Tip of the tongue - Knowledge

781:(AD). Research has been conducted to find out how these particular diseases affect TOTs in these individuals. In a study by Beeson, Holland, and Murray (1997), participants with Alzheimer's disease and three classic aphasic syndromes (Broca's, anomic, and conduction aphasia) were instructed to name famous people. Those with anomic aphasia showed to be superior to the other groups in their ability to name famous people that were presented. This finding was expected as the group has relatively mild aphasia. However, the Broca's conduction and AD groups did not differ in immediate or delayed naming of famous faces. All of the groups provided some basic identifying semantic information for at least half of the items presented, suggesting a fair number of items potentially in TOT. Conduction and Broca's groups showed strongest evidence of TOT, performing better than the other groups in identification of initial letters. 610:

structures based on theories of their functions derived from other studies of these structures, unrelated to TOT. It is hypothesized that the anterior cingulate cortex and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex operate as a circuit to detect conflict, and may perform this role in detecting the conflict between the feeling of knowing the target word and the recall failure. The anterior cingulate cortex is also implicated in emotion and may show activation because of the emotional response to the tip of the tongue state. The posterior medial parietal cortex, bilateral lateral parietal cortex, and the bilateral superior prefrontal cortex are involved in retrieval and evaluation, and therefore may play a role in the metacognitive processes involved in the tip of the tongue phenomenon such as the evaluation of one's own knowledge and the probability of retrieval.

144:) states. FOK, in contrast, is the feeling that one will be able to recognize⁠—from a list of items⁠—an item that is currently inaccessible. There are still currently opposing hypotheses in the psychological literature regarding the separability of the process underlying these concepts. However, there is some evidence that TOTs and FOKs draw on different parts of the brain. TOTs are associated with the anterior cingulate, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and right inferior cortex while FOKs are not. FOKs can be assessed through memory-monitoring testing in which a test subject is asked to "estimate the likelihood" of recognizing when "prompted with a cue" or information that they previously failed to remember. This test aims to measure a test subject's accuracy of memory monitoring during the "memory extraction stage". 670:

their answer is incorrect and only experience the subjective feeling of TOT states if they are told their answer is incorrect. Lorazepam may create conditions where alternative answers come to mind more easily. Furthermore, lorazepam suppresses emotions, which may be why participants taking this drug do not experience the subjective feelings that accompany TOT states; thus enabling the recall of alternative responses. These findings suggest that lorazepam does not increase the probability of TOT states but it does inhibit the retrieval of correct responses and the subjective feeling of TOT states, leading participants to give incorrect answers without being aware.

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less-dominant language, bilinguals have more TOTs with the less-dominant language. In a task of picture-naming, bilingual speakers were slower than monolinguals, even when they could use their first and dominant language. This could possibly be the result of bilinguals using the words less often than monolingual speakers. Bilinguals also represent virtually twice as many words and additional cognitive mechanisms for activation and inactivation of languages. Such mechanisms introduce added processing burden that monolinguals do not face. In addition, even when a task seems monolingual, bilingual system is never functionally "off."

513: 792:, which is a reading disability in which a person is unable to read and interpret words, letters, and symbols, has also been known to have an effect on the frequency of TOT experiences. In one study, dyslexic children experienced TOT states more often than children who read normally as well as showed "more errors in the phonological ... step of word retrieval." However, dyslexic children were still able to recall the semantic meaning behind each word that induced a TOT state. 687:

the placebo group, suggesting better memory recall. However, in the unrelated condition, the caffeinated group did not do as well as the placebo group in their ability to retrieve words. The results suggest that this dose of caffeine (equivalent to two cups of coffee) can temporarily hinder a person's short-term recall of certain words. Moreover, the general advantageous effect of caffeine on attention can be ruled out.

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quickly. The person recognizes that the related words are incorrect but cannot retrieve the correct word because it is inhibited. These related words are termed blockers because they block the ability to retrieve the correct word. This accounts for why TOTs predict memory performance. Once the inhibition of the correct word is removed or the blockers are forgotten, the TOT will be resolved. Evidence for this

32: 3640: 188: 3628: 125:, and words similar in sound, meaning, or both sound and meaning. Individuals report a feeling of being seized by the state, feeling something like mild anguish while searching for the word, and a sense of relief when the word is found. While many aspects of the tip-of-the-tongue state remain unclear, there are two major competing explanations for its occurrence: the 280:

words of similar meaning, syllabic pattern, and the serial position of some letters in the target word better than would be expected by chance. Their findings demonstrated the legitimacy of the feeling of knowing experienced in a tip of the tongue state. This study was the foundation for subsequent research about tip of the tongue phenomenon.

