llauro C, Mirouze M, Picault N, Jackson SA, Panaud O (May 2014).

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for transformation is typically induced by high cell density and/or nutritional limitation, conditions associated with the

519:

and many other pathogenic bacteria. Horizontal gene transfer also plays a role in the spread of virulence factors, such as

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Koutsovoulos G, Kumar S, Laetsch DR, Stevens L, Daub J, Conlon C, Maroon H, Thomas F, Aboobaker AA, Blaxter M (May 2016).

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genes, perhaps cannibalized by the tiny virus as it packaged up particles sometime in its history. This suggests that the

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Ajon M, Fröls S, van Wolferen M, Stoecker K, Teichmann D, Driessen AJ, Grogan DW, Albers SV, Schleper C (November 2011).

3617: 3327: 9225: 5120:

Solomon JM, Grossman AD (April 1996). "Who's competent and when: regulation of natural genetic competence in bacteria".

5650:

Fröls S, White MF, Schleper C (February 2009). "Reactions to UV damage in the model archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus".

1862: 1120: 438: 263:) molecular biologists such as Peter Gogarten have described horizontal gene transfer as "A New Paradigm for Biology". 5156: 3679: 9506: 7979:

Zhaxybayeva O, Gogarten JP (April 2004). "Cladogenesis, coalescence and the evolution of the three domains of life".

1508: 1366:

Alongside non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals, other compounds relevant to antibiotic resistance have been tested such as

9322: 7733:"Molecular reconstruction of Sleeping Beauty, a Tc1-like transposon from fish, and its transposition in human cells" 1433:. Phenolic compounds are commonly found in wastewater and have been found to change functions and structures of the 1417:-xylene, ethylbenzene, trioxymethylene, styrene, 2,4-dichloroaniline, and malachite green) raising the frequency of 1026:

TP-containing genomes could be a vehicle of inter-kingdom genetic information transference all throughout evolution.

586:. Still, they are more frequently a chromosomal-encoded barrier to MGE than an MGE-encoded tool for cell infection. 7123:

Moran NA, Jarvik T (April 2010). "Lateral transfer of genes from fungi underlies carotenoid production in aphids".

5373:"Hundreds of novel composite genes and chimeric genes with bacterial origins contributed to haloarchaeal evolution" 4492:"Identification and characterization of the immunity repressor (ImmR) that controls the mobile genetic element ICE 3776:. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. Vol. 35. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. pp. 223–235. 845:

operon are employed in UV-induced pili assembly and cellular aggregation leading to intercellular DNA exchange and

452:) found in the receiving species is more closely related to the genes of the donor species than would be expected. 919:

plant family from their hosts and from chloroplasts of a still-unidentified plant to the mitochondria of the bean

9181:"Retrotransfer or gene capture: a feature of conjugative plasmids, with ecological and evolutionary significance" 5324:"Distributive Conjugal Transfer: New Insights into Horizontal Gene Transfer and Genetic Exchange in Mycobacteria" 1676: 7784:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 204. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 125–143. 3123: 9350: 9342: 9105:

Ochman H, Lawrence JG, Groisman EA (May 2000). "Lateral gene transfer and the nature of bacterial innovation".

2287:"Horizontal gene transfer in the human gastrointestinal tract: potential spread of antibiotic resistance genes" 1932:

Ochman H, Lawrence JG, Groisman EA (May 2000). "Lateral gene transfer and the nature of bacterial innovation".

1620: 1610: 8544:

Li FW, Rothfels CJ, Melkonian M, Villarreal JC, Stevenson DW, Graham SW, Wong GK, Mathews S, Pryer KM (2015).

6511:"Expression of multiple horizontally acquired genes is a hallmark of both vertebrate and invertebrate genomes" 1857: 1006:

were thought to break the record with 17.5% HGT, but that finding was an artifact of bacterial contamination.

408:

genome to perform new functions. Moreover, transposition activity increases the TE copy number and generates

8325:

Wolfe JM, Fournier GP (May 2018). "Horizontal gene transfer constrains the timing of methanogen evolution".

