2282:. Tropical SSTs during the late Albian most likely averaged around 30 °C. Despite this high SST, seawater was not hypersaline at this time, as this would have required significantly higher temperatures still. On land, arid zones in the Albian regularly expanded northward in tandem with expansions of subtropical high pressure belts. The Cedar Mountain Formation's Soap Wash flora indicates a mean annual temperature of between 19 and 26 °C in Utah at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary. Tropical SSTs during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum were at least 30 °C, though one study estimated them as high as between 33 and 42 °C. An intermediate estimate of ~33-34 °C has also been given. Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as 15 to 20 °C (27 to 36 °F) warmer than today's; one study estimated that deep ocean temperatures were between 12 and 20 °C during the MKH. The poles were so warm that
1755:
1950:
2408:
3178:
3138:
2767:
3209:
2840:
3156:
3117:
2784:
2857:
2802:
2819:
3093:
2328:
3246:
9127:
2923:
2396:
9116:
2886:
1729:
2253:
latest Albian. Approximately 94 Ma, the
Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum occurred, with this hyperthermal being the most extreme hothouse interval of the Cretaceous and being associated with a sea level highstand. Temperatures cooled down slightly over the next few million years, but then another thermal maximum, the Coniacian Thermal Maximum, happened, with this thermal event being dated to around 87 Ma. Atmospheric CO
1720:, were semiaquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food and go into hibernation when conditions are unfavorable, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous.
1393:
103:
2290:
known formally as the Late
Cretaceous-Early Palaeogene Cool Interval (LKEPCI). Tropical SSTs declined from around 35 °C in the early Campanian to around 28 °C in the Maastrichtian. Deep ocean temperatures declined to 9 to 12 °C, though the shallow temperature gradient between tropical and polar seas remained. Regional conditions in the
2914:. The cause of the decline of Rhynchocephalia remains unclear, but has often been suggested to be due to competition with advanced lizards and mammals. They appear to have remained diverse in high-latitude southern South America during the Late Cretaceous, where lizards remained rare, with their remains outnumbering terrestrial lizards 200:1.
1697:, few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land. This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the
2289:
Beginning in the
Santonian, near the end of the MKH, the global climate began to cool, with this cooling trend continuing across the Campanian. This period of cooling, driven by falling levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, caused the end of the MKH and the transition into a cooler climatic interval,
2247:
until the early
Campanian. Faster rates of seafloor spreading and entry of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are believed to have initiated this period of extreme warmth, along with high flood basalt activity. The MKH was punctuated by multiple thermal maxima of extreme warmth. The Leenhardt Thermal
1771:
The high sea level and warm climate of the
Cretaceous meant large areas of the continents were covered by warm, shallow seas, providing habitat for many marine organisms. The Cretaceous was named for the extensive chalk deposits of this age in Europe, but in many parts of the world, the deposits from
2265:
to the poles; the latitudinal temperature gradient during the
Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum was 0.54 °C per °âlatitude for the Southern Hemisphere and 0.49 °C per °âlatitude for the Northern Hemisphere, in contrast to present day values of 1.07 and 0.69 °C per °âlatitude for the
2084:
beds. Bivalve palaeobiogeography also indicates that Africa was split in half by a shallow sea during the
Coniacian and Santonian, connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic by way of the central Sahara and Central Africa, which were then underwater. Yet another shallow seaway ran between what is
5343:
O'Brien, Charlotte L.; Robinson, Stuart A.; Pancost, Richard D.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S.; Schouten, Stefan; Lunt, Daniel J.; Alsenz, Heiko; Bornemann, André; Bottini, Cinzia; Brassell, Simon C.; Farnsworth, Alexander; Forster, Astrid; Huber, Brian T.; Inglis, Gordon N.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Linnert,
2302:
concentrations. Laramidia likewise had a seasonal, monsoonal climate. The
Maastrichtian was a time of chaotic, highly variable climate. Two upticks in global temperatures are known to have occurred during the Maastrichtian, bucking the trend of overall cooler temperatures during the LKEPCI. Between
2230:
measurements from the equatorial
Pacific. During the Aptian, Milankovitch cycles governed the occurrence of anoxic events by modulating the intensity of the hydrological cycle and terrestrial runoff. The early Aptian was also notable for its millennial scale hyperarid events in the mid-latitudes of
8115:
Yuichiro
Kashiyama; Nanako O. Ogawa; Junichiro Kuroda; Motoo Shiro; Shinya Nomoto; Ryuji Tada; Hiroshi Kitazato; Naohiko Ohkouchi (May 2008). "Diazotrophic cyanobacteria as the major photoautotrophs during mid-Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events: Nitrogen and carbon isotopic evidence from sedimentary
2535:, with the family having diversified into modern groups by the end of the Cretaceous. The oldest large angiosperm trees are known from the Turonian (c. 90 Mya) of New Jersey, with the trunk having a preserved diameter of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) and an estimated height of 50 metres (160 ft).
2185:
The cooling trend of the last epoch of the Jurassic, the Tithonian, continued into the Berriasian, the first age of the Cretaceous. The North Atlantic seaway opened and enabled the flow of cool water from the Boreal Ocean into the Tethys. There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher
1812:
Stagnation of deep sea currents in middle Cretaceous times caused anoxic conditions in the sea water leaving the deposited organic matter undecomposed. Half of the world's petroleum reserves were laid down at this time in the anoxic conditions of what would become the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
4903:
Hasegawa, Hitoshi; Katsuta, Nagayoshi; Muraki, Yasushi; Heimhofer, Ulrich; Ichinnorov, Niiden; Asahi, Hirofumi; Ando, Hisao; Yamamoto, Koshi; Murayama, Masafumi; Ohta, Tohru; Yamamoto, Masanobu; Ikeda, Masayuki; Ishikawa, Kohki; Kuma, Ryusei; Hasegawa, Takashi; Hasebe, Noriko; Nishimoto, Shoji;
2252:
around 106 Ma, during the middle Albian. Then, around a million years after that, occurred the Petite Verol Thermal Event (PVTE). Afterwards, around 102.5 Ma, the Event 6 Thermal Event (EV6) took place; this event was itself followed by the Breistroffer Thermal Maximum around 101 Ma, during the
2181:
evidence indicates the Cretaceous climate had three broad phases: a BerriasianâBarremian warm-dry phase, an AptianâSantonian warm-wet phase, and a CampanianâMaastrichtian cool-dry phase. As in the Cenozoic, the 400,000 year eccentricity cycle was the dominant orbital cycle governing carbon flux
2378:
Age, based on isotopic evidence. However, this has subsequently been suggested to be the result of inconsistent isotopic proxies, with evidence of polar rainforests during this time interval at 82° S. Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous, but
2206:
Hauptblatterton Thermal Event (HTE). The HTE marked the ultimate end of the Tithonian-early Barremian Cool Interval (TEBCI). During this interval, precession was the dominant orbital driver of environmental changes in the Vocontian Basin. For much of the TEBCI, northern Gondwana experienced a
2526:
are known from the Aptian. Flowering plants underwent a rapid radiation beginning during the middle Cretaceous, becoming the dominant group of land plants by the end of the period, coincident with the decline of previously dominant groups such as conifers. The oldest known fossils of
6537:
Gao, Yuan; Ibarra, Daniel E.; Caves Rubenstein, Jeremy K.; Chen, Jiuquan; Kukla, Tyler; Methner, Katharina; Gao, Youfeng; Huang, He; Lin, Zhipeng; Zhang, Laiming; Xi, Dangpeng; Wu, Huaichun; Carroll, Alan R.; Graham, Stephan A.; Chamberlain, C. Page; Wang, Changshan (May 2021).
7945:
7034:
Trevisan L. 1988. Angiospermous pollen (monosulcateâtrichotomosulcate phase) from the very early Lower Cretaceous of southern Tuscany (Italy): some aspects. 7th International Palynological Congress Abstracts Volume. Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland,
3366:
From page 373: "La troisiÚme, qui correspond à ce qu'on a déja appelé formation de la craie, sera désigné par le nom de terrain crétacé." (The third, which corresponds to what was already called the "chalk formation", will be designated by the name "chalky
1957:
During the Cretaceous, the present North American continent was isolated from the other continents. In the Jurassic, the North Atlantic already opened, leaving a proto-ocean between Europe and North America. From north to south across the continent, the
6771:
the Science Team of Expedition PS104; Klages, Johann P.; Salzmann, Ulrich; Bickert, Torsten; Hillenbrand, Claus-Dieter; Gohl, Karsten; Kuhn, Gerhard; Bohaty, Steven M.; Titschack, JĂŒrgen; MĂŒller, Juliane; Frederichs, Thomas (April 2020).
3038:
were also particularly notable among Cretaceous bivalves, and they have been used to identify major biotic turnovers such as at the Turonian-Coniacian boundary. Predatory gastropods with drilling habits were widespread. Globotruncanid
2294:
changed little between the MKH and the LKEPCI. During this period of relatively cool temperatures, the ITCZ became narrower, while the strength of both summer and winter monsoons in East Asia was directly correlated to atmospheric
1456:, coinciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous. The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite
3581:
Lena, Luis; LĂłpez-MartĂnez, Rafael; Lescano, Marina; Aguire-Urreta, Beatriz; Concheyro, Andrea; Vennari, VerĂłnica; Naipauer, Maximiliano; Samankassou, Elias; Pimentel, MĂĄrcio; Ramos, Victor A.; Schaltegger, Urs (2019-01-08).
5344:
Christan; Littler, Kate; Markwick, Paul; McAnena, Alison; Mutterlose, Jörg; Naafs, B. David A.; PĂŒttmann, Wilhelm; Sluijs, Appy; Van Helmond, Niels A.G.M.; Wellekoop, Johan; Wagner, Thomas; Wrobel, Neil E. (September 2017).
800:
continued to dominate on land. The world was largely ice-free, although there is some evidence of brief periods of glaciation during the cooler first half, and forests extended to the poles. During this time, new groups of
2489:
angiosperms during the Late Triassic or the Jurassic, but such estimates are difficult to reconcile with the heavily sampled pollen record and the distinctive tricolpate to tricolporoidate (triple grooved) pollen of
3177:
2319:
was accompanied by a ~0.6 °C increase in temperature. The latter warming interval, occurring at the very end of the Cretaceous, was triggered by the activity of the Deccan Traps. The LKEPCI lasted into the
3936:
Aberhan, M; Weidemeyer, S; Kieesling, W; Scasso, RA & Medina, FA (2007). "Faunal evidence for reduced productivity and uncoordinated recovery in Southern Hemisphere CretaceousâPaleogene boundary sections".
7051:
2231:
Asia. The BAWI itself was followed by the Aptian-Albian Cold Snap (AACS) that began about 118 Ma. A short, relatively minor ice age may have occurred during this so-called "cold snap", as evidenced by glacial
6132:
Linnert, Christian; Robinson, Stuart A.; Lees, Jackie A.; Bown, Paul R.; PĂ©rez-RodrĂguez, Irene; Petrizzo, Maria Rose; Falzoni, Francesca; Littler, Kate; Arz, JosĂ© Antonio; Russell, Ernest E. (17 June 2014).
2190:
mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther from the poles. After the end of the first age, however, temperatures began to increase again, with a number of thermal excursions, such as the middle
2242:
Temperatures increased drastically after the end of the AACS, which ended around 111 Ma with the Paquier/Urbino Thermal Maximum, giving way to the Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH), which lasted from the early
4087:
1449:
briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested as the most promising candidates for fixing the JurassicâCretaceous boundary. In particular, the first appearance
4132:
Mutterlose, Jörg; Brumsack, Hans; Flögel, Sascha; Hay, William; Klein, Christian; Langrock, Uwe; Lipinski, Marcus; Ricken, Werner; Söding, Emanuel; Stein, RĂŒdiger; Swientek, Oliver (26 February 2003).
3492:
Wimbledon, William A.P.; Rehakova, Daniela; SvobodovĂĄ, Andrea; Schnabl, Petr; Pruner, Petr; Elbra, Tiiu; Ć ifnerovĂĄ, KristĂœna; KdĂœr, Ć imon; Frau, Camille; Schnyder, Johann; Galbrun, Bruno (2020-02-11).
2257:
levels may have varied by thousands of ppm throughout the MKH. Mean annual temperatures at the poles during the MKH exceeded 14 °C. Such hot temperatures during the MKH resulted in a very gentle
3208:
2766:
4539:
Martinez, Mathieu; Aguirre-Urreta, Beatriz; Dera, Guillaume; Lescano, Marina; Omarini, Julieta; Tunik, Maisa; O'Dogherty, Luis; Aguado, Roque; Company, Miguel; Bodin, Stéphane (April 2023).
5109:"Paleoclimate of the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian) Portion of the Winton Formation, Central-Western Queensland, Australia: New Observations Based on Clamp and Bioclimatic Analysis"
2207:
monsoonal climate. A shallow thermocline existed in the mid-latitude Tethys. The TEBCI was followed by the Barremian-Aptian Warm Interval (BAWI). This hot climatic interval coincides with
5804:
5397:"Deciphering Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian to Campanian) coastline dynamics in the southwestern MĂŒnsterland (northwest Germany) by using calcareous nannofossils: Eustasy vs local tectonics"
1664:-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. At the end of the Cretaceous, there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or
3116:
2783:
2235:
in the western parts of the Tethys Ocean and the expansion of calcareous nannofossils that dwelt in cold water into lower latitudes. The AACS is associated with an arid period in the
3137:
3155:
2818:
1970:
in the east. Three dinosaur clades found in Laramidia (troodontids, therizinosaurids and oviraptorosaurs) are absent from Appalachia from the Coniacian through the Maastrichtian.
2434:(angiosperms) make up around 90% of living plant species today. Prior to the rise of angiosperms, during the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, the higher flora was dominated by
2683:) in China is an important site, full of preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds and mammals, that provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous. The
2962:
was widely distributed across western North America. Due to the extreme climatic warmth in the Arctic, choristoderans were able to colonise it too during the Late Cretaceous.
1683:, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter. Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on
2645:
were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they declined for poorly understood reasons (once thought to be due to competition with early
1510:(formerly known as the KâT boundary). Earth's biodiversity required substantial time to recover from this event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant
6540:"Terrestrial climate in mid-latitude East Asia from the latest Cretaceous to the earliest Paleogene: A multiproxy record from the Songliao Basin in northeastern China"
5974:
Pucéat, Emmanuelle; Lécuyer, Christophe; Donnadieu, Yannick; Naveau, Philippe; Cappetta, Henri; Ramstein, Gilles; Huber, Brian T.; Kriwet, Juergen (1 February 2007).
7002:
Brenner, G.J. (1996). "Evidence for the Earliest Stage of Angiosperm Pollen Evolution: A Paleoequatorial Section from Israel". In Taylor, D.W.; Hickey, L.J. (eds.).
8066:"The calcareous nannofossil record across the Late Cretaceous Turonian/Coniacian boundary, including new data from Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and England"
6253:
Wang, Chengshan; Scott, Robert W.; Wan, Xiaoqiao; Graham, Stephan A.; Huang, Yongjian; Wang, Pujun; Wu, Huaichun; Dean, Walter E.; Zhang, Laiming (November 2013).
