Developmental language disorder

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with peers, but can speak normally in other contexts, like at home with their family. These children generally have good comprehension of language and can understand conversations and instructions, but they struggle to communicate verbally in specific scenarios. Research demonstrates that these children are capable of speaking normally or nearly normally in some settings, which emphasizes that their challenge lies not in their ability to speak, but in the anxiety related to speaking in particular situations. Compared to those with social phobia alone, children with selective mutism exhibit higher levels of social anxiety and internalizing symptoms. Some children with selective mutism may also have minor difficulties with speech and language, which may not be as obvious in kids with social phobia who mainly show social anxiety without significant language problems. Kids with selective mutism can improve with specific interventions that focus on both their anxiety and any speech and language challenges they may have. It is crucial to refer these children to the right services early on to ensure they receive effective treatment and support.

159:– This involves the ability to combine words into grammatically correct sentences (syntax) and to combine parts of words together (morphology) such as adding grammatical endings to verbs like -ing or -ed or to add prefixes and suffixes like dis- or -ation. These different aspect of grammar are processed in the ventral stream in the same hemisphere (left), but in different parts of the brain: morphology is processed in the left anterior middle temporal gyrus and left anterior inferior temporal sulcus, and syntax is processed right below. This demonstrates the complexities of grammatical structure processing in the brain. A child with DLD might make certain grammar mistakes. For instance, a child may say 'me jump here', instead of 'I jumped here'. Comprehension of sentences can also be affected. For instance, there may be difficulty understanding meaning expressed by word order, and so confusion about what is blue in a sentence like 'the pencil on the shoe is blue', and a tendency to use general knowledge rather than linguistic cues to meaning, or problems in interpreting grammatical markers of number or tense. 165:– This refers to children's ability to understand the meaning of words and how meanings are expressed by combining words together. Semantic processing mainly happens in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Children with DLD often have limited vocabulary and may make heavy use of a small set of words with rather general meanings. As children with developmental language disorder get older, they may have a hard time understanding that some words have multiple meanings, for example the word "cold", which can mean a low temperature, a sickness, or being unfriendly. Moreover, studies indicate that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) encounter difficulties not only in effectively utilizing and producing various 681:

relationship between language development and peer interactions. Children with DLD experience lower levels of acceptance, particularly during the early school years, as indicated by peer nominations. Improvement in peer acknowledgments may not be solely attributed to language and communication interventions, suggesting that other factors influence friendships. Findings from social cognition tasks, the tendency for children with DLD to receive more positive peer nominations, and the discrepancies in their friendship acknowledgments collectively suggest that the ability to comprehend others and identify peers as friends may significantly impact social connections.

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recognizing it as a subset of language disorder within the broader spectrum of speech, language, and communication needs. This shift aimed to clarify understanding, increase public awareness, and improve access to services for affected children. Previously, various terms like "developmental dysphasia" and "developmental aphasia" were used, causing confusion by implying similarities to adult language problems caused by brain damage. Similarly, "specific language impairment" (SLI), commonly used in North America, was considered too narrow as it only focused on language issues without considering other potential difficulties children may face.

206:– Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the way sounds are combined in words. Phonological information is stored in the superior temporal sulcus. Children with difficulties with phonology may fail to distinguish between certain speech sounds, such as 't' and 'k', so that 'cake' is produced as 'tate'. Such difficulties are not unusual as part of typical development in toddlers, but they would usually resolve by the time children are 4–5 years old. Difficulties with producing some speech sounds accurately may reduce intelligibility of speech. In addition, more subtle difficulties in recognizing specific sounds in words ( 577:

became apparent that there was little generalization to everyday situations. Contemporary approaches to enhancing development of language structure, for younger children at least, are more likely to adopt 'milieu' methods, in which the intervention is interwoven into natural episodes of communication, and the therapist builds on the child's utterances, rather than dictating what will be talked about. Interventions for older children, may be more explicit, telling the children what areas are being targeted and giving explanations regarding the rules and structures they are learning, often with visual supports.

50: 127:(SLI), which has been widely adopted, especially in North America. The definition of SLI overlaps with DLD, but was rejected by the CATALISE panel because it was seen as overly restrictive in implying that the child had relatively pure problems with language in the absence of any other impairments. Children with such selective problems are relatively rare, and there is no evidence that they respond differently to intervention, or have different causal factors, from other children with language problems. 544:

practices for diagnosing DLD in multilingual children is inadequate. "Lack of knowledge about bilingual children and their needs is largely responsible for current referral and assessment practices." SLPs do not speak every language and are unable to properly assess many children for language disorders as a result. The best practices for assessing multilingual children involves a combination of approaches including but not limited to questionnaires, parent/guardian interviews, and direct assessment.