4443:"The interplay of restriction-modification systems with mobile genetic elements and their prokaryotic hosts" 308:, the process in which bacterial DNA is moved from one bacterium to another by a virus (a bacteriophage, or 6424: 3843:"Promiscuous DNA: horizontal transfer of transposable elements and why it matters for eukaryotic evolution" 1601:. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times." 1434: 429:

of a gene in the two daughter species. A horizontal gene transfer event from one species to another adds a

6647:"Functional eukaryotic nuclear localization signals are widespread in terminal proteins of bacteriophages" 6049:"Phylogenetic inference in Rafflesiales: the influence of rate heterogeneity and horizontal gene transfer" 9151: 1837: 1586: 259:

Due to the increasing amount of evidence suggesting the importance of these phenomena for evolution (see

182:" (see also Lake and Rivera, 2007). The phenomenon appears to have had some significance for unicellular 159: 9311: 9226:"Can transgenes from genetically modified plants be absorbed by micro-organisms and spread in this way?" 6452:"No evidence for extensive horizontal gene transfer in the genome of the tardigrade Hypsibius dujardini" 3204: 2034:"A review of bacteria-animal lateral gene transfer may inform our understanding of diseases like cancer" 5736:"Genetic responses of the thermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius to short-wavelength UV light" 3705: 1418: 752: 614:, the results showed transposon insertions occur at loci, linked to SOS stress response. When the same 6243:"Multiple horizontal gene transfer events have shaped plant glycosyl hydrolase diversity and function" 5687:"Exchange of genetic markers at extremely high temperatures in the archaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius" 2430:"Evidence for interspecies gene transfer in the evolution of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid degraders" 2385:

Nielsen KM (1998). "Barriers to horizontal gene transfer by natural transformation in soil bacteria".

1103:, which grows in mats on streambanks or trees. The neochrome gene arrived about 180 million years ago. 9452: 9408: 8597:"A gene horizontally transferred from bacteria protects arthropods from host plant cyanide poisoning" 7858:"Transgene expression and silencing in a tick cell line: A model system for functional tick genomics" 1413:

than other samples of wastewater. The cause of this is the organic compounds used for textile dying (

1283: 979:) that resembles bacterial genes, and is thought to be transferred from bacteria in the beetle's gut. 822: 677: 480:, also infects amoebae, but it cannot reproduce unless mimivirus has already infected the same cell. 409: 275: 143: 112: 8798: 589:

Lateral gene transfer via a mobile genetic element, namely the integrated conjugative element (ICE)

527:, amongst bacteria. A prime example concerning the spread of exotoxins is the adaptive evolution of 9377: 1330: 1037: 941: 846: 745: 135: 101: 8443:

Bryant DA, Frigaard NU (November 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated".

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Andersson DI, Hughes D (July 2014). "Microbiological effects of sublethal levels of antibiotics".

4961:

Tirumalai MR, Karouia F, Tran Q, Stepanov VG, Bruce RJ, Ott M, Pierson DL, Fox GE (January 2019).

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further increase the likelihood of horizontally transferred secondary metabolite-producing genes.

9403: 9381: 8740: 4668:

Newcombe DA, Schuerger AC, Benardini JN, Dickinson D, Tanner R, Venkateswaran K (December 2005).

1872: 1410: 1186:

Plant expansin genes were transferred to bacteria further enabling the bacteria to infect plants.

791: 730: 571: 562: 305: 116: 5593: 4613:

Link L, Sawyer J, Venkateswaran K, Nicholson W (February 2004). "Extreme spore UV resistance of

4548: 163:

created a virulent strain from a non-virulent strain, simultaneously revealing the mechanism of

8697:"Horizontally transferred genetic elements and their role in pathogenesis of bacterial disease" 8227:

Huang J, Gogarten JP (2009). "Ancient Gene Transfer as a Tool in Phylogenetic Reconstruction".

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Barlow M (2009). "What Antimicrobial Resistance Has Taught Us About Horizontal Gene Transfer".

3553:

Riley DR, Sieber KB, Robinson KM, White JR, Ganesan A, Nourbakhsh S, Dunning Hotopp JC (2013).

3478:"Recurrent Domestication by Lepidoptera of Genes from Their Parasites Mediated by Bracoviruses" 2146:"Horizontally transferred genetic elements and their role in pathogenesis of bacterial disease" 1907: 1624: 1614: 1511:(SB) was developed as a synthetic gene transfer agent that was based on the known abilities of 1161:

Gene transfer between plants and fungi has been posited for a number of cases, including rice (

1002:

currently hold the 'record' for HGT in animals with ~8% of their genes from bacterial origins.

