581:. Reparations were officially agreed among the Allies from 2 August 1945, with 'removals' prior to this date not included. According to Soviet Foreign Ministry data, Soviet troops, organised in specialised "trophy" battalions, removed 1.28m tons of materials and 3.6m tons of equipment, as well as large quantities of agricultural produce). No agreement on reparations could be reached at the Potsdam Conference, but by December 1947 it was clear that Western governments were unwilling to accede to the Soviet request for $ 10bn in reparations (which the Soviets placed into perspective by calculating total war damage of $ 128bn). (In contrast the Germans estimate a total loss of German property, due to the border changes promoted by the USSR and the population expulsions, of 355.3 billion
1238:(ESS), which focused on high technology sectors in order to make self-sufficient growth possible. Overall, centralized planning was reintroduced in the so-called structure-determining areas, which included electronics, chemicals, and plastics. Industrial combines were formed to integrate vertically industries involved in the manufacture of vital final products. Price subsidies were restored to accelerate growth in favored sectors. The annual plan for 1968 set production quotas in the structure-determining areas 2.6% higher than in the remaining sectors in order to achieve industrial growth in these areas. The state set the 1969–70 goals for high-technology sectors even higher. Failure to meet ESS goals resulted in the conclusive termination of the reform effort in 1970.
1820:
financial crisis (driven partly by mass emigration to West
Germany in early 1990 and partly by the Federal Republic's refusal to grant the loans that would have been needed to underpin a longer transition period), the Article 23 route rapidly became the frontrunner. The cost of this, however, was that East Germany's nascent democracy died less than a year after it was born, with a set of laws and institutions imposed from outside replacing a set of laws and institutions imposed from above. Any debate, for example, about the value of the various social institutions (such as the childcare, education, and healthcare systems, which had implemented policy ideas discussed in West Germany for decades, and still today) was simply ruled out by this legal route.
1759:, that the new regulations were due to take effect the next day. When a reporter asked when the regulations were to take effect, Schabowski assumed they were already in force and replied, "As far as I know ... immediately, without delay." When excerpts from the press conference were broadcast on West German television, it prompted large crowds to gather at the checkpoints near the Berlin Wall. Unprepared, outnumbered, and unwilling to use force to keep them back, the guards finally let them through. In the following days increasing numbers of East Germans took advantage of this to visit West Germany or West Berlin (where they were met by West German government gifts of DM100 each, called "greeting money").
593:
dismantled industrial installations from the west began on March 31, 1946. Under the terms of the agreement the Soviet Union would in return ship raw materials such as food and timber to the western zones. When the
Soviets did not fulfil their side of the agreement, the US temporarily halted shipments east, and they were never resumed. It was later shown that although these events were subsequently used for cold war propaganda purposes against the Soviet Union, the main reason for halting shipments east was not the behaviour of the USSR but rather the recalcitrance of France. Material received by the USSR included equipment from the Kugel-Fischer ballbearing plant at
855:
525:
1378:
improving communications between East Berlin and West Berlin. The Soviet Union stipulated, however, that West Berlin would not be incorporated into West
Germany. The Basic Treaty (effective June 1973) politically recognized two German states, and the two countries pledged to respect one another's sovereignty. Under the terms of the treaty, diplomatic missions were to be exchanged and commercial, tourist, cultural, and communications relations established. In September 1973, both countries joined the United Nations, and thus East Germany received its long-sought international recognition.
167:
1175:—VVBs), parent organizations intended to promote specialization within the same areas of production. The central planning authorities set overall production goals, but each VVB determined its own internal financing, utilization of technology, and allocation of manpower and resources. As intermediary bodies, the VVBs also functioned to synthesize information and recommendations from the VEBs. The NES stipulated that production decisions be made on the basis of profitability, that salaries reflect performance, and that prices respond to supply and demand.
2343:
429:, a view that he reiterated at Potsdam. Estimating the territory that the converging armies of the western Allies and the Soviet Union would overrun, the Yalta Conference determined the demarcation line for the respective areas of occupation. It was also decided that a "Committee on Dismemberment of Germany" was to be set up. The purpose was to decide whether Germany was to be divided into several nations, and if so, what borders and inter-relationships the new German states were to have. Following Germany's surrender, the
1286:
unification; however, both remained committed to their own irreconcilable political systems. In 1968, the SED recast the constitution into a fully
Communist document. It declared East Germany to be a socialist state whose power derived from the working class under the leadership of "its Marxist-Leninist party"—thus codifying the actual state of affairs that had existed since 1949. The new constitution proclaimed the victory of socialism and restated the country's commitment to unification under Communist leadership.