309:. The direct English translations of these idioms are "on the tongue", "on the tip/point/head of the tongue", "on the top of the tongue", "on the front of the tongue", "sparkling at the end of the tongue", and "in the mouth and throat". Notably, the languages studied that did not have an equivalent idiom for the tip of the tongue were 745:

is accessible. Thus, emotions may play a role in experiencing TOT. Some research has shown that questions that elicit emotional arousal create TOTs more so than questions that are not emotionally arousing. It has also been found that emotional arousal can extend to subsequent questions or information

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influences many memory variables such as the amount of memory recalled and attributions of nostalgia. The issue regarding emotion and TOT is how it influences the tip-of-the-tongue state and the information that is trying to be recalled. It is common for individuals to ascribe emotions to TOTs. It is

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There is more support for the idea that blockers act as neither primers nor enhancers, but rather more like a side effect. In Metcalf & Kornell's research the incubation period helped participants to retrieve the word by the same amount for the original non-blocked TOTs and the blocked TOTs. This

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of the priming word. Priming words that are in the same syntactic class as the target word create no difference in TOT state resolution. The TOT state resolution was the same for priming words in the same syntactic class and unrelated priming words. If the priming word is being listed in conjunction

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information is stored in memory and retrieved separately. The transmission deficit model posits that TOTs occur when there is activation of the semantic component of the target word memory but this activation does not pass on to the phonological level of the memory of the target word. Thus, TOTs are

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The incomplete activation hypothesis states that TOTs occur when the target word in memory is not sufficiently activated to be recalled but rememberers can sense its presence nonetheless. The accessibility of the target word fluctuates due to factors that increase its activation level, such as cues.

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feeling that they were in a TOT state (i.e., the feeling of being on the verge of recalling the word). These participants experienced the subjective feeling of a TOT state only after they were told that their response was incorrect. As a result, it appears that these participants are not aware that

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posits that the state occurs when memory strength is not enough to recall an item, but is strong enough to trigger the state. That is, the rememberer has direct access to the target word's presence in memory, even though it cannot be immediately recalled. Theories of the causes of tip of the tongue

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If a participant indicated a tip of the tongue state, they were asked to provide any information about the target word they could recall. Brown and McNeill found that participants could identify the first letter of the target word, the number of syllables of the target word, words of similar sound,

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the definitions) of rare words to the study participants, and asked them to name the object or concept being defined. When the target word was later read by the experimenter participants were instructed to report whether they experienced a tip of the tongue state. Three types of positive TOT states

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words that were displayed on a monitor for a short period of time. Each list of 10 priming words had between two and eight words that were phonologically related to the correct answer of the question, with the remaining words being unrelated. Caffeinated participants had fewer TOT experiences than

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can have multiple effects at the cellular level but is primarily notable for the alertness effect that it has on people. Research has been performed involving phonological priming and TOTs in which participants took either 200 mg of caffeine or a placebo. The participants answered 100 general

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in hospitalized patients, as well as sedation of aggressive patients. Research has been conducted to investigate the effects of lorazepam on TOT states in response to general knowledge question. In a recall task, participants who received lorazepam showed the same number of total recall answers to

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states that TOTs are elicited by the quantity and strength of the information that is retrieved from memory when the target word itself is not. When searching for a target word, the more information that is retrieved from memory, and the more the information retrieved is perceived to be related to

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Cue-familiarity theory suggests that the strong feelings elicited by recognizing a familiar cue about the target word cause the tip of the tongue phenomenon. A familiar cue should create a TOT state, whether or not the target word is known. When one encounters a cue for a target word, the level of

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The blocking hypothesis states that retrieval cues elicit the retrieval of a word related to the target that then blocks the retrieval of the correct word and causes the tip of the tongue phenomenon to occur. In other words, TOTs occur when plausible but incorrect responses to a query come to mind

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to the target word, an increase in the frequency of TOT states and a higher frequency of correctly recalled words when the TOT state is resolved is observed. Incorrect words come to mind involuntarily that share similar phonological features with the target word. Thus, phonological similarity can

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Age is an important factor when considering TOT states. Throughout adulthood, the frequency of TOTs increases, especially during the advanced years. Compared with young adults, older adults generally report having more TOT states, fewer alternate words, and less phonological information about the

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There is a significant difference in the amount of TOTs experienced by monolinguals and bilinguals. Bilinguals seem to report the same amount of TOTs as monolinguals for proper names but significantly more TOTs for other words. Specifically, when adjusted for the degree of use of the dominant and

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suggested that the majority of individuals experience TOTs negatively. It has been shown that experiencing an emotion predicts TOT memory performance later. Emotional TOTs are more likely to be recalled later than TOTs that had no emotional experience attached. Emotion and TOT are related to the

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will likely show activation as the rememberer processes the person's face. Problems like this make it difficult to determine what areas are specifically implicated in TOT states, and which are a byproduct of other cognitive functions. However, some inferences can be made about the roles of these

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It is unknown whether gesturing is helpful in finding the elusive word in a TOT experience. It is difficult to determine if the participant is using gestures as their regular form of communication or if they are using gestures in order to help them overcome their TOT experience and retrieve the

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and practice in reducing TOT states is that most information in TOT states is low-frequency; that is, it has not been used or recalled for some time. The recency of information use can influence the retrieval process of that information. The presentation of a prime is only needed once for it to

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model, where neural connections are strengthened when used more. Although older people experience more tip of the tongue states more often than any other category, recent studies have shown that frequent tip of the tongue states are not linked at all to dementia, which is common in the elderly.