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conditions' by the CATALISE panel. Language disorders occurring with these conditions need to be assessed and children offered appropriate intervention, but a terminological distinction is made so that these cases would be diagnosed as language disorder associated with the main diagnosis being specified: e.g. "language disorder associated with autism spectrum disorder." The reasoning behind these diagnostic distinctions is discussed further by Bishop (2017).

261: 187:– Pragmatics refers to the ability to select the appropriate message, or interpret what others say, in relation to context. It is affected by right hemisphere brain damage. Pragmatic difficulties can give an impression of oddity, with the content of language not fitting the environmental or social context; comprehension may be over-literal; the child may chatter incessantly, be poor at turn-taking in conversation and maintaining a topic. 181:

conversation or expressive tasks. This difficulty in word retrieval can impact various aspects of language functioning, including expressive vocabulary, narrative coherence, and social communication. Additionally, word finding difficulties may manifest differently across individuals with DLD, ranging from occasional lapses in retrieval to more pervasive and persistent challenges in accessing words.

257:(speech-language pathology). These often resolve by around 4–5 years of age with specialist intervention, and so would not meet criteria for DLD. Where such problems continue beyond five years of age, they are usually accompanied by problems in broader language domains and have a poorer prognosis, so a diagnosis of DLD with speech sound disorder is then appropriate. 648:

comparison children. In the longer-term, studies of adult outcomes of children with DLD have found elevated rates of unemployment, social isolation and psychiatric disorder among those with early comprehension difficulties. However, better outcomes are found for children who have milder difficulties and do not require special educational provision.

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by Tomblin et al., prevalence of DLD in racial/ethnic groups was highest in Native Americans, with African Americans being the next highest, followed by Hispanic people, and then White people. No students of Asian descent presented with DLD; however, other research does indicate that DLD is present in children of Asian descent.

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results when a child inherits a particularly detrimental combination of risk factors, each of which may have only a small effect. Nevertheless, study of the mode of action of the FOXP2 gene has helped identify other common genetic variants involved in the same neural pathways that may play a part in causing DLD.

540:, and then analyzed for a range of features: e.g., the grammatical complexity of the child's utterances, whether the child introduces characters to their story or jumps right in, whether the events follow a logical order, and whether the narrative includes a main idea or theme and supporting details. 576:

Treatment is usually carried out by speech and language therapists/pathologists, who use a wide range of techniques to stimulate language learning. In the past, there was a vogue for drilling children in grammatical exercises, using imitation and elicitation, but such methods fell into disuse when it

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have been used to document the first criterion. Tomblin et al. proposed the EpiSLI criterion, based on five composite scores representing performance in three domains of language (vocabulary, grammar, and narration) and two modalities (comprehension and production). Children scoring in the lowest 10%

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Language disorders are associated with aspects of home environment, and it is often assumed that this is a causal link, with poor language stimulation leading to weak language skills. Twin studies, however, show that two children in the same home environment can have very different language outcomes,

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method. Two twins growing up together are exposed to the same home environment, yet may differ radically in their language skills. Such different outcomes are, however, much more common in fraternal (non-identical) twins, who are genetically different. Identical twins share the same genes and tend to

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of DLD in five-year-olds at around 7%. Recently, an Australian population based study demonstrated comparable prevalence of DLD amongst 10 year-old children. Therefore, the prevalence is about one in every 15 children. By these statistics, in a classroom of 30 students, 2 would have DLD. In research

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For school-aged children, teachers are increasingly involved in intervention, either in collaboration with speech and language therapists/pathologists, or as the main agents of delivery of the intervention. Evidence for the benefits of a collaborative approach is emerging, but the benefits of asking

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Children with Speech-Language Impairment (SLI) have a higher likelihood of ASD compared to the general population. It is essential to conduct a detailed developmental history and a specific evaluation for autism characteristics. Use screening tools to help detect ASD. Verbal Children with Autism can

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is a parent questionnaire suitable for assessing everyday use of language in children aged four years and above who can speak in sentences. Informal assessments, such as language samples, are often used by speech-language therapists/pathologists to complement formal testing and give an indication of

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and learning – Problems with remembering words or sentences can affect both the learning of new vocabulary, and the understanding of long or complex sentences. Young children with DLD may say their first words later than other children. It may also take children with DLD longer to learn and remember