5975:
5910:
1506:
during the Maastrichtian age. The result was the extinction of three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species. The impact created the sharp break known as the
5652:
3649:
Vennari, VerĂłnica V.; Lescano, Marina; Naipauer, Maximiliano; Aguirre-Urreta, Beatriz; Concheyro, Andrea; Schaltegger, Urs; Armstrong, Richard; Pimentel, Marcio;
2839:
5108:
4973:"Glacial dropstones in the western Tethys during the late Aptianâearly Albian cold snap: Palaeoclimate and palaeogeographic implications for the mid-Cretaceous"
4769:
3092:
2248:
Event (LTE) occurred around 110 Ma, followed shortly by the lâArboudeyesse Thermal Event (ATE) a million years later. Following these two hyperthermals was the
7871:"The Turonian-Coniacian stage boundary in Lower Saxony (Germany) and adjacent areas: the Salzgitter-Salder Quarry as a proposed international standard section"
7815:"Inoceramid bivalves from the Turonian/Coniacian (Cretaceous) boundary in Romania: revisions of Simonescu's (1899) material from Ărmös (Ormenis), Transylvania"
5302:"Tropical warming and intermittent cooling during the Cenomanian/Turonian oceanic anoxic event 2: Sea surface temperature records from the equatorial Atlantic"
3075:. Calcareous nannoplankton were important components of the marine microbiota and important as biostratigraphic markers and recorders of environmental change.
2856:
2182:
between different reservoirs and influencing global climate. The location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was roughly the same as in the present.
6375:. Environmental/Climate Change in the Cretaceous Greenhouse World: records from terrestrial scientific drilling of Songliao Basin and adjacent area of China.
8496:
4617:"Climatic precession is the main driver of Early Cretaceous sedimentation in the Vocontian Basin (France): Evidence from the Valanginian Orpierre succession"
3055:
were abundant in Cretaceous marine settings; ostracod species characterised by high male sexual investment had the highest rates of extinction and turnover.
2470:. The exact origins of angiosperms are uncertain, although molecular evidence suggests that they are not closely related to any living group of gymnosperms.
2032:
had begun to break up during the Jurassic Period, but its fragmentation accelerated during the Cretaceous and was largely complete by the end of the period.
1476:
to be approximately 145 million years ago, but other estimates have been proposed based on U-Pb geochronology, ranging as young as 140 million years ago.
1418:
The lower boundary of the Cretaceous is currently undefined, and the JurassicâCretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined
4088:"Bivalves (Mollusca) from the Coniacian-Santonian Anguille Formation from Cap Esterias, Northern Gabon, with notes on paleoecology and paleobiogeography"
6192:
O'Connor, Lauren K.; Robinson, Stuart A.; Naafs, B. David A.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Henson, Sam; Clarke, Madeleine; Pancost, Richard D. (27 February 2019).
3493:
5765:"Paleoclimatic reconstruction for the AlbianâCenomanian transition based on a dominantly angiosperm flora from the Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah, USA"
5025:
4693:
Wang, Tianyang; Hoffmann, René; He, Songlin; Zhang, Qinghai; Li, Guobiao; Randrianaly, Hasina Nirina; Xie, Jing; Yue, Yahui; Ding, Lin (October 2023).
2801:
2085:
now Norway and Greenland, connecting the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean and enabling biotic exchange between the two oceans. At the peak of the Cretaceous
1225:
1754:
6633:
Bornemann, Norris R. D.; Friedrich, O.; Beckmann, B.; Schouten, Stefan; Sinnighe Damsté, Jaap S.; Vogel, J.; Hofmann, P.; Wagner, T. (January 2008).
6371:
6083:"Late Cretaceous Paleoceanographic Evolution and the Onset of Cooling in the Santonian at Southern High Latitudes (IODP Site U1513, SE Indian Ocean)"
5258:
4977:
1422:(GSSP). Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and the lack of any
3361:
7283:"Heinrichsia cheilanthoides gen. et sp. nov., a fossil fern in the family Pteridaceae (Polypodiales) from the Cretaceous amber forests of Myanmar"
978:, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide. In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use.
6858:
Alley, N. F.; Frakes, L. A. (2003). "First known Cretaceous glaciation: Livingston Tillite Member of the Cadna-owie Formation, South Australia".
6844:
3807:
Wilf, P; Johnson KR (2004). "Land plant extinction at the end of the Cretaceous: a quantitative analysis of the North Dakota megafloral record".
3584:"High-precision UâPb ages in the early Tithonian to early Berriasian and implications for the numerical age of the JurassicâCretaceous boundary"
1949:
4768:
Schouten, Stefan; Hopmans, Ellen C.; Forster, Astrid; Van Breugel, Yvonne; Kuypers, Marcel M. M.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S. (1 December 2003).
3529:"Revision of the ammonite index species Berriasella jacobi Mazenot, 1939 and its consequences for the biostratigraphy of the Berriasian Stage"
868:
4695:"Early Cretaceous climate for the southern Tethyan Ocean: Insights from the geochemical and paleoecological analyses of extinct cephalopods"
4277:
Giorgioni, Martino; Weissert, Helmut; Bernasconi, Stefano M.; Hochuli, Peter A.; Coccioni, Rodolfo; Keller, Christina E. (21 January 2012).
1517:
Despite the severity of the K-Pg extinction event, there were significant variations in the rate of extinction between and within different
4735:"Onset of the Mid-Cretaceous greenhouse in the Barremian-Aptian: Igneous events and the biological, sedimentary, and geochemical responses"
3974:
Sheehan, PM; Fastovsky, DE (1992). "Major extinctions of land-dwelling vertebrates at the CretaceousâPaleogene boundary, eastern Montana".
2462:
or "seed ferns", a collective term that refers to disparate groups of extinct seed plants with fern-like foliage, including groups such as
1419:
1189:
8360:
1944:
8330:
5805:"Testing the Cretaceous greenhouse hypothesis using glassy foraminiferal calcite from the core of the Turonian tropics on Demerara Rise"
3494:"Fixing a J/K boundary: A comparative account of key TithonianâBerriasian profiles in the departments of DrĂŽme and Hautes-Alpes, France"
6512:
Nordt, Lee; Atchley, Stacy; Dworkin, Steve (December 2003). "Terrestrial Evidence for Two Greenhouse Events in the Latest Cretaceous".
5608:
Pucéat, Emmanuelle; Lécuyer, Christophe; Sheppard, Simon M. F.; Dromart, Gilles; Reboulet, Stéphane; Grandjean, Patricia (3 May 2003).
2266:
Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively. This meant weaker global winds, which drive the ocean currents, and resulted in less
8489:
6903:
Frakes, L. A.; Francis, J. E. (1988). "A guide to Phanerozoic cold polar climates from high-latitude ice-rafting in the Cretaceous".
3259:
2942:
in Asia during the Early Cretaceous, which represents the high point of choristoderan diversity, including long necked forms such as
1413:
1405:
829:
426:
8169:"Quantitative changes of calcareous nannoflora in the Saratov region (Russian Platform) during the late Maastrichtian warming event"
7946:"Changes in Late Cretaceousâearly Tertiary benthic marine assemblages: analyses from the North American coastal plain shallow shelf"
7214:
Jud, Nathan A.; DâEmic, Michael D.; Williams, Scott A.; Mathews, Josh C.; Tremaine, Katie M.; Bhattacharya, Janok (September 2018).
4375:
2331:
A computer-simulated model of surface conditions in Middle Cretaceous, 100 mya, displaying the approximate shoreline and calculated
7155:
Prasad, V.; Strömberg, C. a. E.; Leaché, A. D.; Samant, B.; Patnaik, R.; Tang, L.; Mohabey, D. M.; Ge, S.; Sahni, A. (2011-09-20).
1473:
493:
443:
2607:
were common in the Early Cretaceous, but by the Late Cretaceous northern mammalian faunas were dominated by multituberculates and
2407:
2186:
latitudes during this age, and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic. Glaciation was restricted to high-
1545:
animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, the top
4906:"Decadalâcentennial-scale solar-linked climate variations and millennial-scale internal oscillations during the Early Cretaceous"
5550:
Laugié, Marie; Donnadieu, Yannick; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Green, J. A. Mattias; Bopp, Laurent; Raisson, François (5 June 2020).
4770:"Extremely high sea-surface temperatures at low latitudes during the middle Cretaceous as revealed by archaeal membrane lipids"
4471:
1787:. Because of the relatively young age and great thickness of the system, Cretaceous rocks are evident in many areas worldwide.
8168:
4971:
RodrĂguez-LĂłpez, Juan Pedro; Liesa, Carlos L.; Pardo, Gonzalo; MelĂ©ndez, Nieves; Soria, Ana R.; Skilling, Ian (15 June 2016).
8212:
7019:
6605:
6198:
6087:
5857:
5614:
5465:
5306:
5169:
5065:
4840:
4739:
4326:
4283:
4138:
3432:
1638:, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example,
7359:"Eutherians experienced elevated evolutionary rates in the immediate aftermath of the CretaceousâPalaeogene mass extinction"
7281:
Regalado, Ledis; Schmidt, Alexander R.; MĂŒller, Patrick; Niedermeier, Lisa; Krings, Michael; Schneider, Harald (July 2019).
5851:
Bice, Karen L.; Birgel, Daniel; Meyers, Philip A.; Dahl, Kristina A.; Hinrichs, Kai-Uwe; Norris, Richard D. (8 April 2006).
4657:"Early Cretaceous monsoonal upwelling along the northern margin of the Gondwana continent: Evidence from radiolarian cherts"
8482:
7287:
6860:
3275:
1838:
4279:"Orbital control on carbon cycle and oceanography in the mid-Cretaceous greenhouse: LONG ECCENTRICITY CYCLES IN C-ISOTOPE"
7435:"Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary"
6422:
6303:"Evolution of atmospheric circulation across the CretaceousâPaleogene (KâPg) boundary interval in low-latitude East Asia"
3006:
lived during the period and survived the extinction event. Panchelonioidea is today represented by a single species; the
1468:, but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that of
7417:
7363:
2522:
in China. Tricolpate pollen distinctive of eudicots first appears in the Late Barremian, while the earliest remains of
7522:"Lepidosaurian diversity in the Mesozoic-Palaeogene: the potential roles of sampling biases and environmental drivers"
5610:"Thermal evolution of Cretaceous Tethyan marine waters inferred from oxygen isotope composition of fish tooth enamels"
8255:
8236:
7698:"A sphenodontine (Rhynchocephalia) from the Miocene of New Zealand and palaeobiogeography of the tuatara (Sphenodon)"
7341:
6255:"Late Cretaceous climate changes recorded in Eastern Asian lacustrine deposits and North American Epieric sea strata"
4189:
3764:
2426:
1044:
849:
712:
7216:"A new fossil assemblage shows that large angiosperm trees grew in North America by the Turonian (Late Cretaceous)"
6081:
Petrizzo, Maria Rose; MacLeod, Kenneth G.; Watkins, David K.; Wolfgring, Erik; Huber, Brian T. (27 December 2021).
5346:"Cretaceous sea-surface temperature evolution: Constraints from TEX86 and planktonic foraminiferal oxygen isotopes"
5300:
Forster, Astrid; Schouten, Stephan; Moriya, Kazuyoshi; Wilson, Paul A.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S. (14 March 2007).
2987:
1779:, a rock type that is formed under warm, shallow marine conditions. Due to the high sea level, there was extensive
8155:
4134:"The Greenland-Norwegian Seaway: A key area for understanding Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous paleoenvironments"
8353:
5705:
4836:"Astronomically Driven Variations in Depositional Environments in the South Atlantic During the Early Cretaceous"
2346:, further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas. The
671:
7963:
6483:
5936:
5830:
5678:
3995:
3874:
3822:
3653:(2014). "New constraints on the JurassicâCretaceous boundary in the High Andes using high-precision UâPb data".
2198:(WTX), which was caused by the ParanĂĄ-Etendeka Large Igneous Province's activity. It was followed by the middle
623:
3758:
MacLeod, N; Rawson, PF; Forey, PL; Banner, FT; Boudagher-Fadel, MK; Bown, PR; Burnett, JA; et al. (1997).
3700:
Renne, Paul R.; et al. (2013). "Time scales of critical events around the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary".
2418:
6458:"Global environmental changes preceding the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: Early-late Maastrichtian transition"
3922:
2938:, a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles that first appeared during the preceding Jurassic, underwent a major
1701:
than among animals living on or in the seafloor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on
8000:
Fernandes Martins, Maria JoĂŁo; Puckett, Mark; Lockwood, Rowan; Swaddle, John P.; Hunt, Gene (11 April 2018).
6523:
5165:"Oceanic anoxic events and plankton evolution: Biotic response to tectonic forcing during the mid-Cretaceous"
4621:
915:
852:(KâPg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and
8312:
6367:"Modeling East Asian climate and impacts of atmospheric CO2 concentration during the Late Cretaceous (66Ma)"
6025:
Tarduno, J. A.; Brinkman, D. B.; Renne, P. R.; Cottrell, R. D.; Scher, H.; Castillo, P. (18 December 1998).
5853:"A multiple proxy and model study of Cretaceous upper ocean temperatures and atmospheric CO2 concentrations"
3527:
Frau, Camille; Bulot, Luc G.; RehĂĄkovĂĄ, Daniela; Wimbledon, William A.P.; Ifrim, Christina (November 2016).
4834:
Behrooz, L.; Naafs, B. D. A.; Dickson, A. J.; Love, G. D.; Batenburg, S. J.; Pancost, R. D. (August 2018).
4052:
6539:
6418:"Integrated climate model-oxygen isotope evidence for a North American monsoon during the Late Cretaceous"
6254:
5701:"Middle Albian climate fluctuation recorded in the carbon isotope composition of terrestrial plant matter"
5503:
5254:"A fossil champsosaur population from the high Arctic: Implications for Late Cretaceous paleotemperatures"
5060:
4972:
4540:
4517:
4406:
4230:
3342:[Observations on a trial geological map of France, the Low Countries, and neighboring countries].
9155:
8505:
6703:
6307:
5653:"Low-latitude sea-surface temperatures for the mid-Cretaceous and the evolution of planktic foraminifera"
5552:"Stripping back the modern to reveal the CenomanianâTuronian climate and temperature gradient underneath"
4699:
4411:
3899:
Shehan, P; Hansen, TA (1986). "Detritus feeding as a buffer to extinction at the end of the Cretaceous".
482:
6457:
5852:
5164:
4133:
8346:
8204:
8176:
7751:
5502:
Wang, Yongdong; Huang, Chengmin; Sun, Bainian; Quan, Cheng; Wu, Jingyu; Lin, Zhicheng (February 2014).
4057:
3264:
1114:
7814:
6302:
5700:
5396:
3846:"Mosasaur Predation on Upper Cretaceous Nautiloids and Ammonites from the United States Pacific Coast"
2068:
continued to narrow. During most of the Late Cretaceous, North America would be divided in two by the
2060:
were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising
6698:
6595:
6230:
4872:
3377:
3412:
3340:"Observations sur un essai de carte géologique de la France, des Pays-Bas, et des contrées voisines"
2509:
8307:
7333:
5212:
4541:"Synchrony of carbon cycle fluctuations, volcanism and orbital forcing during the Early Cretaceous"
4470:
Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).