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The hypothesis that blockers act more like retrieval cues is mainly supported by the idea of phonological similarities between the target word and the blocker word. Phonological blockers are words that sound similar to the target word. According to Bown & Harley, "phonological neighbors (of

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Tip of the tongue experiences occur in both men and women, and is known to occur in young adulthood, middle age, and older adulthood. TOT experiences in childhood have not been studied. Education level is not thought to be a factor in the experience of TOT states. Monolinguals, bilinguals, and

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The speed and accuracy with which speakers retrieve a word is influenced by the age in life at which that word was first learned. Specifically, early-acquired words tend to be named more quickly and accurately than late-acquired words (age of acquisition effect). It has been observed that the

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loss in the left insula for older individuals. This is accompanied by less activity in the left insula and is related to higher frequency of TOTs. Furthermore, it was found that older individuals have over-activation in their prefrontal cortex when experiencing TOT states. This may indicate a

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their knowledge of the target word, and the imminence of retrieval depends upon the information that they are able to access about the target word from their memory. These views disregard the presence of the target word in memory as having an effect on creating tip of the tongue states.

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continued search when the retrieval process fails and a TOT state is experienced. More specifically, greater activation in the sensorimotor cortex in older individuals and less in younger adults may reflect differences in the knowledge that is used to retrieve the target information.

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An occasional tip-of-the-tongue state is normal for people of all ages; however, it becomes more frequent as people age. TOT can be referred as an actual medical condition, but only when it becomes frequent enough to interfere with learning or daily life. This disorder is called

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recognition is assessed, and a strong level of recognition will elicit a tip of the tongue state. It has been found that cues that are repetitive tend to create more TOTs than if one single cue is given. This might suggest that cue factors can play a role in causing TOT states.

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participants who had not received lorazepam. However, the lorazepam participants produced more incorrect recall responses to their TOT states. Lorazepam may inhibit the retrieval of the correct response. Participants under the influence of lorazepam did not experience the

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Research on priming and practice use single word tests to assess for the presence of TOT states. The first letter of the target word or a similar-sounding word is given in order to prime for the target word. Evidence that comes from the usefulness of

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is minimal as it is difficult to measure. Most research that takes on this approach give participants blockers and see if they produce TOT states. This method is controversial as it is unclear if the blockers given produce TOT states or act as

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Lindin, M.; Diaz, F.; Capilla, A.; Ortiz, T.; Maestu, F. (2010). "On the characterization of the spatio-temporal profiles of brain activity associated with face naming and the tip-of-the-tongue state: A magnetoencephalographic (MEG) study".

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facilitate TOT state resolution. Support for priming has been found in that when individuals are given the first letter of the word they are trying to recall, they are more likely to overcome their TOT state. When the prime word has similar

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Many languages other than English have equivalent colloquial terms for the tip of the tongue experience, suggesting that it is a common experience across cultures. In a study by B. L. Schwartz (1999), 45 of the 51 languages surveyed have an

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blockers) usually act as support in lexical retrieval rather than as a hindrance". In contrast, an alternative argument suggests that phonological blockers hinder the ability to retrieve the target word causing a tip of the tongue state.

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Not much is known about the exact function of these areas in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. The areas activated during TOT may vary depending on the nature of the target word. For example, if the target word is a person's name, the

133:. Emotion and the strength of the emotional ties to what is trying to be remembered can also have an impact on the TOT phenomenon. The stronger the emotional ties, the longer it takes to retrieve the item from memory. 1384:

Seelye AM, Schmitter-Edgecombe M, Flores J. 2010. Episodic memory predictions in persons with amnestic and nonamnestic mild cognitive impairment. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 32:433–441. doi:10.1080/13803390903201751

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Bacon, E.; Schwartz, BL.; Paire-Ficout, L.; Izaute, M. (Jun 2007). "Dissociation between the cognitive process and the phenomenological experience of TOT: effect of the anxiolytic drug lorazepam on TOT states".

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words during word retrieval tests generally reduces the frequency of TOTs and improves the retrieval of the target word and has been shown to have a larger benefit for older adults. This is consistent with the

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compared the brain patterns of younger and older individuals experiencing TOT states. It appears that both older and younger individuals employ a similar network of brain regions during TOT states such as the

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Yu, Hui, Wang, Kai, Zhong, Ping, Cheng, Huai-Dong, Lv, Xin-Yi, Yuan, Li-Li. Investigations of memory monitoring in individuals with subjective cognitive decline and amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

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Tim Brennen, Anne Vikan & Ragnhild Dybdahl (2007) Are tip-of-the-tongue states universal? Evidence from the speakers of an unwritten language, Memory, 15:2, 167-176, DOI: 10.1080/09658210601164743

1396:"Examining the neurocognitive profile of dysnomia: a comparison of school-aged children with and without dyslexia across the domains of expressive language, attention/memory, and academic achievement" 1624:(2008). "Tip-of-the-Tongue States Yield Language Insights: Probing the recall of those missing words provides a glimpse of how we turn thoughts into speech and how this process changes with age". 257:. Brown and McNeill wanted to determine whether the feeling of imminent retrieval experienced in the tip of the tongue state was based on actual retrieval ability or was just an illusion. 2360:

Galdo-Alvarez, S.; Lindin, M.; Diaz, F. (2009). "Age-related prefrontal over-recruitment in semantic memory retrieval: Evidence from successful face naming and tip of-the-tongue state".

