133:
therefore preventing the phages from killing their hosts, also thereby increasing the phage's potential for survival, making this a form of natural selection. A phage may decide to exit the chromosome and enter the lytic cycle if it is exposed to DNA-damaging agents, such as UV radiation and chemicals. Other factors with the potential to induce temperate phage release include temperature, pH, osmotic pressure, and low nutrient concentration. However, phages may also re-enter the lytic cycle spontaneously. In 80-90% of single-cell infections, phages enter the lysogenic cycle. In the other 10-20%, phages enter the lytic cycle.
912:
152:. In its inactive form, a prophage gets passed on each time the host cell divides. If prophages become active, they can exit the bacterial chromosome and enter the lytic cycle, where they undergo DNA copying, protein synthesis, phage assembly, and lysis. Since the bacteriophage's genetic information is incorporated into the bacteria's genetic information as a prophage, the bacteriophage replicates passively as the bacterium divides to form daughter bacteria cells. In this scenario, the daughter bacteria cells contain prophage and are known as
35:
160:
168:
time. In the case of genital herpes, latency is established in lumbosacral dorsal root ganglia, spinal nerve neurons. The herpes virus can then exit this dormant stage and re-enter the lytic cycle, causing disease symptoms. Thus, while herpes viruses can enter both the lytic and lysogenic cycles, latency allows the virus to survive and evade detection by the immune system due to low viral gene expression.
27:
39:
creating prophage. 5. The prophage then remains dormant until the host cell divides. 6. After the host cell has divided, the phage DNA in the daughter cells activate, and the phage DNA begins to express itself. Some of the cells containing the prophage go on to create new phages which will move on to infect other cells.
156:. Lysogens can remain in the lysogenic cycle for many generations but can switch to the lytic cycle at any time via a process known as induction. During induction, prophage DNA is excised from the bacterial genome and is transcribed and translated to make coat proteins for the virus and regulate lytic growth.
184:
Bacteriophages are parasitic because they infect their hosts, use bacterial machinery to replicate, and ultimately lyse the bacteria. Temperate phages can lead to both advantages and disadvantages for their hosts via the lysogenic cycle. During the lysogenic cycle, the virus genome is incorporated as
141:
It is sometimes possible to detect which cycle a phage enters by looking at the plaque morphology in bacterial plate culture. Generally, clearer plaques indicate more efficient lysis, while cloudy or turbid plaques indicate less efficient lysis. Turbid plaques may indicate that a phage can go through
108:
In the lysogenic cycle, the phage DNA first integrates into the bacterial chromosome to produce the prophage. When the bacterium reproduces, the prophage is also copied and is present in each of the daughter cells. The daughter cells can continue to replicate with the prophage present or the prophage
167:
An example of a virus that uses the lysogenic cycle to its advantage is the Herpes
Simplex Virus. After first entering the lytic cycle and infecting a human host, it enters the lysogenic cycle. This allows it to travel to the nervous system's sensory neurons and remain undetected for long periods of
132:
How a phage decides which cycle to enter depends on a variety of factors. For instance, if there are several other infecting phages (or if there is a high multiplicity), it is likely that the phage will use the lysogenic cycle. This may be useful in helping reduce the overall phage-to-host ratio and
100:
The difference between lysogenic and lytic cycles is that, in lysogenic cycles, the spread of the viral DNA occurs through the usual prokaryotic reproduction, whereas a lytic cycle is more immediate in that it results in many copies of the virus being created very quickly and the cell is destroyed.
38:
Lysogenic Cycle:1. The prokaryotic cell is shown with its DNA, in green. 2. The bacteriophage attaches and releases its DNA, shown in red, into the prokaryotic cell. 3. The phage DNA then moves through the cell to the host's DNA. 4. The phage DNA integrates itself into the host cell's DNA,
185:
prophage and a repressor prevents viral replication. Nonetheless, a temperate phage can escape repression to replicate, produce viral particles, and lyse the bacteria. The temperate phage escaping repression would be a disadvantage for the bacteria. On the other hand, the prophage may transfer
227:
that is not part of a usual phage cycle. Changes can often involve the external membrane of the cell by making it impervious to other phages or even by increasing the pathogenic capability of the bacteria for a host. In this way, temperate bacteriophages also play a role in the spread of
101:
One key difference between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle is that the latter does not lyse the host cell straight away. Phages that replicate only via the lytic cycle are known as virulent phages while phages that replicate using both lytic and lysogenic cycles are known as
289:
Non-virulent bacteria have also been shown to transform into highly virulent pathogens through lysogenic conversion with the virulence factors carried on the lysogenic prophage. Virulence genes carried within prophages as discrete autonomous genetic elements, known as
404:(ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide, are strong oxidizing agents that can decompose into free radicals and cause DNA damage to bacteria, which lead to prophage induction. One potential strategy to combat prophage induction is through the use of
171:
The model organism for studying lysogeny is the lambda phage. Prophage integration (also known as homologous recombination), maintenance of lysogeny, induction, and control of phage genome excision in induction is described in detail in the
189:
that enhance host virulence and resistance to the immune system. Also, the repressor produced by the prophage that prevents prophage genes from being expressed confers immunity for the host bacteria from lytic infection by related viruses.
