305:(Sept. 1, 1939) and the formation of Jewish ghettos caused hunger and poverty, crowding and unsanitary conditions, which in turn actually created typhus epidemics in occupied Poland. German physicians and public health officials in the Nazi regime did not acknowledge this; instead, German medical professionals published essays blaming Jewish people's supposed "low cultural level" and "uncleanliness" for the typhoid epidemics. Posters depicting Jews as lice, which transmit from person to person the bacteria that causes epidemic typhus, were publicized, and the respected status of German doctors helped spread the belief that the Jews were responsible for spreading typhus. The German public health officials in occupied Poland were concerned only with the health of German personnel, so they repeatedly urged occupation authorities to isolate Jews further from the rest of the population.
411:
224:
394:, 700 people lived in an area previously occupied by five families, between 12 and 30 to each room. The Jews were not allowed out of the ghetto, so they had to rely on smuggling and the starvation rations supplied by the Nazis: in Warsaw this was 1,060 kJ (253 kcal) per Jew, compared to 2,800 kJ (669 kcal) per Pole and 10,930 kJ (2,613 kcal) per German. With the crowded living conditions, starvation diets, and insufficient sanitation (coupled with lack of medical supplies), epidemics of infectious disease became a major feature of ghetto life. In the
535:
34:
458:. They were surrounded by brick walls, fences or barbed wire stretched between posts. Jews were not allowed to live in any other areas under the threat of capital punishment. In the closed ghettos the living conditions were the worst. The quarters were extremely crowded and unsanitary. Starvation, chronic shortages of food, lack of heat in winter and inadequate municipal services led to frequent outbreaks of epidemics such as
351:
in
October. Most Jewish ghettos were established in 1940 and 1941. Subsequently, many ghettos were sealed from the outside, walled off with brickwork, or enclosed with barbed wire. In the case of sealed ghettos, any Jew caught leaving could be shot. The Warsaw Ghetto, located in the heart of the
319:, a "final solution" which was a euphemism for the murder of Jews. Toward the Endziel and Endloesung there were intermediate goals to be carried out in the short term, and one of these was to concentrate Jews from the countryside into larger cities, thus making certain areas
517:
certificate. Such documents were sometimes called "Christian" or "Aryan papers". Poland's
Catholic clergy massively forged baptism certificates, which were given to Jews by the dominant Polish resistance movement, the
308:
German forces regarded the establishment of ghettos as temporary measures, in order to allow higher level Nazis in Berlin to decide how to execute their goal of eradicating Jews from Europe. Nazi officials had an
1402:
2670:
489:. They were tightly sealed off. The Jewish population was imprisoned in them only to be deported or taken out of town and shot by the German killing squads, often with the aid of local
2697:
804:
774:
2332:
846:
295:("master race"), and viewed these people and also political opponents of the Nazi party as parasitic vermin or diseases that endangered the overall health of the
390:, the Jews, comprising 30% of the city overall population, were forced to live in 2.4% of the city's area, a density of 7.2 people per room. In the ghetto of
2722:
2367:
253:, the Nazis began to designate areas of larger Polish cities and towns as exclusively Jewish, and within weeks, embarked on a massive programme of uprooting
437:
force was created to ensure that no prisoners tried to escape. In general terms, there were three types of ghettos maintained by the Nazi administration.
2850:
444:
did not have walls or fences, and existed mostly in initial stages of World War II in German-occupied Poland and the occupied Soviet Union, but also in
2498:
1374:
490:
1480:
1114:
2083:
201:
historians. In a number of cases, they were the place of Jewish underground resistance against the German occupation, known collectively as the
2702:
812:
1485:
1397:
744:
2401:
2225:
931:
2362:
1289:
900:
782:
656:
301:, the German racial community. German doctors and public health officials helped advance these racist fearmongering ideas. The German
1585:
2436:
1885:
607:
448:
province of
Ukraine occupied and administered by Romanian authorities. There were severe restrictions on entering and leaving them.
