698:
448:
208:. A cautious and thorough researcher, and a reticent individual, Griffith's tendency was to publish only findings that he believed truly significant, and Griffith's findings were rapidly confirmed by researchers in Avery's laboratory. His discovery was one of the first to show the central role of DNA in heredity.
421:
Griffith was sent pneumococci samples taken from patients throughout the country, amassed a large number, and would type—in other words classify—each pneumococci sample to search patterns of pneumonia epidemiology, and
Griffith experimented on mice for improved understanding of its pathology.
500:
When
Griffith injected heat-killed S into mice, as expected, no disease ensued. When mice were injected with a mixture of heat-killed S and live R, however, pneumonia and death ensued. The live R had transformed into S—and replicated as such—often characterized as Griffith's Experiment. More
418:'s Pathological Laboratory—where Griffith was medical officer. UK government spent money sparingly on the laboratory, which remained very basic, though Griffith and his colleague, William M. Scott, "could do more with a kerosene tin and a primus stove than most men could do with a palace".
579:
at The
Rockefeller Hospital confirmed each of Griffith's reported findings. Even before Griffith's publication, Fred Neufeld had confirmed them as well, and was merely awaiting publication of Griffith's findings before publishing his confirmation. Over the following years, Avery's illness,
567:
at The
Rockefeller Hospital—which opened in 1910 on The Rockefeller Institute's campus—initially explained that Griffith's experiments must have been poorly conducted and succumbed to contamination. Avery biographer and colleague at The Rockefeller Institute, microbiologist
40:
795:
600:
The first
Griffith Memorial Lecture indicates that Fred Griffith died on the night of 17 April 1941—though the fourth lecture indicates that he died in his apartment in February 1941—alongside friend and colleague William M. Scott amid an
192:, could transform from one strain into a different strain. The observation was attributed to an unidentified underlying principle, later known in the Avery laboratory as the "transforming principle" (abbreviated as T. P.) and
762:
during dual infection by two pneumococcal strains could increase transformation—and virulence—while for the first time pneumococcal transformation was shown to occur in the respiratory tract. In 1969 it was shown
668:
222:
1342:"Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types – Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III"
677:
indicating DNA's molecular structure suggesting how a molecule as seemingly simple as DNA could encode the structure of proteins—for the interpretation of DNA as genes to become widely accepted.
501:
accurately, point six of
Griffith's abstract reports that R tended to transform into S if a large amount of live R, alone, were injected, and that adding much heat-killed S made transformation
546:, the abstract of Griffith's paper reports, "The S form of Type I has been produced from the R form of Type II, and the R form of Type I has been transformed into the S form of Type II".
609:. A few weeks earlier, Scott had become director of the laboratory, which, with the outbreak of war, had become Emergency Public Health Laboratory Service. Both dated 3 May 1941, his
584:, kept him much out of his laboratory as other researchers in it experimented to determine, largely by process of elimination, which constituent was the transforming factor.
539:
at The
Rockefeller Hospital. Types I, II, and III were each a distinct antigenic grouping, whereas type IV was a catchall of varying antigenicities not matching other types.
685:
Biologists made little more than speculation of
Griffith's report of transformation until genetics research in 1951. Griffith's report was virtually ignored by
493:
with S form, mice succumbed to pneumonia and death within several days. However, the R form, lacking a capsule—its outer surface being cell wall—is relatively
572:, recruited by The Rockefeller Institute from France, later described Griffith's findings as "exploding a bombshell in the field of pneumococcal immunology".
1809:
365:
587:
Microbiologists endeavored during the 1930s to dispel the monomorphist tenet, prevailing as institutional dogma, largely prevailing into the 21st century.
1804:
1794:
1834:
358:
1799:
390:) England, in late 1877 (Registered December quarter in Prescot, Lancashire registration district, vol 8b, page 670), and attended
193:
1824:
796:"Birth certificate Prescot PRE/40/54 for Frederick Griffith on the Lancashire BMD (Births, Marriages and Deaths on the Internet)"
414:(1914–18), the local government board's laboratory was assumed by the national government, namely UK government, and became the
954:
351:
128:
744:. Streptococcal infection was a frequent coinfection complicating recovery from lobar pneumonia by pneumococci infection.
415:
20:
1814:
1346:
639:
430:
718:, epidemiology, and bacteriology. In 1934, Griffith reported voluminous findings on the serological typing of
1819:
1653:
Parsons JW & Meyers WK (1933). "Streptococcic sepsis complicating recovery from pneumococcal pneumonia".