1747:, the regime's number-two man for most of the second half of the 1980s. Although he was almost as detested as Honecker himself, he made promises to open up the regime from above. Few East Germans were convinced, however; the demonstrations continued unabated. Additionally, people continued to flee to West Germany in increasing numbers, first through Hungary and later through Czechoslovakia. At one point, several schools had to close because there were not enough students or teachers to have classes.
1395:
socialist community of states." However, the SED leadership had little success in inculcating East
Germans with a sense of ideological identification with the Soviet Union. Honecker, conceding to public opinion, devised the formula "citizenship, GDR; nationality, German." In so doing, the SED first secretary acknowledged the persisting psychological and emotional attachment of East German citizens to German traditions and culture and, by implication, to their German neighbors in West Germany.
1816:. Whilst Article 146 had been expressly designed for the purpose of German reunification, it was apparent in 1990 that employing it would require a vastly longer and more complex process of negotiation—and one which would open up many political issues in West Germany, where constitutional reform (particularly to respond to changing economic circumstances) was a longstanding concern. Even without this to consider, East Germany was virtually prostrate economically and politically.
1719:
1903:
441:
1566:
Secretary (the title changed from First
Secretary in 1976) Honecker emphasized the importance of educating loyal cadres in order to secure the party's position. He announced that more than one-third of all party members and candidates, nearly two-thirds of the party secretaries had completed a course of study at a university, technical college, or trade school, and that four-fifths of the party secretaries had received training in a party school for more than a year.
242:
2287:
1699:". In September 1989, more than 13,000 East Germans managed to escape to the West through Hungary. The Hungarian government told their furious East German counterparts that international treaties on refugees took precedence over a 1969 agreement between the two countries restricting freedom of movement. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals, especially in
1250:, introduced by Honecker in 1971, formulated domestic policy for the 1970s. The program re-emphasized Marxism–Leninism and the international class struggle. During this period, the SED launched a massive propaganda campaign to win citizens to its Soviet-style socialism and to restore the "worker" to prominence. The Main Task restated the economic goal of industrial progress, but this goal was to be achieved within the context of centralized state planning.
558:
378:
1432:
65:
1884:, Germany became fully sovereign once more from March 15, 1991. On October 3, 1990, East Germany formally ceased to exist. The five recreated states in its former territory acceded to the Federal Republic, while East and West Berlin reunited to form the third city-state of the Federal Republic. Thus the East German population was the first from the Eastern Bloc to join the EC as a part of the reunified Federal Republic of Germany (
1072:
1784:
financial problems probably played no role in the opening of the borders on
November 9, opening the borders eliminated any West German interest in further supporting the East German state, as West Germany immediately began to work towards a reunification. As a result, the new East German transitional government faced massive medium-term financial problems, which might—as the Schürer-Papier had even suggested—lead to the
24:
1387:
1046:
remain in the country on conditions to be agreed upon, they would not interfere in the internal conditions of its social and political life. The two governments would strengthen the economic, scientific-technical, and cultural relations between them and would consult with each other on questions affecting their interests. On 14 May 1955, East
Germany became a member of the
1812:
therefore provided a means (Article 146) for a new constitution to be written for a united and democratic
Germany. The other route was Article 23, under which prospective states could accede to the Federal Republic by simple majority vote, in the process accepting its existing laws and institutions. This had been used in 1957 for the accession of the state of
1403:
between East German and West German families and friends were being restored, and East German citizens had more direct contact with West German politics and material affluence, particularly through radio and television. West
Germany was East Germany's supplier of high-quality consumer goods, including luxury items, and the latter's citizens frequented both the
772:, the SED polled approximately 50% of the vote in each state in the Soviet zone. However, a truer picture of the SED's support was revealed in Berlin, which was still undivided. The Berlin SPD managed to preserve its independence and, running on its own, polled 48.7% of the vote while the SED, with 19.8%, was third in the voting behind the SPD and the CDU.
585:). As a result, the Soviets sought to extract the $ 10bn from its occupation zone in eastern Germany, in addition to the trophy removals; Naimark (1995) estimates that $ 10bn was transferred in material form by the early 1950s, including in 1945 and 1946 over 17,000 factories, amounting to a third of the productive capital of the eastern occupation zone.