218:
2784:
2305:
2033:
1428:
1379:
1197:
908:
886:
660:
473:
existed in the final stages of the
Holocaust, for between two and six weeks only, in German-occupied Soviet Union (especially in
367:
261:. Entire Jewish communities were deported into these closed off zones by train from their places of origin systematically, using
1609:
583:
850:
280:
The Nazis had a special hatred of Polish and other eastern Jews. Nazi ideology depicted Jews, Slavs and Roma as inferior race
1166:
1061:
1028:
352:
city, was the largest ghetto in Nazi occupied Europe, with over 400,000 Jews crammed into an area of 3.4 square kilometres (
1989:
1407:
1247:
691:
410:
2794:
2627:
2272:
1735:
1475:
1823:
1147:
1123:
258:
1021:
Poland's
Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces, and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947
2860:
1604:
1349:
418:
1619:
1555:
1090:
2390:
1847:
1624:
1565:
1540:
1329:
1257:
1468:
1463:
590:. None were successful, and the Jewish populations of the ghettos were almost entirely killed. On June 21, 1943,
391:
422:
2855:
2285:
2098:
1560:
965:
728:
2260:
1137:
328:
223:
2757:
2597:
1760:
1614:
1595:
1575:
1545:
1438:
509:, the city was divided into Jewish, Polish, and German Quarters. Those living outside the ghetto had to have
1667:
2865:
2622:
2185:
1813:
1682:
1657:
1535:
547:
386:
varied in their size, scope and living conditions. The conditions in the ghettos were generally brutal. In
2255:
562:. Nazi authorities throughout Europe deported Jews to ghettos in Eastern Europe or most often directly to
513:
proving they were not Jewish (none of their grandparents was a member of the Jewish community), such as a
2804:
2789:
2690:
2536:
2460:
1672:
1629:
1590:
1490:
1324:
1190:
526:, or AK). Any Pole found by the Germans to be giving any help to a Jew was subject to the death penalty.
1782:
2662:
2541:
2511:
2430:
2347:
2180:
1818:
1716:
1677:
1634:
1570:
1443:
1319:
833:
718:
1118:. in association with United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
752:
366:
square miles). The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000 people. According to the
2300:
2115:
1662:
1639:
1550:
1412:
1264:
1252:
1239:
1076:
926:
637:
174:
2779:
2734:
2280:
2060:
1599:
1580:
1527:
1511:
1458:
1453:
1364:
1354:
1344:
1296:
1279:
1269:
1234:
1229:
1224:
701:
445:
214:
2205:
941:
640:. The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Overview. Retrieved 28 September 2015.
161:, into small sections of towns and cities furthering their exploitation. In German documents, and
2772:
2762:
2488:
2042:
1770:
1448:
1433:
1359:
1339:
1334:
1314:
1284:
1274:
505:
The parts of a city outside the walls of the Jewish
Quarter were called "Aryan". For example, in
430:
262:
105:
1839:
332:
2483:
2250:
1729:
1307:
1301:
1183:
370:
archives, there were at least 1,000 such ghettos in German-occupied and annexed Poland and the
250:
245:; these measures did not include ghettoizing German Jews: such plans were rejected in the post-
150:
25:
1994:
1053:
988:
2717:
2342:
2295:
1959:
1710:
510:
897:
882:
664:
2680:
2617:
2200:
1984:
1875:
1853:
1748:
1743:
1724:
1133:
1109:
534:
455:
434:
267:
75:
2546:
8:
2767:
2675:
2521:
2108:
1903:
1893:
395:
340:
33:
2147:
2142:
1649:
1002:
612:
595:
563:
559:
555:
302:
273:
134:
594:
issued an order to liquidate all ghettos and transfer remaining Jewish inhabitants to
429:
To prevent unauthorised contact between the Jewish and non-Jewish populations, German
339:
ghetto established in
December 1939. The first large metropolitan ghetto known as the
2752:
2612:
2443:
2357:
2324:
2238:
2055:
2021:
1162:
1143:
1119:
1057:
1046:
1024:
961:
724:
297:
543:
2729:
2707:
2526:
2516:
2245:
2233:
2215:
2152:
591:
493:
233:
1898:
1860:
598:. A few ghettos were re-designated as concentration camps and existed until 1944.