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Several areas of the brain show increased activation in a TOT state. The following is a list of the specific structures that show increased activation during a tip of the tongue state:

444:, this phenomenon occurs due primarily to three reasons, all based on weakened neural connection: the lack of frequent use of a word, the lack of recent use of a word, and aging. 834:

probability of experiencing a TOT state depends on the age at which the word is acquired in life: more TOT states are obtained with late-acquired than with early-acquired words.

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Despite the association of increased age with lower levels of episodic memory and more frequent TOT states, the two phenomena seem to be largely independent of one another.

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with other unrelated priming words, then the position is of importance. The earlier in the list the priming word is, the less likely it is to help resolve the TOT state.

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of TOTs claims that TOTs aren't completely inaccessible, but arise from clues about the target that the rememberer can piece together. This is to say that the rememberer

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The causes of TOTs are largely unknown but numerous explanations have been offered. These explanations mainly fall within the realms of two overarching viewpoints: the

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and the feeling that retrieval is imminent. The phenomenon's name comes from the saying, "It's on the tip of my tongue." The tip of the tongue phenomenon reveals that

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Maril, A.; Simons, JS.; Weaver, JJ.; Schacter, DL. (Feb 2005). "Graded recall success: an event-related fMRI comparison of tip of the tongue and feeling of knowing".

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Irak M, Soylu C, Turan G, et al. 2019. Neurobiological basis of feeling ofknowing in episodic memory.Cogn Neurodyn. 13:239–256.doi:10.1007/s11571-019-09520-5

709:, and sensorimotor cortex. However, older individuals show differences in activity in some areas compared to younger individuals. TOTs increase with age-related 1157:

Beattie, G.; Coughlan, J. (Feb 1999). "An experimental investigation of the role of iconic gestures in lexical access using the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon".

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Kikyo, H.; Ohki, K.; Sekihara, K. (2001). "Temporal characterization of memory retrieval processes: an fMRI study of the 'tip of the tongue' phenomenon".

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Beattie, G; Coughlin, J (1999). "An Experimental Investigation of the Role of Iconic Gestures In Lexical Access Using the Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon".

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Rastle, Kathleen G.; Burke, Deborah M. (1996). "Priming the Tip of the Tongue: Effects of Prior Processing on Word Retrieval in Young and Older Adults".

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White, Katherine K.; Abrams, Lise (2002). "Does priming specific syllables during tip-of-the-tongue states facilitate word retrieval in older adults?".

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Gollan, T. H.; Bonanni, M. P.; Montoya, R. I. (2005). "Proper names get stuck on bilingual and monolingual speakers' tip of the tongue equally often".

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Thompson, R.; Emmorey, K.; Gollan, T. (2005). "Tip-of-the-fingers experiences by ASL signers: insights into the organization of a sign-based lexicon".

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being recalled even if they are not emotionally arousing themselves. It was found that emotional arousal increased the likelihood of experiencing TOT.

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The subject recalled the word they were seeking before the target word was read by the experimenter, but the recalled word was not the intended target.

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Harley, Trevor A.; Bown, Helen E. (1998). "What causes a tip-of-the-tongue state? Evidence for lexical neighbourhood effects in speech production".

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Heine, M.; Ober, B.; Shenaut, G. (1999). "Naturally Occurring and Experimentally Induced Tip-of-the-Tongue Experiences in Three Adult Age Groups".

3228: 1395: 2079: 206:("having the word on the tip of the tongue"). The tip of the tongue phenomenon was first described as a psychological phenomenon in the text 2405:

Salthhouse, Timothy, and Arielle Mandell. "Do Age-Related Increases in Tip-of-the-Tongue Experiences Signify Episodic Memory Impairments?."

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The target word's activation level may fluctuate to a level that is high enough for it to be retrieved and the TOT state to be resolved.

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Bown, H.; Harley, T. (1998). "What causes a tip-of-the-tongue state? evidence for lexical neighbourhood effects in speech production".

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The body of research on the neurological mechanisms of the tip of the tongue phenomenon is limited. The research in this area has used

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Shafto, M; Stamatatis, E.; Tam, Tyler (2009). "Word Retrieval Failures in Old Age: The Relationship between Structure and Function".

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Lesk, V. E.; Womble, S. P. (2004). "Caffeine, priming, and tip of the tongue: evidence for plasticity in the phonological system".

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target word. The underpinnings of TOT with regard to age have focused on neurological brain differences. Current research using

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If the inability to recall words, phrases, or names is a temporary but debilitating disorder, it is known as lethologica.

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caused by the deficit in transmission of activation from the semantic memory store to the phonological memory store.

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The transmission deficit model is based on a multi-component theory of memory representation that suggests that

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Hanly, Sarah; Vandenberg, Brian (9 August 2009). "Tip-of-the-Tongue and Word Retrieval Deficits in Dyslexia".