1219:
conformity. Within the individual enterprises, the number of professional positions and jobs for the technically skilled increased. The SED stressed education in managerial and technical sciences as the route to social advancement and material rewards. In addition, it promised to raise the standard of living for all citizens. From 1964 until 1967, real
1487:. The statue of Frederick the Great was meanwhile restored to prominence in East Berlin. Honecker's references to the former Prussian king in his speeches reflected East Germany's official policy of revisionism toward Prussia, which also included Bismarck and the resistance group Red Band. East Germany also laid claim to the formerly maligned
1301:. Foreign and domestic policies in the final years of the Ulbricht era reflected strong commitment to an aggressive strategy toward the West and toward Western ideology. Ulbricht's foreign policy focused on strengthening ties with Warsaw Pact countries and on organizing opposition to détente. In 1967 he persuaded
505:, equal in size to the Soviet occupation zone, was handed over to Poland and the Soviet Union for de facto annexation. This territory transfer was seen as a compensation for Nazi German military occupation of Poland and parts of the Soviet Union. The millions of Germans still remaining in these areas under the
1285:
with the West. Although détente offered East Germany the opportunity to overcome its isolation in foreign policy and to gain Western recognition as a sovereign state, the SED leader was reluctant to pursue a policy of rapprochement with West Germany. Both German states had retained the goal of future
1735:
were heard chanting, "Gorby, help us! Gorby, save us!" That same night, the first of many large demonstrations occurred in East Berlin, the first mass demonstration in the capital itself. Similar demonstrations for freedom of speech and of the press erupted across the country and increased pressure
1726:
Virtually ignoring the problems facing the country, Honecker and the rest of the Politburo celebrated the 40th anniversary of the Republic in East Berlin on October 7. As in past celebrations, soldiers marched on parade and missiles were displayed on large trucks to showcase the Republic's weaponry.
1690:
candidates had won the majority of seats, with 'only' 98.5% of the vote. In other words, despite larger-than-ever numbers of voters rejecting the single candidate put forward by the Front (an exercise of defiance that carried great risk—including being sacked from a job or expelled from university),
1377:
The Berlin Agreement and the Basic Treaty normalized relations between East Germany and West Germany. The Berlin Agreement (effective June 1972), signed by the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union, protected trade and travel relations between West Berlin and West Germany and aimed at
1102:
An SED party plenum in July 1956 confirmed Ulbricht's leadership and presented the Second Five-Year Plan (1956–1960). The plan employed the slogan "modernization, mechanization, and automation" to emphasize the new focus on technological progress. At the plenum, the regime announced its intention to
1025:
In 1954 the Soviet Union granted East Germany sovereignty, and the Soviet Control Commission in Berlin was disbanded. By this time, reparations payments had been completed, and the SAGs had been restored to East German ownership. The five states formerly constituting the Soviet occupation zone also
1788:
being called in, although in the short-term gold and other reserves ensured that bills continued to be paid. In the event, massive West German financial support (around half East Germany's budget in 1990) following the March 1990 elections prevented a financial collapse in the months leading up to
1762:
The fall of the Berlin Wall was, for all intents and purposes, the death certificate for the SED. Communist rule formally ended on December 1, when the Volkskammer deleted the provisions of the Constitution that declared East Germany to be a socialist state under the leadership of the SED. Krenz,
1750:
On November 9, in an effort to stave off the protests and the mass exodus, the government crafted new travel regulations that allowed East Germans who wanted to go to West Germany (either permanently or for a visit) to do so directly through East Germany. However, no one on the Politburo told the
1667:
not only failed, but swallowed increasing amounts of internal resources and hard currency. Another significant factor was the elimination of a ready source of hard currency through re-export of Soviet oil, which until 1981 was provided below world market prices. The resulting loss of hard currency
1548:
Even after an exodus of artists in protest against Biermann's expulsion, the SED continued its repressive policy against dissidents. The state subjected literature, one of the few vehicles of opposition and nonconformism in East Germany, to ideological attacks and censorship. This policy led to an
1402:
constituted the foundation of Honecker's policy, détente strengthened ties between the two German states. Between 5 and 7 million West Germans and West Berliners visited East Germany each year. Telephone and postal communications between the two countries were significantly improved. Personal ties
1394:
From the mid-1970s, East Germany remained poised between East and West. The 1974 amendment to the Constitution deleted all references to the "German nation" and "German unity" and designated East Germany "a socialist nation-state of workers and peasants" and "an inseparable constituent part of the
1045:
which entered into force on October 6. According to its terms the German Democratic Republic was henceforth "free to decide questions of its internal and foreign policy, including its relations with the German Federal Republic as well as with other states." Although Soviet forces would temporarily
1001:
goods. The SED, in addition to shifting emphasis from heavy industry to consumer goods, initiated a program for alleviating economic hardships. This led to a reduction of delivery quotas and taxes, the availability of state loans to private business, and an increase in the allocation of production
943:
in East Germany under an Episcopal ban. There were also other indications of opposition, even from within the government itself. In the fall of 1950 several prominent members of the SED were expelled and arrested as "saboteurs" or "for lacking trust in the Soviet Union." Among them were the Deputy
612:
activists, and by war criminals were confiscated by the Soviet occupation authority. These industries amounted to about 60% of total industrial production in the Soviet zone. Most heavy industry (constituting 20% of total production) was claimed by the Soviet Union as reparations, and Soviet joint
1811:
for the Federal Republic explicitly stated that it was only intended for temporary use until a permanent constitution could be adopted by the German people. This was largely out of necessity, because at the time it was written (1949) it could not extend its authority to the East. The Basic Law
1357:
Honecker combined loyalty to the Soviet Union with flexibility toward détente. At the Eighth Party Congress in June 1971, he presented the political program of the new regime. In his reformulation of East German foreign policy, Honecker renounced the objective of a unified Germany and adopted the
1261:
The regime also accelerated the construction of new housing and the renovation of existing apartments; 60% of new and renovated housing was allotted to working-class families. Rents, which were subsidized, remained extremely low. Because women constituted nearly 50% of the labor force, child-care
1864:
of East Germany, to take effect on October 14; and on August 31 the Unification Treaty set an accession date of October 3 (modifying the State Creation Law to come into effect on that date). The Unification Treaty declared that (with few exceptions) at accession the laws of East Germany would be
1577:
The SED's Central Committee, which during the 1960s had been an advisory body, was reduced to the function of an acclamation body during the Tenth Party Congress. The Politburo and the Secretariat remained for the most part unchanged. In addition to policy issues, the congress focused on the new
1569:
Stating that a relaxation of "democratic centralism" was unacceptable, Honecker emphasized rigid centralism within the party. Outlining the SED's general course, the congress confirmed the unity of East Germany's economic and social policy on the domestic front and its absolute commitment to the
779:
to draft a constitution for a separate East German state. Members of the Nazi party were drawn and elections were held from the slate of candidates drawn from different organizations of the anti-fascist coalition. Communists won this election, thereby holding a majority of seats in the People's
592:
whereby Germany was to be treated as a single unit and converted into an "agricultural and light industry economy". By the end of 1948 the US had dismantled or destroyed all war-related manufacturing capability in its occupation zone. In accordance with the agreements with the USSR, shipment of
1819:
With these factors in mind, it was decided to use the quicker process in Article 23. Under this route, reunification could be implemented in just six months, and completely sidestep the West German political conflicts involved in writing a new constitution. Under the pressure of an increasing
1289:
However, the SED leadership, although successful in establishing socialism in East Germany, had limited success in winning popular support for the repressive social system. In spite of the epithet "the other German miracle", the democratic politics and higher material progress of West Germany
1783:
were widely known until late 1989 (although in 1988–89 the GDR's creditworthiness was declining slightly). At this time, the government, aware of the impending problems from the October 1989 SchĂĽrer-Papier, asked the West German government for new billion-Deutschmark loans. Although the
1662:
Much of the debt originated from attempts by the GDR to export its way out of its international debt problems, which required imports of components, technologies, and raw materials; as well as attempts to maintain living standards through imports of consumer goods. The GDR was internationally
1565:
The 10th Party Congress, which took place in April 1981, focused on improving the economy, stabilizing the socialist system, achieving success in foreign policy, and strengthening relations with West Germany. Presenting the SED as the leading power in all areas of East German society, General
1218:
The SED emphasis on managerial and technical competence also enabled members of the technocratic elite to enter the top echelons of the state bureaucracy, formerly reserved for political dogmatists. Managers of the VVBs were chosen on the basis of professional training rather than ideological
1141:
The Second Five-Year Plan encountered difficulties, and the regime replaced it with the Seven-Year Plan (1959–65). The new plan aimed at achieving West Germany's per capita production by the end of 1961, set higher production quotas, and called for an 85% increase in labor productivity.