2799:
2639:
2632:
2449:
2352:
2210:
2190:
2103:
1939:
955:
904:
714:
587:
571:
486:
202:
57:
1139:
The
Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy 1939–1942
779:
United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC - Holocaust Encyclopedia
2712:
2607:
2506:
2477:
2169:
2133:
2088:
1798:
1705:
1091:"Order by Himmler for the Liquidation of the Ghettos of Ostland, June 21, 1943"
383:
314:
71:
67:
2093:
1913:
2844:
2602:
2531:
2422:
2290:
2120:
2077:
1923:
1908:
1206:
575:
466:
and to a high mortality rate. Most Nazi ghettos were of this particular type.
414:
399:
348:
282:
246:
228:
198:
158:
101:
93:
Total of more than 1,000 ghettos created mostly in
Central and Eastern Europe
2814:
1964:
1949:
1944:
1918:
1871:
1803:
1765:
1515:
927:
Types of Ghettos. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C.
567:
371:
142:
138:
39:
847:"First Jewish ghetto established in Piotrkow Trybunalski: October 8, 1939"
336:
2820:
2337:
1954:
1808:
781:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. Archived from
751:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. Archived from
313:, an unarticulated final goal that would take time to reach, and also an
291:
254:
241:
The first anti-Jewish measures were enacted in Germany with the onset of
720:
Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences
2809:
2644:
2417:
2195:
1093:
1079:
865:
539:
2649:
2455:
579:
519:
474:
459:
321:
2310:
834:
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-overview-of-ghettos
2175:
1975:
617:
287:
514:
482:
478:
162:
1175:
953:
2685:
506:
463:
398:
some 43,800 people died of 'natural' causes, and 76,000 in the
387:
242:
146:
208:
2050:
1159:
Hitler's Ghettos: Voices from a Beleaguered Society 1939–1944
990:
A world in turmoil: an integrated chronology of the Holocaust
433:
were assigned to patrol the perimeter. Within each ghetto, a
1005:, "The Rescue of Jews by Non-Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland",
809:
The Holocaust - The Nazi Genocide against the Jewish People
679:
165:
at ghetto entrances, the Nazis usually referred to them as
154:
1009:, vol. 7, nos. 1 & 2 (summer–autumn 1998), pp. 19–44.
868:
The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority
249:
period. However, soon after the 1939 German invasion of
2568:
775:"Final Solutions: Murderous Racial Hygiene, 1939–1945"
654:
286:("subhumans") who threatened the purity of Germany's
749:
Experiencing History - Holocaust Sources in Context
1045:
1018:
713:
811:. Sydney Jewish Museum, Australia. Archived from
18:Areas of Jewish imprisonment during the Holocaust
2842:
2343:Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare
1044:Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000).
574:. Almost 300,000 people were deported from the
1012:
737:
177:. There were several distinct types including
2703:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
1191:
1043:
922:
920:
918:
916:
878:
876:
582:over the course of 52 days. In some ghettos,
1115:Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945
767:
2402:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust
954:Isaiah Trunk; Robert Moses Shapiro (2006).
209:Background and establishment of the ghettos
124:Destruction or extermination ghettos (1942)
2851:Jewish ghettos established by Nazi Germany
1198:
1184:
913:
873:
839:
797:
32:
1142:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
960:. Indiana University Press. p. 223.
1132:
1108:
996:
947:
937:
697:
685:
608:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland
558:, the systematic deportation of Jews to
533:
409:
257:from their homes and businesses through
222:
219:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland
987:Hershel Edelheit, Abraham J. Edelheit,
909:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
887:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
717:(1999). "Germans and Poles 1871–1945".