1829:
1061:"The transformation of pneumococcal types: II. The Interconvertibility of Type-Specific S Pneumococci"
395:
240:
132:
442:
310:
184:
168:
164:
1464:
1269:
1042:
621:
720:
490:
467:
1029:
Explorers of the Body: Dramatic
Breakthroughs in Medicine from Ancient Times to Modern Science
651:
of The
Rockefeller Hospital. This identification departed from the prevailing belief that the
1484:"Acute tonsillitis and some of its sequels: Epidemiological and bacteriological observations"
1441:
1220:
1027:
768:
524:
422:
Griffith performed the pivotal experiments—actually very many experiments—during the 1920s.
1789:
1784:
1584:
1404:
946:
940:
741:
659:
probably was the anatomical structure of genes, although it would take another decade—till
486:
391:
172:
95:
8:
771:
streptococci, already in the host, and thereby the pneumococci could become resistant to
644:
576:
285:
60:
1408:
1630:
1605:
1561:
1532:
1508:
1483:
1368:
1341:
1325:
1300:
1235:"First Griffith Memorial Lecture. Genetic transformation: A retrospective appreciation"
1219:, 2nd ed (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), chapter 1, subchapter 1.3, section
1085:
1060:
903:
855:
830:
581:
300:
205:
1755:
1730:
1706:
1681:
1285:
1234:
1193:
1164:
1108:
921:
1760:
1711:
1666:
1635:
1566:
1513:
1422:
1373:
1198:
1090:
1004:
950:
895:
860:
697:
602:
270:
907:
531:, Germany, had earlier identified the pneumococcal types, confirmed and expanded by
1750:
1742:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1662:
1625:
1617:
1556:
1548:
1503:
1495:
1412:
1363:
1355:
1320:
1312:
1281:
1249:
1188:
1180:
1080:
1072:
994:
887:
850:
842:
673:
1746:
1184:
737:
660:
532:
325:
275:
230:
201:
189:
983:"Fourth Griffith Memorial Lecture. Pneumococcal transformation—a backward view"
648:
471:
330:
295:
260:
250:
245:
148:
1552:
1254:
846:
1778:
878:
Musher DM (April 2011). "New modalities in treating pneumococcal pneumonia".
733:
664:
564:
536:
475:
265:
255:
999:
982:
1621:
1570:
1517:
1499:
1426:
1377:
1316:
1202:
1124:
1094:
899:
891:
864:
772:
767:
that during drug treatment of a host, pneumococci could acquire genes from
759:
729:
606:
560:
520:
516:
482:
426:
399:
320:
305:
290:
235:
152:
1764:
1715:
1639:
1008:
1359:
1076:
711:
411:
315:
1417:
1392:
686:
656:
637:
In 1944 identification of the transforming factor was published in the
615:
569:
387:
383:
176:
447:
494:
478:
160:
156:
1340:
Avery, Oswald T; MacLeod, Colin M; McCarty, Maclyn (February 1944).
505:
Griffith also induced some pneumococci to transform back and forth.
1465:"Notes on the biological interpretation of Fred Griffith's finding"
1162:
715:
610:
590:
509:
463:
336:
1110:
The Transforming Principle: Discovering that Genes are Made of DNA
923:
The Transforming Principle: Discovering that Genes are Made of DNA
724:. More casually as well as medically called simply streptococcus,
402:. In 1910 Fred Griffith was hired by the local government board.
942:
DNA: the double helix: perspective and prospective at forty years
754:
379:
619:
mentioned the historical discovery briefly, and his obituary in
519:—distinct from presence or absence of a capsule. Bacteriologist
528:
83:
1682:"Transformation during mixed pneumococcal infection of mice"
1165:"On the pleomorphism of bacteria. I. On the pleomorphism of
752:
By 1967 pneumococcal transformation had been shown to occur
39:
1731:"Spontaneously occurring bacterial transformations in mice"
728:
is implicated in conditions ranging from the usually minor
481:
common among all classical bacteria—and prevents efficient
1652:
1481:
429:(1939–45), the laboratory was expanded into the Emergency
1679:
398:, the Joseph Tie Laboratory, and the Royal Commission on
197:
1728:
758:
naturally, and it was further shown that treatment with
204:, speculated that Griffith had failed to apply adequate
945:. New York, N.Y: New York Academy of Sciences. p.