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The term developmental language disorder (DLD) was endorsed in a consensus study involving a panel of experts (CATALISE Consortium) in 2017. The study was conducted in response to concerns that a wide range of terminology was used in this area, with the consequence that there was poor communication,

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who have no other presenting risk factors. However, for children who still have significant language difficulties at school entry, reading problems are common, even for children who receive specialist help, and educational attainments are typically poor. Poor outcomes are most common in cases where

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can be distinguished from language disorders, they can also co-occur. When a child fails to produce distinctions between speech sounds for no obvious reason, this is typically regarded as a language problem affecting the learning of phonological contrasts. The classification of and terminology for

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methodology has not been widely used, and this makes it difficult to assess clinical efficacy with confidence. Children's language will tend to improve over time, and without controlled studies, it can be hard to know how much of observed change is down to a specific treatment. There is, however,

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is an anxiety disorder where individuals are unable to speak in certain social situations despite being capable of speaking in other environments. This disorder is strongly linked to social anxiety. Children who have selective mutism do not speak in certain social situations, such as at school or

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The third criterion specifies that DLD is used for children whose language disorder is not part of another biomedical condition, such as a genetic syndrome, a sensorineural hearing loss, neurological disease, autism spectrum disorder or intellectual disability – these were termed 'differentiating

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gene just in the affected family members. However, subsequent studies have found that, though DLD runs in families, it is not usually caused by a mutation in FOXP2 or another specific gene. Current evidence suggests that there are many different genes that can influence language learning, and DLD

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DLD can affect a range of areas of language and the degree of impairment in different areas of language can vary from child to child. However, although there have been attempts to define different subtypes, these have not generally resulted in robust categories. The recommendation of the CATALISE

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DLD is associated with an elevated risk of social, emotional and mental health concerns. For instance, in a UK survey, 64% of a sample of 11-year-olds with DLD scored above a clinical threshold on a questionnaire for psychiatric difficulties, and 36% were regularly bullied, compared with 12% of

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The field of developmental language disorders (DLD) has evolved significantly in recent years, with a move towards standardizing terminology to address confusion and improve communication. The CATALISE Consortium, composed of experts, endorsed the term "developmental language disorder" in 2017,

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Research has also suggested that peer nominations reveal differences in social understanding between children with DLD and their typically developing peers, as evidenced by the unequal distribution of peer acknowledgments. Research on peer and friendship acknowledgments offers insight into the

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There is, however, a large gap in assessment of developmental language disorder, specifically in bilingual and multilingual children. For a multilingual child to be diagnosed with DLD, they must be assessed in every language that they speak and show signs of DLD in each one. Current assessment

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can be broadened into three categories: sociability and empathy, imaginative play, and use of language. Sociability and Empathy: Search for limitations in the child's capacity to participate in social interactions, comprehend others' emotions, and deduce their viewpoints. Communicative Use of

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The second criterion, persistence of language problems, can be difficult to judge in a young child, but longitudinal studies have shown that difficulties are less likely to resolve for children who have poor language comprehension, rather than difficulties confined to expressive language. In

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phenomenon. It reflects the inability to access specific lexical items for production, despite awareness of their existence within the mental lexicon. It is a common feature in developmental language disorders (DLD), where children may struggle to recall words accurately and fluently during

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The question of whether to refer to children's language problems as a 'disorder' was a topic of debate among the CATALISE consortium, but the conclusion was that 'disorder' conveyed the serious nature and potential consequences of persistent language deficits. It is also parallel with other

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The terminology for children's language disorders has been extremely wide-ranging and confusing, with many labels that have overlapping but not necessarily identical meanings. In part this confusion reflected uncertainty about the boundaries of DLD, and the existence of different subtypes.

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Much research has focused on trying to identify what makes language learning difficult for some children. A major divide is between theories that attribute the difficulties to a low-level problem with auditory temporal processing, and those that propose there is a deficit in a specialised

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be much more similar in language ability. There can be some variation in the severity and persistence of DLD in identical twins, indicating that non-genetic factors affect the course of disorder, but it is unusual to find a child with DLD who has an identical twin with typical language.

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Assessment will usually include an interview with the child's caregiver, observation of the child in an unstructured setting, a hearing test, and standardized tests of language. There is a wide range of language assessments in English. Some are restricted for use by experts in

345:, both simple and complex. These difficulties also extend to speech-motor ability, particularly with the control of their articulatory movements. Children with DLD have difficulty with motor sequence learning and may show deficits in other procedural motor processes as well. 524: 329:

of affected males-to-females around 3 or 4:1. However, the sex difference is much less striking in epidemiological samples, suggesting that similar problems may exist in females but are less likely to be detected. The reason for the sex difference is not well understood.