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that is mentioned above. In this theory, TOTs inform the cognitive system if the information one is trying to

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was the first psychologist to describe the tip of the tongue phenomenon, although he did not label it as such

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both decrease and increase TOT states. However, it is possible to fix this problem by changing the

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Gollan, T. H.; Silverberg, N. B. (2001). "Tip-of-the-tongue states in Hebrew–English bilinguals".

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suggests that blockers have no effect on the retrieval or the causes of tip of the tongue states.

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This article is about the psychological phenomenon. For the anatomical portion of the tongue, see

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referring to the tip of the tongue phenomenon that references the tongue, mouth, or throat as a

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has also found activation in some areas that are associated with emotion; specifically in the

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multilinguals all experience tip of the tongue states, although with varying frequencies (see

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Askari, N (1999). "Priming Effects on Tip-of-the-tongue States in Farsi-English Bilinguals".

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The participant recognized the word read by the experimenter as the word he had been seeking.

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Jones, G. V.; Langford, S. (1987). "Phonological blocking in the tip of the tongue state".

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knowledge questions, each with one correct answer. For each question, participants read 10

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Dysnomia is the inability to retrieve the correct word from memory when it is needed

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is the inability to recall words and names and is a common symptom of patients with

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The participant correctly recalled the word before it was read by the experimenter.

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People experiencing the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon can often recall one or more

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The term "tip of the tongue" is borrowed from colloquial usage, and possibly a

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Kozlovskiy, S.A.; Shirenova, S.D.; Neklyudova, A.K.; Vartanov, A.V. (2017).

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Brown, AS. (Mar 1991). "A review of the tip-of-the-tongue experience".

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Shafto, M.; Burke, D.; Stamatakis, E.; Tam, P.; Tyler, L. (2007).

329:. However, tip of the finger experiences are reported by signers. 167:

The tip of the tongue phenomenon has implications for research in

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the target word, the more likely a TOT state will be elicited.

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Navarrete, E; Pastore, M; Valentini, R; Peressotti, P (2015).

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In their study, Brown and McNeill read out definitions (and

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It was also shown that in TOT state the activation of the

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According to cognitive psychologists Deborah M. Burke, of

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phenomenon that adopt direct-access views include the

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Baddeley, A, Eysenck, M., & Anderson, M. (2009).

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2020;33(3):201-207. doi:10.1097/WNN.0000000000000242.

369: 2007: 1962:"The effects of emotion on tip-of-the-tongue states" 1062: 1060: 1058: 1056: 1054: 1052: 1050: 1048: 2427: 2409:

2013; 10: n. pag. Sage Journals. Web. 17 Nov. 2013.

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Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology

1849: 1117: 1115: 1113: 1111: 410: 2428:Beeson, P.M.; Holland, A.L.; Murray, L.L. (1997). 1282:– via doi:10.3758/BF03195746. PMID 11277455. 121:of the target word, such as the first letter, its 1955: 1793: 1550: 1045: 3657: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2284: 2042: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1587: 1191: 1108: 1003: 1001: 999: 997: 995: 993: 991: 989: 987: 985: 983: 981: 979: 977: 975: 973: 971: 969: 967: 828: 492:Neuroimaging techniques used in the study of TOT 2593: 2517: 1241:http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/ 1156: 965: 963: 961: 959: 957: 955: 953: 951: 949: 947: 373: 1522: 1076:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 255:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 216:(1890), although he did not label it as such. 152:when acquired by brain damage, usually from a 2681: 2348: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 1932: 1901: 1899: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1357: 1355: 419: 96:) is the phenomenon of failing to retrieve a 2077: 1286: 1185: 1066: 944: 903: 901: 290: 234:that might cause forgetting familiar words. 53:. There might be a discussion about this on 2812:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 2319: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1295:"Tip-of-the-tongue states as metacognition" 1150: 1121: 226:psychological factors, such as unconscious 2688: 2674: 2185: 2113: 1896: 1845: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1704: 1593: 1352: 618: 486: 473: 2646: 2535: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2261: 2231: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1977: 1923: 1863: 1743: 1483: 1313: 1269: 1209: 1028: 898: 464: 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 1959: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1434: 1292: 1251: 1192:Schwartz, BL.; Metcalfe, J. (Jul 2011). 1007: 520:shows increased activation in TOT states 511: 508:Neurological activation in the TOT state 365: 338: 186: 136:TOT states should be distinguished from 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 1830: 1231: 1229: 757: 344: 265:were identified by Brown and McNeill: 3658: 2558: 2552: 2498: 2412: 2222: 2036: 1994: 1912:Psychology in Russia: State of the Art 1682:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.02.025 1660: 1620: 819: 613: 379: 2669: 2278: 1776: 1419: 1067:Brown, Roger; McNeill, David (1966). 907: 795: 727: 648:used for the short-term treatment of 502:functional magnetic resonance imaging 442:University of California, Los Angeles 354: 348: 241:on this phenomenon was undertaken by 204:avoir le mot sur le bout de la langue 2561:Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 2172: 2045:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 1428:The Psychopathology of Everyday Life 1398:. University of Iowa. Archived from 1226: 1069:"The "tip of the tongue" phenomenon" 25: 2071: 1393: 1364:Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology. 627: 447: 13: 2518:Abrams, L.; Rodriguez, E. (2005). 1608:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1998.tb02677.x 1537:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1998.tb02677.x 14: 3692: 3093:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm 2524:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2242:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1966:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 1852:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1293:Schwartz, Bennett L. (Apr 2006). 1017:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 765: 690: 566:Bilateral lateral parietal cortex 3638: 3626: 2695: 2464:Journal of Learning Disabilities 1808:10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01711.x 1796:European Journal of Neuroscience 1754:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.10.024 1494:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01626.x 1451:. New York: Psychology Pres Inc. 411:Incomplete-activation hypothesis 370:incomplete-activation hypothesis 30: 2622: 2587: 2455: 2374:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.06.003 2313: 2078:Ivanova, I.; Costa, A. (2008). 1614: 1544: 1516: 1463: 1454: 1387: 1378: 1369: 440:, and Donald G. MacKay, of the 283: 3303:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model 3176:Memory and social interactions 1245: 1124:Journal of Memory and Language 542:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex 1: 2596:British Journal of Psychology 1596:British Journal of Psychology 1525:British Journal of Psychology 1088:10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80040-3 892: 829:Effects of age of acquisition 253:and published in 1966 in the 3012:Retrieval-induced forgetting 2254:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.12.2060 2150:10.1016/j.concog.2006.05.001 2099:10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.06.003 1565:10.1016/0010-0277(87)90027-8 632: 209:The Principles of Psychology 7: 2200:10.1037/0735-7044.118.3.453 922:10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.204 837: 784: 732:It is well documented that 673: 10: 3697: 3350:Levels of Processing model 3275:World Memory Championships 3108:Lost in the mall technique 2955:dissociative (psychogenic) 2334:10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.226 2299:10.1037/0882-7974.14.3.445 2022:10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.278 1960:Schwartz, BL. (Feb 2010). 1302:Metacognition and Learning 1008:Schwartz, BL. (Sep 1999). 535:Posterior cingulate cortex 420:Transmission-deficit model 383: 374:transmission-deficit model 336: 182: 18: 3621: 3576: 3545: 3404: 3397: 3290: 3262: 3194: 3151: 3123: 3083: 3025: 2920: 2826: 2801: 2753: 2746: 2703: 2648:10.3758/s13421-015-0525-3 2449:10.1080/02687039708248474 2057:10.1017/S136672890100013X 1324:10.1007/s11409-006-9583-z 1252:Schwartz, BL (Jan 2001). 