2413:
2104:
activityâor rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridgesâenriched the oceans in
2653:
is not consistent with pterosaur decline). By the end of the period only three highly specialized
8778:
8773:
8324:
8065:
7917:
7639:"A stem acrodontan lizard in the Cretaceous of Brazil revises early lizard evolution in Gondwana"
7495:
7157:"Late Cretaceous origin of the rice tribe provides evidence for early diversification in Poaceae"
6417:
5764:
5405:. Advances in Cretaceous palaeontology and stratigraphy â Christopher John Wood Memorial Volume.
5107:
Fletcher, Tamara L.; Greenwood, David R.; Moss, Patrick T.; Salisbury, Steven W. (1 March 2014).
4694:
4656:
4616:
3230:
2350:
connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped to warm the global climate. Warm-adapted
2332:
2291:
2220:
2086:
2069:
2056:
remained attached to each other until around 80 million years ago); thus, the South Atlantic and
1959:
1780:
1499:
844:, died out, widely thought to have been caused by the impact of a large asteroid that formed the
7045:
Condamine, Fabien L.; Silvestro, Daniele; Koppelhus, Eva B.; Antonelli, Alexandre (2020-11-17).
4037:
3650:
3568:
3528:
1927:
did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European
1315:
7950:
4472:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years"
3809:
3007:
2939:
2641:
also diversified. They inhabited every continent, and were even found in cold polar latitudes.
2080:
to the east, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between
1886:
and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places. The group also has other
569:
4601:
3339:
7643:
7161:
6838:
6544:
6259:
6139:
5976:"Fish tooth ÎŽ18O revising Late Cretaceous meridional upper ocean water temperature gradients"
5508:
5350:
5217:
4589:
4545:
4476:
3355:
2343:
2077:
1967:
1848:
1743:
959:
602:
527:
107:
Map of Earth as it appeared 100 million years ago during the mid-Cretaceous, Cenomanian stage
8114:
7325:
6026:
5061:"Floristic and vegetational changes in the Iberian Peninsula during Jurassic and Cretaceous"
3071:) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the
1843:
In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the
8281:
8125:
8079:
8015:
7828:
7760:
7652:
7593:
7533:
7229:
7170:
7060:
6955:"How deep is the conflict between molecular and fossil evidence on the age of angiosperms?"
6914:
6869:
6787:
6712:
6648:
6553:
6471:
6380:
6316:
6268:
6207:
6194:"Late Cretaceous Temperature Evolution of the Southern High Latitudes: A TEX86 Perspective"
6148:
6040:
5989:
5924:
5866:
5818:
5714:
5666:
5623:
5565:
5517:
5474:
5410:
5359:
5315:
5267:
5178:
5122:
5074:
4986:
4919:
4849:
4783:
4554:
4485:
4420:
4335:
4322:"ITCZ controls on Late Cretaceous black shale sedimentation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean"
4147:
3983:
3948:
3910:
3862:
3773:
3711:
3664:
3595:
3542:
3498:
3269:
2473:
The earliest widely accepted evidence of flowering plants are monosulcate (single-grooved)
2459:
2258:
2173:
2137:
1916:
1883:
1863:
1458:
1431:
1378:
1087:
1056:
975:
778:
6697:
Huber, Brian T.; MacLeod, Kenneth G.; Watkins, David K.; Coffin, Millard F. (2018-08-01).
3386:] (in Russian) (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. 1974. vol. 16, p. 50.
3059:, a class of crustaceans, went extinct in the Late Cretaceous. The first radiation of the
1488:
8:
9150:
9109:
8070:
7819:
7326:
7116:"Dinosaur-associated Poaceae epidermis and phytoliths from the Early Cretaceous of China"
6770:
6365:
Chen, Junming; Zhao, Ping; Wang, Chengshan; Huang, Yongjian; Cao, Ke (1 September 2013).
5909:
Norris, Richard D.; Bice, Karen L.; Magno, Elizabeth A.; Wilson, Paul A. (1 April 2002).
5769:
5556:
5401:
5038:
4407:"Late Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous palaeoclimatic evolution of the southern North Sea"
4383:
3533:
3251:
3011:
2212:
2011:
1793:
is a rock type characteristic for (but not restricted to) the Cretaceous. It consists of
1502:
with the Earth may have been the punctuation mark at the end of a progressive decline in
919:
8285:
8129:
8083:
8019:
7832:
7764:
7656:
7597:
7537:
7233:
7174:
7064:
6918:
6873:
6791:
6716:
6652:
6557:
6475:
6384:
6320:
6272:
6211:
6152:
6044:
5993:
5928:
5870:
5822:
5718:
5670:
5627:
5569:
5521:
5478:
5414:
5395:
PĂŒttmann, Tobias; Linnert, Christian; Dölling, Bettina; Mutterlose, Jörg (1 July 2018).
5363:
5319:
5271:
5182:
5126:
5078:
4990:
4923:
4853:
4787:
4558:
4489:
4424:
4339:
4151:
3987:
3952:
3914:
3866:
3777:
3715:
3668:
3599:
3546:
2379:
evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the
774:
8039:
7975:
7788:
7722:
7697:
7673:
7638:
7614:
7581:
7554:
7521:
7469:
7434:
7385:
7358:
7258:
7215:
7115:
7091:
7046:
6930:
6885:
6819:
6746:
6672:
6569:
6340:
6235:
6169:
6134:
6109:
6082:
5738:
5583:
5434:
5377:
5138:
4948:
4910:
4905:
4885:
4809:
4570:
4509:
4302:
4252:
4107:
3878:
3826:
3789:
3735:
3631:
3424:
2650:
2125:
1702:
1684:
577:
8293:
4432:
3845:
8907:
8871:
8266:
8251:
8232:
8208:
8137:
8043:
8031:
8001:
7979:
7967:
7912:
7893:
7844:
7727:
7678:
7619:
7559:
7474:
7456:
7413:
7390:
7337:
7306:
7263:
7245:
7196:
7188:
7137:
7096:
7078:
7015:
6984:
6976:
6889:
6881:
6823:
6811:
6803:
6750:
6738:
6676:
6664:
6639:
6601:
6573:
6487:
6462:
6398:
6344:
6332:
6239:
6174:
6114:
6056:
6031:
5980:
5915:
5809:
5742:
5730:
5657:
5587:
5438:
5426:
5253:
5234:
5142:
5020:
4953:
4935:
4877:
4813:
4804:
4774:
4615:
Boulila, Slah; Charbonnier, Guillaume; Galbrun, Bruno; Gardin, Silvia (1 July 2015).
4574:
4513:
4501:
4353:
4306:
4256:
4185:
4111:
3939:
3901:
3882:
3793:
3727:
3702:
3655:
3635:
3623:
3474:
3454:
3428:
2637:, which were at their most diverse stage. Avians such as the ancestors of modern-day
2566:
2463:
2236:
1928:
1615:
1507:
1423:
888:
722:
517:
7773:
7746:
6724:
6565:
6328:
6280:
5529:
5381:
5372:
5345:
4889:
4712:
4566:
4497:
3830:
3759:
9001:
8876:
8845:
8642:
8382:
8289:
8225:
8185:
8133:
8087:
8023:
8006:
7959:
7885:
7836:
7768:
7717:
7709:
7668:
7660:
7609:
7601:
7549:
7541:
7464:
7446:
7380:
7372:
7296:
7253:
7237:
7220:
7178:
7127:
7086:
7068:
7007:
6966:
6934:
6922:
6905:
6877:
6795:
6778:
6773:
6728:
6720:
6656:
6634:
6561:
6519:
6479:
6431:
6388:
6324:
6276:
6225:
6215:
6164:
6156:
6104:
6096:
6048:
5997:
5932:
5882:
5874:
5826:
5778:
5722:
5674:
5631:
5573:
5525:
5482:
5461:"Possible atmospheric CO2 extremes of the Middle Cretaceous (late AlbianâTuronian)"
5418:
5367:
5323:
5275:
5226:
5186:
5130:
5086:
5082:
5034:
4994:
4943:
4927:
4867:
4857:
4799:
4791:
4748:
4708:
4672:
4668:
4630:
4562:
4493:
4428:
4343:
4292:
4244:
4155:
4099:
4066:
4033:
3991:
3956:
3918:
3870:
3818:
3781:
3739:
3719:
3680:
3672:
3613:
3603:
3550:
3507:
3466:
3420:
3400:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Geological Institute. 1972. p. 165.
2907:
2895:
a large herbivorous rhynchocephalian known from the mid-Cretaceous of South America
2680:
2654:
2519:
2208:
2153:
2133:
2121:
2113:
2023:
1631:
1511:
1484:
1251:
1207:
948:
845:
833:
677:
268:
8091:
6052:
5782:
5551:
5422:
5021:"The Aptian - Albian cold snap: Evidence for "mid" Cretaceous icehouse interludes"
4904:
Yamaguchi, Koichi; Abe, Fumio; Tada, Ryuji; Nakagawa, Takeshi (19 December 2022).
4053:"The biogeography and ecology of the Cretaceous non-avian dinosaurs of Appalachia"
3554:
2327:
9101:
9097:
9093:
8970:
8866:
8804:
8699:
8668:
8637:
8387:
8219:âdetailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects.
7451:
6393:
6366:
5726:
5279:
4998:
4634:
4405:
Abbink, Oscar; Targarona, Jordi; Brinkhuis, Henk; Visscher, Henk (October 2001).
4248:
3064:
3003:
2949:
2911:
2899:
2777:, one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late Cretaceous
2696:
2658:
2559:
2482:
2481:(~ 134 million years ago) found in Israel and Italy, initially at low abundance.
2431:
2109:
2101:
2015:
1991:
1802:
1600:
1027:
955:
952:
934:
between Neocomian and Aptian and the Cenomanian between the Albian and Turonian.
810:
756:', which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated
279:
30:
9126:
7870:
7011:
6301:
Ma, Mingming; He, Mei; Zhao, Mengting; Peng, Chao; Liu, Xiuming (1 April 2021).
2922:
9120:
8939:
8809:
8704:
8673:
8196:
8145:
Larson, Neal L; Jorgensen, Steven D; Farrar, Robert A; Larson, Peter L (1997).
7052:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6435:
4931:
3323:
3318:
3166:
3100:
3056:
2927:
2846:
2829:
2700:
2380:
2321:
2296:
2195:
2019:
1999:
1983:
1924:
1747:
1522:
1492:
1446:
1336:
1141:
900:
841:
817:
across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and
785:
8474:
8027:
7869:
Wood, Christopher J.; Ernst, Gundolf; Rasemann, Gabriele (11 September 1984).
6799:
6027:"Evidence for Extreme Climatic Warmth from Late Cretaceous Arctic Vertebrates"
3470:
2715:
2676:
2395:
2096:; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the
2061:
1541:
in the late Cretaceous, and all else that depended on them suffered, as well.
962:. In older literature, the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series:
9144:
8840:
8830:
8799:
8762:
8694:
8663:
8458:
7971:
7897:
7889:
7848:
7460:
7357:
Halliday, Thomas John Dixon; Upchurch, Paul; Goswami, Anjali (29 June 2016).
7310:
7249:
7192:
7141:
7082:
6980:
6807:
6742:
6491:
6402:
6336:
5734:
5430:
5238:
4939:
4881:
4505:
4357:
3935:
3785:
3676:
3627:
3512:
3478:
3030:
genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building
2986:
in the early and mid-Cretaceous (becoming extinct during the late Cretaceous
2958:
2944:
2891:
2773:
2691:, which includes modern birds and their closest non-avian relatives, such as
2662:
2623:
2616:
2604:
2590:
2586:
2514:
2455:
2249:
2033:
1867:
1784:
1773:
1739:
1587:
1551:
1530:
1309:
1257:
1135:
1032:
856:
733:
638:
625:
388:
61:
8317:
7073:
6660:
4229:
Wang, Jing-Yu; Li, Xiang-Hui; Li, Li-Qin; Wang, Yong-Dong (September 2022).
3723:
2910:, and were absent from North Africa and northern South America by the early
2485:
estimates conflict with fossil estimates, suggesting the diversification of
1998:, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the
1915:
In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of
1479:
The upper boundary of the Cretaceous is sharply defined, being placed at an
747:
9131:
9062:
8912:
8835:
8035:
8002:"High male sexual investment as a driver of extinction in fossil ostracods"
7840:
7731:
7713:
7682:
7637:
SimĂ”es TR, Wilner E, Caldwell MW, WeinschĂŒtz LC, Kellner AW (August 2015).
7623:
7563:
7478:
7394:
7376:
7267:
7241:
7200:
7100:
6988:
6815:
6668:
6178:
6118:
5578:
4957:
4024:
Weimar, R.J. (1960). "Upper Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Rocky Mountain Area".
3731:
3215:
3040:
3035:
2935:
2791:
2692:
2666:
2595:
2546:, which make up 80% of living fern species, would also begin to diversify.
2543:
2351:
2339:
2303:
70 and 69 Ma and 66â65 Ma, isotopic ratios indicate elevated atmospheric CO
2279:
2161:
2057:
1932:
1818:
1717:
1698:
1657:
1564:
1526:
1503:
1435:
1231:
1108:
967:
892:
867:
The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist
563:
7047:"The rise of angiosperms pushed conifers to decline during global cooling"
6060:
5342:
5163:
Leckie, R. Mark; Bralower, Timothy J.; Cashman, Richard (23 August 2002).
5134:
3567:
Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L. & Fan, J.-X. (2013; updated)
2833:, one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late Cretaceous
848:
in the Gulf of Mexico. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt
9057:
8926:
8902:
8747:
8542:
8407:
8402:
7913:"The Turonian - Coniacian boundary in the United States Western interior"
7132:
6774:"Temperate rainforests near the South Pole during peak Cretaceous warmth"
6416:
Fricke, Henry C.; Foreman, Brady Z.; Sewall, Jacob O. (15 January 2010).
6220:
6193:
6100:
5887:
5878:
5636:
5609:
5487:
5460:
5328:
5301:
5230:
5190:
4862:
4835:
4753:
4734:
4348:
4321:
4297:
4278:
4235:
4159:
3608:
3583:
3185:
3145:
3106:
3083:
3044:
2999:
2983:
2885:
2863:
2808:
2753:
2737:
2704:
2688:
2684:
2612:
2600:
2495:
2486:
2478:
2467:
2447:
2283:
2216:
2199:
2192:
2097:
1844:
1826:
1822:
1713:
1706:
1694:
1591:
1583:
1464:
1452:
1371:
1363:
1323:
1296:
1278:
1162:
1050:
880:
741:
307:
298:
36:
8323:
7605:
7545:
6635:"Isotopic evidence for glaciation during the Cretaceous supergreenhouse"
2307:
pressures with levels of 1000â1400 ppmV and mean annual temperatures in
981:
From youngest to oldest, the subdivisions of the Cretaceous period are:
813:
appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of
601:-enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent
9052:
9012:
8955:
8855:
8752:
8526:
8433:
8397:
8159:
7999:
7664:
7183:
7156:
6160:
5803:
Wilson, Paul A.; Norris, Richard D.; Cooper, Matthew J. (1 July 2002).
5601:
5252:
Vandermark, Deborah; Tarduno, John A.; Brinkman, Donald B. (May 2007).