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Language: Evaluate for challenges in utilizing language proficiently for communication. Imaginative Play: Assess the child’s capability to participate in inventive and imaginative play. Sensory Responses: Observe any uncommon or modified reactions to sensory stimuli.

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In addition, there has been a move away from a focus solely on grammar and phonology toward interventions that develop children's social use of language, often working in small groups that may include typically developing as well as language-impaired peers.

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increasing evidence that direct 1:1 intervention with an SLT/P can be effective for improving vocabulary and expressive language. There have been few studies of interventions that target receptive language, though some positive outcomes have been reported.

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be classified as follows: Impaired: They experience significant challenges with using language. Borderline: They have language abilities but with some impairments. Normal: Their language use falls within typical ranges, considering the context of autism.

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In the UK education system, the term "speech, language and communication needs" is widely used, but this is far broader than DLD, and includes children with speech, language and social communication difficulties arising from a wide range of causes.

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Brain scans do not usually reveal any obvious abnormalities in children with DLD, although quantitative comparisons have found differences in brain size or relative proportions of white or grey matter in specific regions. In some cases, unusual

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disorders of speech sound production is a subject of considerable debate. In practice, even for those with specialist skills, it is not always easy to distinguish between phonological disorders and other types of speech production problem.

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Historically, the terms "developmental dysphasia" or "developmental aphasia" were used to describe children with the clinical picture of DLD. These terms have, however, largely been abandoned, as they suggest parallels with adult-acquired

238:, are commonly seen in young children. These misarticulations should not be confused with language problems, which involve the ability to select and combine linguistic elements to express meanings, and the ability to comprehend meanings. 693:

with higher performance IQ than verbal IQ. The participants still exhibited a severe and persisting language disorder, severe literacy impairments, and significant deficits in theory of mind and phonological processing. Within the DLD

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Another way in contemporary remediation differ from the past is that parents are more likely to be directly involved, but this approach is largely used with preschool children, rather than those whose problems persist into school age.

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language-learning system. Other accounts emphasise deficits in specific aspects of learning and memory. It can be difficult to choose between theories because they do not always make distinctive predictions, and there is considerable

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panel was that the specific areas of impairment should be assessed and documented for individual children, while recognizing that different children might have different combinations of problems. The areas which can be affected are:

698:, higher childhood intelligence and language were associated with superior cognitive and language ability at final adult outcome. In their mid-thirties, the DLD cohort had significantly worse social adaptation (with prolonged 314:

suggesting we should consider other explanations for the link. Children with DLD often grow up into adults who have relatively low educational attainments, and their children may share a genetic risk for language disorder.

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Johnson, Carla J.; Beitchman, Joseph H.; Brownlie, E. B. (February 2010). "Twenty-Year Follow-Up of Children With and Without Speech-Language Impairments: Family, Educational, Occupational, and Quality of Life Outcomes".

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the child's language in a more naturalistic context. A language sample may be of a conversation or narrative retell. In a narrative language sample, an adult may tell the child a story using a wordless picture book (e.g.

528: 3524:

Snowling, Margaret J.; Bishop, D.V.M.; Stothard, Susan E.; Chipchase, Barry; Kaplan, Carole (9 June 2006). "Psychosocial outcomes at 15 years of children with a preschool history of speech-language impairment".

193:– Discourse refers to a level of organization of language beyond the sentence. A child with limitations in this domain may have limited ability to tell a story or describe a set of events in a logical sequence. 2213:

Fisher, Simon E.; Vargha-Khadem, Faraneh; Watkins, Kate E.; Monaco, Anthony P.; Pembrey, Marcus E. (February 1998). "Localisation of a gene implicated in a severe speech and language disorder".

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Relatively little research has been conducted to test the outcomes of DLD in adults. In a study comparing 17 men with DLD to siblings without DLD, researchers found that the DLD men had normal

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Ebbels, Susan H.; Wright, Lisa; Brockbank, Sally; Godfrey, Caroline; Harris, Catherine; Leniston, Hannah; Neary, Kate; Nicoll, Hilary; Nicoll, Lucy; Scott, Jackie; Marić, Nataša (July 2017).

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Kamhi, Alan G.; Catts, Hugh W.; Mauer, Daria; Apel, Kenn; Gentry, Betholyn F. (1 August 1988). "Phonological and Spatial Processing Abilities in Language- and Reading-Impaired Children".

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systems. Differences in the brains of children with DLD versus typically developing children are subtle and may overlap with atypical patterns seen in other neurodevelopmental disorders.