1211:10.3758/s13421-010-0066-8 752:anterior cingulate cortex 529:Anterior cingulate cortex 518:anterior cingulate cortex 332: 3388:The Seven Sins of Memory 3333:Intermediate-term memory 3138:Indirect tests of memory 3115:Recovered-memory therapy 3065:Misattribution of memory 2476:10.1177/0022219409338744 1237:Principles of Psychology 586:Supplementary motor area 500:(MEG) and event-related 295:⁠Effects of bilingualism 104:, combined with partial 3681:English-language idioms 3075:Source-monitoring error 2608:10.1348/000712699161251 2573:10.1023/A:1023214509959 2188:Behavioral Neuroscience 1874:10.1162/jocn.2009.21321 1171:10.1348/000712699161251 619:Effects of bilingualism 581:Superior temporal gyrus 487:Phenomenon in the brain 474:Accessibility heuristic 202:from the French phrase 3482:George Armitage Miller 3442:Patricia Goldman-Rakic 2635:Memory & Cognition 1925:10.11621/pir.2017.0315 1258:Memory & Cognition 1198:Memory & Cognition 1136:10.1006/jmla.1996.0031 910:Psychological Bulletin 874:Neuroanatomy of memory 521: 498:magnetoencephalography 465:Cue-familiarity theory 311:American Sign Language 195: 3645:Philosophy portal 3633:Psychology portal 3497:Henry L. Roediger III 3098:False memory syndrome 3070:Misinformation effect 3050:Imagination inflation 2407:Psychological Science 1472:Psychological Science 599:parahippocampal gyrus 515: 190: 3666:Cognitive psychology 3002:Motivated forgetting 2322:Psychology and Aging 2287:Psychology and Aging 1638:10.1511/2008.71.3626 1394:Howarth, Robyn Ann. 758:Effects of disorders 739:metacognitive theory 721:spreading activation 660:inducing a state of 43:confusing or unclear 3512:Arthur P. Shimamura 3412:Richard C. Atkinson 3229:Effects of exercise 3103:Memory implantation 2987:Interference theory 2903:Selective retention 2883:Meaningful learning 1979:10.3758/PBR.17.1.82 1431:. New York: Norton. 820:Effects of gestures 779:Alzheimer's disease 614:Influential factors 576:Supramarginal gyrus 569:Bilateral superior 554:Bilateral anterior 380:Blocking hypothesis 366:blocking hypothesis 339:Influential factors 51:clarify the article 3609:Andriy Slyusarchuk 3432:Hermann Ebbinghaus 3338:Involuntary memory 3239:Memory improvement 3224:Effects of alcohol 3186:Transactive memory 3164:Politics of memory 3133:Exceptional memory 2537:10.3758/bf03206437 1626:American Scientist 1425:Freud, S. (1965). 1405:on October 6, 2011 1271:10.3758/BF03195746 1235:James, W. (1890). 1030:10.3758/bf03210827 867:and in particular 796:Effects of priming 728:Effects of emotion 607:fusiform face area 522: 478:The accessibility 361:direct-access view 355:Direct-access view 345:direct-access view 239:empirical research 196: 142:feeling of knowing 127:direct-access view 112:occurs in stages. 16:Lexical phenomenon 3676:Figures of speech 3653: 3652: 3617: 3616: 3604:Cosmos Rossellius 3452:Marcia K. Johnson 3323:Exosomatic memory 3308:Context-dependent 3298:Absent-mindedness 3181:Memory conformity 3159:Collective memory 3060:Memory conformity 2997:Memory inhibition 2916: 2915: 2908:Tip of the tongue 2248:(12): 2060–2070. 2087:Acta Psychologica 1541:Quote on page 164 1239:. Retrieved from 850:Psycholinguistics 703:prefrontal cortex 646:psychoactive drug 571:prefrontal cortex 560:Posterior medial 549:prefrontal cortex 169:psycholinguistics 86:Tip of the tongue 83: 82: 75: 3688: 3643: 3642: 3641: 3631: 3630: 3629: 3584:Jonathan Hancock 3537:Robert Stickgold 3507:Richard Shiffrin 3462:Elizabeth Loftus 3402: 3401: 3318:Childhood memory 3125:Research methods 3007:Repressed memory 2982:Forgetting curve 2970:transient global 2841:Autobiographical 2751: 2750: 2690: 2683: 2676: 2667: 2666: 2661: 2660: 2650: 2641:(7): 1085–1103. 2626: 2620: 2619: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2539: 2530:(6): 1018–1023. 2515: 2496: 2495: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2434: 2425: 2410: 2403: 2394: 2393: 2357: 2346: 2345: 2317: 2311: 2310: 2282: 2276: 2275: 2265: 2233: 2220: 2219: 2183: 2170: 2169: 2132: 2111: 2110: 2084: 2075: 2069: 2068: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2005: 1992: 1991: 1981: 1957: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1903: 1894: 1893: 1867: 1858:(7): 1530–1540. 1847: 1828: 1827: 1791: 1774: 1773: 1747: 1727: 1702: 1701: 1676:(6): 1757–1766. 1670:Neuropsychologia 1664: 1658: 1657: 1618: 1612: 1611: 1591: 1585: 1584: 1548: 1542: 1540: 1520: 1514: 1513: 1487: 1467: 1461: 1458: 1452: 1445: 1432: 1423: 1417: 1416: 1411: 1410: 1404: 1391: 1385: 1382: 1376: 1373: 1367: 1359: 1350: 1349: 1347: 1346: 1340: 1334:. Archived from 1317: 1299: 1290: 1284: 1283: 1273: 1249: 1243: 1233: 1224: 1223: 1213: 1189: 1183: 1182: 1154: 1148: 1147: 1119: 1106: 1105: 1103: 1102: 1096: 1090:. Archived from 1073: 1064: 1043: 1042: 1032: 1014: 1005: 942: 941: 905: 855:Neurolinguistics 845:Memory and aging 628:Effects of drugs 454:inferential view 448:Inferential view 349:inferential view 294: 131:inferential view 120: 119: 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 34: 33: 26: 3696: 3695: 3691: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3686: 3685: 3656: 3655: 3654: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3627: 3625: 3613: 3594:Dominic O'Brien 3572: 3541: 3522:Susumu Tonegawa 3502:Daniel Schacter 3477:Eleanor Maguire 3467:Geoffrey Loftus 3422:Stephen J. Ceci 3417:Robert A. Bjork 3393: 3312:state-dependent 3286: 3258: 3190: 3171:Cultural memory 3147: 3143:Memory disorder 3119: 3079: 3021: 2912: 2822: 2797: 2742: 2699: 2694: 2664: 2627: 2623: 2592: 2588: 2557: 2553: 2516: 2499: 2460: 2456: 2432: 2426: 2413: 2404: 2397: 2358: 2349: 2318: 2314: 2283: 2279: 2234: 2223: 2184: 2173: 2133: 2114: 2082: 2076: 2072: 2041: 2037: 2010:Neuropsychology 2006: 1995: 1958: 1933: 1904: 1897: 1865:10.1.1.222.5809 1848: 1831: 1792: 1777: 1745:10.1.1.526.9629 1728: 1705: 1665: 1661: 1619: 1615: 1592: 1588: 1549: 1545: 1521: 1517: 1485:10.1.1.384.2100 1478:(11): 856–860. 