707:
661:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
368:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
347:) followed them in April 1940, and the
335:(38 days after the invasion), with the
118:Open ghettos, in specified areas (1939)
2843:
981:
650:
648:
646:
2567:
2388:
2019:
1510:
1509:
1179:
1156:
1052:. Columbia University Press. p.
745:"Public Health under the Third Reich"
331:was established on 8 October 1939 at
1990:Reich Association of Jews in Germany
471:destruction or extermination ghettos
377:
121:Closed or sealed ghettos (1940–1941)
2795:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
1048:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust
643:
630:
405:
13:
2389:
1007:The Journal of Holocaust Education
153:in order to segregate and confine
14:
2877:
1205:
173:, both of which translate as the
2358:Polish leaders and intellectuals
1848:Concentration Camps Inspectorate
329:The first ghetto of World War II
1084:
1070:
1037:
891:
655:Holocaust Encyclopedia (2014).
227:Jews being forced into the new
2286:Attack on the twentieth convoy
2099:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
827:
529:
151:German-occupied Eastern Europe
1:
1102:
675:– via Internet Archive.
500:
2623:Jewish war conspiracy theory
1814:Extermination through labour
548:Reserve Police Battalion 101
7:
2805:Righteous Among the Nations
2020:
1491:Righteous Among the Nations
1019:Tadeusz Piotrowski (2007).
601:
421:(seen from "Aryan side" of
10:
2882:
2542:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
2512:Lithuanian Security Police
2431:Reich Security Main Office
1398:Evidence and documentation
542:during liquidation of the
271:, and then throughout the
212:
2758:Books and other resources
2745:
2661:
2590:
2586:
2563:
2497:
2469:
2410:
2397:
2384:
2323:
2271:
2224:
2161:
2131:
2069:
2041:
2032:
2028:
2015:
1973:
1932:
1884:
1870:
1832:
1791:
1691:
1648:
1526:
1522:
1505:
1421:
1390:
1290:Bulgarian-occupied Greece
1217:
1213:
554:In 1942, the Nazis began
111:
97:
89:
81:
63:
47:
31:
23:
2861:Jewish Ukrainian history
2348:People with disabilities
2281:Aid and Rescue Committee
1134:Browning, Christopher R.
623:
546:Ghetto conducted by the
454:were situated mostly in
452:Closed or sealed ghettos
215:List of Nazi-era ghettos
2489:Order Police battalions
1161:. Bloomsbury Academic.
1157:Corni, Gustavo (2003).
431:Order Police battalions
263:Order Police battalions
106:Order Police battalions
2338:Soviet urban residents
1429:International response
1403:Contemporary knowledge
957:Łódź Ghetto: A History
723:. Rodopi. p. 32.
551:
456:German-occupied Poland
426:
238:
26:German-occupied Europe
2856:Jewish Polish history
2785:Memorials and museums
2723:Reparations Agreement
2718:Holocaust restitution
2296:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
1819:Human experimentation
1658:Auschwitz II-Birkenau
1110:Megargee, Geoffrey P.
586:organizations staged
537:
511:identification papers
413:
226:
213:Further information:
1985:Jewish Ghetto Police
1854:Politische Abteilung
1749:Risiera di San Sabba
1610:Natzweiler-Struthof
688:, pp. 166, 172.
657:"Ghettos. Key Facts"
435:Jewish Ghetto Police
419:Świętokrzyska Street
333:Piotrków Trybunalski
171:Wohngebiet der Juden
167:Jüdischer Wohnbezirk
76:South-Eastern Europe
54:Jüdischer Wohnbezirk
2866:Holocaust locations
2763:Days of remembrance
2676:Holocaust survivors
2671:Depopulated shtetls
2522:Rollkommando Hamann
2368:Jehovah's Witnesses
2186:Kamianets-Podilskyi
1248:Bohemia and Moravia
596:concentration camps
564:extermination camps
560:extermination camps
325:("clean of Jews").