878:

suggests that horizontal gene transfer has occurred within eukaryotes from the chloroplast and

649: 46: 8964: 7225:

Luo H, Hallen-Adams HE, Lüli Y, Sgambelluri RM, Li X, Smith M, Yang ZL, Martin FM (May 2022).

6590:

Daugavet MA, Shabelnikov S, Shumeev A, Shaposhnikova T, Adonin LS, Podgornaya O (2019-01-19).

5785:"Biological effects of DNA damage in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius" 5542:

Allers T (November 2011). "Swapping genes to survive - a new role for archaeal type IV pili".

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Tirumalai MR, Karouia F, Tran Q, Stepanov VG, Bruce RJ, Ott M, Pierson DL, Fox GE (May 2017).

9432: 9398: 5989:"Host-to-parasite gene transfer in flowering plants: phylogenetic evidence from Malpighiales" 1852: 1805: 1558: 1355: 725: 655: 515: 315: 120: 85: 8595:

Wybouw N, Dermauw W, Tirry L, Stevens C, Grbić M, Feyereisen R, Van Leeuwen T (April 2014).

4914:

cells grown in simulated microgravity for an extended period is both phenotypic and genomic"

1545:

For example, the most common gene to be used for constructing phylogenetic relationships in

989:

and its origin is through to be due to a HGT event followed by a fusion with a LOTUS domain.

9457: 9114: 9065: 8876: 8766: 8399: 8334: 8281: 8123: 8031: 7869: 7687: 7629: 7571: 7505: 7238: 7183: 7132: 6834: 6773: 6717: 6658: 6463: 6326: 6000: 5951:

Blanchard JL, Lynch M (July 2000). "Organellar genes: why do they end up in the nucleus?".

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Martijn J, Schön ME, Lind AE, Vosseberg J, Williams TA, Spang A, Ettema TJ (October 2020).

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Keen EC, Bliskovsky VV, Malagon F, Baker JD, Prince JS, Klaus JS, Adhya SL (January 2017).

5171: 4864: 4742: 4681: 4626: 4236:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 532. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp. 397–411. 4190: 4139: 3854: 3566: 3404: 3342: 3280: 3219: 3067:"Studies on the virulence of bacteriophage-infected strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae" 2862: 2713: 2441: 2239: 1941: 1877: 1779: 1657: 1641:

was seen as an anomaly with respect to a phylogenetic tree based upon the encoding for the

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acquired genetic material from humans that might help facilitate its long stay in the body.

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Plant expansin genes were transferred to fungi further enabling the fungi to infect plants.

887: 879: 387: 378: 374: 342: 33: 9180: 7227:"Genes and evolutionary fates of the amanitin biosynthesis pathway in poisonous mushrooms" 3113:

Phillip Marguilies "Epidemics: Deadly diseases throughout history". Rosen, New York. 2005.

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is most easily explained in terms of transfer of a gene from an ancestor of its fish host.

841:, containing five genes, is highly induced by UV irradiation. The proteins encoded by the 835: 700: 604:

Transposon insertion elements have been reported to increase the fitness of gram-negative

593:

has been reported for its role in the global DNA damage SOS response of the gram positive

8: 7364: 6044: 5424:"Hikarchaeia demonstrate an intermediate stage in the methanogen-to-halophile transition" 5339: 5221:"Novel "Superspreader" Bacteriophages Promote Horizontal Gene Transfer by Transformation" 4670:"Survival of spacecraft-associated microorganisms under simulated martian UV irradiation" 4553:-like element may be associated with the extreme radiation and desiccation resistance of 1570: 1507:

is essentially horizontal gene transfer, albeit with synthetic expression cassettes. The

1504: 1379: 1198: 975: 645: 325: 321: 222: 9301: 9118: 9069: 8880: 8770: 8403: 8338: 8285: 8127: 8035: 7873: 7691: 7633: 7575: 7509: 7242: 7187: 7136: 6838: 6777: 6721: 6662: 6467: 6330: 6004: 5439: 5175: 4868: 4746: 4726: 4685: 4630: 4409: 4194: 4143: 3858: 3570: 3408: 3346: 3284: 3223: 2866: 2819: 2717: 2445: 2243: 1945: 9269: 9242: 9138: 8947: 8846: 8821: 8790: 8726: 8623: 8596: 8572: 8545: 8503: 8420: 8387: 8368: 8302: 8269: 8204: 8169: 8147: 7890: 7857: 7780:

Plasterk RH (1996). "The Tc1/Mariner Transposon Family". In Saedler H, Gierl A (eds.).