1468: 1464: 1459: 1455: 1446: 1435: 1424: 1420: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1360: 1353: 1344: 1342: 1338: 1315:10.1.1.529.2568 1297: 1291: 1287: 1250: 1246: 1234: 1227: 1190: 1186: 1155: 1151: 1120: 1109: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1071: 1065: 1046: 1012: 1006: 945: 906: 899: 895: 890: 840: 831: 822: 813:syntactic class 798: 787: 768: 760: 730: 693: 676: 635: 630: 621: 616: 562:parietal cortex 547:Right inferior 510: 494: 489: 476: 467: 450: 422: 413: 405: 388: 386:Blocking effect 382: 357: 341: 335: 292: 286: 222:also discussed 185: 123:syllabic stress 117: 116: 88:(also known as 79: 68: 62: 59: 48: 35: 31: 24: 21:Anterior tongue 17: 12: 11: 5: 3694: 3684: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3647: 3635: 3622: 3619: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3612: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3589:Paul R. McHugh 3586: 3580: 3578: 3574: 3573: 3571: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3549: 3547: 3543: 3542: 3540: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3449: 3447:Ivan Izquierdo 3444: 3439: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3408: 3406: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3392: 3391: 3384: 3374: 3373: 3372: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3346: 3345: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3305: 3300: 3294: 3292: 3288: 3287: 3285: 3284: 3279: 3278: 3277: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3220: 3219: 3214: 3204: 3198: 3196: 3192: 3191: 3189: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3167: 3166: 3155: 3153: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3129: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3117: 3112: 3111: 3110: 3100: 3095: 3089: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3078: 3077: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3052: 3047: 3045:Hindsight bias 3042: 3037: 3031: 3029: 3023: 3022: 3020: 3019: 3014: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2994: 2992:Memory erasure 2989: 2984: 2979: 2974: 2973: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2950:post-traumatic 2947: 2942: 2937: 2926: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2914: 2913: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2888:Personal-event 2885: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2864: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2843: 2838: 2832: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2818:Working memory 2815: 2807: 2805: 2799: 2798: 2796: 2795: 2790: 2788:Motor learning 2785: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2759: 2757: 2748: 2744: 2743: 2741: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2724: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2707: 2705: 2704:Basic concepts 2701: 2700: 2693: 2692: 2685: 2678: 2670: 2663: 2662: 2621: 2586: 2567:(2): 197–212. 2551: 2497: 2454: 2443:(4): 323–336. 2411: 2395: 2347: 2328:(2): 226–235. 2312: 2293:(3): 445–457. 2277: 2221: 2194:(3): 453–461. 2171: 2138:Conscious Cogn 2112: 2093:(2): 277–288. 2070: 2035: 2016:(3): 278–287. 1993: 1931: 1918:(3): 218–230. 1895: 1829: 1802:(5): 887–892. 1775: 1703: 1659: 1632:(3): 234–239. 1613: 1602:(1): 151–174. 1586: 1559:(2): 115–122. 1543: 1531:(1): 151–174. 1515: 1462: 1453: 1433: 1418: 1386: 1377: 1368: 1351: 1308:(2): 149–158. 1285: 1264:(1): 117–126. 1244: 1225: 1184: 1149: 1130:(4): 586–605. 1107: 1082:(4): 325–337. 1044: 943: 896: 894: 891: 889: 888: 881: 876: 871: 869:anomic aphasia 862: 857: 852: 847: 841: 839: 836: 830: 827: 821: 818: 797: 794: 786: 783: 771:Anomic aphasia 767: 766:Anomic aphasia 764: 759: 756: 729: 726: 692: 691:Effects of age 689: 675: 672: 642:benzodiazepine 634: 631: 629: 626: 620: 617: 615: 612: 601:is decreased. 595: 594: 592:insular cortex 588: 583: 578: 573: 567: 564: 558: 556:frontal cortex 552: 545: 538: 532: 509: 506: 493: 490: 488: 485: 475: 472: 466: 463: 449: 446: 438:Pomona College 421: 418: 412: 409: 398:retrieval cues 381: 378: 356: 353: 334: 331: 285: 282: 277: 276: 273: 270: 184: 181: 150:anomic aphasia 110:lexical access 81: 80: 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3693: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3663: 3661: 3646: 3636: 3634: 3624: 3623: 3620: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3581: 3579: 3575: 3569: 3568:Clive Wearing 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3550: 3548: 3544: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3532:Endel Tulving 3530: 3528: 3527:Anne Treisman 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3487:Brenda Milner 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3472:James McGaugh 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3437:Sigmund Freud 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3420: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3409: 3407: 3403: 3400: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3382: 3381:retrospective 3378: 3375: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3360:Muscle memory 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3280: 3276: 3273: 3272: 3271: 3268: 3267: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3208: 3207:Art of memory 3205: 3203: 3200: 3199: 3197: 3193: 3187: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3160: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3122: 3116: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3105: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3076: 3073: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3056: 3055:Memory biases 3053: 3051: 3048: 3046: 3043: 3041: 3038: 3036: 3035:Confabulation 3033: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3027:Memory errors 3024: 3018: 3015: 3013: 3010: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2980: 2978: 2975: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2945:post-hypnotic 2943: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2932: 2931: 2928: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2919: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2898:Rote learning 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2873:Hyperthymesia 2871: 2869: 2866: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2848: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2837: 2836:Active recall 2834: 2833: 2831: 2829: 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