1646:
Although in the end political circumstances led to the collapse of the SED regime, the GDR's growing international (hard currency) debts were leading towards an international debt crisis within a year or two. Debts continued to grow in the course of the 1980s to over DM40 bn owed to western
890:
and reduced the legislative function of the Volkskammer to that of acclamation. Election to the Volkskammer and the state legislatures (later replaced by district legislatures) was based on a joint ballot prepared by the National Front: voters could register their approval or disapproval.
533:
927:. The second Party Conference (less important than Party Congress) convened on July 9–12, 1952. 1,565 delegates, 494 guest-delegates, and over 2,500 guests from the GDR and from many other countries in the world participated in it. In the conference a new economic policy was adopted, "
1633:
Unsurprisingly, the new coffee was generally detested for its awful taste, and the whole episode is informally known as the "coffee crisis". The crisis passed after 1978 as world coffee prices began to fall again, as well as increased supply through an agreement between the GDR and
1851:(DM). The treaty also declared the intention for East Germany to join the Federal Republic by way of the Basic Law's Article 23 and indeed laid much of the ground for this by providing for the swift and wholesale implementation of West German laws and institutions in East Germany.
938:
in 1950, the age at which Germany's youth may reject parental supervision was lowered from 21 to 18. The churches, while nominally assured of religious freedom, were, nevertheless, subjected to considerable pressure. To retaliate, Cardinal von Preysing, Bishop of Berlin, put the
513:), while millions of ethnic Germans from other Eastern European countries poured into Allied-occupied Germany. This migration was to such an extent that by the time the German Democratic Republic was founded, between a third and a quarter of the population of East Germany was
576:
in preparation for the restoration of a democratic German nation-state. Over time, however, the western zones and the Soviet zone drifted apart economically, not least because of the Soviets' much greater use of disassembly of German industry under its control as a form of
1647:
institutions, a sum not astronomical in absolute terms (the GDR's GDP was perhaps DM250bn) but much larger in relation to the GDR's capacity to export sufficient goods to the west to provide the hard currency to service these debts. An October 1989 paper prepared for the
1328:
Ulbricht also encouraged the abrogation of Soviet bloc relations with the industrialized West, and in 1968 he launched a spirited campaign to convince the Comecon states to intensify their economic development "by their own means." Considering claims for freedom and
1164:(NES), an economic reform program providing for some decentralization in decision-making and the consideration of market and performance criteria. The NES aimed at creating an efficient economic system and transforming East Germany into a leading industrial nation.
1290:
continued to attract East German citizens. Ulbricht feared that hopes for a democratic government or a reunification with West Germany would cause unrest among East German citizens, who since 1961 appeared to have come to terms with social and living conditions.
1668:
income produced a noticeable dip in the otherwise steady improvement of living standards. (It was precisely this continuous improvement which was at risk due to the impending debt crisis; the SchĂĽrer-Papier's remedial plans spoke of a 25–30% reduction.)
1541:, which was published in West Germany in August 1977. The publication led to the author's arrest, imprisonment, and deportation to West Germany. In late 1977, a manifesto of the "League of Democratic Communists of Germany" appeared in the West German magazine
1521:, the Honecker regime remained committed to Soviet-style socialism and continued a strict policy toward dissidents. Nevertheless, a critical Marxist intelligentsia within the SED renewed the plea for democratic reform. Among them was the poet-singer
1262:
facilities, including nurseries and kindergartens, were provided for the children of working mothers. Women in the labor force received salaried maternity leave which ranged from six months to one year. The state also increased retirement annuities.
317:, with the remaining German territory to the west occupied by the British, American, and French armies. Following the economic and political unification of the three western occupation zones under a single administration and the establishment of the
1142:
Emigration again increased, totaling 143,000 in 1959 and 199,000 in 1960. The majority of the emigrants were white collar workers, and 50% were under 25 years of age. The labour drain exceeded a total of 2.5 million citizens between 1949 and 1961.
1529:
had led a circle of artists and writers advocating democratization; he was expelled from East Germany in November 1976 for dissident activities. Following Biermann's expulsion, the SED leadership disciplined more than 100 dissident intellectuals.