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Snowling, Margaret J.; Adams, John W.; Bishop, D. V. M.; Stothard, Susan E. (2001). "Educational attainments of school leavers with a preschool history of speech-language impairments".

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comprehension as well as expressive language is affected. There is also evidence that scores on tests of nonverbal ability of children with DLD decrease over the course of development.

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Bryan, A., Colourful Semantics., in Language disorders in children and adults: psycholinguistic approaches to therapy., S. Chiat, J. Law, and J. Marshall, Editors. 1997, Whurr: London

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Clegg, J.; Hollis, C.; Mawhood, L.; Rutter, M. (February 2005). "Developmental language disorders - a follow-up in later adult life. Cognitive, language and psychosocial outcomes".

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addition, children with isolated difficulties in just one of the areas noted under 'subtypes' tend to make better progress than those whose language is impaired in several areas.

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or a known biomedical condition. The most obvious problems are difficulties in using words and sentences to express meanings, but for many children, understanding of language (

523:: speech and language therapists (SaLTs/SLTs) in the UK, speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in the US and Australia. A commonly used test battery for diagnosis of DLD is the 74:

that continue into school age and beyond. The language problems have a significant impact on everyday social interactions or educational progress, and occur in the absence of

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Shriberg, Lawrence D.; Tomblin, J. Bruce; McSweeny, Jane L. (1 December 1999). "Prevalence of Speech Delay in 6-Year-Old Children and Comorbidity With Language Impairment".

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Catts, Hugh W.; Fey, Marc E.; Tomblin, J. Bruce; Zhang, Xuyang (1 December 2002). "A Longitudinal Investigation of Reading Outcomes in Children With Language Impairments".

1944: 3933:"Reviewing the link between language abilities and peer relations in children with developmental language disorder: The importance of children's own perspectives" 253:

Speech sound disorders of unknown cause that are not accompanied by other language problems are a relatively common reason for young children to be referred to

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Norbury, Courtenay Frazier; Gooch, Debbie; Wray, Charlotte; Baird, Gillian; Charman, Tony; Simonoff, Emily; Vamvakas, George; Pickles, Andrew (November 2016).

3180:"Improving comprehension in adolescents with severe receptive language impairments: a randomized control trial of intervention for coordinating conjunctions" 3829:

Ullman, Michael T.; Pierpont, Elizabeth I. (1 January 2005). "Specific Language Impairment is not Specific to Language: the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis".

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Tomblin, J. Bruce; Records, Nancy L.; Zhang, Xuyang (December 1996). "A System for the Diagnosis of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children".

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Van der Lely, Heather K. J. (1 February 1997). "Narrative discourse in Grammatical specific language impaired children: a modular language deficit?".

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Tosh, Rachel; Arnott, Wendy; Scarinci, Nerina (May 2017). "Parent-implemented home therapy programmes for speech and language: a systematic review".

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Gathercole, Susan E; Baddeley, Alan D (1 June 1990). "Phonological memory deficits in language disordered children: Is there a causal connection?".

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Law, James; Garrett, Zoe; Nye, Chad (August 2004). "The Efficacy of Treatment for Children With Developmental Speech and Language Delay/Disorder".

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Roth, F. P., & Worthington, C. K. (2010). Treatment resource manual for speech-language pathology, 4th edition. San Diego: Singular Publishing.

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Rice, Mabel L.; Wexler, Kenneth; Cleave, Patricia L. (1 August 1995). "Specific Language Impairment as a Period of Extended Optional Infinitive".

3020:"Indirect language therapy for children with persistent language impairment in mainstream primary schools: outcomes from a cohort intervention" 2412:

Fundudis, T., Kolvin, I., & Garside, R. (1979). Speech Retarded and Deaf Children: Their Psychological Development. London: Academic Press.

17: 3364:

Simkin, Zoë; Conti-Ramsden, Gina (26 July 2016). "Evidence of reading difficulty in subgroups of children with specific language impairment".

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Robinson, Roger J. (12 November 2008). "Causes and Associations of Severe and Persistent Specific Speech and Language Disorders in Children".

173:. These children tend to avoid plural forms altogether, instead favoring singular forms accompanied by words indicating duality or plurality. 1828:

Rvachew, S., & Brosseau-Lapre, F. (2012). Developmental Phonological Disorders: Foundations of clinical Practice: Plural Publishing Inc.