254:
cured of all phage were unable to form biofilms, which are surface-adhered bacterial communities that enable bacteria to better access nutrients and survive environmental stresses. In addition to biofilm formation in
412:
that can remove free radical intermediates. Another approach could be to cause overexpression of CI repressor since prophage induction only occurs when the concentration of CI repressor is too low.
74:. In this condition the bacterium continues to live and reproduce normally, while the bacteriophage lies in a dormant state in the host cell. The genetic material of the bacteriophage, called a
109:
can exit the bacterial chromosome to initiate the lytic cycle. In the lysogenic cycle the host DNA is not hydrolyzed but in the lytic cycle the host DNA is hydrolyzed in the lytic phase.
792:
Awasthi, Sita; Friedman, Harvey M. (2014-03-15). "A Paradigm Shift: Vaccine-Induced
Antibodies as an Immune Correlate of Protection Against Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Genital Herpes".
950:
232:, such as exotoxins and exoenzymes, amongst bacteria. This change then stays in the genome of the infected bacteria and is copied and passed down to daughter cells.
281:, which are metabolically dormant forms of the bacteria that are highly resistant to temperature, ionizing radiation, desiccation, antibiotics, and disinfectants.
215:
In some interactions between lysogenic phages and bacteria, the lysogenic conversion may occur, which can also be called phage conversion. It is when a temperate
145:
Detection methods of phages released from the lysogenic cycle include electron microscopy, DNA extraction, or propagation on sensitive strains.
148:
Via the lysogenic cycle, the bacteriophage's genome is not expressed and is instead integrated into the bacteria's genome to form the
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584:
661:
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or the presence of certain chemicals) can release it, causing proliferation of new phages via the lytic cycle.
644:
van
Charante, Frits; Holtappels, Dominique; Blasdel, Bob; Burrowes, Ben (2019). "Isolation of Bacteriophages".
173:
294:, confer an advantage to the bacteria that indirectly benefits the virus through enhanced lysogen survival.
97:(lysogenic) as part of the infected cells' genome, keeping the ability to return to lysis at a later time.
392:
Strategies to combat certain bacterial infections by blocking prophage induction (the transition from the
611:
Quiberoni, A.; Suárez, V.B.; Binetti, A.G.; Reinheimer, J.A. (2011). "Bacteriophage
Biological Aspects".
302:
911:
102:
78:, can be transmitted to daughter cells at each subsequent cell division, and later events (such as
973:"Widespread Utilization of Peptide Communication in Phages Infecting Soil and Pathogenic Bacteria"
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401:
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267:
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species, in which the decision between lysis and lysogeny is transmitted between bacteria by a
314:β. In this case, the gene that codes for the toxin is carried by the phage, not the bacterium.
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371:
291:
971:
Stokar-Avihail, Avigail; Tal, Nitzan; Erez, Zohar; Lopatina, Anna; Sorek, Rotem (May 2019).
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Gummalla, Vimathi S.; Zhang, Yujie; Liao, Yen-Te; Wu, Vivian C. H. (21 February 2023).
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89:, although the method of DNA incorporation is not fully understood. For instance, the
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the lysogenic cycle, however there are other reasons that plaques may appear turbid.
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Chen, Ying; Golding, Ido; Sawai, Satoshi; Guo, Ling; Cox, Edward C (21 June 2005).
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362:, obtained by lysogenic conversion, which causes fever and a scarlet-red rash,
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1150:"Paradigms of pathogenesis: targeting the mobile genetic elements of disease"
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1029:"Importance of prophages to evolution and virulence of bacterial pathogens"
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has shown an enhanced rate or extent of sporulation. Sporulation produces
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Bacteriophages are viruses that infect and replicate within a bacterium.
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1203:: Genome diversity, population structure and genotyping perspectives".
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197:, has recently been described for bacteriophages infecting several
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being the other). Lysogeny is characterized by integration of the
458:
Zheng, Yong-Hui; Lovsin, Nika; Peterlin, B. Matija (2005-03-15).
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204:
1078:"A fitness trade-off between local competition and dispersal in
610:
735:"Herpes Simplex Virus Latency: The DNA Repair-Centered Pathway"
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970:
927:"Do you speak virus? Phages caught sending chemical messages"
343:
51:
839:(Fifth ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
688:(6th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson. pp. 784–786.
532:"The Role of Temperate Phages in Bacterial Pathogenicity"
90:
26:
460:"Newly identified host factors modulate HIV replication"
1076:
Nadell, Carey D.; Bassler, Bonnie L. (23 August 2011).
1027:
Fortier, Louis-Charles; Sekulovic, Ognjen (July 2013).