5213:"Present and past nonanthropogenic CO 2 degassing from the solid earth"
4231:"Cretaceous climate variations indicated by palynoflora in South China"
3757:
3685:
3618:
3225:
3123:
3079:
3068:
3048:
2991:
2872:
2825:
2578:
2563:
2500:
2451:
2435:
2371:
2367:
2347:
2308:
2178:
2065:
2053:
2037:
1908:
1895:
1734:
1639:
1538:
1483:-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the
1350:
1176:
1081:
1060:
896:
822:
818:
726:
556:
343:
289:
46:
9115:
7433:
Longrich, Nicholas R.; Martill, David M.; Andres, Brian (2018-03-13).
7301:
7282:
6971:
6954:
6733:
6001:
4103:
3960:
3580:
1288:
9067:
9017:
8991:
8950:
8897:
8742:
8718:
8599:
8589:
8578:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8412:
8156:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)"
6926:
6514:
4795:
3052:
3022:
2953:
2757:
2741:
2642:
2627:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2505:
2443:
2384:
2359:
2338:
The production of large quantities of magma, variously attributed to
2267:
2232:
2203:
2117:
2073:
2041:
1995:
1979:
1963:
1899:
1887:
1879:
1794:
1776:
1759:
1728:
1665:
1653:
1571:. The other Cretaceous groups that did not survive into the Cenozoic
1568:
1542:
1397:
1265:
1122:
1095:
1068:
1019:
963:
927:
837:
789:
379:
370:
361:
316:
258:
86:
8338:
7696:
Jones ME, Tennyson AJ, Worthy JP, Evans SE, Worthy TH (April 2009).
7328:
Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs: Origins, Evolution, and Structure
7044:
4655:
Cui, Xiaohui; Li, Xin; Aitchison, Jonathan C.; Luo, Hui (May 2023).
3648:
3298:
9027:
9022:
8986:
8886:
8819:
8788:
8683:
8652:
8613:
8563:
8537:
8513:
8438:
7324:
Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia; Cifelli, Richard L.; Luo, Zhe-Xi (2005).
4180:
Dixon, Dougal; Benton, M J; Kingsley, Ayala; Baker, Julian (2001).
3162:
3128:
3027:
2995:
2971:
2712:
2708:
2673:
2634:
2523:
2491:
2375:
2363:
2187:
2157:
2029:
2007:
1903:
1859:
1764:
1643:
1623:
1596:
1560:
1556:
1546:
1439:
1342:
1149:
971:
853:
797:
730:
573:
352:
236:
224:
211:
76:
71:
56:
51:
41:
16:
Third and last period of the Mesozoic Era, 145â66 million years ago
8267:"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities"
6632:
6020:
6018:
5504:"Paleo-CO2 variation trends and the Cretaceous greenhouse climate"
4276:
3131:, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous.
3078:
The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of
2952:, which appear to have evolved in the regional absence of aquatic
1612:
were already extinct millions of years before the event occurred.
9041:
8981:
8731:
8568:
8552:
5113:
5059:
Diéguez, Carmen; Peyrot, Daniel; Barrón, Eduardo (October 2010).
4970:
4767:
4538:
4071:
3853:
3491:
3300:
3072:
2979:
2903:
2868:
2733:
2719:
2630:
2558:
were generally small sized, but a very relevant component of the
2528:
2262:
2105:
2003:
1987:
1962:
started forming. This inland sea separated the elevated areas of
1891:
1875:
1871:
1852:
1798:
1661:
1619:
1480:
1442:
1427:
1199:
876:
793:
782:
770:
740:
million years, it is the longest geological period of the entire
617:
598:
102:
91:
66:
7280:
6191:
5699:
Hong, Sung Kyung; Yi, Sangheon; Shinn, Young Jae (1 July 2020).
5394:
4404:
3455:"Developments with fixing a Tithonian/Berriasian (J/K) boundary"
2956:
crocodyliformes. During the Late Cretaceous the neochoristodere
2108:; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the
9077:
8960:
8594:
8422:
8417:
6080:
6015:
4614:
3060:
3031:
2725:
2608:
2585:
had already begun to diversify greatly, ranging as carnivores (
2555:
2532:
2474:
2355:
2244:
2141:
2129:
2045:
1856:
1691:
1672:
1668:
1647:
1635:
1627:
1392:
1239:
1212:
802:
613:
334:
325:
7636:
5106:
4902:
2164:
were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.
6536:
5911:"Jiggling the tropical thermostat in the Cretaceous hothouse"
5019:
Mutterlose, Jörg; Bornemann, André; Herrle, Jens (May 2009).
4007:
4005:
3220:
3199:
3171:, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi
3015:
2998:
appearing in the Late Cretaceous. Sea turtles in the form of
2975:
2749:
2638:
2439:
2311:
between 21 and 23 °C (70 and 73 °F). Atmospheric CO
2275:
2271:
2224:
2149:
2145:
2093:
2049:
1814:
1806:
1790:
1705:
from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the
1676:
1534:
1529:. As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as
1518:
1401:
1168:
904:
884:
814:
806:
753:
7580:
ApesteguĂa S, Daza JD, SimĂ”es TR, Rage JC (September 2016).
6699:"The rise and fall of the Cretaceous Hot Greenhouse climate"
6024:
5973:
5950:
5607:
4469:
2366:
fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous
1525:
declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked
914:. The twofold division of the Cretaceous was implemented by
8144:
7964:
10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0459:CILCTB]2.0.CO;2
7323:
7154:
6484:
10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0877:GECPTC>2.3.CO;2
5937:
10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0299:JTTTIT>2.0.CO;2
5831:
10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0607:TTCGHU>2.0.CO;2
5679:
10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0823:LLSSTF>2.3.CO;2
5299:
4131:
3996:
10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0556:MEOLDV>2.3.CO;2
3875:
10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0096:MPOUCN>2.0.CO;2
3823:
10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0347:LPEATE>2.0.CO;2
2745:
2646:
2577:
existed until the very end, but a variety of non-marsupial
2539:
2081:
1920:
1680:
930:, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and Senonian, later adding the
701:
695:
7911:
Walaszczyk, Ireneusz Piotr; Cobban, W. A. (January 1998).
7747:"Choristoderes and the freshwater assemblages of Laurasia"
6953:
Coiro, Mario; Doyle, James A.; Hilton, Jason (July 2019).
6614:
5549:
4210:
4002:
3526:
698:
7520:
Cleary TJ, Benson RB, Evans SE, Barrett PM (March 2018).
6696:
5251:
5018:
3923:
10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<868:DFAABT>2.0.CO;2
2729:
686:
8147:
Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway
7695:
7579:
7519:
7213:
6524:
10.1130/1052-5173(2003)013<4:TEFTGE>2.0.CO;2
5651:
Norris, Richard D.; Wilson, Paul A. (1 September 1998).
4179:
3973:
2728:
diversified during the Cretaceous, and the oldest known
2324:, when it gave way to another supergreenhouse interval.
2136:
Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous
2124:
make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous
2089:, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged.
1821:
of western North America. These shales are an important
1671:. Mammals and birds that survived the extinction fed on
1434:) that could be used to define or correlate a boundary.
828:
The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the
7582:"The first iguanian lizard from the Mesozoic of Africa"
7356:
6131:
5459:
Bice, Karen L.; Norris, Richard D. (24 December 2002).
4833:
2850:, a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early Cretaceous
2812:, one of the most recognizable genera of the Cretaceous
1650:
related to snakes that became extinct at the boundary.
8334:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 414â418.
8227:
The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology
4198:
2906:) disappeared from North America and Europe after the
2128:
from North America include the rich marine fossils of
7432:
5908:
5162:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4369:
4367:
3337:
1813:
Mexico. In many places around the world, dark anoxic
836:
in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs,
713:
704:
680:
8313:
Cretaceous Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera
6135:"Evidence for global cooling in the Late Cretaceous"
5850:
5763:
Arens, Nan Crystal; Harris, Elisha B. (March 2015).
3241:
3082:, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks,
3014:
were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like
2494:
angiosperms. Among the oldest records of Angiosperm
2315:
and temperature relations indicate a doubling of pCO
1709:
feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding.
1498:
At the end of the Cretaceous, the impact of a large
1404:
is today widely accepted as the main reason for the
692:
683:
7114:Wu, Yan; You, Hai-Lu; Li, Xiao-Qiang (2018-09-01).
6511:
6415:
5058:
4692:
4184:. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. p. 215.
3898:
2931:, a choristodere from the Early Cretaceous of China
2687:dinosaurs found there represent types of the group
2569:outnumbering dinosaurs in some sites. Neither true
769:The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm
689:
119:
8224:
7575:
7573:
6252:
5969:
5967:
5965:
5802:
4446:
4376:"Palaeos Mesozoic: Cretaceous: The Berriasian Age"
4364:
2274:than today. This is evidenced by widespread black
2002:widened, the convergent-margin mountain building (
1878:and in the subsurface of the southern part of the
1829:, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea.
1712:The largest air-breathing survivors of the event,
1487:, with its boundaries circumscribing parts of the
8231:(3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
8166:
7868:
7006:. New York: Chapman & Hall. pp. 91â115.
7004:Flowering Plant Origin, Evolution & Phylogeny
6372:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6364:
5259:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4978:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4733:Larson, Roger L.; Erba, Elisabetta (4 May 2010).
4654:
4222:
3806:
9142:
7910:
6952:
5501:
4086:Moussavou, Benjamin Musavu (25 September 2015).
3894:
3892:
3143:Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird
2140:. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in
1555:, also perished. Yet only three major groups of
922:in 1840 divided the French Cretaceous into five
781:. These oceans and seas were populated with now-
8504:
8195:
7812:
7570:
7410:Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy
7407:
5962:
3569:The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart
1953:Map of North America During the Late Cretaceous
1642:are thought to have been the principal food of
1472:. The boundary is officially considered by the
729:(Mya). It is the third and final period of the
442:Subdivision of the Cretaceous according to the
8223:Skinner, Brian J.; Porter, Stephen C. (1995).
7744:
7738:
4044:
3699:
3410:
2202:Faraoni Thermal Excursion (FTX) and the early
1817:were formed during this interval, such as the
8490:
8354:
8222:
7878:Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark
7813:Walaszczyk, I.; Szasz, L. (1 December 1997).
6948:
6946:
6944:
6902:
6593:
5956:
5026:Neues Jahrbuch fĂŒr Geologie und PalĂ€ontologie
4319:
3889:
8264:
6300:
5650:
4320:Hofmann, P.; Wagner, T. (23 December 2011).
4228:
3360:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2795:was feathered and roamed the Late Cretaceous
2454:and close relatives, as well as the extinct
1420:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
761:
7513:
6857:
6843:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6597:Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy
5762:
5698:
4038:10.1306/0BDA5F6F-16BD-11D7-8645000102C1865D
3760:"The CretaceousâTertiary biotic transition"
3411:Ogg, J.G.; Hinnov, L.A.; Huang, C. (2012),
1945:Category:Cretaceous System of North America
1767:dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Italy
1495:. This layer has been dated at 66.043 Mya.
903:. The name Cretaceous was derived from the
745:
449:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago.
8497:
8483:
8361:
8347:
7689:
6941:
5458:
4732:
4050:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3299:International Commission on Stratigraphy.
2948:and the first records of the gharial-like
2789:Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip,
2718:are notable for the presence of hair-like
2354:are known from localities as far north as
2156:). In the area that is now India, massive
1866:is found in England, northern France, the
7772:
7721:
7672:
7613:
7553:
7468:
7450:
7384:
7300:
7257:
7182:
7131:
7090:
7072:
6970:
6732:
6392:
6231:1983/9c306756-d31c-4cda-b68e-4ba6f0bf9d44
6229:
6219:
6168:
6108:
5886:
5635:
5577:
5486:
5371:
5327:
4947:
4873:1983/dd9ce325-fc6b-44a0-bab0-e0aa68943adc
4871:
4861:
4803:
4752:
4347:
4296:
4085:
4070:
3684:
3617:
3607:
3511:
3452:
8167:Ovechkina, M.N.; Alekseev, A.S. (2005).
6518:. Vol. 13, no. 12. p. 4.
3843:
3837:
2982:became common. Marine reptiles included
2921:
2884:
2406:
2394:
2326:
2092:The Cretaceous is justly famous for its
1948:
1753:
1727:
1474:International Commission on Stratigraphy
1391:
1017:
862:
587:Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)
8245:
7944:Kosnik, Matthew A. (1 September 2005).
7789:"EVOLUTIONARY/GEOLOGICAL TIMELINE v1.0"
7490:
7488:
7113:
7001:
6620:
6587:
6455:
5211:Kerrick, Derrill M. (1 November 2001).
5210:
4216:
4204:
4011:
3746:
1809:that prospered in the Cretaceous seas.
809:appeared. During the Early Cretaceous,
9143:
8250:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
7943:
4023:
3453:WIMBLEDON, William A.P. (2017-12-27).
2711:. Fossils of these dinosaurs from the
2064:worldwide. To the north of Africa the
1723:
736:, as well as the longest. At around 79
439:
8478:
8368:
8342:
8318:Cretaceous (chronostratigraphy scale)
8265:Taylor, P. D.; Wilson, M. A. (2003).
7332:. Columbia University Press. p.
6456:Barrera, Enriqueta (1 October 1994).
6199:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
6088:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5858:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5615:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5466:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5307:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5170:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5066:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
4841:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4740:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4327:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4284:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4139:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
3098:A scene from the early Cretaceous: a
1559:disappeared completely; the nonavian
1414:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
1406:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
830:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
744:. The name is derived from the Latin
8063:
7485:
7288:Journal of Systematics and Evolution
6861:Australian Journal of Earth Sciences
6445:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5792:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
4722:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
4682:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
4644:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
3276:South Polar region of the Cretaceous
2880:
2549:
2286:reptiles were able to inhabit them.
2223:(SSTs) were 27â32 °C, based on
1894:. Among the fossils it contains are
1839:Category:Cretaceous System of Europe
1430:excursions (large sudden changes in
974:(upper/late). A subdivision into 12
899:), found in the upper Cretaceous of
883:and named for the extensive beds of
550:Lower boundary definition candidates
416:
9096:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
8153:
6423:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2518:from the Barremian-Aptian boundary
2072:, a large interior sea, separating
13:
9100:= megaannum (millions years ago);
7364:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
4373:
3425:10.1016/b978-0-444-59425-9.00027-5
2994:throughout the entire period, and
2458:. Other groups of plants included
2417:specimen in the collection of the
2370:. It was suggested that there was
891:deposited by the shells of marine
14:
9167:
9104:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
8301:
8064:Lees, Jackie A. (February 2008).
3765:Journal of the Geological Society
2649:, but now it is understood avian
2603:). Various "archaic" groups like
2427:Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution
1973:
1537:, formed the primary part of the
725:that lasted from about 145 to 66
9125:
9114:
8138:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2007.11.010
8057:
7993:
7937:
7904:
7862:
7806:
7781:
7702:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
6882:10.1046/j.1440-0952.2003.00984.x
5039:10.1127/0077-7749/2009/0252-0217
3244:
3219:, one of the largest Cretaceous
3207:
3176:
3154:
3136:
3115:
3091:
2988:Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event
2855:
2838:
2817:
2800:
2782:
2765:
2403:from the Yixian Formation, China
1978:During the Cretaceous, the late-
1938:
958:, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous
676:
101:
34:
8108:
7774:10.5209/rev_jige.2010.v36.n2.11
7630:
7426:
7401:
7350:
7317:
7274:
7207:
7148:
7107:
7038:
7028:
6995:
6896:
6851:
6764:
6725:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.04.004
6690:
6626:
6566:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103572
6530:
6505:
6449:
6409:
6358:
6329:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103435
6294:
6281:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.016
6246:
6185:
6125:
6074:
5902:
5844:
5796:
5756:
5706:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
5692:
5644:
5543:
5530:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.001
5495:
5452:
5388:
5373:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.012
5336:
5293:
5245:
5204:
5156:
5100:
5052:
5012:
4964:
4896:
4827:
4761:
4726:
4713:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104220
4686:
4648:
4608:
4567:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104356
4532:
4498:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503
4398:
4313:
4270:
4173:
4125:
4079:
4017:
3967:
3929:
3800:
3693:
3642:
3574:
3561:
3260:Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction
2965:
2917:
2902:(which today only includes the
1462:, formerly placed in the genus
985:Subdivisions of the Cretaceous
947:The Cretaceous is divided into
942:
7745:Matsumoto R, Evans SE (2010).
7412:. Princeton University Press.
5087:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2010.06.004
4673:10.1016/j.marmicro.2023.102247
3520:
3485:
3446:
3419:, Elsevier, pp. 793â853,
3404:
3390:
3370:
3338:dâHalloy, dâO., J.-J. (1822).
3331:
3311:
3292:
2419:Natural History Museum, Berlin
1919:limestone beds or incompetent
777:that created numerous shallow
415:
1:
8543:Pleistocene (11.7 kaâ2.58 Ma)
8308:UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page
8294:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9
8092:10.1016/j.cretres.2007.08.002
6053:10.1126/science.282.5397.2241
5783:10.1016/j.cretres.2014.11.004
5423:10.1016/j.cretres.2017.07.005
4433:10.1016/S0921-8181(01)00101-1
3555:10.1016/j.cretres.2016.05.007
3281:
3149:roamed late Cretacean oceans.
1994:breakup into the present-day
1387:
1109:Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus
1045:CretaceousâPaleogene boundary
850:CretaceousâPaleogene boundary
760:, for its German translation
8184:(1): 149â165. Archived from
7452:10.1371/journal.pbio.2001663
6394:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.07.017
5727:10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104363
5280:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.11.008
4999:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.04.004
4635:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.04.014
4249:10.1016/j.palwor.2021.11.001
4051:Brownstein, Chase D (2018).
3286:
2006:) that had begun during the
1357:
1354:
1330:
1327:
1303:
1300:
1272:
1269:
1246:
1243:
1219:
1216:
1190:Rotalipora globotruncanoides
1183:
1180:
1156:
1153:
1129:
1126:
1102:
1099:
1075:
1072:
1043:top: iridium anomaly at the
1039:
1036:
7:
8506:Geological history of Earth
8246:Stanley, Steven M. (1999).
7012:10.1007/978-0-585-23095-5_5
6704:Global and Planetary Change
6308:Global and Planetary Change
4700:Global and Planetary Change
4412:Global and Planetary Change
3237:
1521:. Species that depended on
440:
204:
10:
9172:
8779:Mississippian (323â359 Ma)
8774:Pennsylvanian (299â323 Ma)
8538:Holocene (presentâ11.7 ka)
8205:Kluwer Academic Publishers
8177:Journal of Iberian Geology
7752:Journal of Iberian Geology
7586:Royal Society Open Science
7526:Royal Society Open Science
6436:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.10.018
4932:10.1038/s41598-022-25815-w
4058:Palaeontologia Electronica
3265:Cretaceous Thermal Maximum
2424:
2196:Weissert Thermal Excursion
2171:
2167:
1942:
1855:and similar cliffs on the
1836:
1732:Drawing of fossil jaws of
1646:, a group of giant marine
1411:
1361:base: first occurrence of
1334:base: first occurrence of
1307:base: first occurrence of
1276:base: first occurrence of
1226:Praediscosphaera columnata
1223:base: first occurrence of
1187:base: first occurrence of
1160:base: first occurrence of
1133:base: first occurrence of
1106:base: first occurrence of
937:
9091:
9076:
9063:Paleoarchean (3.2â3.6 Ga)
9040:
9000:
8969:
8938:
8925:
8913:Terreneuvian (521â539 Ma)
8885:
8854:
8818:
8787:
8761:
8730:
8717:
8682:
8651:
8625:
8612:
8577:
8551:
8525:
8512:
8376:
8325:"Cretaceous System"
8199:; Quicke, D.L.J. (2002).
8028:10.1038/s41586-018-0020-7
6800:10.1038/s41586-020-2148-5
5957:Skinner & Porter 1995
4805:21.11116/0000-0001-D1DF-8
3471:10.5604/01.3001.0010.7467
3384:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
3324:Dictionary.com Unabridged
2399:Facsimile of a fossil of
2374:marine glaciation in the
2012:North American Cordillera
1906:and sea reptiles such as
1832:
1445:with urn-shaped calcitic
1206:
1079:base: last occurrence of
1048:base:first occurrence of
1026:
1012:
1009:
992:
989:
821:of previously widespread
654:
608:
595:Upper boundary definition
594:
586:
549:
542:Lower boundary definition
541:
533:
523:
513:
508:
500:
488:
478:
473:
465:
460:
117:
112:
100:
26:
21:
9058:Mesoarchean (2.8â3.2 Ga)
8903:Miaolingian (497â509 Ma)
8748:Guadalupian (260â272 Ma)
8600:Paleocene (56.0â66.0 Ma)
8590:Oligocene (23.0â33.9 Ma)
7890:10.37570/bgsd-1984-33-21
7496:"Life of the Cretaceous"
7408:Wilton, Mark P. (2013).
4661:Marine Micropaleontology
3786:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265
3677:10.1016/j.gr.2013.07.005
3513:10.31577/GeolCarp.71.1.3
3379:Sovetskaya Enciklopediya
3301:"ICS - Chart/Time Scale"
3047:such as sea urchins and
2875:from the Late Cretaceous
2414:Pluricarpellatia peltata
2390:
2278:deposition and frequent
2221:sea surface temperatures
2219:. Early Aptian tropical
1797:, microscopically small
1438:, an enigmatic group of
1136:Cremnoceramus rotundatus
1082:Marsupites testudinarius
122:
9053:Neoarchean (2.5â2.8 Ga)
9018:Orosirian (1.8â2.05 Ga)
9013:Statherian (1.6â1.8 Ga)
8956:Cryogenian (635â720 Ma)
8846:Llandovery (433â444 Ma)
8753:Cisuralian (272â299 Ma)
8564:Pliocene (2.59â5.33 Ma)
8331:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
7918:Acta Geologica Polonica
7120:National Science Review
7074:10.1073/pnas.2005571117
6661:10.1126/science.1148777
3724:10.1126/science.1230492
3571:. Episodes 36: 199-204.
3417:The Geologic Time Scale
3231:Western Interior Seaway
2538:During the Cretaceous,
2292:Western Interior Seaway
2250:Amadeus Thermal Maximum
2215:volcanism and with the
2114:calcareous nanoplankton
2070:Western Interior Seaway
1960:Western Interior Seaway
1931:, at the margin of the
1491:and extending into the
1485:Chicxulub impact crater
1051:Pachydiscus neubergicus
869:Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy
165:−100 —
155:−110 —
145:−120 —
135:−130 —
125:−140 —
9023:Rhyacian (2.05â2.3 Ga)
8992:Calymmian (1.4â1.6 Ga)
8951:Ediacaran (539â635 Ma)
8898:Furongian (485â497 Ma)
8743:Lopingian (252â260 Ma)
8569:Miocene (5.33â23.0 Ma)
8383:Lower/Early Cretaceous
8154:Ogg, Jim (June 2004).
7841:10.1006/cres.1997.0086
7714:10.1098/rspb.2008.1785
7377:10.1098/rspb.2015.3026
7242:10.1126/sciadv.aar8568
6594:Foulger, G.R. (2010).
5579:10.5194/cp-16-953-2020
4182:Atlas of Life on Earth
3008:leatherback sea turtle
2940:evolutionary radiation
2932:
2896:
2422:
2404:
2335:
1954:
1925:Alpine mountain chains
1882:. Chalk is not easily
1851:on the south coast of
1772:the Cretaceous are of
1768:
1751:
1409:
1337:Calpionellites darderi
918:and Phillips in 1822.
762:
746:
195:−70 —
185:−80 —
175:−90 —
9028:Siderian (2.3â2.5 Ga)
8987:Ectasian (1.2â1.4 Ga)
8908:Series 2 (509â521 Ma)
8595:Eocene (33.9â56.0 Ma)
8388:Upper/Late Cretaceous
8274:Earth-Science Reviews
7644:Nature Communications
7500:www.ucmp.Berkeley.edu
7162:Nature Communications
6545:Earth-Science Reviews
6260:Earth-Science Reviews
6140:Nature Communications
5509:Earth-Science Reviews
5351:Earth-Science Reviews
5218:Reviews of Geophysics
5135:10.2110/palo.2013.080
4546:Earth-Science Reviews
4477:Earth-Science Reviews
3272:(with link directory)
3067:shelled, rather than
2925:
2888:
2589:), aquatic foragers (
2477:grains from the late
2410:
2398:
2344:extensional tectonics
2330:
2172:Further information:
1952:
1849:white cliffs of Dover
1757:
1746:, by Dutch geologist
1731:
1395:
1163:Watinoceras devonense
863:Etymology and history
603:K-Pg extinction event
9068:Eoarchean (3.6â4 Ga)
8961:Tonian (720 Maâ1 Ga)
8841:Wenlock (427â433 Ma)
8831:Pridoli (419â423 Ma)
8248:Earth System History
8118:Organic Geochemistry
6221:10.1029/2018PA003546
6101:10.1029/2021PA004353
6095:(1): e2021PA004353.
5879:10.1029/2005PA001203
5637:10.1029/2002PA000823
5488:10.1029/2002PA000778
5329:10.1029/2006PA001349
5231:10.1029/2001RG000105
5191:10.1029/2001PA000623
4863:10.1029/2018PA003338
4754:10.1029/1999PA900040
4349:10.1029/2011PA002154
4298:10.1029/2011PA002163
4160:10.1029/2001pa000625
3844:Kauffman, E (2004).
3609:10.5194/se-10-1-2019
3499:Geologica Carpathica
3305:www.stratigraphy.org
3270:List of fossil sites
3049:starfish (sea stars)
2892:Prosphenodon avelasi
2259:temperature gradient
2174:Cool tropics paradox
2138:Hell Creek Formation
2122:sedimentary deposits
2018:was followed by the
1735:Mosasaurus hoffmanni
1594:), and nonmammalian
1459:Strambergella jacobi
1369:first occurrence of
1057:Maastricht Formation
773:, resulting in high
545:Not formally defined
9123: •
9112: •
9110:Geologic time scale
8872:Middle (458â470 Ma)
8836:Ludlow (423â427 Ma)
8805:Middle (383â393 Ma)
8700:Middle (237â247 Ma)
8669:Middle (164â174 Ma)
8286:2003ESRv...62....1T
8191:on August 24, 2006.
8149:. Geoscience Press.
8130:2008OrGeo..39..532K
8084:2008CrRes..29...40L
8071:Cretaceous Research
8020:2018Natur.556..366M
7833:1997CrRes..18..767W
7820:Cretaceous Research
7793:www.TalkOrigins.org
7765:2010JIbG...36..253M
7657:2015NatCo...6.8149S
7606:10.1098/rsos.160462
7598:2016RSOS....360462A
7546:10.1098/rsos.171830
7538:2018RSOS....571830C
7234:2018SciA....4.8568J
7175:2011NatCo...2..480P
7065:2020PNAS..11728867C
7059:(46): 28867â28875.
6919:1988Natur.333..547F
6874:2003AuJES..50..139A
6792:2020Natur.580...81K
6717:2018GPC...167....1H
6653:2008Sci...319..189B
6600:. Wiley-Blackwell.
6558:2021ESRv..21603572G
6476:1994Geo....22..877B
6385:2013PPP...385..190C
6321:2021GPC...19903435M
6273:2013ESRv..126..275W
6212:2019PaPa...34..436O
6153:2014NatCo...5.4194L
6045:1998Sci...282.2241T
6039:(5397): 2241â2243.
5994:2007Geo....35..107P
5929:2002Geo....30..299N
5871:2006PalOc..21.2002B
5823:2002Geo....30..607W
5770:Cretaceous Research
5719:2020JAESc.19604363H
5671:1998Geo....26..823N
5628:2003PalOc..18.1029P
5570:2020CliPa..16..953L
5557:Climate of the Past
5522:2014ESRv..129..136W
5479:2002PalOc..17.1070B
5415:2018CrRes..87..174P
5402:Cretaceous Research
5364:2017ESRv..172..224O
5320:2007PalOc..22.1219F
5272:2007PPP...248...49V
5183:2002PalOc..17.1041L
5127:2014Palai..29..121F
5079:2010RPaPa.162..325D
4991:2016PPP...452...11R
4924:2022NatSR..1221894H
4854:2018PaPa...33..894B
4788:2003Geo....31.1069S
4622:Sedimentary Geology
4559:2023ESRv..23904356M
4490:2021ESRv..21503503S
4425:2001GPC....30..231A
4386:on 20 December 2010
4340:2011PalOc..26.4223H
4219:, pp. 279â281.
4152:2003PalOc..18.1010M
4014:, pp. 481â482.
3988:1992Geo....20..556S
3953:2007Geo....35..227A
3915:1986Geo....14..868S
3867:2004Palai..19...96K
3778:1997JGSoc.154..265M
3716:2013Sci...339..684R
3669:2014GondR..26..374V
3600:2019SolE...10....1L
3547:2016CrRes..66...94F
3534:Cretaceous Research
3398:Glossary of Geology
3252:Paleontology portal
3012:Hesperornithiformes
2213:Ontong Java Plateau
2116:. These widespread
2112:of the element for
2062:eustatic sea levels
1982:-to-early-Mesozoic
1724:Geologic formations
986:
775:eustatic sea levels
655:Upper GSSP ratified
635: /
609:Upper boundary GSSP
534:Time span formality
9156:Geological periods
9121:Geology portal
8982:Stenian (1â1.2 Ga)
8877:Early (470â485 Ma)
8810:Early (393â419 Ma)
8705:Early (247â252 Ma)
8674:Early (174â201 Ma)
8643:Early (100â145 Ma)
8638:Late (66.0â100 Ma)
8201:History of Insects
7665:10.1038/ncomms9149
7371:(1833): 20153026.
7184:10.1038/ncomms1482
7133:10.1093/nsr/nwx145
6623:, p. 480â482.