527:. Assessments that can be completed by a parent or teacher can be useful to identify children who may require more in-depth evaluation. The 365:

DLD is defined purely in behavioural terms: there is no biological test. There are three points that need to be met for a diagnosis of DLD:

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Paul, R. (2006). Language Disorders from Infancy through Adolescence: Assessment and Intervention, 3rd Edition. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book.

536:), then ask the child to use the pictures and tell the story back. Language samples can be transcribed using computer software such as the 353:

are found. To date, no consistent 'neural signature' for DLD has been found, although some studies have noted evidence for involvement of

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Bishop, D. V. M. (1997). Uncommon Understanding: Development and Disorders of Language Comprehension in Children. Hove: Psychology Press.

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Conti-Ramsden, Gina; Botting, Nicola (1 February 2004). "Social Difficulties and Victimization in Children With SLI at 11 Years of Age".

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Bishop, D. V. M.; North, T.; Donlan, C. (12 November 2008). "Genetic Basis of Specific Language Impairment: Evidence from a Twin Study".

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Keep them in school: children who are school-refusers have poorer language skills overall, and a higher incidence of language impairments

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Word finding – Children with word finding difficulties may know a word, but have difficulty accessing it for production – similar to the

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Paul, Rhea (June 1990). "Comprehension strategies: Interactions between world knowledge and the development of sentence comprehension".

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Adams, Catherine (January 2001). "Clinical diagnostic and intervention studies of children with semantic—pragmatic language disorder".

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Cohen, Nancy (2001). Language impairment and psychopathology in infants, children, and adolescents. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

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Roberts, Megan Y.; Kaiser, Ann P. (1 August 2011). "The Effectiveness of Parent-Implemented Language Interventions: A Meta-Analysis".

905:"Phase 2 of CATALISE: a multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development: Terminology" 305:

There was considerable excitement when a large, multigenerational family with a high rate of DLD were found to have a mutation of the

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lack of public recognition, and in some cases children were denied access to services. Developmental language disorder is a subset of

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van Weerdenburg, Marjolijn; Verhoeven, Ludo; van Balkom, Hans (February 2006). "Towards a typology of specific language impairment".

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One non-genetic factor that is known to have a specific impact on language development is being a younger sibling in a large family.

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Montgomery, James W. (May 2002). "Information Processing and Language Comprehension in Children with Specific Language Impairment".

1945:"How should children with speech sound disorders be classified? A review and critical evaluation of current classification systems" 337:

are commonly found in children with DLD. Standardized measures of motor ability confirm that children with DLD exhibit deficits in

278: 2559:

Sanjeevan, Teenu; Rosenbaum, David A.; Miller, Carol; van Hell, Janet G.; Weiss, Daniel J.; Mainela-Arnold, Elina (24 June 2015).

2470:"The impact of nonverbal ability on prevalence and clinical presentation of language disorder: evidence from a population study" 1076:. Nottingham: DCSF Publications. However, the UK special educational needs system uses in a manner which is more similar to DLD. 4069: 3147:"Effectiveness of intervention for grammar in school-aged children with primary language impairments: A review of the evidence" 1604: 2760: 2519:"Non-specific nature of specific language impairment: a review of the literature with regard to concomitant motor impairments" 677:

among children with DLD. It has also been suggested that DLD may only arise when more than one underlying deficit is present.

2899: 1540: 3560:

Tomblin, J. Bruce; Records, Nancy L.; Buckwalter, Paula; Zhang, Xuyang; Smith, Elaine; o'Brien, Marlea (1 December 1997).

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Bishop, D. V. M. (January 1982). "Comprehension of Spoken, Written and Signed Sentences in Childhood Language Disorders".

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The Bercow Report: A Review of Services for Children and Young People (0-19) with Speech, Language and Communication Needs

4064: 1994:

Broomfield, Jan; Dodd, Barbara (January 2004). "Children with speech and language disability: caseload characteristics".

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Tomblin, J. Bruce; Records, Nancy L.; Buckwalter, Paula; Zhang, Xuyang; Smith, Elaine; O’Brien, Marlea (December 1997).

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Paul, Rhea (2007). Language disorders from infancy through adolescence: assessment & intervention. Mosby Elsevier.

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Conti-Ramsden, Gina; Botting, Nicola (1 October 1999). "Classification of Children With Specific Language Impairment".

781:"CATALISE: A Multinational and Multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus Study. Identifying Language Impairments in Children" 375:

The problems are not associated with a known biomedical condition such as brain injury, neurodegenerative conditions,

4005: 3995: 3438: 2366:"Adult psychosocial outcomes of children with specific language impairment, pragmatic language impairment and autism" 1530: 222:

is the act of articulating sounds, and this can be impaired for all kinds of reasons – a structural problem such as

4054: 710: 703: 1069: 779:

Bishop, D. V. M.; Snowling, Margaret J.; Thompson, Paul A.; Greenhalgh, Trisha; Schiller, Niels O. (8 July 2016).