710:
In 1931 Frederick Griffith coauthored a paper on acute
628:
595:
559:
One of America's most prominent pneumococcus experts,
1217:
Symbiosis: An Introduction to Biological Associations
692:
1339:
1163:Kritschewski IL & Ponomarewa IW (August 1934).
938:
934:
932:
163:. In January 1928 he reported what is now known as
549:
1776:
1122:
929:
591:Posthumous identification of transforming factor
790:
788:
19:For other people named Frederick Griffith, see
1032:, 2nd edn (Lincoln NE: iUniverse, 2006), p 47.
167:, the first widely accepted demonstrations of
1113:(New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1985), p 79.
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
926:(New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1985), p 85.
359:
200:. America's leading pneumococcal researcher,
171:, whereby a bacterium distinctly changes its
1810:Deaths by German airstrikes during The Blitz
1125:"Beiträge zur variabilität der pneumokokken"
785:
405:
1655:Journal of the American Medical Association
871:
1530:
963:
828:
824:
822:
820:
818:
816:
366:
352:
38:
1754:
1729:Ottolenghi-Nightingale E (October 1969).
1705:
1629:
1560:
1507:
1416:
1390:
1367:
1324:
1298:
1253:
1192:
1123:Neufeld, Fred; Levinthal, Walter (1928).
1116:
1084:
998:
980:
877:
854:
508:Griffith also reported transformation of
497:, and does not cause pneumonia as often.
1805:British civilians killed in World War II
1439:
1022:
1020:
1018:
831:"The significance of pneumococcal types"
696:
689:, and by the medical sector as a whole.
446:
436:
113:discovery of pneumococcal transformation
1680:Conant JE & Sawyer WD (June 1967).
1593:Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology
1462:
1232:
813:
554:
1777:
1058:
105:physician, pathologist, bacteriologist
1795:Alumni of the University of Liverpool
1226:
1221:"Bacteria as multicellular organisms"
1052:
1015:
1835:People from Hale, Greater Manchester
1589:and streptococcal disease (page 1) "
1065:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
1533:"The serological classification of
1482:Glover JA & Griffith F (1931).
1393:"Discovering genes are made of DNA"
1129:Zeitschrift für Immunitätsforschung
1041:U.S. National Library of Medicine.
596:Last days of Griffith and colleague
21:Frederick Griffith (disambiguation)
13:
693:Griffith's further work and legacy
454:Pneumococci has two general forms—
14:
1846:
1667:10.1001/jama.1933.02740230035007
1347:Journal of Experimental Medicine
1043:"The Oswald T. Avery Collection"
640:Journal of Experimental Medicine
535:at Oswald Avery's laboratory in
431:Public Health Laboratory Service
1800:20th-century English scientists
1722:
1673:
1646:
1598:
1577:
1524:
1475:
1456:
1440:Anderson, ES (September 1985).
1433:
1384:
1333:
1292:
1262:
1242:Journal of General Microbiology
1209:
1156:
1143:
1101:
987:Journal of General Microbiology
705:
680:
542:Illustrating the plasticity of
394:. Thereafter, he worked at the
378:Frederick Griffith was born in
1825:Genetics in the United Kingdom
1698:10.1128/jb.93.6.1869-1875.1967
1616:(5695): 513–4. February 1970.
1035:
914:
550:Impact of Griffith's Discovery
188:, implicated in many cases of
1:
1747:10.1128/jb.100.1.445-452.1969
1286:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)95174-2
1059:Dawson, MH (1 January 1930).
778:
211:
1531:Griffith F (December 1934).
1185:10.1128/jb.28.2.111-126.1934
939:Chambers, Donald L. (1995).
7:
1215:Paracer S and Ahmadjian V.
981:Downie AW (November 1972).
829:Griffith F (January 1928).
747:
10:
1851:
1391:McCarty M (January 2003).
440:
147:(1877–1941) was a British
18:
1553:10.1017/S0022172400043308
1255:10.1099/00221287-45-3-385
847:10.1017/S0022172400031879
732:, to the sometimes fatal
462:(S). The S form is more
406:Ministry of Health office
396:Liverpool Royal Infirmary
138:
133:Liverpool Royal Infirmary
131:Pathological Laboratory,
124:
117:
109:
101:
91:
68:
46:
37:
30:
1299:Bacharach, A.L. (1941).
544:Streptococcus pneumoniae
185:Streptococcus pneumoniae
169:bacterial transformation
1815:English bacteriologists
1735:Journal of Bacteriology
1686:Journal of Bacteriology
1610:British Medical Journal
1488:British Medical Journal
1305:British Medical Journal
1301:"The 'English Disease'"
1280:(6140): 588–589. 1941.
1173:Journal of Bacteriology
1000:10.1099/00221287-73-1-1
740:, to the usually fatal
633:then Watson & Crick
622:British Medical Journal
1622:10.1136/bmj.1.5695.513
1606:"Streptococcal sepsis"
1587:Streptococcus pyogenes
1535:Streptococcus pyogenes
1500:10.1136/bmj.2.3689.521
1317:10.1136/bmj.1.4191.691
1151:Transforming Principle
892:10.3810/hp.2011.04.398
721:Streptococcus pyogenes
702:
625:failed to mention it.
605:during World War II's
470:, which is a slippery
451:
16:British bacteriologist
736:, to the often fatal
701:Fred Griffith in 1936
700:
525:Robert Koch Institute
450:
443:Griffith's experiment
437:Griffith's Experiment
165:Griffith's Experiment
1820:English pathologists
1360:10.1084/jem.79.2.137
1077:10.1084/jem.51.1.123
800:lancashirebmd.org.uk
769:antibiotic-resistant
742:streptococcal sepsis
555:Biomedical reception
392:Liverpool University
151:whose focus was the
96:Liverpool University
1830:History of genetics
1418:10.1038/nature01398
1409:2003Natur.421..406M
1047:Profiles in Science
487:innate immune cells
286:John Masson Gulland
1541:Journal of Hygiene
1469:American Scientist
1049:. 31 January 2007.
835:Journal of Hygiene
703:
575:Avery's associate
452:
416:Ministry of Health
301:Friedrich Miescher
281:Frederick Griffith
145:Frederick Griffith
129:Ministry of Health
32:Frederick Griffith
1442:"The road to DNA"
956:978-0-89766-905-4
880:Hospital Practice
474:coat—outside the
425:With outbreak of
376:
375:
271:Rosalind Franklin
142:
141:
119:Scientific career
1842:
1769:
1768:
1758:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1709:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1633:
1602:
1596:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1564:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1511:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1420:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1371:
1337:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1296:
1290:
1289:
1266:
1260:
1259:
1257:
1239:
1233:Hayes W (1966).
1230:
1224:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1196:
1169:B"—sec "Summary"
1160:
1154:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1120:
1114:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1088:
1056:
1050:
1039:
1033:
1024:
1013:
1012:
1002:
978:
961:
960:
936:
927:
918:
912:
911:
875:
869:
868:
858:
826:
811:
810:
808:
806:
792:
368:
361:
354:
311:Sir John Randall
225:
216:
215:
79:
77:
57:
55:
42:
28:
27:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1727:
1723:
1678:
1674:
1651:
1647:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1582:
1578:
1529:
1525:
1494:(3689): 521–7.
1480:
1476:
1461:
1457:
1438:
1434:
1389:
1385:
1338:
1334:
1297:
1293:
1268:
1267:
1263:
1237:
1231:
1227:
1214:
1210:
1161:
1157:
1148:
1144:
1134:
1132:
1121:
1117:
1106:
1102:
1057:
1053:
1040:
1036:
1025:
1016:
979:
964:
957:
937:
930:
919:
915:
876:
872:
827:
814:
804:
802:
794:
793:
786:
781:
750:
738:puerperal fever
708:
695:
683:
635:
598:
593:
582:Graves' disease
557:
552:
533:Alphonse Dochez
445:
439:
408:
372:
343:
342:
326:Maurice Wilkins
276:Raymond Gosling
231:William Astbury
226:
221:
214:
202:Oswald T. Avery
190:lobar pneumonia
182:He showed that
87:
81:
75:
73:
64:
58:
53:
51:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1848:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1771:
1770:
1721:
1692:(6): 1869–75.
1672:
1645:
1597:
1583:Kenneth Todar
1576:
1523:
1474:
1455:
1432:
1383:
1332:
1291:
1261:
1248:(3): 385–397.
1225:
1208:
1155:
1142:
1115:
1100:
1051:
1034:
1014:
962:
955:
928:
913:
870:
812:
783:
782:
780:
777:
749:
746:
707:
704:
694:
691:
682:
679:
649:Maclyn McCarty
634:
627:
597:
594:
592:
589:
556:
553:
551:
548:
491:subcutaneously
485:by the host's
472:polysaccharide
466:, and bears a
441:Main article:
438:
435:
407:
404:
374:
373:
371:
370:
363:
356:
348:
345:
344:
341:
340:
333:
331:Herbert Wilson
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
296:Phoebus Levene
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
261:Michael Creeth
258:
253:
251:Erwin Chargaff
248:
246:Lawrence Bragg
243:
238:
233:
227:
220:
219:
213:
210:
149:bacteriologist
140:
139:
136:
135:
126:
122:
121:
115:
114:
111:
110:Known for
107:
106:
103:
99:
98:
93:
89:
88:
82:
70:
66:
65:
59:
48:
44:
43:
35:
34:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1847:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1741:(1): 445–52.
1740:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1676:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1601:
1594:
1590:
1588:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1547:(4): 542–84.
1546:
1542:
1538:
1536:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1463:Lederberg J.
1459:
1452:(1474): 53–4.
1451:
1447:
1446:New Scientist
1443:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1403:(6921): 406.
1402:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1354:(2): 137–58.
1353:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1336:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1311:(4191): 691.
1310:
1306:
1302:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1229:
1222:
1218:
1212:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1179:(2): 111–26.
1178:
1174:
1170:
1168:
1159:
1152:
1146:
1131:(55): 324–340
1130:
1126:
1119:
1112:
1111:
1104:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1071:(1): 123–47.
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1048:
1044:
1038:
1031:
1030:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1010:
1006:
1001:
996:
992:
988:
984:
977:
975:
973:
971:
969:
967:
958:
952:
948:
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773:erythromycin
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760:streptomycin
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730:strep throat
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706:Bacteriology
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681:Applications
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607:London Blitz
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561:Oswald Avery
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521:Fred Neufeld
517:antigenicity
512:
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489:. Injected
483:phagocytosis
459:
455:
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427:World War II
424:
420:
409:
400:Tuberculosis
377:
335:
321:James Watson
306:Fred Neufeld
291:Denis Jordan
280:
236:Oswald Avery
223:Double helix
183:
181:
153:epidemiology
144:
143:
125:Institutions
118:
80:(aged 63–64)
25:
1790:1941 deaths
1785:1877 births
1167:B Paratyphi
1149:McCarty M,
1107:McCarty M.
993:(1): 1–11.
920:McCarty M.
712:tonsillitis
657:chromosomes
655:content of
515:—bacterial
510:serological
412:World War I
316:Alec Stokes
1779:Categories
1270:"Obituary"
1026:Lehrer S.
805:4 February
779:References
726:S pyogenes
687:clinicians
643:by Avery,
616:The Lancet
570:Rene Dubos
388:Lancashire
384:Merseyside
212:Early life
194:identified
523:, of the
495:avirulent
479:cell wall
161:pneumonia
157:pathology
92:Education
86:, England
63:, England
1571:20475253
1518:20776393
1427:12540908
1378:19871359
1203:16559732
1095:19869670
908:23884367
900:21576901
865:20474956
748:Medicine
716:sequelae
667:'s 1953
611:obituary
603:air raid
565:New York
503:reliable
464:virulent
458:(R) and
337:Photo 51
206:controls
177:function
1765:4390504
1716:4381631
1640:5198333
1631:1699551
1595:. 2008.
1562:2170909
1509:2315140
1405:Bibcode
1369:2135445
1326:2161843
1223:, p 10.
1135:7 March
1086:2131805
1009:4143929
856:2167760
765:in vivo
755:in vivo
653:protein
537:America
468:capsule
410:During
380:Prescot
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1397:Nature
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674:Nature
661:Watson
647:, and
629:Avery
529:Berlin
460:smooth
84:London
1238:(PDF)
904:S2CID
714:—its
669:paper
665:Crick
631:et al
563:, in
456:rough
1761:PMID
1712:PMID
1636:PMID
1567:PMID
1514:PMID
1423:PMID
1374:PMID
1199:PMID
1137:2023
1091:PMID
1005:PMID
951:ISBN
896:PMID
861:PMID
807:2020
663:and
513:type
175:and
173:form
155:and
76:1942
72:1941
69:Died
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50:1877
47:Born
1751:PMC
1743:doi
1739:100
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1694:doi
1663:doi
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1618:doi
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1356:doi
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843:doi
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613:in
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