7762: 7713: 7526: 7493: 7465: 7274: 7261: 7226: 7207: 7156: 7079: 7025: 7000: 6976: 6951: 6932: 6858: 6797: 6681: 6646: 6622: 6591: 6537: 6510: 6486: 6451: 6400: 6373: 6349: 6315:"Adaptive horizontal transfer of a bacterial gene to an invasive insect pest of coffee" 6314: 6295: 6218: 6191: 6167: 6143:"Contribution of horizontal gene transfer to the evolution of Saccharomyces cerevisiae" 6142: 6123: 6026: 5902: 5877: 5853: 5828: 5567: 5456: 5423: 5399: 5372: 5348: 5323: 5299: 5272: 5245: 5220: 5058: 4991: 4967:

exposed to long-term low-shear modeled microgravity and background antibiotic exposure"

4962: 4938: 4909: 4885: 4852: 4817: 4702: 4669: 4650: 4584: 4524: 4491: 4467: 4442: 4418: 4393: 4345:"Characterization of a Shiga toxin-encoding temperate bacteriophage of Shigella sonnei" 4214: 4163: 4106: 4081: 4059: 4006: 3981: 3929: 3902: 3875: 3842: 3589: 3554: 3504: 3477: 3427: 3392: 3366: 3180: 3163: 2935: 2922: 2902: 2898: 2831: 2783: 2758: 2734: 2702:"Functions predict horizontal gene transfer and the emergence of antibiotic resistance" 2701: 2677: 2652: 2556: 2516: 2489: 2410: 2398: 2362: 2337: 2313: 2286: 2262: 2227: 2175: 2115: 2083: 2060: 2033: 2009: 1984: 1965: 1264: 1075: 1047: 912: 696: 682: 139: 9000: 8973: 8899: 8864: 8091: 8066: 8043: 7749: 7732: 7583: 7340: 7323: 6740: 6706:"Genome fragment of Wolbachia endosymbiont transferred to X chromosome of host insect" 6705: 6075: 6048: 5964: 5801: 5784: 5760: 5735: 5711: 5686: 3231: 3091: 3066: 2984: 2959: 2462: 2429: 1487: 9274: 9202: 9130: 9093: 9088: 9053: 9040: 9005: 8939: 8904: 8851: 8782: 8730: 8718: 8681: 8628: 8577: 8521:

Darkened Forests, Ferns Stole Gene From an Unlikely Source — and Then From Each Other

8495: 8491: 8460: 8425: 8360: 8307: 8250: 8240: 8209: 8191: 8139: 8096: 8047: 7996: 7961: 7895: 7838: 7803: 7793: 7754: 7705: 7645: 7587: 7531: 7457: 7345: 7278: 7266: 7199: 7148: 7083: 7071: 7030: 6981: 6924: 6850: 6789: 6745: 6686: 6627: 6542: 6491: 6405: 6354: 6299: 6264: 6223: 6172: 6115: 6080: 6018: 5968: 5907: 5858: 5806: 5765: 5751: 5716: 5702: 5667: 5618: 5613: 5559: 5555: 5510: 5505: 5461: 5404: 5353: 5304: 5250: 5187: 5137: 5133: 5102: 5062: 5050: 4996: 4943: 4890: 4822: 4758: 4707: 4693: 4642: 4576: 4529: 4515: 4472: 4423: 4374: 4369: 4360: 4344: 4323: 4296: 4255: 4245: 4218: 4206: 4155: 4111: 4051: 4011: 3934: 3880: 3785: 3642: 3613: 3594: 3509: 3432: 3358: 3308: 3303: 3268: 3235: 3185: 3096: 3033: 3008: 2989: 2940: 2880: 2875: 2850: 2835: 2823: 2788: 2739: 2682: 2633: 2592: 2588: 2521: 2467: 2453: 2402: 2367: 2318: 2267: 2179: 2167: 2107: 2087: 2065: 2014: 1957: 1882: 1790: 1589:

that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of

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Snel B, Bork P, Huynen MA (January 1999). "Genome phylogeny based on gene content".