4026: 3611:"The prevalence of and potential risk factors for Developmental Language Disorder at 10 years in the Raine Study" 1297:

Rice, Mabel L.; Bode, John V. (1993). "GAPS in the verb lexicons of children with specific language impairment".

143:. Where there are milder or more transient difficulties, 'language difficulties' may be a more appropriate term. 3990:

Beitchman, J. H., & Brownlie, E. B. (2014). Language Disorders in Children and Adolescents Boston: Hogrefe.

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van der Lely, Heather K.J. (February 2005). "Domain-specific cognitive systems: insight from Grammatical-SLI".

1004:

Rapin, Isabelle (September 1996). "Practitioner Review: Developmental Language Disorders: A Clinical Update".

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It is generally accepted that DLD is strongly influenced by genetic factors. The best evidence comes from the

755: 254: 3221:"Effectiveness of 1:1 speech and language therapy for older children with (developmental) language disorder" 639:

indicate that problems are largely resolved by five years of age in around 40% of four-year-olds with early

547: 3609:

Calder, Samuel; Brennan-Jones, Christopher; Robinson, Monique; Whitehouse, Andrew; Hill, Elizabeth (2022).

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Fisher, Simon E.; Scharff, Constance (April 2009). "FOXP2 as a molecular window into speech and language".

2031:"Speech and language therapy interventions for children with primary speech and language delay or disorder" 730: 124: 4059: 1165:

Leonard, L. B. (2014). Children with specific language impairment, 2nd edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

593: 589:

education staff to be the main deliverers of SLT intervention (the "consultative" approach) are unclear.

274: 2713:"Why is it so hard to reach agreement on terminology? The case of developmental language disorder (DLD)" 1605:"Differentiating SLI from ADHD using children's sentence recall and production of past tense morphology" 369:

The child has language difficulties that create obstacles to communication or learning in everyday life,

2783: 2641:

Herbert, Martha R.; Kenet, Tal (June 2007). "Brain Abnormalities in Language Disorders and in Autism".

388: 223: 1838:

Klein, Edward S.; Flint, Cari B. (July 2006). "Measurement of Intelligibility in Disordered Speech".

1407: 1366: 520: 3843: 49: 3096: 3019: 903:

Bishop, Dorothy V.M.; Snowling, Margaret J.; Thompson, Paul A.; Greenhalgh, Trisha (October 2017).

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Fisher, S (September 2006). "Tangled webs: Tracing the connections between genes and cognition".

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and a paucity of close friendships and love relationships) compared with both their siblings and

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McCartney, Elspeth; Boyle, James; Ellis, Sue; Bannatyne, Susan; Turnbull, Mary (26 March 2010).

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Language, Learning, and Behavior Disorders: Developmental, Biological, and Clinical Perspectives

108:, which is itself a subset of the broader category of speech, language and communication needs. 3838: 2840:"Teaching grammar to school-aged children with specific language impairment using Shape Coding" 1558:"Word learning by preschoolers with specific language impairment: predictors and poor learners" 282: 207: 2890:. In Beitchman, Joseph H.; Cohen, Nancy J.; Konstantareas, M. Mary; Tannock, Rosemary (eds.). 2887: 264:

Developmental language disorder impairment compared to other common language related disorders

86:) is also a challenge. This may not be evident unless the child is given a formal assessment. 289:. These do not preclude a diagnosis of DLD, but should be noted as co-occurring conditions. 247: 1447:

German, Diane J. (November 1992). "Word-finding intervention for children and adolescents".

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https://www.boystownhospital.org/knowledge-center/red-flags-developmental-language-disorder

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Botting, Nicola (March 2005). "Non-verbal cognitive development and language impairment".

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Leonard, Laurence B. (April 1991). "Specific Language Impairment as a Clinical Category".