6161:10.1038/ncomms5194
4911:Scientific Reports
4600:has generic name (
3459:Volumina Jurassica
3196:Dercetis triqueter
2933:
2897:
2651:adaptive radiation
2593:) and herbivores (
2581:and non-placental
2512:beds of Spain and
2438:groups, including
2423:
2405:
2336:
2270:and more stagnant
2024:Laramide orogenies
1955:
1847:, which forms the
1769:
1752:
1703:primary production
1453:Calpionella alpina
1432:ratios of isotopes
1424:chemostratigraphic
1410:
1372:Calpionella alpina
1364:Berriasella jacobi
984:
639:36.1537°N 8.6486°E
578:Berriasella jacobi
524:Stratigraphic unit
514:Chronological unit
501:Time scale(s) used
9138:
9137:
9036:
9035:
9002:Paleoproterozoic
8921:
8920:
8867:Late (444â458 Ma)
8800:Late (359â383 Ma)
8713:
8712:
8695:Late (201â237 Ma)
8664:Late (145â164 Ma)
8608:
8607:
8529:(presentâ2.58 Ma)
8517:(presentâ66.0 Ma)
8472:
8471:
8467:
8466:
8370:Cretaceous Period
8214:978-1-4020-0026-3
8014:(7701): 366â369.
7708:(1660): 1385â90.
7302:10.1111/jse.12514
7021:978-0-585-23095-5
6972:10.1111/nph.15708
6913:(6173): 547â549.
6647:(5860): 189â192.
6607:978-1-4051-6148-0
6002:10.1130/G23103A.1
5473:(4): 22-1â22-17.
5177:(3): 13-1â13-29.
4782:(12): 1069â1072.
4520:on 8 January 2021
4146:(1): 10-1â10-25.
4104:10.5252/g2015n3a2
3961:10.1130/G23197A.1
3710:(6120): 684â688.
3656:Gondwana Research
3434:978-0-444-59425-9
3344:Annales des Mines
3104:is attacked by a
2900:Rhynchocephalians
2881:Rhynchocephalians
2774:Tyrannosaurus rex
2707:along with other
2567:multituberculates
2550:Terrestrial fauna
2464:Corystospermaceae
2237:Iberian Peninsula
2044:rifted away from
2010:continued in the
1929:continental shelf
1632:freshwater snails
1616:Coccolithophorids
1586:, last remaining
1552:Tyrannosaurus rex
1512:ecological niches
1489:YucatĂĄn Peninsula
1385:
1384:
1279:Spitidiscus hugii
889:calcium carbonate
727:million years ago
723:geological period
662:
661:
555:Magneticâbase of
474:Usage information
455:
454:
435:
434:
9163:
9132:World portal
9130:
9129:
9119:
9118:
9081:
9045:
9005:
8974:
8971:Mesoproterozoic
8943:
8936:
8935:
8931:
8890:
8859:
8823:
8792:
8766:
8735:
8728:
8727:
8723:
8687:
8656:
8630:
8623:
8622:
8618:
8582:
8556:
8530:
8523:
8522:
8518:
8499:
8492:
8485:
8476:
8475:
8379:
8378:
8363:
8356:
8349:
8340:
8339:
8335:
8327:
8297:
8271:
8261:
8242:
8230:
8218:
8192:
8190:
8173:
8163:
8162:on 16 July 2006.
8158:. Archived from
8150:
8141:
8103:
8102:
8100:
8098:
8061:
8055:
8054:
8052:
8050:
7997:
7991:
7990:
7988:
7986:
7941:
7935:
7934:
7932:
7930:
7908:
7902:
7901:
7875:
7866:
7860:
7859:
7857:
7855:
7810:
7804:
7803:
7801:
7799:
7785:
7779:
7778:
7776:
7742:
7736:
7735:
7725:
7693:
7687:
7686:
7676:
7634:
7628:
7627:
7617:
7577:
7568:
7567:
7557:
7517:
7511:
7510:
7508:
7506:
7492:
7483:
7482:
7472:
7454:
7430:
7424:
7423:
7405:
7399:
7398:
7388:
7354:
7348:
7347:
7331:
7321:
7315:
7314:
7304:
7278:
7272:
7271:
7261:
7221:Science Advances
7211:
7205:
7204:
7186:
7152:
7146:
7145:
7135:
7111:
7105:
7104:
7094:
7076:
7042:
7036:
7032:
7026:
7025:
6999:
6993:
6992:
6974:
6950:
6939:
6938:
6927:10.1038/333547a0
6900:
6894:
6893:
6855:
6849:
6848:
6842:
6834:
6832:
6830:
6768:
6762:
6761:
6759:
6757:
6736:
6694:
6688:
6687:
6685:
6683:
6630:
6624:
6618:
6612:
6611:
6591:
6585:
6584:
6582:
6580:
6534:
6528:
6527:
6509:
6503:
6502:
6500:
6498:
6453:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6442:
6413:
6407:
6406:
6396:
6362:
6356:
6355:
6353:
6351:
6298:
6292:
6291:
6289:
6287:
6250:
6244:
6243:
6233:
6223:
6189:
6183:
6182:
6172:
6129:
6123:
6122:
6112:
6078:
6072:
6071:
6069:
6067:
6022:
6013:
6012:
6010:
6008:
5971:
5960:
5954:
5948:
5947:
5945:
5943:
5906:
5900:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5890:
5848:
5842:
5841:
5839:
5837:
5800:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5789:
5760:
5754:
5753:
5751:
5749:
5696:
5690:
5689:
5687:
5685:
5648:
5642:
5641:
5639:
5605:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5581:
5547:
5541:
5540:
5538:
5536:
5499:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5456:
5450:
5449:
5447:
5445:
5392:
5386:
5385:
5375:
5340:
5334:
5333:
5331:
5297:
5291:
5290:
5288:
5286:
5249:
5243:
5242:
5208:
5202:
5201:
5199:
5197:
5160:
5154:
5153:
5151:
5149:
5121:(3â4): 121â128.
5104:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5056:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5045:
5016:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5005:
4968:
4962:
4961:
4951:
4900:
4894:
4893:
4875:
4865:
4831:
4825:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4807:
4796:10.1130/G19876.1
4765:
4759:
4758:
4756:
4730:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4719:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4681:
4679:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4643:
4641:
4612:
4606:
4605:
4599:
4595:
4593:
4585:
4583:
4581:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4525:
4516:. Archived from
4467:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4439:
4419:(3â4): 231â256.
4402:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4391:
4382:. Archived from
4374:Kazlev, M.Alan.
4371:
4362:
4361:
4351:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4300:
4274:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4263:
4226:
4220:
4214:
4208:
4202:
4196:
4195:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4166:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4083:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4021:
4015:
4009:
4000:
3999:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3933:
3927:
3926:
3896:
3887:
3886:
3850:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3755:
3744:
3743:
3697:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3651:Ramos, Victor A.
3646:
3640:
3639:
3621:
3611:
3578:
3572:
3565:
3559:
3558:
3524:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3441:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3374:
3368:
3365:
3359:
3351:
3335:
3329:
3328:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3296:
3254:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3211:
3192:Pseudostacus sp.
3180:
3158:
3140:
3119:
3095:
2908:Early Cretaceous
2859:
2842:
2821:
2804:
2786:
2769:
2681:Yixian Formation
2520:Yixian Formation
2432:Flowering plants
2154:Yixian Formation
2134:Smoky Hill Chalk
2076:to the west and
1966:in the west and
1803:coccolithophores
1611:
1608:
1606:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1426:events, such as
1396:The impact of a
1367:(traditionally);
1252:magnetic anomaly
1208:Early Cretaceous
987:
983:
920:Alcide d'Orbigny
846:Chicxulub crater
811:flowering plants
765:
751:
739:
717:
711:
710:
707:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
675:
650:
649:
647:
646:
645:
640:
636:
633:
632:
631:
628:
612:El Kef Section,
422:
417:
391:
382:
373:
364:
355:
346:
337:
328:
319:
310:
301:
292:
283:
282:
272:
271:
252:
250:
230:
216:
214:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
120:
105:
96:
33:
29:~145.0 â 66.0
19:
18:
9171:
9170:
9166:
9165:
9164:
9162:
9161:
9160:
9141:
9140:
9139:
9134:
9124:
9113:
9105:
9087:
9079:
9072:
9043:
9032:
9003:
8996:
8972:
8965:
8941:
8940:Neoproterozoic
8930:(539 Maâ2.5 Ga)
8929:
8928:
8927:Proterozoic Eon
8917:
8888:
8881:
8857:
8850:
8821:
8814:
8790:
8783:
8764:
8757:
8733:
8721:
8720:
8709:
8685:
8678:
8654:
8647:
8628:
8616:
8615:
8604:
8580:
8573:
8554:
8547:
8528:
8516:
8515:
8508:
8503:
8473:
8468:
8463:
8427:
8372:
8367:
8322:
8304:
8269:
8258:
8239:
8215:
8197:Rasnitsyn, A.P.
8188:
8171:
8111:
8106:
8096:
8094:
8062:
8058:
8048:
8046:
7998:
7994:
7984:
7982:
7942:
7938:
7928:
7926:
7909:
7905:
7873:
7867:
7863:
7853:
7851:
7811:
7807:
7797:
7795:
7787:
7786:
7782:
7743:
7739:
7694:
7690:
7635:
7631:
7578:
7571:
7518:
7514:
7504:
7502:
7494:
7493:
7486:
7445:(3): e2001663.
7431:
7427:
7420:
7406:
7402:
7355:
7351:
7344:
7322:
7318:
7279:
7275:
7228:(9): eaar8568.
7212:
7208:
7153:
7149:
7112:
7108:
7043:
7039:
7033:
7029:
7022:
7000:
6996:
6959:New Phytologist
6951:
6942:
6901:
6897:
6856:
6852:
6836:
6835:
6828:
6826:
6786:(7801): 81â86.
6769:
6765:
6755:
6753:
6695:
6691:
6681:
6679:
6631:
6627:
6619:
6615:
6608:
6592:
6588:
6578:
6576:
6535:
6531:
6510:
6506:
6496:
6494:
6470:(10): 877â880.
6454:
6450:
6440:
6438:
6414:
6410:
6363:
6359:
6349:
6347:
6299:
6295:
6285:
6283:
6251:
6247:
6190:
6186:
6130:
6126:
6079:
6075:
6065:
6063:
6023:
6016:
6006:
6004:
5972:
5963:
5955:
5951:
5941:
5939:
5907:
5903:
5893:
5891:
5849:
5845:
5835:
5833:
5801:
5797:
5787:
5785:
5761:
5757:
5747:
5745:
5697:
5693:
5683:
5681:
5649:
5645:
5606:
5602:
5592:
5590:
5548:
5544:
5534:
5532:
5500:
5496:
5457:
5453:
5443:
5441:
5393:
5389:
5341:
5337:
5298:
5294:
5284:
5282:
5250:
5246:
5209:
5205:
5195:
5193:
5161:
5157:
5147:
5145:
5105:
5101:
5091:
5089:
5057:
5053:
5043:
5041:
5017:
5013:
5003:
5001:
4969:
4965:
4901:
4897:
4832:
4828:
4818:
4816:
4766:
4762:
4731:
4727:
4717:
4715:
4691:
4687:
4677:
4675:
4653:
4649:
4639:
4637:
4613:
4609:
4597:
4596:
4587:
4586:
4579:
4577:
4537:
4533:
4523:
4521:
4468:
4447:
4437:
4435:
4403:
4399:
4389:
4387:
4372:
4365:
4318:
4314:
4275:
4271:
4261:
4259:
4227:
4223:
4215:
4211:
4203:
4199:
4192:
4178:
4174:
4164:
4162:
4130:
4126:
4116:
4114:
4084:
4080:
4049:
4045:
4022:
4018:
4010:
4003:
3972:
3968:
3934:
3930:
3909:(10): 868â870.
3897:
3890:
3848:
3842:
3838:
3805:
3801:
3756:
3747:
3698:
3694:
3647:
3643:
3579:
3575:
3566:
3562:
3525:
3521:
3490:
3486:
3451:
3447:
3439:
3437:
3435:
3409:
3405:
3396:
3395:
3391:
3376:
3375:
3371:
3353:
3352:
3336:
3332:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3250:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3233:
3212:
3203:
3181:
3172:
3159:
3150:
3141:
3132:
3120:
3111:
3096:
3004:Panchelonioidea
2968:
2950:Neochoristodera
2920:
2912:Late Cretaceous
2883:
2876:
2867:was a toothed,
2860:
2851:
2843:
2834:
2822:
2813:
2805:
2796:
2787:
2778:
2770:
2697:oviraptorosaurs
2659:Pteranodontidae
2552:
2483:Molecular clock
2429:
2393:
2322:Late Palaeocene
2318:
2314:
2306:
2300:
2256:
2228:
2176:
2170:
2110:bioavailability
2102:Mid-ocean ridge
2016:Nevadan orogeny
1976:
1947:
1941:
1841:
1835:
1726:
1609:
1604:
1601:Tritylodontidae
1595:
1579:
1574:
1572:
1416:
1390:
1368:
1047:
1028:Late Cretaceous
1004:
997:
966:(lower/early),
953:Late Cretaceous
945:
940:
873:Terrain Crétacé
871:in 1822 as the
865:
842:marine reptiles
834:mass extinction
786:marine reptiles
737:
715:
679:
670:
669:
644:36.1537; 8.6486
643:
641:
637:
634:
629:
626:
624:
622:
621:
620:
456:
451:
450:
448:
431:
428:
420:
413:
412:
408:
407:
403:
402:
398:
397:
393:
392:
387:
384:
383:
378:
375:
374:
369:
366:
365:
360:
357:
356:
351:
348:
347:
342:
339:
338:
333:
330:
329:
324:
321:
320:
315:
312:
311:
306:
303:
302:
297:
294:
293:
288:
285:
284:
278:
277:
274:
273:
267:
266:
263:
262:
254:
253:
246:
244:
241:
240:
232:
231:
226:
222:
219:
218:
217:
210:
208:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
108:
95:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
39:
28:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9169:
9159:
9158:
9153:
9136:
9135:
9092:
9089:
9088:
9085:
9083:
9074:
9073:
9071:
9070:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9049:
9047:
9038:
9037:
9034:
9033:
9031:
9030:
9025:
9020:
9015:
9009:
9007:
8998:
8997:
8995:
8994:
8989:
8984:
8978:
8976:
8967:
8966:
8964:
8963:
8958:
8953:
8947:
8945:
8933:
8923:
8922:
8919:
8918:
8916:
8915:
8910:
8905:
8900:
8894:
8892:
8883:
8882:
8880:
8879:
8874:
8869:
8863:
8861:
8852:
8851:
8849:
8848:
8843:
8838:
8833:
8827:
8825:
8816:
8815:
8813:
8812:
8807:
8802:
8796:
8794:
8785:
8784:
8782:
8781:
8776:
8770:
8768:
8763:Carboniferous
8759:
8758:
8756:
8755:
8750:
8745:
8739:
8737:
8725:
8715:
8714:
8711:
8710:
8708:
8707:
8702:
8697:
8691:
8689:
8680:
8679:
8677:
8676:
8671:
8666:
8660:
8658:
8649:
8648:
8646:
8645:
8640:
8634:
8632:
8620:
8610:
8609:
8606:
8605:
8603:
8602:
8597:
8592:
8586:
8584:
8581:(23.0â66.0 Ma)
8575:
8574:
8572:
8571:
8566:
8560:
8558:
8555:(2.58â23.0 Ma)
8549:
8548:
8546:
8545:
8540:
8534:
8532:
8520:
8510:
8509:
8502:
8501:
8494:
8487:
8479:
8470:
8469:
8465:
8464:
8462:
8461:
8456:
8451:
8446:
8441:
8436:
8430:
8428:
8426:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8394:
8391:
8390:
8385:
8377:
8374:
8373:
8366:
8365:
8358:
8351:
8343:
8337:
8336:
8320:
8315:
8310:
8303:
8302:External links
8300:
8299:
8298:
8262:
8256:
8243:
8237:
8220:
8213:
8193:
8164:
8151:
8142:
8124:(5): 532â549.