274:Generalgouvernement
259:forcible expulsions
195:destruction ghettos
133:Beginning with the
38:Main square of the
2746:History and memory
2650:Forced euthanasia
2598:Nazi racial policy
2301:Danish underground
2148:Operation Reinhard
2143:Wannsee Conference
1003:Gunnar S. Paulsson
903:2014-10-27 at the
853:on January 6, 2009
836:Accessed June 2021
715:Volker R. Berghahn
667:on August 15, 2012
613:Judendienstordnung
556:Operation Reinhard
552:
427:
402:before July 1942.
303:invasion of Poland
239:
135:invasion of Poland
2838:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2681:Sh'erit ha-Pletah
2628:Jewish emigration
2618:Hitler's prophecy
2613:Haavara Agreement
2559:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2547:Ypatingasis būrys
2444:Sicherheitsdienst
2380:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2319:
2318:
2239:Bielski partisans
2011:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2002:
1842:Totenkopfverbände
1501:
1500:
1168:978-0-340-76246-2
1063:978-0-231-11200-0
1030:978-0-7864-2913-4
538:Deportation to a
378:Living conditions
298:Volksgemeinschaft
131:
130:
2873:
2730:Holocaust denial
2708:Nuremberg trials
2698:Postwar violence
2653:
2588:
2587:
2565:
2564:
2527:Special Brigades
2517:Nederlandsche SS
2484:Police Regiments
2408:
2407:
2386:
2385:
2246:Ghetto uprisings
2234:Jewish partisans
2181:Harvest Festival
2153:Holocaust trains
2039:
2038:
2030:
2029:
2017:
2016:
1882:
1881:
1778:
1756:
1738:
1719:
1701:
1524:
1523:
1507:
1506:
1215:
1214:
1200:
1193:
1186:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1153:
1129:
1096:
1088:
1082:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1051:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1016:
1010:
1000:
994:
985:
979:
978:
976:
974:
951:
945:
940:, pp. 149, 167:
935:
929:
924:
911:
895:
889:
880:
871:
862:
860:
858:
849:. Archived from
843:
837:
831:
825:
824:
822:
820:
815:on 20 April 2021
801:
795:
794:
792:
790:
785:on 20 April 2021
771:
765:
764:
762:
760:
755:on 20 April 2021
741:
735:
734:
711:
705:
695:
689:
683:
677:
676:
674:
672:
663:. Archived from
652:
641:
634:
592:Heinrich Himmler
588:ghetto uprisings
584:local resistance
494:Auxiliary Police
491:collaborationist
406:Types of ghettos
365:
364:
360:
357:
234:Bezirk Bialystok
203:ghetto uprisings
197:, as defined by
157:, and sometimes
50:
36:
21:
20:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2826:
2741:
2657:
2651:
2640:Madagascar Plan
2633:Kindertransport
2582:
2581:
2551:
2493:
2465:
2450:Ordnungspolizei
2406:
2393:
2372:
2315:
2267:
2220:
2191:Maly Trostenets
2162:Mass executions
2157:
2127:
2065:
2024:
1999:
1969:
1928:
1866:
1828:
1787:
1776:
1754:
1736:
1717:
1699:
1687:
1644:
1518:
1497:
1417:
1408:Hidden children
1386:
1244:Czechoslovakia
1209:
1204:
1169:
1150:
1126:
1105:
1100:
1099:
1089:
1085:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1017:
1013:
1001:
997:
986:
982:
972:
970:
968:
952:
948:
936:
932:
925:
914:
905:Wayback Machine
896:
892:
881:
874:
856:
854:
845:
844:
840:
832:
828:
818:
816:
803:
802:
798:
788:
786:
773:
772:
768:
758:
756:
743:
742:
738:
731:
712:
708:
700:, p. 139,
696:
692:
684:
680:
670:
668:
653:
644:
635:
631:
626:
604:
572:occupied Poland
532:
503:
487:occupied Poland
408:
382:Ghettos across
380:
362:
358:
355:
353:
265:, first in the
237:, November 1941
221:
211:
127:
48:
43:
19:
12:
11:
5:
2879:
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2807:
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2782:
2777:
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2775:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2735:trivialization
2727:
2726:
2725:
2715:
2713:Eichmann trial
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2636:
2635:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2608:Nuremberg Laws
2605:
2600:
2594:
2592:
2591:Early elements
2584:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2572:Early elements
2569:
2561:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2507:Arajs Kommando
2503:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2478:Einsatzgruppen
2473:
2471:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2428:
2420:
2414:
2412:
2405:
2404:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2391:Responsibility
2382:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2329:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2230:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2170:Einsatzgruppen
2165:
2163:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2139:
2137:
2134:Final Solution
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2047:
2045:
2036:
2026:
2025:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1997:
1995:Ústredňa Židov
1992:
1987:
1981:
1979:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1960:Theresienstadt
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1890:
1888:
1879:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1857:
1850:
1845:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1799:Einsatzgruppen
1795:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1654:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1643:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1605:Mittelbau-Dora
1602:
1593:
1588:
1586:Kraków-Płaszów
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1532:
1530:
1520:
1519:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1476:Rescue of Jews
1473:
1472:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1299:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1221:
1219:
1211:
1210:
1203:
1202:
1195:
1188:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1167:
1154:
1149:978-0803203921
1148:
1130:
1125:978-0253355997
1124:
1112:, ed. (2012).
1104:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1083:
1069:
1062:
1036:
1029:
1011:
995:
980:
966:
946:
930:
912:
890:
872:
838:
826:
796:
766:
736:
729:
706:
690:
678:
642:
628:
627:
625:
622:
621:
620:
615:
610:
603:
600:
544:Biała Podlaska
531:
528:
502:
499:
498:
497:
467:
449:
417:; walling-off
407:
404:
384:Eastern Europe
379:
376:
210:
207:
183:closed ghettos
175:Jewish Quarter
129:
128:
126:
125:
122:
119:
115:
113:
109:
108:
99:
95:
94:
91:
87:
86:
83:
79:
78:
65:
61:
60:
51:
45:
44:
37:
29:
28:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2878:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2822:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2603:Nazi eugenics
2601:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2532:Topf and Sons
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2499:Collaborators
2496:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2438:
2437:Referat IV B4
2435:
2434:
2433: (RSHA)
2432:
2429:
2427:
2425:
2424:Schutzstaffel
2421:
2419:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2411:Organizations
2409:
2403:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2353:Romani people
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2306:Working Group
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2291:Kastner train
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2130:
2122:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2078:Kristallnacht
2075:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2014:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1861:Sanitätswesen
1858:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1825:
1824:Death marches
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1739:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1650:Extermination
1647:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1625:Sachsenhausen
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1566:Herzogenbusch
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1541:Bergen-Belsen
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1529:
1528:Concentration
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1464:United States
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1304:and colonies
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1207:The Holocaust
1201:
1196:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1178:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1141:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1095:
1092:
1087:
1081:
1078:
1073:
1065:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1049:
1040:
1032:
1026:
1023:. McFarland.