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is a non-toxic strain that can become toxic, producing
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that fall into two major groups, Stx1 and Stx2, whose
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are considered to be part of the genome of lambdoid
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Snyder and
Champness molecular genetics of bacteria
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1154:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology
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509:. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 158–159.
437:. San Francisco: Pearson. pp. 338–339.
835:Henkin, Tina M.; Peters, Joseph E. (2020).
865:"Population Fitness and the Regulation of
433:Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2005).
428:
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326:, when it is infected with the phage CTXφ.
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240:Lysogenic conversion has shown to enable
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30:Lysogenic cycle, compared to lytic cycle
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396:to the lysogenic cycle) by eliminating
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93:can either infect humans lytically, or
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400:induction agents have been proposed.
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585:"Bacteriophages (article) | Viruses"
85:Lysogenic cycles can also occur in
13:
1148:Keen, Eric C. (14 December 2012).
794:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
621:10.1016/B978-0-12-374407-4.00050-9
66:genome or formation of a circular
14:
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1205:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
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310:only when it is infected by the
953:from the original on 2019-09-29
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125:) can reproduce using both the
1199:Mokrousov, I (January 2009). "
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654:10.1007/978-3-319-40598-8_14-1
613:Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences
549:10.3390/microorganisms11030541
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388:Preventing lysogenic induction
180:Fitness tradeoffs for bacteria
1:
686:Molecular biology of the gene
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16:Process of virus reproduction
1225:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.09.011
886:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030229
7:
1201:Corynebacterium diphtheriae
869:Genes by Bacterial Viruses"
476:10.1016/j.imlet.2004.11.026
383:from phage-tranduced genes.
303:Corynebacterium diphtheriae
62:nucleic acid into the host
10:
1278:
989:10.1016/j.chom.2019.03.017
505:Lodish, Harvey F. (2007).
259:, lysogenic conversion of
50:, is one of two cycles of
18:
939:10.1038/nature.2017.21313
684:Watson, James D. (2008).
129:and the lysogenic cycle.
1167:10.3389/fcimb.2012.00161
219:induces a change in the
19:Not to be confused with
1107:10.1073/pnas.1111147108
977:Cell Host & Microbe
925:Callaway, Ewen (2017).
402:Reactive oxygen species
733:Brown, Jay C. (2017).
507:Molecular Cell Biology
358:, produce a pyrogenic
355:Streptococcus pyogenes
306:produces the toxin of
268:Bacillus thuringiensis
164:
40:
31:
806:10.1093/infdis/jit658
372:Clostridium botulinum
162:
37:
29:
752:10.1155/2017/7028194
739:Advances in Virology
331:Shigella dysenteriae
211:Lysogenic conversion
137:Evidence of Lysogeny
1217:2009InfGE...9....1M
1098:2011PNAS..10814181N
1092:(34): 14181–14185.
710:"Viral replication"
369:Certain strains of
285:Bacterial virulence
1045:10.4161/viru.24498
464:Immunology Letters
247:Bacillus anthracis
236:Bacterial survival
165:
54:reproduction (the
41:
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983:(5): 746–755.e5.
663:978-3-319-40598-8
630:978-0-12-374407-4
334:, which produces
262:Bacillus subtilis
230:virulence factors
70:in the bacterial
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375:, which causes
319:Vibrio cholerae
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163:Lysogenic Cycle
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48:lysogenic cycle
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174:lambda phage
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123:lambda phage
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80:UV radiation
47:
43:
42:
1211:(1): 1–15.
879:(7): e229.
745:: 7028194.
714:THINKER BUG
615:: 430–438.
410:antioxidant
408:, a strong
406:glutathione
394:lytic cycle
250:Strains of
95:lay dormant
91:HIV viruses
64:bacterium's
56:lytic cycle
21:Lytic cycle
1246:Categories
957:2019-09-11
719:2021-09-11
594:2022-03-15
542:(3): 541.
416:References
379:, express
308:diphtheria
297:Examples:
279:endospores
87:eukaryotes
1082:biofilms"
1033:Virulence
814:0022-1899
761:1687-8639
484:0165-2478
348:prophages
336:dysentery
221:phenotype
195:arbitrium
176:article.
121:(such as
103:temperate
72:cytoplasm
46:, or the
1257:Virology
1233:19007916
1186:23248780
1126:21825170
1063:23611873
1007:31071296
951:Archived
947:90839014
905:15984911
822:24285847
779:28255301
648:: 1–32.
568:36985115
559:10052878
492:15752562
377:botulism
360:exotoxin
225:bacteria
207:factor.
200:Bacillus
154:lysogens
150:prophage
105:phages.
76:prophage
68:replicon
44:Lysogeny
1213:Bibcode
1177:3522046
1160:: 161.
1117:3161532
1094:Bibcode
1054:3714127
998:6986904
896:1151598
770:5309397
435:Biology
398:in vivo
242:biofilm
205:peptide
1231:
1184:
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