8110:
8107:
8105:
8104:
8056:
7992:
7958:(3): 459â479.
7936:
7903:
7861:
7827:(6): 767â787.
7805:
7780:
7759:(2): 253â274.
7737:
7688:
7629:
7569:
7512:
7484:
7425:
7419:978-0691150611
7418:
7400:
7349:
7342:
7316:
7295:(4): 329â338.
7273:
7206:
7147:
7126:(5): 721â727.
7106:
7037:
7027:
7020:
6994:
6940:
6895:
6868:(2): 139â144.
6850:
6763:
6689:
6625:
6613:
6606:
6586:
6529:
6504:
6448:
6430:(1â2): 11â21.
6408:
6357:
6293:
6245:
6206:(4): 436â454.
6184:
6124:
6073:
6014:
5988:(2): 107â110.
5961:
5959:, p. 557.
5949:
5923:(4): 299â302.
5901:
5843:
5817:(7): 607â610.
5795:
5755:
5691:
5665:(9): 823â826.
5643:
5600:
5564:(3): 953â971.
5542:
5494:
5451:
5387:
5335:
5292:
5266:(1â2): 49â59.
5244:
5225:(4): 565â585.
5203:
5155:
5099:
5073:(3): 325â340.
5051:
5033:(2): 217â225.
5011:
4963:
4895:
4848:(8): 894â912.
4826:
4760:
4747:(6): 663â678.
4725:
4685:
4647:
4607:
4531:
4445:
4397:
4363:
4312:
4269:
4243:(3): 507â520.
4221:
4209:
4207:, p. 280.
4197:
4190:
4172:
4124:
4098:(3): 315â324.
4078:
4043:
4016:
4001:
3982:(6): 556â560.
3966:
3947:(3): 227â230.
3928:
3888:
3836:
3817:(3): 347â368.
3799:
3772:(2): 265â292.
3745:
3692:
3663:(1): 374â385.
3641:
3573:
3560:
3519:
3484:
3465:(1): 107â112.
3445:
3433:
3403:
3389:
3369:
3330:
3327:(Online). n.d.
3310:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3267:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3223:, attacking a
3213:
3206:
3204:
3194:and a partial
3182:
3175:
3173:
3167:Discoscaphites
3160:
3153:
3151:
3142:
3135:
3133:
3121:
3114:
3112:
3101:Woolungasaurus
3097:
3090:
3057:Thylacocephala
2967:
2964:
2928:Philydrosaurus
2919:
2916:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2861:
2854:
2852:
2847:Confuciusornis
2844:
2837:
2835:
2830:Quetzalcoatlus
2823:
2816:
2814:
2806:
2799:
2797:
2788:
2781:
2779:
2771:
2764:
2701:therizinosaurs
2624:apex predators
2605:eutriconodonts
2551:
2548:
2425:Main article:
2392:
2389:
2381:Eromanga Basin
2316:
2312:
2304:
2298:
2254:
2226:
2169:
2166:
2000:Atlantic Ocean
1990:completed its
1984:supercontinent
1975:
1974:Paleogeography
1972:
1940:
1937:
1923:. Because the
1834:
1831:
1748:Pieter Harting
1725:
1722:
1523:photosynthesis
1493:Gulf of Mexico
1389:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1376:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1345:, Switzerland
1340:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1318:, Switzerland
1313:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1286:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1255:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1229:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1193:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1166:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1139:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1085:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1063:, Netherlands
1054:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1015:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1001:
994:
991:
944:
941:
939:
936:
926:(stages): the
901:Western Europe
895:, principally
864:
861:
660:
659:
656:
652:
651:
610:
606:
605:
596:
592:
591:
588:
584:
583:
582:
581:
567:
560:
551:
547:
546:
543:
539:
538:
535:
531:
530:
525:
521:
520:
515:
511:
510:
506:
505:
504:ICS Time Scale
502:
498:
497:
490:
489:Regional usage
486:
485:
480:
479:Celestial body
476:
475:
471:
470:
467:
466:Name formality
463:
462:
458:
457:
453:
452:
437:
436:
433:
432:
425:
423:
414:
410:
409:
405:
404:
400:
399:
395:
394:
386:
385:
377:
376:
368:
367:
359:
358:
350:
349:
341:
340:
332:
331:
323:
322:
314:
313:
305:
304:
296:
295:
287:
286:
276:
275:
265:
264:
256:
255:
243:
242:
234:
233:
221:
220:
207:
206:
205:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
115:
114:
110:
109:
106:
98:
97:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
35:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9168:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9148:
9146:
9133:
9128:
9122:
9117:
9111:
9108:
9103:
9099:
9095:
9090:
9084:
9082:
9075:
9069:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9050:
9048:
9046:
9039:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9010:
9008:
9006:
8999:
8993:
8990:
8988:
8985:
8983:
8980:
8979:
8977:
8975:
8968:
8962:
8959:
8957:
8954:
8952:
8949:
8948:
8946:
8944:
8942:(539 Maâ1 Ga)
8937:
8934:
8932:
8924:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8895:
8893:
8891:
8884:
8878:
8875:
8873:
8870:
8868:
8865:
8864:
8862:
8860:
8853:
8847:
8844:
8842:
8839:
8837:
8834:
8832:
8829:
8828:
8826:
8824:
8817:
8811:
8808:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8797:
8795:
8793:
8786:
8780:
8777:
8775:
8772:
8771:
8769:
8767:
8760:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8740:
8738:
8736:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8719:Paleozoic Era
8716:
8706:
8703:
8701:
8698:
8696:
8693:
8692:
8690:
8688:
8681:
8675:
8672:
8670:
8667:
8665:
8662:
8661:
8659:
8657:
8650:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8635:
8633:
8631:
8629:(66.0â145 Ma)
8624:
8621:
8619:
8617:(66.0â252 Ma)
8611:
8601:
8598:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8587:
8585:
8583:
8576:
8570:
8567:
8565:
8562:
8561:
8559:
8557:
8550:
8544:
8541:
8539:
8536:
8535:
8533:
8531:
8524:
8521:
8519:
8511:
8507:
8500:
8495:
8493:
8488:
8486:
8481:
8480:
8477:
8460:
8459:Maastrichtian
8457:
8455:
8452:
8450:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8437:
8435:
8432:
8431:
8429:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8411:
8409:
8406:
8404:
8401:
8399:
8396:
8395:
8393:
8392:
8389:
8386:
8384:
8381:
8380:
8375:
8371:
8364:
8359:
8357:
8352:
8350:
8345:
8344:
8341:
8333:
8332:
8326:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8305:
8295:
8291:
8287:
8283:
8279:
8275:
8268:
8263:
8259:
8257:0-7167-2882-6
8253:
8249:
8244:
8240:
8238:0-471-60618-9
8234:
8229:
8228:
8221:
8216:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8198:
8194:
8187:
8183:
8179:
8178:
8170:
8165:
8161:
8157:
8152:
8148:
8143:
8139:
8135:
8131:
8127:
8123:
8119:
8113:
8112:
8093:
8089:
8085:
8081:
8077:
8073:
8072:
8067:
8060:
8045:
8041:
8037:
8033:
8029:
8025:
8021:
8017:
8013:
8009:
8008:
8003:
7996:
7981:
7977:
7973:
7969:
7965:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7952:
7947:
7940:
7924:
7920:
7919:
7914:
7907:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7879:
7872:
7865:
7850:
7846:
7842:
7838:
7834:
7830:
7826:
7822:
7821:
7816:
7809:
7794:
7790:
7784:
7775:
7770:
7766:
7762:
7758:
7754:
7753:
7748:
7741:
7733:
7729:
7724:
7719:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7703:
7699:
7692:
7684:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7666:
7662:
7658:
7654:
7650:
7646:
7645:
7640:
7633:
7625:
7621:
7616:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7592:(9): 160462.
7591:
7587:
7583:
7576:
7574:
7565:
7561:
7556:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7532:(3): 171830.
7531:
7527:
7523:
7516:
7501:
7497:
7491:
7489:
7480:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7462:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7429:
7421:
7415:
7411:
7404:
7396:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7366:
7365:
7360:
7353:
7345:
7343:9780231119184
7339:
7335:
7330:
7329:
7320:
7312:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7294:
7290:
7289:
7284:
7277:
7269:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7227:
7223:
7222:
7217:
7210:
7202:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7168:
7164:
7163:
7158:
7151:
7143:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7125:
7121:
7117:
7110:
7102:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7084:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7053:
7048:
7041:
7031:
7023:
7017:
7013:
7009:
7005:
6998:
6990:
6986:
6982:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6964:
6960:
6956:
6949:
6947:
6945:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6920:
6916:
6912:
6908:
6907:
6899:
6891:
6887:
6883:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6862:
6854:
6846:
6840:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6781:
6780:
6775:
6767:
6752:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6705:
6700:
6693:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6641:
6636:
6629:
6622:
6617:
6609:
6603:
6599:
6598:
6590:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6546:
6541:
6533:
6525:
6521:
6517:
6516:
6508:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6464:
6459:
6452:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6424:
6419:
6412:
6404:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6373:
6368:
6361:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6322:
6318:
6314:
6310:
6309:
6304:
6297:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6261:
6256:
6249:
6241:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6200:
6195:
6188:
6180:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6142:
6141:
6136:
6128:
6120:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6089:
6084:
6077:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6033:
6028:
6021:
6019:
6003:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5982:
5977:
5970:
5968:
5966:
5958:
5953:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5917:
5912:
5905:
5889:
5888:2027.42/95054
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5859:
5854:
5847:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5811:
5806:
5799:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5771:
5766:
5759:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5707:
5702:
5695:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5659:
5654:
5647:
5638:
5633:
5629:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5616:
5611:
5604:
5589:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5559:
5558:
5553:
5546:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5510:
5505:
5498:
5489:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5467:
5462:
5455:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5403:
5398:
5391:
5383:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5352:
5347:
5339:
5330:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5308:
5303:
5296:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5260:
5255:
5248:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5219:
5214:
5207:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5171:
5166:
5159:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5115:
5110:
5103:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5055:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5027:
5022:
5015:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4979:
4974:
4967:
4959:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4912:
4907:
4899:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4842:
4837:
4830:
4815:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4776:
4771:
4764:
4755:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4741:
4736:
4729:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4689:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4651:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4623:
4618:
4611:
4603:
4591:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4547:
4542:
4535:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4478:
4473:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4401:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4370:
4368:
4359:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4323:
4316:
4308:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4273:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4237:
4232:
4225:
4218:
4213:
4206:
4201:
4193:
4191:9780760719572
4187:
4183:
4176:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4140:
4135:
4128:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4092:Geodiversitas
4089:
4082:
4073:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4026:AAPG Bulletin
4020:
4013:
4008:
4006:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3970:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3941:
3932:
3924:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3903:
3895:
3893:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3861:(1): 96â100.
3860:
3856:
3855:
3847:
3840:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3811:
3803:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3766:
3761:
3754:
3752:
3750:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3696:
3687:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3657:
3652:
3645:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3577:
3570:
3564:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3523:
3514:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3488:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3449:
3436:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3399:
3393:
3385:
3381:
3380:
3373:
3363:
3357:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3334:
3326:
3325:
3320:
3314:
3306:
3302:
3295:
3291:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3253:
3242:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3217:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3187:
3183:A plate with
3179:
3174:
3170:
3168:
3164:
3157:
3152:
3148:
3147:
3139:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3125:
3118:
3113:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3102:
3094:
3089:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2970:In the seas,
2963:
2961:
2960:
2959:Champsosaurus
2955:
2951:
2947:
2946:
2945:Hyphalosaurus
2941:
2937:
2936:Choristoderes
2930:
2929:
2924:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2894:
2893:
2887:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2865:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2841:
2836:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2820:
2815:
2811:
2810:
2803:
2798:
2794:
2793:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2768:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2738:lepidopterans
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2663:Nyctosauridae
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2633:, especially
2632:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2618:
2617:South America
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2591:Stagodontidae
2588:
2587:Deltatheroida
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2547:
2545:
2542:in the order
2541:
2536:
2534:
2531:are from the
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2516:
2515:Archaefructus
2511:
2507:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2460:pteridosperms
2457:
2456:Bennettitales
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2415:
2409:
2402:
2401:Archaefructus
2397:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2352:plant fossils
2349:
2345:
2341:
2340:mantle plumes
2334:
2329:
2325:
2323:
2310:
2301:
2293:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2280:anoxic events
2277:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2251:
2246:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2189:
2183:
2180:
2179:Palynological
2175:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2087:transgression
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2058:Indian Oceans
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2034:South America
2031:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1951:
1946:
1939:North America
1936:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1868:low countries
1865:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1810:
1808:
1804:
1801:skeletons of
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1786:
1785:sedimentation
1782:
1778:
1775:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1749:
1745:
1744:Dutch Limburg
1741:
1740:Maastrichtian
1737:
1736:
1730:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1588:temnospondyls
1585:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1531:phytoplankton
1528:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1508:KâPg boundary
1505:
1501:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1454:
1448:
1444:
1441:
1437:
1436:Calpionellids
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1366:
1365:
1360:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1311:
1310:Acanthodiscus
1306:
1298:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1270:125.77 ± 1.5
1267:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1191:
1186:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1159:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1132:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1046:
1042:
1034:
1033:Maastrichtian
1031:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1007:
1002:
1000:
995:
988:
982:
979:
977:
973:
970:(middle) and
969:
965:
961:
957:
954:
950:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
894:
893:invertebrates
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
860:
858:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
799:
795:
791:
787:
784:
780:
776:
772:
767:
764:
759:
755:
750:
749:
743:
735:
732:
728:
724:
720:
719:
709:
673:
667:
657:
653:
648:
619:
615:
611:
607:
604:
600:
597:
593:
589:
585:
580:
579:
575:
571:
568:
565:
561:
558:
554:
553:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
529:
526:
522:
519:
516:
512:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
484:
481:
477:
472:
468:
464:
459:
447:
446:, as of 2022.
445:
438:
430:
424:
419:
418:
390:
389:Maastrichtian
381:
372:
363:
354:
345:
336:
327:
318:
309:
300:
291:
281:
270:
261:
260:
251:
249:
239:
238:
229:
228:
215:
213:
121:
116:
111:
104:
99:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
43:
38:
32:
25:
20:
9106:
9042:Archean Eon
9004:(1.6â2.5 Ga)
8889:(485â539 Ma)
8858:(444â485 Ma)
8822:(419â444 Ma)
8791:(359â419 Ma)
8765:(299â359 Ma)
8734:(252â299 Ma)
8722:(252â539 Ma)
8686:(201â252 Ma)
8655:(145â201 Ma)
8626:
8614:Mesozoic Era
8514:Cenozoic Era
8369:
8329:
8280:(1): 1â103.
8277:
8273:
8247:
8226:
8200:
8186:the original
8181:
8175:
8160:the original
8146:
8121:
8117:
8116:porphyrin".