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Theobald DL (May 2010). "A formal test of the theory of universal common ancestry".

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The potential of HGT to be used for dating phylogenies has recently been confirmed.

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is the only carotenoid known to be synthesized by an organism in the animal kingdom.

9264: 9254: 9192: 9122: 9083: 9073: 9030: 8995: 8985: 8931: 8894: 8884: 8841: 8833: 8774: 8708: 8618: 8608: 8567: 8557: 8487: 8452: 8415: 8407: 8372: 8350: 8342: 8297: 8289: 8232: 8199: 8181: 8151: 8131: 8086: 8082: 8078: 8039: 7988: 7951: 7885: 7877: 7830: 7785: 7744: 7717: 7695: 7637: 7579: 7521: 7513: 7469: 7449: 7376: 7335: 7256: 7246: 7191: 7140: 7061: 7020: 7012: 6971: 6963: 6916: 6842: 6781: 6735: 6725: 6676: 6666: 6645:

Redrejo-Rodríguez M, Muñoz-Espín D, Holguera I, Mencía M, Salas M (November 2012).

6617: 6607: 6532: 6522: 6481: 6471: 6395: 6385: 6344: 6334: 6287: 6254: 6213: 6203: 6162: 6154: 6107: 6070: 6060: 6008: 5960: 5897: 5889: 5848: 5840: 5829:"Molecular analysis of the UV-inducible pili operon from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius" 5796: 5755: 5747: 5706: 5698: 5659: 5608: 5551: 5500: 5451: 5443: 5394: 5384: 5343: 5335: 5294: 5284: 5240: 5232: 5179: 5129: 5092: 5042: 4986: 4978: 4933: 4925: 4880: 4872: 4812: 4804: 4750: 4697: 4689: 4634: 4588: 4568: 4519: 4511: 4462: 4454: 4413: 4405: 4364: 4356: 4286: 4237: 4198: 4167: 4147: 4101: 4093: 4063: 4043: 4001: 3993: 3924: 3914: 3870: 3862: 3810: 3777: 3632: 3584: 3574: 3499: 3489: 3422: 3412: 3370: 3350: 3298: 3288: 3227: 3175: 3164:"On the mechanism of the development of multiple-drug-resistant clones of Shigella" 3086: 3078: 3023: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2930: 2914: 2870: 2815: 2778: 2770: 2729: 2721: 2672: 2664: 2623: 2584: 2548: 2511: 2501: 2457: 2449: 2394: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2308: 2298: 2257: 2247: 2206: 2157: 2099: 2055: 2045: 2004: 1996: 1949: 1849:, a bacterium well known for its ability to transfer DNA between itself and plants. 1645: 1530: 1470: 1450: 1439: 1305: 1123:(FISH) analysis to contain photosynthesis-supporting genes obtained from an algae ( 999: 736: 606: 597:. Furthermore, it has been linked with the radiation and desiccation resistance of 544: 6158: 5930: 4788: 2651:

Cairns J, Ruokolainen L, Hultman J, Tamminen M, Virta M, Hiltunen T (2018-04-19).

2119: 740:, requires stable and extended contact between a donor and a recipient strain, is 9475: 9437: 9197: 8744: 8527: 7921: 7700: 7675: 5594:"UV-inducible DNA exchange in hyperthermophilic archaea mediated by type IV pili" 5289: 5183: 5097: 5080: 4808: 4241: 3982:"Widespread and frequent horizontal transfers of transposable elements in plants" 3963: 3781: 3579: 3555:"Bacteria-human somatic cell lateral gene transfer is enriched in cancer samples" 3494: 3391:

Bapteste E, Susko E, Leigh J, MacLeod D, Charlebois RL, Doolittle WF (May 2005).

3130: 3082: 2050: 1897: 1493: 1367: 1092: 669: 619: 509: 493: 476: 329: 283: 168: 9372: 8236: 7789: 3529:"Genes from Chagas parasite can transfer to humans and be passed on to children" 3009:"Pneumococcal transformation--a backward view. Fourth Griffith Memorial Lecture" 2806:

Gabaldón T (October 2021). "Origin and Early Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell".

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