1022:
1015:
1008:
1004:
999:
992:
991:
984:
969:
963:
959:
958:
950:
943:
939:
938:Browning 2007
934:
928:
923:
921:
919:
917:
910:
906:
902:
899:
894:
888:
884:
879:
877:
869:
867:
852:
848:
842:
835:
830:
814:
810:
806:
800:
784:
780:
776:
770:
754:
750:
746:
740:
732:
726:
722:
721:
716:
710:
703:
699:
698:Browning 2007
694:
687:
686:Browning 2007
682:
666:
662:
658:
651:
649:
647:
639:
638:"The Ghettos"
633:
629:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
605:
599:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
576:Warsaw Ghetto
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
549:
545:
541:
536:
527:
525:
524:Armia Krajowa
521:
516:
512:
508:
495:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
465:
461:
457:
453:
450:
447:
443:
440:
439:
438:
436:
432:
424:
423:Marszałkowska
420:
416:
415:Warsaw Ghetto
412:
403:
401:
400:Warsaw Ghetto
397:
393:
389:
385:
375:
373:
369:
350:
349:Warsaw Ghetto
346:
345:Litzmannstadt
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
324:
323:
318:
317:
312:
306:
304:
300:
299:
294:
293:
289:
285:
284:
283:Untermenschen
278:
276:
275:
270:
269:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
247:Kristallnacht
244:
236:
235:
230:
229:Grodno Ghetto
225:
220:
216:
206:
204:
200:
199:the Holocaust
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
159:Romani people
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
123:
120:
117:
116:
114:
110:
107:
103:
102:Schutzstaffel
100:
96:
92:
90:Incident type
88:
84:
80:
77:
73:
69:
66:
62:
59:
55:
52:
49:Also known as
46:
41:
35:
30:
27:
22:
16:
2815:Yizkor books
2476:
2423:
2168:
2116:in Lithuania
2076:
1974:
1859:
1852:
1841:
1775:
1753:
1734:
1715:
1698:
1481:by Catholics
1350:Soviet Union
1218:By territory
1158:
1138:
1113:
1086:
1072:
1047:
1039:
1020:
1014:
1006:
998:
989:
983:
973:29 September
971:. Retrieved
956:
949:
933:
893:
864:
855:. Retrieved
851:the original
841:
829:
817:. Retrieved
813:the original
808:
799:
787:. Retrieved
783:the original
778:
769:
757:. Retrieved
753:the original
748:
739:
719:
709:
693:
681:
671:28 September
669:. Retrieved
665:the original
636:Yad Vashem,
632:
568:Nazi Germany
553:
523:
504:
470:
451:
446:Transnistria
442:Open ghettos
441:
428:
381:
372:Soviet Union
344:
327:
320:
315:
310:
307:
296:
290:
281:
279:
272:
266:
240:
232:
194:
190:
186:
182:
179:open ghettos
178:
170:
166:
139:World War II
132:
98:Perpetrators
53:
40:Radom Ghetto
15:
2821:Never again
2652:(Action T4)
2578:Remembrance
2363:Homosexuals
2333:Soviet POWs
2261:Częstochowa
1809:Gas chamber
1620:Ravensbrück
1561:Gross-Rosen
1556:Flossenbürg
1439:Philippines
1371:Yugoslavia
1330:Netherlands
1258:Sudetenland
530:Liquidation
496:battalions.
396:Łódź Ghetto
341:Łódź Ghetto
292:Herrenrasse
277:territory.
255:Polish Jews
143:Nazi regime
24:Ghettos in
2845:Categories
2810:Yad Vashem
2790:Uniqueness
2645:Nisko Plan
2418:Nazi Party
2226:Resistance
2196:Ninth Fort
2061:Vel' d'Hiv
1833:Nazi units
1771:Westerbork
1761:Amersfoort
1615:Neuengamme
1596:Mauthausen
1576:Kaiserwald
1546:Buchenwald
1325:Luxembourg
1103:References
1094:Yad Vashem
1080:Yad Vashem
967:0253347556
942:Sanitation
866:Yad Vashem
730:9042006889
540:death camp
501:Aryan side
268:Reichsgaue
2768:Education
2663:Aftermath
2575:Aftermath
2537:Trawnikis
2461:Wehrmacht
2456:Waffen-SS
2256:Białystok
2084:Bucharest
2056:Marseille
1933:Elsewhere
1894:Białystok
1706:Breendonk
1683:Treblinka
1536:Auschwitz
1320:Lithuania
1136:(2007) .