8109:Bibliography
8095:. Retrieved
8078:(1): 40â64.
8075:
8069:
8059:
8047:. Retrieved
8011:
8005:
7995:
7985:22 September
7983:. Retrieved
7955:
7951:Paleobiology
7949:
7939:
7927:. Retrieved
7925:(4): 495â507
7922:
7916:
7906:
7881:
7877:
7864:
7852:. Retrieved
7824:
7818:
7808:
7796:. Retrieved
7792:
7783:
7756:
7750:
7740:
7705:
7701:
7691:
7648:
7642:
7632:
7589:
7585:
7529:
7525:
7515:
7503:. Retrieved
7499:
7442:
7439:PLOS Biology
7438:
7428:
7409:
7403:
7368:
7362:
7352:
7327:
7319:
7292:
7286:
7276:
7225:
7219:
7209:
7166:
7160:
7150:
7123:
7119:
7109:
7056:
7050:
7040:
7030:
7003:
6997:
6965:(1): 83â99.
6962:
6958:
6910:
6904:
6898:
6865:
6859:
6853:
6839:cite journal
6827:. Retrieved
6783:
6777:
6766:
6754:. Retrieved
6708:
6702:
6692:
6680:. Retrieved
6644:
6638:
6628:
6621:Stanley 1999
6616:
6596:
6589:
6577:. Retrieved
6549:
6543:
6532:
6513:
6507:
6495:. Retrieved
6467:
6461:
6451:
6439:. Retrieved
6427:
6421:
6411:
6376:
6370:
6360:
6348:. Retrieved
6312:
6306:
6296:
6284:. Retrieved
6264:
6258:
6248:
6203:
6197:
6187:
6144:
6138:
6127:
6092:
6086:
6076:
6064:. Retrieved
6036:
6030:
6005:. Retrieved
5985:
5979:
5952:
5940:. Retrieved
5920:
5914:
5904:
5892:. Retrieved
5862:
5856:
5846:
5834:. Retrieved
5814:
5808:
5798:
5786:. Retrieved
5774:
5768:
5758:
5746:. Retrieved
5710:
5704:
5694:
5682:. Retrieved
5662:
5656:
5646:
5619:
5613:
5603:
5591:. Retrieved
5561:
5555:
5545:
5533:. Retrieved
5513:
5507:
5497:
5470:
5464:
5454:
5442:. Retrieved
5406:
5400:
5390:
5355:
5349:
5338:
5311:
5305:
5295:
5283:. Retrieved
5263:
5257:
5247:
5222:
5216:
5206:
5194:. Retrieved
5174:
5168:
5158:
5146:. Retrieved
5118:
5112:
5102:
5090:. Retrieved
5070:
5064:
5054:
5042:. Retrieved
5030:
5024:
5014:
5002:. Retrieved
4982:
4976:
4966:
4918:(1): 21894.
4915:
4909:
4898:
4845:
4839:
4829:
4817:. Retrieved
4779:
4773:
4763:
4744:
4738:
4728:
4716:. Retrieved
4704:
4698:
4688:
4676:. Retrieved
4664:
4660:
4650:
4638:. Retrieved
4626:
4620:
4610:
4598:|last9=
4590:cite journal
4578:. Retrieved
4550:
4544:
4534:
4522:. Retrieved
4518:the original
4481:
4475:
4436:. Retrieved
4416:
4410:
4400:
4388:. Retrieved
4384:the original
4379:
4331:
4325:
4315:
4288:
4282:
4272:
4260:. Retrieved
4240:
4234:
4224:
4217:Stanley 1999
4212:
4205:Stanley 1999
4200:
4181:
4175:
4163:. Retrieved
4143:
4137:
4127:
4115:. Retrieved
4095:
4091:
4081:
4072:10.26879/801
4062:
4056:
4046:
4029:
4025:
4019:
4012:Stanley 1999
3979:
3975:
3969:
3944:
3938:
3931:
3906:
3900:
3858:
3852:
3839:
3814:
3810:Paleobiology
3808:
3802:
3769:
3763:
3707:
3701:
3695:
3660:
3654:
3644:
3591:
3587:
3576:
3563:
3538:
3532:
3522:
3503:
3497:
3487:
3462:
3458:
3448:
3438:, retrieved
3416:
3413:"Cretaceous"
3406:
3397:
3392:
3383:
3378:
3372:
3356:cite journal
3347:
3343:
3333:
3322:
3319:"Cretaceous"
3313:
3304:
3294:
3224:
3216:Cretoxyrhina
3214:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3165:
3144:
3127:was a large
3122:
3105:
3099:
3086:and shells.
3077:
3041:foraminifera
3021:
3020:
2984:ichthyosaurs
2969:
2966:Marine fauna
2957:
2943:
2934:
2926:
2918:Choristodera
2898:
2890:
2889:Skeleton of
2862:
2845:
2828:
2807:
2792:Velociraptor
2790:
2772:
2754:grasshoppers
2748:, appeared.
2724:
2693:dromaeosaurs
2671:
2667:Azhdarchidae
2628:archosaurian
2621:
2613:dryolestoids
2596:Schowalteria
2594:
2579:metatherians
2553:
2544:Polypodiales
2537:
2513:
2499:
2496:macrofossils
2472:
2448:ginkgophytes
2430:
2412:
2400:
2383:in southern
2337:
2288:
2241:
2184:
2177:
2162:Deccan Traps
2091:
2028:
1977:
1956:
1933:Tethys Ocean
1914:
1907:
1884:consolidated
1842:
1819:Mancos Shale
1811:
1805:, a type of
1789:
1770:
1758:
1733:
1718:champsosaurs
1714:crocodilians
1711:
1699:water column
1689:
1658:insectivores
1652:
1622:, including
1614:
1584:ichthyosaurs
1550:
1527:solar energy
1516:
1504:biodiversity
1497:
1478:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1451:
1417:
1375:(since 2016)
1370:
1362:
1355:145.0 ± 4.0
1335:
1328:139.8 ± 3.0
1308:
1304:125.77 ± 1.5
1301:132.6 ± 2.0
1284:S. vandeckii
1283:
1277:
1244:121.4 ± 1.0
1224:
1217:113.0 ± 1.0
1195:
1188:
1181:100.5 ± 0.9
1161:
1134:
1107:
1080:
1049:
1005:
998:
980:
946:
943:Subdivisions
931:
923:
911:
907:
872:
866:
840:, and large
827:
768:
757:
665:
663:
576:
564:Calpionellid
441:
257:
247:
245:
235:
223:
209:
81:
9078:Hadean Eon
8856:Ordovician
8627:Cretaceous
8527:Quaternary
8408:Hauterivian
8403:Valanginian
8097:24 November
7929:24 November
7884:: 225â238.
7854:24 November
7651:(1): 8149.
6497:19 November
6379:: 190â201.
6350:18 November
6267:: 275â299.
5865:(2): 1â17.
5777:: 140â152.
5748:19 November
5622:(2): 1029.
5516:: 136â147.
5444:24 November
5409:: 174â184.
5358:: 224â247.
5314:(1): 1â14.
4380:Palaeos.com
4334:(4): 1â11.
4291:(1): 1â12.
4262:11 December
4236:Palaeoworld
4117:28 December
3686:11336/30971
3619:11336/97384
3594:(1): 1â14.
3588:Solid Earth
3198:, found in
3186:Nematonotus
3146:Hesperornis
3107:Kronosaurus
3084:hardgrounds
3063:(generally
3045:echinoderms
3036:Inoceramids
3000:Cheloniidae
2992:plesiosaurs
2864:Ichthyornis
2809:Triceratops
2742:butterflies
2716:lagerstÀtte
2705:troodontids
2689:Maniraptora
2685:coelurosaur
2677:lagerstÀtte
2615:dominating
2601:Zhelestidae
2487:crown-group
2479:Valanginian
2468:Caytoniales
2452:gnetophytes
2284:ectothermic
2217:Selli Event
2200:Hauterivian
2193:Valanginian
2160:called the
2144:(e.g., the
2098:Phanerozoic
1896:sea urchins
1870:, northern
1862:coast. The
1845:Chalk Group
1827:oil and gas
1823:source rock
1738:, from the
1707:ocean floor
1695:communities
1666:carnivorous
1592:Koolasuchus
1565:plesiosaurs
1543:Herbivorous
1465:Berriasella
1358:139.8 ± 3.0
1331:132.6 ± 2.0
1324:Valanginian
1297:Hauterivian
1273:121.4 ± 1.0
1247:113.0 ± 1.0
1220:100.5 ± 0.9
1154:93.9 ± 0.8
1127:89.8 ± 0.3
1100:86.3 ± 0.5
1073:83.6 ± 0.2
1037:72.1 ± 0.2
881:Paris Basin
779:inland seas
742:Phanerozoic
642: /
308:Hauterivian
299:Valanginian
9151:Cretaceous
9145:Categories
9080:(4â4.6 Ga)
9044:(2.5â4 Ga)
8973:(1â1.6 Ga)
8579:Paleogene
8434:Cenomanian
8398:Berriasian
7798:18 October
7505:18 October
7169:(1): 480.
6734:1912/10514
6315:: 103435.
5713:: 104363.
4707:: 104220.
4667:: 102247.
4484:: 103503.
4390:18 October
3541:: 94â114.
3440:2021-01-08
3367:terrain".)
3350:: 353â376.
3282:References
3226:Pteranodon
3124:Tylosaurus
3080:bioerosion
3069:calcareous
2954:neosuchian
2873:ornithuran
2826:azhdarchid
2760:appeared.
2758:gall wasps
2740:, akin to
2657:remained;
2643:Pterosaurs
2583:eutherians
2575:placentals
2571:marsupials
2564:cimolodont
2501:Montsechia
2436:gymnosperm
2368:south pole
2348:Tethys Sea
2309:west Texas
2233:dropstones
2126:formations
2120:and other
2118:carbonates
2078:Appalachia
2066:Tethys Sea
2054:Madagascar
2038:Antarctica
1996:continents
1968:Appalachia
1943:See also:
1909:Mosasaurus
1900:belemnites
1888:limestones
1860:Normandian
1837:See also:
1795:coccoliths
1569:pterosaurs
1549:, such as
1539:food chain
1440:planktonic
1412:See also:
1388:Boundaries
1351:Berriasian
1184:93.9 ± 0.8
1177:Cenomanian
1157:89.8 ± 0.3
1130:86.3 ± 0.5
1103:83.6 ± 0.2
1076:72.1 ± 0.2
1061:Maastricht
1013:Etymology
1010:Definition
910:, meaning
897:coccoliths
838:pterosaurs
832:, a large
823:gymnosperm
819:extinction
666:Cretaceous
627:36°09âČ13âłN
509:Definition
429:extinction
344:Cenomanian
290:Berriasian
248:Cretaceous
113:Chronology
22:Cretaceous
9107:See also:
8887:Cambrian
8820:Silurian
8789:Devonian
8684:Triassic
8653:Jurassic
8454:Campanian
8449:Santonian
8444:Coniacian
8413:Barremian
8044:256767945
7980:130932162
7972:0094-8373
7898:2245-7070
7849:0195-6671
7461:1545-7885
7311:1674-4918
7250:2375-2548
7193:2041-1723
7142:2095-5138
7083:0027-8424
6981:0028-646X
6890:128739024
6824:214736648
6808:0028-0836
6751:135295956
6743:0921-8181
6677:206509273
6574:233918778
6515:GSA Today
6492:0091-7613
6403:0031-0182
6345:233573257
6337:0921-8181
6240:134095694
5743:216375103
5735:1367-9120
5588:219918773
5439:134356485
5431:0195-6671
5239:8755-1209
5143:128403453
4985:: 11â27.
4940:2045-2322
4882:2572-4517
4814:129660048
4575:256880421
4514:233579194
4506:0012-8252
4438:17 August
4358:0883-8305
4307:128594924
4257:243963376
4112:128803778
3883:130690035
3794:129654916
3636:135382485
3628:1869-9529
3479:1731-3708
3287:Citations
3202:, Lebanon
3065:siliceous
3053:Ostracods
3051:thrived.
3023:Baculites
2996:mosasaurs
2974:, modern
2736:and some
2635:dinosaurs
2554:On land,
2510:Las Hoyas
2506:Barremian
2504:from the
2421:, Germany
2385:Australia
2372:Antarctic
2360:Greenland
2333:isotherms
2268:upwelling
2261:from the
2204:Barremian
2158:lava beds
2074:Laramidia
2042:Australia
2014:, as the
2004:orogenies
1980:Paleozoic
1964:Laramidia
1917:competent
1904:ammonites
1880:North Sea
1783:for such
1777:limestone
1760:Scipionyx
1654:Omnivores
1644:mosasaurs
1640:ammonites
1624:ammonites
1597:cynodonts
1561:dinosaurs
1557:tetrapods
1547:predators
1533:and land
1470:C. alpina
1398:meteorite
1381:, France
1316:Hauterive
1291:, France
1266:Barremian
1260:, France
1234:, France
1202:, France
1196:Cenomanum
1171:, France
1144:, France
1123:Coniacian
1117:, France
1096:Santonian
1090:, France
1088:Champagne
1069:Campanian
964:Neocomian
928:Neocomian
916:Conybeare
798:dinosaurs
790:ammonites
630:8°38âČ55âłE
461:Etymology
427:K-Pg mass
380:Campanian
371:Santonian
362:Coniacian
317:Barremian
259:Paleogene
8732:Permian
8553:Neogene
8439:Turonian
8049:31 March
8036:29643505
7732:19203920
7683:26306778
7624:27703708
7564:29657788
7479:29534059
7395:27358361
7268:30263954
7201:21934664
7101:33139543
6989:30681148
6829:18 March
6816:32238944
6756:18 March
6711:: 1â23.
6682:18 March
6669:18187651
6552:: 1â29.
6286:19 March
6179:24937202
6147:: 4194.
6119:35910494
6007:19 March
5593:19 March
5382:55405082
5196:19 April
5004:19 March
4958:36536054
4890:89611847
4629:: 1â11.
4580:9 August
4524:18 March
4065:: 1â56.
4032:: 1â20.
3831:33880578
3732:23393261
3238:See also
3163:ammonite
3129:mosasaur
3028:ammonite
2980:teleosts
2734:termites
2720:feathers
2713:Liaoning
2709:avialans
2674:Liaoning
2655:families
2631:reptiles
2609:therians
2524:monocots
2444:conifers
2376:Turonian
2364:dinosaur
2362:, while
2209:Manihiki
2188:latitude
2048:(though
2030:Gondwana
2008:Jurassic
1992:tectonic
1892:arenites
1765:theropod
1685:detritus
1620:molluscs
1567:and the
1443:protists
1343:Valangin
1150:Turonian
972:Senonian
932:Urgonian
875:, using
854:Cenozoic
825:groups.
796:, while
731:Mesozoic
574:Ammonite
562:Base of
492:Global (
353:Turonian
237:Jurassic
212:Mesozoic
8282:Bibcode
8126:Bibcode
8080:Bibcode
8016:Bibcode
7829:Bibcode
7761:Bibcode
7723:2660973
7674:4560825
7653:Bibcode
7615:5043327
7594:Bibcode
7555:5882712
7534:Bibcode
7470:5849296
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