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Although the term DLD has been used for many years, it has been less common than the term

8: 1798:"Developmental Language Disorder: The Childhood Condition We Need to Start Talking About" 1334:"Developmental Language Disorder: The Childhood Condition We Need to Start Talking About" 740: 695: 548:

Autism Spectrum Disorder and Selective Mutism in Children with Speech and Language Delays

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cohorts, matched on childhood IQ and social class. Self-reports showed a higher rate of

3965: 3932: 3908: 3883: 3864: 3784: 3692: 3667: 3648: 3635: 3610: 3586: 3561: 3381: 3127: 2859: 2737: 2712: 2618: 2593: 2561:"Motor Issues in Specific Language Impairment: a Window into the Underlying Impairment" 2494: 2469: 2447: 2435: 2390: 2365: 2301: 2248: 2195: 2183: 2147: 2122: 2055: 2030: 1984:

Bowen, C. (2015). Children's Speech Sound Disorders (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

1748: 1713: 1464: 1314: 1271: 1246: 1227: 1188: 1017: 981: 956: 929: 904: 871: 846: 815: 780: 706: 83: 3852: 3464: 3307: 3073: 1851: 1573: 1424: 1383: 4074: 4009: 4001: 3991: 3970: 3952: 3913: 3884:"Developmental cognitive genetics: How psychology can inform genetics and vice versa" 3856: 3815: 3776: 3741: 3697: 3652: 3640: 3591: 3542: 3538: 3506: 3502: 3468: 3434: 3416: 3412: 3385: 3346: 3311: 3276: 3240: 3201: 3119: 3115: 3077: 3042: 2967: 2932: 2895: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2742: 2693: 2658: 2623: 2541: 2499: 2439: 2395: 2346: 2293: 2240: 2187: 2152: 2138: 2100: 2060: 2011: 1967: 1963: 1925: 1890: 1855: 1779: 1752: 1705: 1670: 1635: 1627: 1585: 1577: 1536: 1511: 1503: 1484:"Sparkling at the end of the tongue: The etiology of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenology" 1468: 1460: 1429: 1406:

Al-Thunebat, Sateh Abdullah; Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman; Thneibat, Amal (2024-04-11).

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Gathercole, Susan E. (25 July 2016). "Word learning in language-impaired children".

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neurodevelopmental conditions and consistent with diagnostic frameworks such as the

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Identifying Red Flags for Developmental Language Disorder. (n.d.). Retrieved from

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It has long been noted that males are more affected by DLD than females, with a

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Bishop, D. V. M.; Edmundson, A. (1 May 1987). "Language-Impaired 4-Year-Olds".

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The child's language problems are unlikely to resolve by five years of age, and

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Hambly, Helen; Wren, Yvonne; McLeod, Sharynne; Roulstone, Sue (January 2013).

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Whitehouse, Andrew J O; Watt, Helen J; Line, E A; Bishop, Dorothy V M (2009).

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Ebbels, Susan H.; Marić, Nataša; Murphy, Aoife; Turner, Gail (January 2014).

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Boyle, James; McCartney, Elspeth; O'Hare, Anne; Law, James (November 2010).

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on two or more composite scores are identified as having language disorder.

3974: 3917: 3860: 3780: 3644: 3546: 3510: 3472: 3420: 3350: 3342: 3315: 3280: 3244: 3205: 3123: 3097:"Intervention for mixed receptive-expressive language impairment: a review" 3081: 3046: 2971: 2936: 2815: 2746: 2689: 2662: 2627: 2592:

Krishnan, Saloni; Watkins, Kate E.; Bishop, Dorothy V.M. (September 2016).

2545: 2503: 2399: 2350: 2297: 2156: 2064: 2015: 1971: 1929: 1859: 1674: 1639: 1589: 1515: 1280: 1152: 1117: 990: 972: 938: 880: 824: 699: 690: 656: 600: 231: 117: 4013: 3745: 3737: 3701: 3595: 2697: 2443: 2244: 2191: 2104: 2096: 1894: 1886: 1709: 1196: 1025: 2784:"The influence of bilingualism on speech production: A systematic review" 745: 354: 334: 226:, a neurological problem affecting motor control of the speech apparatus 717:. Four DLD adults had serious mental health problems (two had developed 2485: 2226: 1499: 920: 660: 298: 268: 227: 184: 166: 3626: 1108: 1066: 260: 3668:"Prevalence of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children" 3608: 3562:"Prevalence of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children" 1483: 326: 203: 190: 162: 43: 957:"Developmental Aphasia Observed in a Department of Child Psychiatry" 659:

studies of children in the US and the UK converge in estimating the

200:

novel words. This is due to the effect of DLD on declarative memory.

3484: 3482: 735: 1085: 230:, or inability to perceive distinctions between sounds because of 486:

Difficulty asking questions and finding words to express thoughts

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Dyslexia and developmental language disorder: same or different?

3479: 2888:"Social-interactional approaches to child language intervention" 2558: 2212: 902: 778: 3523: 3331: