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IV. Avery investigated distribution of different pneumococcus types in healthy individuals versus individuals with symptoms of pneumonia. Avery found different subgroups of type II pneumococcus. These groups were similar to the type strain in certain aspects. However, the subgroups of type II had similarities amongst each other that they did not share with the other main groups of pneumococcus. Avery wrote about the results of his findings in a 1915 paper called "Varieties of
Pneumococcus and Their Relation to Lobar Pneumonia". In the paper, he argued that people who appeared to be healthy could be carriers of pneumonia Avery also suggested it was important to identify the type of strain, based on agglutination of the pneumococci, when determining the appropriate serum for the patient. Avery suggested pneumococci strains that produced more severe symptoms had higher virulence than strains that cause less severe symptoms. A serum effective against type II pneumonia was developed. Avery tested the serum in horses. He processed the serum and measured its antipneumococcal activity. Avery concentrated the serum so that a minimal amount of foreign protein was needed in it. Avery wrote the monograph, Acute Lobar Pneumonia: Prevention and Serum Treatment, that was published by The Institute explaining this improvement.
674:, and DNA - from the bacteria. Then, the killed S-strain bacteria, with various substances removed, were placed with live R-strain bacteria. Avery hypothesized that if the live R-strain bacteria did not transform into S-strain bacteria, then the missing substance contained genetic information and was the "transforming principle". Proteins were removed with protease enzymes and upon transfer of S-strain bacteria into R-strain, the R-strain transformed into S-strain. Therefore, proteins were not the "transforming principle". Next, the S-strain bacteria were treated with ribonucleases to degrade their RNA, and the remainder of the S-strain was placed with the live R-strain bacteria. The R-strain still transformed into S-strain, suggesting that RNA was not the transforming substance. Finally, the S-strain bacteria were treated with a
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Heidelberger realized that the capsules of different strains of pneumonia had different polysaccharide structures and concluded that polysaccharides play a role in immunological specificity. Their work with specific soluble substances showed that it is important to consider the factor in the chemical composition of organisms to design anti-serums. Avery published papers on specific soluble substance findings between 1923 and 1929, along with an additional paper he published with Goebel in 1933. He worked with Goebel until 1934, and then Gobel continued their work upon his cessation. Later, Avery concluded that a protein determines the specificity of
Diplococcus pneumoniae after he observed that the active protein was the same for all pneumococcal strains but different than that of other bacteria.
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340:. Avery went with him to Trudea Sanatorium for a cure. Afterwards, Avery went back to take vacations at the sanatorium. He became interested in tuberculosis and began doing research in the Trudea Laboratory, where he looked at the clinical and experimental aspects of tuberculosis. Here he carried out 100 consecutive blood cultures of tuberculosis patients in the active phase of the disease. He never found evidence of secondary infection. His careful clinical investigation caught the eye of
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nurses at
Hoagland. During the course, he conveyed the dangers of pathogens spread through sneezing. During his teaching, he was given the nicknames "The Professor" and "Fess". While working at Hoagland, Avery was mailed two written offers from Rockefeller Institute, and he denied them both. Avery did not accept the offer until Rufus Cole from Rockefeller came to offer the position to him in person.
767:, where he lived close to his brother and his brother's family, where he was regarded not as a scientist, but as a pleasant family man and a kind country gentleman. While in the southern United States, Avery took a particular interest in the local flora and would act as a gardener would, learning about and appreciating the flowers and trees.
682:, and the S-strain bacteria were placed with the live R-strain bacteria. After this treatment, the R-strain bacteria did not transform into S-strain bacteria. The lack of transformation suggested that DNA was the substance that transformed R-strain into S-strain bacteria and indicated that it was the carrier of genetic information in cells.
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a
Baptist. After this, he would move to Halifax, Nova Scotia with his wife, against the wishes of his friends, believing it to be the Will of God. He remained as a pastor for 14 years in Halifax before traveling to the Mariner's Temple in New York City, where he would preach to a rowdy and poverty-stricken crowd.
778:. Dr. Morgan was given a research grant from the Department of Defense to study immunity to streptococcal infection, and he convinced Avery to help him in his research. Avery worked on this research with Dr. Bertram E. Sprofkin. The two wrote a joint report on "Studies on the bacteriolytic property of
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Research showed that various pneumonia cultures isolated from different patients had different immunological properties. This made it difficult to develop a serum effective against all of the different strains. Four main groups of pneumococcus had been discovered - type I, type II, type III, and type
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Oswald Avery began at
Colgate University in 1896. Even though Colgate was a Baptist school, there were signs of rebellion against orthodoxy during Avery's time at the university. In Avery's senior year, he and a few of his classmates asked their philosophy professor to create a metaphysics class that
291:. Oswald Avery began participating in church activities at a young age. He and his older brother Ernest learned how to play the cornet from a German musician who played at church. Soon, both were playing at church themselves. The brothers played on the steps of Mariners' Temple to attract worshippers.
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Avery's father, Joseph
Francis Avery, born in 1846 in Norwich, Norfolk, became a Baptist minister after coming under the influence of C. H. Spurgeon, a Baptist Evangelist. He married his wife, Elizabeth Crowdy, in 1870, and spent three years in England, where he would continue his pastoral service as
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Throughout his time at
Hoagland, Avery published nine papers, one of which was a chapter on "Opsonins and Vaccine Therapy". He collaborated with Dr. N. B. Potter for this chapter, which was put in Hare's Modern Treatment - a popular medical magazine at the time. Avery also taught a course to student
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status from the
Rockefeller Institute in 1943, but continued working for five years, though by that time he was in his late sixties. In 1944 at the Rockefeller Institute's Hospital for medical research, Oswald Avery, along with Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, isolated S-strain bacteria and killed
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Avery made exceptional grades throughout his years at
Colgate. He received 8.5 out of 10 or above in all courses his freshman year and 9 out of 10 or above his sophomore through senior year. Avery's top grades were in his public speaking courses, in which he never received lower than a 9.5. He even
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Avery's mother, Elizabeth Crowdy, was the beating heart and soul that made her husband's church the community center it was. After Joseph
Francis Avery's death, she would continue editing the publication Buds and Blossoms. She would also continue to work with the Baptist City Mission Society, where
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While here, he would publish an edifying pamphlet entitled "The Voyage of Life", edited the church publication Buds and Blossoms, and patented and attempted to sell a preparation known as "Avery's Auraline", though it would gain little success. When their home burned to the ground in December 1890,
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At Hoagland Laboratory, he began by studying the bacteriology of yogurt and other fermented milk products and their effects on gut bacteria. He recorded his findings in "Observations on Certain Lactic Acid Bacteria of the Bulgaricus Type". During the years 1909 through 1913, he performed medical
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At Hoagland, Avery performed a chemical and toxicological study of a product derived from tubercle bacilli. With White as a colleague, he extracted the product with alkaline ethanol. The research was published in 1912. This further showed his systematic effort to observe and analyze bacterial
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Avery also helped Dochez in his research on specific soluble substances found in the blood and urine of pneumonia patients. The presence of specific soluble substances in a urine sample allowed him to rapidly test the type of pneumonia without having to wait for a culture to grow. Avery and
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Both earned a scholarship to the National Conservatory of Music. Ernest became sick and did not continue, but Oswald pushed onward. He became talented enough to play with the National Academy of Music in Antonin Dvorak's Symphony No. 5, From the New World, under direction of Walter
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The collected papers of Avery are stored at the Tennessee State Library and Archives and at the Rockefeller Archive. Many of his papers, poems, and hand written lab-notes are available at the National Library of Medicine in the Oswald T. Avery Collection, the first of their
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Oswald had two siblings - an older brother Ernest and a younger brother Roy. Ernest was a gifted child, but became ill at a young age. Roy followed his brother Oswald in the field of bacteriology. He eventually taught at Vanderbilt Medical School in Nashville, Tennessee.
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and molecular biology. Of this event, Avery wrote in a letter to his youngest brother Roy, a bacteriologist at the Vanderbilt School of Medicine: "It's lots of fun to blow bubbles but it's wiser to prick them yourself before someone else tries to."
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at Columbia University in New York later in the year of 1900. At the college, he made good grades in all of his courses, except bacteriology and pathology. He graduated with a medical degree in 1904, and then he began to practice general
763:, which caused him to experienced mood swings of depression and irritability. After undergoing a thyroidectomy, Avery once again became more lively and began sailing, where he fell in love with the sport. Shortly after, he retired in
2552:"Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types: Induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from Pneumococcus type III. Oswald Theodore Avery (1877–1955)"
283:, in 1877 to Francis Joseph Avery, a Baptist minister, and his wife Elizabeth Crowdy. The couple had immigrated from Britain in 1873. Oswald Avery was born and grew up in a small wooden row house on Moran Street in the
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Avery did not like dealing with patients who have chronic diseases that he was unable to fix. He practiced medicine until 1907 when he began working as an associate director to Benjamin White in Hoagland Laboratory.
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activity using their chemical structure. In 1911, Avery instructed staff of H. K. Mulford Company in bacteriological techniques, and they taught him the industrial methods for production of antitoxins and vaccines.
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He was a papermaker, and he was in charge of the papermaking at Oxford University. He discovered a way to make thin paper that could be printed on both sides. This paper was used to make Oxford Bibles.
2201:"Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types - Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III"
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Oswald Avery entered Rockefeller Institute as Assistant in 1913, and in 1915, he became an Associate. In 1919, Avery was promoted to an associate member. He was granted full membership in 1923
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at the Rockefeller Institute found that nasal secretions from infected patients could still cause disease in the lungs of rabbits after having been filtered through a bacterium-excluding
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the Baptist community of New York banded together to help pay for the expenses, including one John D. Rockefeller. He would die in 1892, leaving his wife Elizabeth Avery a widow.
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alteration of a cell, the chemical nature of the substance responsible for this alteration had been elucidated for the first time. Seldom has more been said in so few words."
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said that Avery was the most deserving scientist not to receive the Nobel Prize for his work, though he was nominated for the award throughout the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s.
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After the influenza epidemic, Avery returned to his work on pneumococcus. He identified R and S strains of the bacterium; the latter caused disease and had a
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of 1928 showed that the ability to produce a capsule could be transferred from S to R strain bacteria, even if the S strain bacteria were killed first.
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185:(October 21, 1877 – February 20, 1955) was a Canadian-American physician and medical researcher. The major part of his career was spent at the
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stated that Avery and his laboratory provided "the historical platform of modern DNA research" and "betokened the molecular revolution in
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decades earlier and which was also found in many but not all samples taken from patients in the 1918 epidemic. The failure to isolate
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could still not be found in all influenza patients. The true cause of influenza, a virus, would not be discovered until the 1930s.
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Avery's senior year was entirely electives, but he did not choose to take a single science elective, even though many were offered.
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Avery became an emeritus member of The Institute when he retired in 1943. However, he continued to work in the lab until 1948.
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she would come into association with a number of wealthy people, including the Sloans, the Vanderbilts, and the Rockefellers.
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Parker, Nina; Schneegurt, Mark; Thi Tu, Anh-Hue; Forster, Brian M.; Lister, Philip (2018). "Biochemistry of the Genome".
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Amsterdamska, Olga (1993). "Between Medicine and Science: The Research Career of Oswald T. Avery". In Löwy, Ilana (ed.).
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Amsterdamska, Olga (1993). "Between Medicine and Science: The Research Career of Oswald T. Avery". In Löwy, Ilana (ed.).
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tied for first with his friend Emerson in an oratorical contest. Avery earned his undergraduate degree in humanities at
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Avery's enthusiasm toward researching nucleic acids continued into his retirement, and he would continue his work with
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Barciszewski, J. (1995). "Pioneers in molecular biology: Emil Fischer, Erwin Schrodinger and Oswald T. Avery".
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2632:"The transformation of genetics by DNA: an anniversary celebration of Avery, MacLeod and McCarty (1944)"
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287:, now a designated heritage building. When Avery was 10, his family moved to the Lower East Side of
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The Professor, the Institute, and DNA: Oswald T. Avery, His Life and Scientific Achievements
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them with heat. They used available techniques to remove various macromolecules - proteins,
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Amsterdamska, O (1993). "From pneumonia to DNA: the research career of Oswald T. Avery".
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in some patients was generally attributed to the difficulty of culturing the bacterium.
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Russell, N (December 1988). "Oswald Avery and the origin of molecular biology".
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Medicine and Change: Historical and Sociological Studies of Medical Innovation
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Medicine and Change: Historical and Sociological Studies of Medical Innovation
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Avery's conclusion, that "The evidence presented supports the belief that a
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Oswald Avery Papers finding aid at the Tennessee State Library and Archives
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Avery, Oswald T.; MacLeod, Colin M.; McCarty, Maclyn (February 1, 1944).
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2176:"Animation 17: A gene is made of DNA. :: CSHL DNA Learning Center"
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research with bacteriological, immunological, and chemical approaches.
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The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague in History
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hypothesis. For that purpose, he developed improved culture media for
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Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni
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2847:. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 342–343.
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Avery, Oswald T.; MacLeod, Colin M.; McCarty, Maclyn (1944-02-01).
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During his later years, Avery became terminally ill with extensive
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For many years, genetic information was thought to be contained in
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would allow them to explore the credibility of the Christian faith.
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Sri Kantha, S (1989). "Avery's non-recognition in Nobel awards".
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Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
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capsule, while the former lacked the capsule and was harmless.
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developed the first effective immune serum against a strain of
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type is the fundamental unit of the transforming principle of
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Chemistry in Israel - Bulletin of the Israel Chemical Society
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Diamond, Arthur M. (1982). "Avery's 'Neurotic Reluctance'".
376:. The serum was produced from the blood of infected horses.
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Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
2384:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. pp. 67–68.
2344:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. pp. 63–67.
1530:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. pp. 60–61.
1505:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. pp. 59–60.
1368:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. pp. 55–56.
1311:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. pp. 54–55.
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Dochez, A. R. (1955). "Oswald Theodore Avery, 1877–1955".
894:"The Oswald T. Avery Collection. Biographical Information"
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Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
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Linus Pauling and the Race for DNA: A Documentary History
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While working at Rockefeller Institute, Avery contracted
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Cracking the Genome: Inside the Race to Unlock Human DNA
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1975:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 111.
1922:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 106.
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1872:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 103.
1847:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 102.
1709:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 101.
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Hotchkiss, R. D. (1965). "Oswald T. Avery: 1877–1955".
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Debate over the pathogen in the 1918 influenza epidemic
1654:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 63.
1616:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 62.
1572:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 61.
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1452:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 58.
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1343:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 55.
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1243:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 53.
1209:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 52.
1184:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 51.
1156:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 50.
1131:. New York: Rockefeller University Press. p. 49.
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Transactions of the Association of American Physicians
413:), a microbe first isolated by German bacteriologist
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Coburn, A F (1969). "Oswald Theodore Avery and DNA".
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Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
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Presidents of the American Society for Microbiology
2884:- Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine
2550:Avery, O T; Macleod C M; McCarty M (October 2000).
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249:Oswald Avery's grandfather was Joseph Henry Avery.
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1066:"Osvald T. Avery and the Nobel Prize in Medicine"
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2888:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
2498:(2nd ed.). United States: iUniverse, Inc.
735:structure of DNA, and thus the birth of modern
2715:The British Journal for the History of Science
2059:Taubenberger JK, Hultin JV, Morens DM (2007).
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189:in New York City. Avery was one of the first
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2596:"Oswald T. Avery: the Wizard of York Avenue"
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853:(1956). "Oswald Theodore Avery 1877–1955".
782:and its action on hemolytic streptococci".
336:For a period of time, White came down with
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2878:- National Library of Medicine finding aid
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1264:"Avery House", Canada's Historic Places
900:. US National Library of Medicine (NIH)
312:and was a member of the Class of 1900.
201:(published in 1944 with his co-workers
4214:
2876:Oswald T. Avery Collection (1912-2005)
2841:Kay, Alan (1970). "Avery, Oswald T.".
2803:
2491:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2124:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1700:
1698:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1175:
1173:
1045:"No Nobel for You: Top 10 Nobel Snubs"
990:
723:. These experiments paved the way for
409:(then called 'Pfeiffer's bacillus' or
327:
317:The College of Physicians and Surgeons
315:Oswald Avery began medical studies at
3376:
2927:
2750:
2382:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
2379:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2342:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
2339:
2335:
2333:
2307:"Erwin Chargaff and Chargaff's Rules"
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2003:"Influenza: exposing the true killer"
1973:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1970:
1950:. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 192.
1920:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1917:
1895:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1892:
1870:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1867:
1845:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1842:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1815:. John Libbey Eurotext. p. 186.
1707:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1704:
1674:
1652:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1649:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1614:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1611:
1570:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1567:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1528:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1525:
1503:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1500:
1478:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1475:
1471:
1469:
1450:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1447:
1404:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1401:
1366:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1363:
1341:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1338:
1309:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1306:
1284:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1281:
1241:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1238:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1207:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1204:
1182:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1179:
1154:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1151:
1129:The Professor, the Institute, and DNA
1126:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
888:
886:
849:
4277:Foreign members of the Royal Society
2433:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
1743:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
1057:
946:
944:
942:
2840:
2398:
2250:"Discovering genes are made of DNA"
2147:
1911:
1787:
1723:
1695:
1586:
1382:
1325:
1268:
1170:
751:and biomedical science generally".
13:
4252:Canadian people of English descent
2844:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
2424:
2358:
2330:
2101:
1829:
1630:
1544:
1466:
1223:
1109:
952:"Oswald Theodore Avery, 1877–1955"
883:
843:
649:. Continuing the research done by
364:At the institute, Cole, Avery and
14:
4318:
2893:
2862:Key Participants: Oswald T. Avery
2305:Weintraub, Bob (September 2006).
939:
4307:Scientists from New York (state)
4287:People from Halifax, Nova Scotia
2911:
2899:
2569:10.1097/00003086-200010001-00002
2406:"The Oswald T. Avery Collection"
2205:Journal of Experimental Medicine
2008:Journal of Experimental Medicine
1043:Erica Westly (October 6, 2008).
627:Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment
112:Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment
2317:
2001:Van Epps, HL (April 17, 2006).
1964:
1886:
1861:
1668:
1519:
1494:
1441:
1420:
1357:
1300:
1257:
1198:
1145:
1073:Journal of Biological Chemistry
956:Journal of General Microbiology
796:
171:Rockefeller University Hospital
4297:Recipients of the Copley Medal
2882:The Oswald T. Avery Collection
2630:Lederberg, J (February 1994).
2408:. National Library of Medicine
2133:. Rice University: ASM Press.
1428:"Gene Idol | Colgate Magazine"
1036:
984:
912:
1:
4302:Rockefeller University people
3919:Aaron Frederick Rasmussen Jr.
3152:Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer
2614:10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00109-6
1681:. Penguin. pp. 181–189.
1018:Judson, Horace (2003-10-20).
809:
697:Type III" greatly influenced
4237:American medical researchers
3878:Robert George Everitt Murray
3687:Rebecca Craighill Lancefield
3496:Charles-Edward Amory Winslow
2751:Pirie, N W (December 1972).
2481:, 1976, Paul & Company,
2077:10.1177/135965350701200S02.1
1020:"No Nobel Prize for Whining"
7:
3240:Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
678:enzymes, which removed the
197:, but he is best known for
16:Canadian-American physician
10:
4323:
2650:10.1093/genetics/136.2.423
755:Retirement and later years
624:
459:DNA as the basis for genes
344:at Rockefeller Institute.
4257:Colgate University alumni
4060:
3899:
3764:Cornelis Bernard van Niel
3738:
3577:
3418:William Thompson Sedgwick
3410:
3176:Charles Scott Sherrington
3168:Frederick Gowland Hopkins
2962:
2728:10.1017/S0007087400025310
2594:Austrian, R (July 1999).
2557:Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res.
969:10.1099/00221287-17-3-539
776:Vanderbilt Medical School
279:Oswald Avery was born in
244:
213:as the material of which
183:Oswald Theodore Avery Jr.
176:
166:
156:
149:
126:
104:
94:
86:
67:
45:
33:
21:
4242:American microbiologists
3663:Arthur Trautwein Henrici
3544:Francis Charles Harrison
3184:Charles Algernon Parsons
2248:McCarty, Maclyn (2003).
721:Hershey–Chase experiment
275:Early life and education
241:was named in his honor.
40:Oswald Avery Jr. in 1937
3979:Barbara Hotham Iglewski
3723:William McDowell Hammon
3627:William Mansfield Clark
3514:Thomas Jonathan Burrill
3502:Charles Edward Marshall
2492:Lehrer, Steven (2006).
2380:Dubos, René J. (1976).
2340:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1971:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1918:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1893:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1868:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1843:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1705:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1675:Barry, John M. (2005).
1650:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1612:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1568:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1526:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1501:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1476:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1448:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1402:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1364:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1339:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1307:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1282:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1239:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1205:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1180:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1152:Dubos, René J. (1976).
1127:Dubos, René J. (1976).
397:1918 influenza epidemic
4110:Clifford Wayne Houston
3997:Joan Wennstrom Bennett
3955:Robert Pierce Williams
3943:Frederick C. Neidhardt
3913:Harlyn Odell Halvorson
3907:Helen Riaboff Whiteley
3746:Walter James Nungester
3681:Selman Abraham Waksman
3562:Arthur Parker Hitchens
3508:David Hendricks Bergey
3312:Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
3096:Pierre Paul Émile Roux
2916:Quotations related to
2527:10.1002/bies.950100411
2323:Davies, Kevin (2001).
1086:10.1074/jbc.R200002200
869:10.1098/rsbm.1956.0003
406:Haemophilus influenzae
372:, a bacterium causing
3925:Edwin Herman Lennette
3866:Robert Edward Hungate
3854:Dennis Wallace Watson
3848:Salvador Edward Luria
3836:Riley Dee Housewright
3794:Philip Rarick Edwards
3776:Charles Arthur Stuart
3770:Halvor Orin Halvorson
3675:Oswald Theodore Avery
3633:Milton Joseph Rosenau
3597:Alice Catherine Evans
3568:Norman MacLeod Harris
3556:Edwin George Hastings
3538:Charles Krumwiede Jr.
3526:Robert Earle Buchanan
3520:Leo Frederick Rettger
3484:Frederic Poole Gorham
3442:Frederick George Novy
3120:Horace Tabberer Brown
3024:Alfred Russel Wallace
2818:10.1353/pbm.1969.0002
2753:"Avery in retrospect"
2495:Explorers of the Body
2455:10.1353/pbm.1982.0002
1064:Reichard, P. (2002).
791:Mount Olivet cemetery
637:Griffith's experiment
395:At the height of the
356:Rockefeller Institute
4232:American geneticists
4098:Stanley Robert Maloy
4003:Richard Lane Crowell
3985:Alice Shih-Hou Huang
3949:John Charles Sherris
3872:Morris Frank Shaffer
3860:Edwin Michael Foster
3842:William Bowen Sarles
3818:Robert Lyman Starkey
3800:Charles Albert Evans
3782:Perry William Wilson
3651:James Morgan Sherman
3645:Thomas Milton Rivers
3639:Karl Friedrich Meyer
3609:Stanhope Bayne-Jones
3591:Robert Stanley Breed
3532:Samuel Cate Prescott
3490:William Hallock Park
3472:Joseph James Kinyoun
3430:Herbert William Conn
3328:Edgar Douglas Adrian
2968:Josiah Willard Gibbs
2908:at Wikimedia Commons
2722:(71 Pt 4): 193–400.
2217:10.1084/jem.79.2.137
1755:10.1084/jem.79.2.137
962:(3): 539–549. 1957.
765:Nashville, Tennessee
731:'s discovery of the
653:, Avery worked with
285:North End of Halifax
281:Halifax, Nova Scotia
191:molecular biologists
187:Rockefeller Hospital
79:Nashville, Tennessee
60:Halifax, Nova Scotia
4282:History of genetics
3884:Linzy Leon Campbell
3657:Paul Franklin Clark
3466:Harry Luman Russell
3424:William Henry Welch
3200:William Henry Bragg
3032:George William Hill
3016:Albert A. Michelson
2806:Perspect. Biol. Med
2771:1972Natur.240..572P
2563:(379 Suppl): S3–8.
2275:10.1038/nature01398
2266:2003Natur.421..406M
2071:(4 Pt B): 581–591.
2021:10.1084/jem.2034fta
1079:(16): 13355–13362.
1050:Scientific American
898:Profiles in Science
804:Profiles in Science
533:John Masson Gulland
411:Bacillus influenzae
328:Hoagland Laboratory
99:Columbia University
4074:Abigail A. Salyers
4021:David Schlessinger
3967:Moselio Schaechter
3961:Rita Rossi Colwell
3711:Thomas Francis Jr.
3615:James Howard Brown
3550:Lore Alford Rogers
3478:Veranus Alva Moore
3448:Edwin Oakes Jordan
3272:Thomas Hunt Morgan
3256:Henry Hallett Dale
3232:John Scott Haldane
3216:George Ellery Hale
1024:The New York Times
780:Streptomyces albus
665:. He had received
661:on the mystery of
651:Frederick Griffith
548:Friedrich Miescher
528:Frederick Griffith
419:seasonal influenza
310:Colgate University
193:and a pioneer in
119:transmits heredity
4209:
4208:
4152:Jeffery F. Miller
4140:Jeffery F. Miller
4116:Alison D. O'Brien
3824:John Roger Porter
3812:John Edward Blair
3454:Erwin Frink Smith
3370:
3369:
3136:Ernest Rutherford
2955:Copley Medallists
2904:Media related to
2327:. The Free Press.
2140:978-1-50669-811-3
2065:Antiviral Therapy
1688:978-0-14-303649-4
825:Postepy Biochemii
676:deoxyribonuclease
623:
622:
518:Rosalind Franklin
180:
179:
161:Molecular biology
151:Scientific career
90:Canadian-American
71:February 20, 1955
4314:
4104:Diane E. Griffin
4033:Kenneth I. Berns
3890:Philipp Gerhardt
3758:Gail Monroe Dack
3717:Harold Joel Conn
3621:Edwin Broun Fred
3397:
3390:
3383:
3374:
3373:
3363:
3355:
3352:George de Hevesy
3347:
3339:
3331:
3323:
3315:
3307:
3299:
3291:
3283:
3275:
3267:
3259:
3251:
3243:
3235:
3227:
3219:
3211:
3203:
3195:
3187:
3179:
3171:
3163:
3155:
3147:
3139:
3131:
3123:
3115:
3107:
3099:
3091:
3083:
3075:
3067:
3059:
3051:
3043:
3035:
3027:
3019:
3011:
3008:Élie Metchnikoff
3003:
3000:Dmitri Mendeleev
2995:
2987:
2979:
2971:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2925:
2924:
2915:
2903:
2858:
2837:
2800:
2782:
2780:10.1038/240572a0
2747:
2708:
2689:10.2307/27757711
2671:
2661:
2626:
2616:
2590:
2580:
2546:
2509:
2474:
2448:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2377:
2356:
2355:
2337:
2328:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2277:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2228:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2172:
2145:
2144:
2126:
2099:
2098:
2088:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2032:
1998:
1987:
1986:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1943:
1934:
1933:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1840:
1827:
1826:
1808:
1785:
1784:
1774:
1734:
1721:
1720:
1702:
1693:
1692:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1647:
1628:
1627:
1609:
1584:
1583:
1565:
1542:
1541:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1473:
1464:
1463:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1399:
1380:
1379:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1336:
1323:
1322:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1279:
1266:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1236:
1221:
1220:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1177:
1168:
1167:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1124:
1107:
1106:
1088:
1070:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1030:
1015:
1009:
1008:
988:
982:
981:
971:
948:
937:
936:
916:
910:
909:
907:
905:
890:
881:
880:
847:
841:
840:
820:
745:Joshua Lederberg
703:Chargaff's rules
615:
608:
601:
558:Sir John Randall
472:
463:
462:
437:Berkefeld filter
415:Richard Pfeiffer
403:— specifically,
209:) that isolated
74:
56:October 21, 1877
55:
53:
38:
23:Oswald Avery JR.
19:
18:
4322:
4321:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4311:
4212:
4211:
4210:
4205:
4164:Lynn W. Enquist
4158:Timothy Donohue
4134:David C. Hooper
4086:Thomas E. Shenk
4056:
3895:
3734:
3573:
3406:
3401:
3371:
3366:
3358:
3350:
3342:
3334:
3326:
3318:
3310:
3304:Joseph Barcroft
3302:
3296:Robert Robinson
3294:
3286:
3278:
3270:
3262:
3254:
3246:
3238:
3230:
3222:
3214:
3208:Arthur Schuster
3206:
3198:
3190:
3182:
3174:
3166:
3160:Albert Einstein
3158:
3150:
3142:
3134:
3126:
3118:
3112:William Bayliss
3110:
3104:Hendrik Lorentz
3102:
3094:
3086:
3078:
3070:
3062:
3054:
3046:
3038:
3030:
3022:
3014:
3006:
2998:
2992:William Crookes
2990:
2982:
2974:
2966:
2958:
2952:
2896:
2855:
2506:
2446:10.1.1.587.6127
2427:
2425:Further reading
2422:
2421:
2411:
2409:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2378:
2359:
2352:
2338:
2331:
2322:
2318:
2303:
2299:
2246:
2242:
2197:
2193:
2184:
2182:
2174:
2173:
2148:
2141:
2127:
2102:
2057:
2053:
2043:
2041:
1999:
1990:
1983:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1944:
1937:
1930:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1866:
1862:
1855:
1841:
1830:
1823:
1809:
1788:
1735:
1724:
1717:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1648:
1631:
1624:
1610:
1587:
1580:
1566:
1545:
1538:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1499:
1495:
1488:
1474:
1467:
1460:
1446:
1442:
1433:
1431:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1400:
1383:
1376:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1337:
1326:
1319:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1280:
1269:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1237:
1224:
1217:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1178:
1171:
1164:
1150:
1146:
1139:
1125:
1110:
1068:
1062:
1058:
1041:
1037:
1028:
1026:
1016:
1012:
989:
985:
950:
949:
940:
917:
913:
903:
901:
892:
891:
884:
848:
844:
821:
817:
812:
799:
772:Dr. Hugh Morgan
761:Grave's disease
757:
743:Nobel laureate
629:
619:
590:
589:
573:Maurice Wilkins
523:Raymond Gosling
478:William Astbury
473:
468:
461:
449:false negatives
433:Frederick Gates
393:
366:Alphonse Dochez
358:
330:
277:
247:
195:immunochemistry
145:
122:
95:Alma mater
82:
76:
72:
63:
57:
51:
49:
41:
29:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4320:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4203:
4197:
4191:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4170:Susan E. Sharp
4167:
4161:
4155:
4154:(Mar-Dec 2014)
4149:
4148:(Jan-Feb 2014)
4143:
4137:
4131:
4128:Bonnie Bassler
4125:
4122:Roberto Kolter
4119:
4113:
4107:
4101:
4095:
4089:
4083:
4077:
4071:
4064:
4062:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4054:
4048:
4042:
4039:Stanley Falkow
4036:
4030:
4024:
4018:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3973:Jean Brenchley
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3931:Willis A. Wood
3928:
3922:
3916:
3910:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3887:
3881:
3875:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3851:
3845:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3821:
3815:
3809:
3806:Herald Rea Cox
3803:
3797:
3791:
3785:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3742:
3740:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3696:
3693:Ira L. Baldwin
3690:
3684:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3660:
3654:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3603:Ludvig Hektoen
3600:
3594:
3588:
3581:
3579:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3565:
3559:
3553:
3547:
3541:
3535:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3511:
3505:
3499:
3493:
3487:
3481:
3475:
3469:
3463:
3457:
3451:
3445:
3439:
3436:Theobald Smith
3433:
3427:
3421:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3407:
3400:
3399:
3392:
3385:
3377:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3360:James Chadwick
3356:
3348:
3344:Archibald Hill
3340:
3332:
3324:
3316:
3308:
3300:
3292:
3284:
3276:
3268:
3260:
3252:
3244:
3236:
3228:
3224:Theobald Smith
3220:
3212:
3204:
3196:
3188:
3180:
3172:
3164:
3156:
3148:
3140:
3132:
3124:
3116:
3108:
3100:
3092:
3084:
3076:
3068:
3060:
3052:
3044:
3040:Francis Galton
3036:
3028:
3020:
3012:
3004:
2996:
2988:
2980:
2972:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2951:
2950:
2943:
2936:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2909:
2895:
2894:External links
2892:
2891:
2890:
2885:
2879:
2873:
2868:
2859:
2853:
2838:
2801:
2748:
2709:
2683:(pt 1): 1–40.
2672:
2627:
2607:(1A): 7S–11S.
2591:
2547:
2510:
2504:
2489:
2475:
2439:(1): 132–136.
2426:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2397:
2390:
2357:
2350:
2329:
2316:
2297:
2240:
2211:(2): 137–158.
2191:
2180:dnalc.cshl.edu
2146:
2139:
2100:
2051:
1988:
1981:
1963:
1956:
1935:
1928:
1910:
1903:
1885:
1878:
1860:
1853:
1828:
1821:
1786:
1749:(2): 137–158.
1722:
1715:
1694:
1687:
1667:
1660:
1629:
1622:
1585:
1578:
1543:
1536:
1518:
1511:
1493:
1486:
1465:
1458:
1440:
1419:
1412:
1381:
1374:
1356:
1349:
1324:
1317:
1299:
1292:
1267:
1256:
1249:
1222:
1215:
1197:
1190:
1169:
1162:
1144:
1137:
1108:
1056:
1035:
1010:
983:
938:
911:
882:
842:
814:
813:
811:
808:
798:
795:
793:in Nashville.
756:
753:
713:Alfred Hershey
699:Erwin Chargaff
659:Maclyn McCarty
633:polysaccharide
625:Main article:
621:
620:
618:
617:
610:
603:
595:
592:
591:
588:
587:
580:
578:Herbert Wilson
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
543:Phoebus Levene
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
508:Michael Creeth
505:
500:
498:Erwin Chargaff
495:
493:Lawrence Bragg
490:
485:
480:
474:
467:
466:
460:
457:
392:
389:
357:
354:
342:Dr. Rufus Cole
329:
326:
276:
273:
246:
243:
226:Nobel laureate
207:Maclyn McCarty
199:the experiment
178:
177:
174:
173:
168:
164:
163:
158:
154:
153:
147:
146:
144:
143:
137:
130:
128:
124:
123:
121:
120:
114:
108:
106:
105:Known for
102:
101:
96:
92:
91:
88:
84:
83:
77:
75:(aged 77)
69:
65:
64:
58:
47:
43:
42:
39:
31:
30:
25:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4319:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4201:
4200:Colleen Kraft
4198:
4195:
4194:Steven Finkel
4192:
4189:
4188:Victor DiRita
4186:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4162:
4159:
4156:
4153:
4150:
4147:
4146:Jo Handelsman
4144:
4141:
4138:
4135:
4132:
4129:
4126:
4123:
4120:
4117:
4114:
4111:
4108:
4105:
4102:
4099:
4096:
4093:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4072:
4069:
4066:
4065:
4063:
4059:
4052:
4051:Julian Davies
4049:
4046:
4043:
4040:
4037:
4034:
4031:
4028:
4027:Carol A. Nacy
4025:
4022:
4019:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4009:John Ingraham
4007:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3992:
3991:Walter Dowdle
3989:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3977:
3974:
3971:
3968:
3965:
3962:
3959:
3956:
3953:
3950:
3947:
3944:
3941:
3938:
3937:Albert Balows
3935:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3923:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3911:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3898:
3891:
3888:
3885:
3882:
3879:
3876:
3873:
3870:
3867:
3864:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3852:
3849:
3846:
3843:
3840:
3837:
3834:
3831:
3828:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3810:
3807:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3789:
3786:
3783:
3780:
3777:
3774:
3771:
3768:
3765:
3762:
3759:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3737:
3730:
3729:Barnett Cohen
3727:
3724:
3721:
3718:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3706:
3705:James Craigie
3703:
3700:
3697:
3694:
3691:
3688:
3685:
3682:
3679:
3676:
3673:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3661:
3658:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3619:
3616:
3613:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3569:
3566:
3563:
3560:
3557:
3554:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3460:James Carroll
3458:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3398:
3393:
3391:
3386:
3384:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3280:Paul Langevin
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3128:Joseph Larmor
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3072:J. J. Thomson
3069:
3065:
3064:Ray Lankester
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3048:George Darwin
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2976:Joseph Lister
2973:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2961:
2956:
2949:
2944:
2942:
2937:
2935:
2930:
2929:
2926:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2897:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2856:
2854:0-684-10114-9
2850:
2846:
2845:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2812:(4): 623–30.
2811:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2765:(5383): 572.
2764:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2505:0-595-40731-5
2501:
2497:
2496:
2490:
2488:
2487:0-87470-022-1
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2407:
2401:
2393:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
2353:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2334:
2326:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2260:(6921): 406.
2259:
2255:
2251:
2244:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2195:
2181:
2177:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2142:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2055:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1984:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1940:
1931:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1906:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1881:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1856:
1850:
1846:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1824:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1718:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1699:
1690:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1671:
1663:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1625:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1581:
1575:
1571:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1514:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1489:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1470:
1461:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1429:
1423:
1415:
1409:
1405:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1377:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1352:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1320:
1314:
1310:
1303:
1295:
1289:
1285:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1265:
1260:
1252:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1218:
1212:
1208:
1201:
1193:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1174:
1165:
1159:
1155:
1148:
1140:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1039:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
987:
979:
975:
970:
965:
961:
957:
953:
947:
945:
943:
934:
930:
926:
922:
915:
899:
895:
889:
887:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
857:
852:
846:
838:
834:
830:
826:
819:
815:
807:
805:
794:
792:
788:
783:
781:
777:
773:
768:
766:
762:
752:
750:
746:
741:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
683:
681:
677:
673:
668:
664:
660:
656:
655:Colin MacLeod
652:
648:
645:
640:
638:
634:
628:
616:
611:
609:
604:
602:
597:
596:
594:
593:
586:
585:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
513:Jerry Donohue
511:
509:
506:
504:
503:Francis Crick
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
488:Florence Bell
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
475:
471:
465:
464:
456:
454:
453:B. influenzae
450:
446:
445:B. influenzae
442:
441:B. influenzae
438:
434:
430:
429:Peter Olitsky
426:
424:
423:B. influenzae
420:
416:
412:
408:
407:
402:
398:
388:
385:
381:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
353:
349:
345:
343:
339:
334:
325:
322:
318:
313:
311:
306:
303:
298:
297:
293:
290:
289:New York City
286:
282:
272:
268:
264:
263:
259:
254:
251:
242:
240:
237:
232:
230:
229:Arne Tiselius
227:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:Colin MacLeod
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
175:
172:
169:
165:
162:
159:
155:
152:
148:
141:
138:
135:
132:
131:
129:
125:
118:
115:
113:
110:
109:
107:
103:
100:
97:
93:
89:
85:
80:
70:
66:
61:
48:
44:
37:
32:
28:
20:
4176:Peggy Cotter
4092:James Tiedje
4080:Ronald Atlas
4061:2001–present
4015:Gail Cassell
3830:Orville Wyss
3669:Charles Thom
3585:Hans Zinsser
3320:Oswald Avery
3319:
3288:Thomas Lewis
3248:Arthur Evans
2984:Eduard Suess
2920:at Wikiquote
2918:Oswald Avery
2906:Oswald Avery
2865:
2842:
2809:
2805:
2762:
2756:
2719:
2713:
2680:
2676:
2644:(2): 423–6.
2641:
2635:
2604:
2599:
2560:
2555:
2518:
2514:
2494:
2478:
2477:René Dubos,
2436:
2432:
2410:. Retrieved
2400:
2381:
2341:
2324:
2319:
2313:(22): 29–31.
2310:
2300:
2257:
2253:
2243:
2208:
2204:
2194:
2183:. Retrieved
2179:
2131:Microbiology
2130:
2068:
2064:
2054:
2042:. Retrieved
2012:
2006:
1972:
1966:
1947:
1919:
1913:
1894:
1888:
1869:
1863:
1844:
1812:
1746:
1742:
1706:
1677:
1670:
1651:
1613:
1569:
1527:
1521:
1502:
1496:
1477:
1449:
1443:
1432:. Retrieved
1430:. 2020-01-31
1422:
1403:
1365:
1359:
1340:
1308:
1302:
1283:
1259:
1240:
1206:
1200:
1181:
1153:
1147:
1128:
1076:
1072:
1059:
1048:
1038:
1027:. Retrieved
1023:
1013:
996:
992:
986:
959:
955:
924:
920:
914:
902:. Retrieved
897:
860:
854:
851:Dubos, R. J.
845:
828:
824:
818:
803:
800:
797:Bibliography
784:
779:
769:
758:
742:
717:Martha Chase
711:
695:Pneumococcus
691:desoxyribose
687:nucleic acid
684:
641:
630:
582:
568:James Watson
553:Fred Neufeld
538:Denis Jordan
483:Oswald Avery
482:
470:Double helix
452:
444:
440:
427:
422:
410:
404:
394:
386:
382:
378:
370:pneumococcus
361:
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338:tuberculosis
335:
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236:lunar crater
233:
223:
182:
181:
167:Institutions
150:
134:Copley Medal
73:(1955-02-20)
4227:1955 deaths
4222:1877 births
4182:Robin Patel
4068:Martha Howe
4045:Stuart Levy
3788:Harry Eagle
3699:Stuart Mudd
3336:G. H. Hardy
3144:Horace Lamb
3088:James Dewar
3080:Ivan Pavlov
3056:Felix Klein
2957:(1901–1950)
2601:Am. J. Med.
707:inheritable
663:inheritance
563:Alec Stokes
451:. However,
219:chromosomes
87:Nationality
4216:Categories
3752:René Dubos
3264:Niels Bohr
3192:Max Planck
2521:(4): 131.
2391:0874700221
2351:0874700221
2185:2023-05-01
2015:(4): 803.
1982:0874700221
1957:2742000100
1929:0874700221
1904:0874700221
1879:0874700221
1854:0874700221
1822:2742000100
1716:0874700221
1661:0874700221
1623:0874700221
1579:0874700221
1537:0874700221
1512:0874700221
1487:0874700221
1459:0874700221
1434:2020-06-29
1413:0874700221
1375:0874700221
1350:0874700221
1318:0874700221
1293:0874700221
1250:0874700221
1216:0874700221
1191:0874700221
1163:0874700221
1138:0874700221
1029:2020-11-22
831:(1): 4–6.
810:References
320:medicine.'
221:are made.
52:1877-10-21
3900:1976–2000
3739:1951–1975
3578:1926–1950
3411:1900–1925
2543:221464173
2515:BioEssays
2441:CiteSeerX
2412:April 28,
1763:0022-1007
863:: 35–48.
401:bacterium
374:pneumonia
295:Damrosch.
2834:39988917
2797:30778901
2744:40622286
2736:11621687
2705:11623400
2697:27757711
2637:Genetics
2623:10451004
2587:11039746
2471:45856676
2284:12540908
2235:19871359
2095:17944266
2039:16685764
1781:19871359
1103:29494719
1095:11872756
1005:13299298
978:13491790
933:14258070
927:: 1–10.
921:Genetics
806:series.
787:hepatoma
749:genetics
737:genetics
667:emeritus
584:Photo 51
62:, Canada
2826:4900165
2789:4568407
2767:Bibcode
2668:8150273
2659:1205797
2578:2229990
2535:2730635
2463:6765132
2292:4335285
2262:Bibcode
2226:2135445
2086:2391305
2030:2118275
1772:2135445
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837:7777433
733:helical
689:of the
647:protein
4202:(2022)
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4190:(2020)
4184:(2019)
4178:(2018)
4172:(2017)
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1069:(PDF)
873:JSTOR
729:Crick
239:Avery
215:genes
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727:and
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234:The
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68:Died
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