1118:—LPGs) had been formed. In 1958–59 the SED placed quotas on private farmers and sent teams to villages in an effort to encourage voluntary collectivization. In November and December 1959 some law-breaking farmers were arrested by the SSD.
1578:
Five-Year Plan (1981–85), calling for higher productivity, more efficient use of material resources, and better quality products. Although the previous five-year plan had not been fulfilled, the congress once again set very high goals.
1703:, Czechoslovakia. The GDR subsequently announced that it would provide special trains to carry these refugees to West Germany, claiming it was expelling "irresponsible antisocial traitors and criminals." Meanwhile, mass demonstrations in
1418:, which was to guarantee the regime's recognition of human rights. The Final Act's provision for freedom of movement elicited approximately 120,000 East German applications for permission to emigrate, but the applications were rejected.
1345:. Moscow subsequently pressured East Germany to begin bilateral talks with West Germany. Ulbricht resisted, further weakening his leadership, which had been damaged by the failure of the ESS. In May 1971, the SED Central Committee chose
1133:
of industry, the SED offered entrepreneurs 50-percent partnership incentives for transforming their firms into VEBs. At the close of 1960, private enterprise controlled only 9% of total industrial production. Production Cooperatives
1835:, a centre-right coalition dominated by the East German branch of the CDU and running on a platform of speedy reunification with West Germany. A "grand coalition" of the Alliance and the revived Social Democrats elected the CDU's
719:
of June 10, 1945 allowed the formation of antifascist democratic political parties in the Soviet zone; elections to new state legislatures were scheduled for October 1946. A democratic-antifascist coalition, which included the
1470:
As a result of the Ninth Party Congress in May 1976, East Germany after 1976–77 considered its own history as the essence of German history, in which West Germany was only an episode. It laid claim to reformers such as
1333:
within the Soviet bloc a danger to its domestic policies, the SED, from the beginning, attacked Prague's new political course, which resulted in intervention by the Soviet military and other Warsaw Pact contingents in 1968.
1740:. Troops had been sent there—almost certainly on Honecker's orders—only to be pulled back by local party officials. In an attempt to ward off the threat of popular uprising, the Politburo ousted Honecker on October 18.
866:, a federation of all political parties and mass organizations that preserved political pluralism. The 1949 constitution formally defined East Germany as a quasi-unitary republic with a bicameral parliament comprising an
1597:
Due to the strong German tradition of drinking coffee, coffee imports were one of the most important for consumers. A massive rise in coffee prices in 1976–77 led to a quadrupling of the annual costs of importing
1613:
withdrew most cheaper brands of coffee from sale, limited use in restaurants, and effectively withdrew its provision in public offices and state enterprises. In addition, an infamous new type of coffee was introduced,
1030:) in 1952; the United States, Britain, and France did not recognize the fifteenth district, East Berlin. East Germany began active participation in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1950. In 1955
437:, and the Soviet Union, assumed governmental authority in postwar Germany. Economic demilitarization however (especially the stripping of industrial equipment) was the responsibility of each zone individually.
2035:
1178:
The NES brought forth a new elite in politics as well as in management of the economy, and in 1963 Ulbricht announced a new policy regarding admission to the leading ranks of the SED. Ulbricht opened the
1807:
Although there were some small attempts to create a non-socialist East Germany, these were soon overwhelmed by calls for reunification with West Germany. There were two main legal routes for this. The
1349:
to succeed Ulbricht as the party's first secretary. Although Ulbricht was allowed to retain the chairmanship of the Council of State until his death in 1973, the office had been reduced in importance.
1234:
Ulbricht in 1968 launched a spirited campaign to convince the Comecon states to intensify their economic development "by their own means." Domestically the East German regime replaced the NES with the
1876:, it was agreed that a reunified Germany would be free to choose whatever alliance it wanted, though Kohl made no secret that a reunified Germany would inherit the West German seats at NATO and the
1203:
in the SED cadre policy after 1963, the composition of the mass membership changed: in 1967 about 250,000 members (14%) of the total 1.8 million SED membership had completed a course of study at a
931:". The plan called to strengthen the state-owned sector of the economy, further to implement the principles of uniform socialist planning, and to use the economic laws of socialism systematically.