805:"Ghettos"
702:Gold rush
580:Treblinka
578:alone to
566:built by
520:Home Army
485:, and in
475:Lithuania
460:dysentery
337:Tuliszków
322:Judenrein
316:Endlösung
85:1939–1945
42:with gate
2753:Academia
2206:Piaśnica
2176:Babi Yar
2104:Jedwabne
2043:Roundups
1976:Judenrat
1940:Budapest
1711:Mechelen
1673:Majdanek
1630:Stutthof
1591:Majdanek
1486:by Poles
1444:Portugal
1422:Response
1413:Timeline
1391:Overview
1253:Slovakia
1240:Bulgaria
1077:"Warsaw"
901:Archived
819:20 April
789:20 April
759:20 April
618:Judenrat
602:See also
392:Odrzywół
64:Location
2780:Lessons
2216:Rumbula
2089:Dorohoi
2070:Pogroms
2022:Victims
1872:Ghettos
1804:Gas van
1792:Methods
1766:Schoorl
1744:Bolzano
1692:Transit
1678:Sobibor
1668:Chełmno
1635:Vaivara
1571:Hinzert
1516:ghettos
1469:Vatican
1375:Croatia
1365:Ukraine
1355:Belarus
1345:Romania
1297:Hungary
1280:Germany
1270:Estonia
1265:Denmark
1235:Belgium
1230:Austria
1225:Albania
898:Ghettos
857:June 1,
550:in 1942
515:baptism
483:Hungary
479:Ukraine
374:alone.
361:⁄
311:Endziel
191:transit
163:signage
149:across
147:ghettos
145:set up
137:during
72:Eastern
68:Central
2686:Bricha
2452:(Orpo)
2325:Others
2311:Żegota
2273:Rescue
2251:Warsaw
2211:Ponary
2121:Kaunas
1924:Warsaw
1909:Lublin
1899:Kraków
1886:Poland
1730:Drancy
1663:Belzec
1640:Warsaw
1551:Dachau
1459:Turkey
1454:Sweden
1380:Serbia
1360:Russia
1340:Poland
1335:Norway
1315:Latvia
1285:Greece
1275:France
1165:
1146:
1122:
1060:
1027:
993:, 1991
964:
883:Warsaw
727:
507:Warsaw
481:), in
464:typhus
388:Warsaw
251:Poland
243:Nazism
193:, and
141:, the
112:Ghetto
104:(SS),
58:German
2800:Humor
2773:Films
2470:Units
2201:Odesa
2051:Izieu
1965:Vilna
1950:Minsk
1945:Kovno
1919:Radom
1783:Sereď
1600:Gusen
1581:Kauen
1512:Camps
1449:Spain
1434:Japan
1308:Libya
1302:Italy
624:Notes
288:Aryan
2691:List
2446:(SD)
2426:(SS)
2109:Lviv
2094:Iași
2034:Jews
1955:Riga
1914:Lwów
1904:Łódź
1876:list
1725:Gurs
1598:and
1514:and
1163:ISBN
1144:ISBN
1120:ISBN
1058:ISBN
1025:ISBN
975:2015
962:ISBN
859:2016
821:2021
791:2021
761:2021
725:ISBN
673:2015
477:and
469:The
462:and
217:and
187:work
155:Jews
82:Date
74:and
1840:SS-
1054:114
570:in
231:in
169:or
56:in
2847::
1777:sk
1755:nl
1737:it
1718:fr
1700:be
1056:.
915:^
907:,
885:,
875:^
863:.
807:.
777:.
747:.
659:.
645:^
205:.
189:,
185:,
181:,
70:,
2823:"
2819:"
2136:"
2132:"
1878:)
1874:(
1199:e
1192:t
1185:v
1171:.
1152:.
1128:.
1066:.
1033:.
977:.
944:.
870:.
861:.
823:.
793:.
763:.
733:.
704:.
522:(
425:)
363:8
359:3
356:+
354:1
343:(
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