1553:
of church publications in response to the Polish Solidarity movement, it maintained, for the most part, a flexible attitude toward the church. The consecration of a church building in May 1981 in
1129:. An extensive economic management reform by the SED in February 1958 included the transfer of a large number of industrial ministries to the State Planning Commission. In order to accelerate the
588:
In the western zones, dismantling and/or destruction of German industry continued until 1951 in accordance to the (several times modified) "German level of industry" agreement connected with the
1860:, which was given the responsibility of overseeing the transformation of East German state-owned business into market-oriented privatised companies. On July 22 a law was passed recreating the
1840:
997:
in the Soviet Union. Malenkov's policy, which aimed at improvement in the standard of living, stressed a shift in investment toward light industry and trade and a greater availability of
990:
928:
757:
1467:
and the role played by the heroes of the class struggle during Prussia's industrialization. Nevertheless, as early as 1956 East Germany's Prussian heritage asserted itself in the NVA.
1868:
In September, after some negotiations which involved the United States, the Soviet Union, France, and the United Kingdom, conditions for German reunification were agreed on, with the
615:
1114:
sector. By 1958 the agricultural sector still consisted primarily of the 750,000 privately owned farms that comprised 70% of all arable land; only 6,000 Agricultural Cooperatives (
1638:—the latter becoming one of the world's largest coffee producers in the 1990s. However, the episode vividly illustrated the structural economic and financial problems of the GDR.
2163:
1103:
develop nuclear energy, and the first nuclear reactor in East Germany was activated in 1957. The government increased industrial production quotas by 55% and renewed emphasis on
806:
in the Soviet zone was thus handled rather more transparently than in the Western zones, where the issue soon came second to considerations of practicality or even just privacy.
1171:
involved the partial transfer of decision-making authority from the central State Planning Commission and National Economic Council to the Associations of People's Enterprises (
905:
The Third SED Party Congress convened in July 1950 and emphasized industrial progress. The industrial sector, employing 40% of the working population, was subjected to further
2265:
1533:
Despite the government's actions, East German writers began to publish political statements in the West German press and periodical literature. The most prominent example was
1110:
The Second Five-Year Plan committed East Germany to accelerated efforts toward agricultural collectivization and nationalization and completion of the nationalization of the
2362:
1865:
replaced overnight by those of West Germany. The Volkskammer approved the treaty on September 20 by a margin of 299-80—in effect, voting East Germany out of existence.
1831:(PDS) and pushed out most of its hardline Communist members in hopes of rehabilitating its image. It was to no avail; as expected, the PDS was heavily defeated by the
1872:
renouncing their former rights in Germany and agreeing to remove all occupying troops by 1994. In separate negotiations between Gorbachev and West German Chancellor
1297:
as main governmental organ. The 24-member, multiparty council, headed by Ulbricht and dominated by its fifteen SED representatives, generated a new era of political
1160:, an advocate of the principle of profitability and other market principles for communist economies. In 1963 Ulbricht adapted Liberman's theories and introduced the
1549:
exodus of prominent writers, which lasted until 1981. The Lutheran Church also became openly critical of SED policies. Although in 1980-81 the SED intensified its
1156:
The annual industrial growth rate declined steadily after 1959. The Soviet Union therefore recommended that East Germany implement the reforms of Soviet economist
691:. The Soviet Union responded by leaving the Allied Control Council, and prepared to create an East German state. The division of Germany was made clear with the
695:
of 20 June 1948, which was limited to the western zones. Three days later a separate currency reform was introduced in the Soviet zone. The introduction of the
1881:
1126:
1254:—the new program featured in the Main Task—was an effort to magnify the appeal of socialism by offering special consideration for the material needs of the
528:
Map showing the different borders and territories of Poland and Germany during the 20th century, with the current areas of Germany and Poland in dark gray
1545:. The league, consisting ostensibly of anonymous middle- to high-ranking SED functionaries, demanded democratic reform in preparation for reunification.
1099:
issued a platform advocating radical changes in East Germany. In late 1956, he and his associates were quickly purged from the SED ranks and imprisoned.
1455:, the SED repudiated continuity between Prussia and the GDR. The SED destroyed the Junker manor houses, wrecked the Berlin city palace, and removed the
971:
In 1951 monthly emigration figures fluctuated between 11,500 and 17,000. By 1953 an average of 37,000 men, women, and children were leaving each month.
795:, each party body was controlled by its members, meaning that Ulbricht, as party chief, theoretically carried out the will of the members of his party.
2258:
953:
1557:, which according to the SED leadership was not permitted to build a church owing to its status as a "socialist city", demonstrated this flexibility.
1341:, in which the two countries pledged nonaggression in their relations and in matters concerning European and international security and confirmed the
679:
Growing economic differences combined with developing political tensions between the US and the Soviet Union (which would eventually develop into the
1538:
916:
2451:
1411:
1038:
663:—LPG), and more than 30,000 square kilometres (12,000 sq mi) were distributed among 500,000 peasant farmers, agricultural laborers, and
2233:
949:
2251:
2178:
1808:
1009:
increased the consumer goods workers could get, there were still high production quotas. When work quotas were raised in 1953, it led to the
965:
659:
637:
2096:
2354:
1691:
the vote had been flagrantly rigged. Increasing numbers of citizens applied for exit visas or left the country illegally. In August 1989,
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
1663:
competitive in some sectors such as mechanical engineering and printing technology. However the attempt to achieve a competitive edge in
769:
1574:. The East German stance differed from that taken by the Yugoslav, Romanian, and Italian communists, who criticized the Soviet action.
1180:
961:
798:
Incidentally, the party system was designed to allow re-entry of only those former NSDAP adherents who had earlier decided to join the
129:
2296:
1472:
729:
458:
2234:
Memories of the former FRG Ambassador in Prague of the exodus of GDR citizens through the West German Prague embassyin 1989 (German)
101:
2331:
2161:
1456:
1121:
By mid-1960 nearly 85% of all arable land was incorporated in more than 19,000 LPGs; state farms comprised another 6%. By 1961 the
82:
37:
1659:) projected a need to increase export surplus from around DM2bn in 1990 to over DM11bn by 1995 in order to stabilise debt levels.
1828:
1407:, which sold goods for Western currency, and the Exquisit and Delikat shops, which sold imported goods for East German currency.
817:—DWK), including antifascist bloc representation, assumed administrative authority. Five months after declaration of the western
510:
2396:
246:
108:
923:; it stressed high production quotas for heavy industry and increased labor productivity. The pressures of the plan caused an
687:. In March 1948, the United States, Britain and France met in London and agreed to unite the Western zones and to establish a
568:
Each occupation power assumed rule in its zone by June 1945. The powers originally pursued a common German policy, focused on
2146:
1677:
314:
2027:
Manfred Görtemaker, Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Von der Gründung bis zur Gegenwart, C. H. Beck, 1999, p.171,
1191:
than their predecessors and who had acquired managerial and technical skills. As a consequence of the new policy, the SED
841:
headquarters, and subsequently it outwardly surrendered the functions of the military government to the new German state.
699:
to the western sectors of Berlin, against the will of the Soviet supreme commander, led the Soviet Union to introduce the
2401:
1080:
737:
325:) in May 1949, the German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany) was founded on 7 October 1949 as a sovereign nation.
115:
2243:
1321:, subsequently signed by these states, committed them to reject the normalization of relations with West Germany unless
886:). The Volkskammer, defined as the highest state body, was vested with legislative sovereignty. The SED controlled the
1824:
1512:
1451:
From the beginning, the newly formed GDR tried to establish its own separate identity. Because of Marx's abhorrence of
1258:. The state extensively revamped wage policy and gave more attention to increasing the availability of consumer goods.
787:
became first secretary of the SED, and the Politburo, Secretariat, and Central Committee were formed. According to the
725:
1570:
Soviet Union in foreign policy. In keeping with the latter pronouncement, the SED approved the Soviet intervention in
2032:
1990:
1271:
474:
228:
210:
188:
148:
51:
181:
97:
2446:
2301:
1686:
In May 1989, local government elections were held. The public reaction was one of anger, when it was revealed that
1370:, by defending East German sovereignty, in turn contributed to the success of détente negotiations that led to the
1010:
980:
940:
802:, which was originally formed by emigrants and prisoners of war in the Soviet Union during World War II. Political
761:
345:
894:
All members of the SED who were active in state organs carried out party resolutions. The State Security Service (
2306:
985:
Stalin died in March 1953. In June the SED, hoping to give workers an improved standard of living, announced the
2342:
2316:
1371:
86:
1695:'s reformist government removed its border restrictions with Austria—the first breach in the so-called "
1013:. Strikes and demonstrations happened in major industrial centers. The workers demanded economic reforms. The
2326:
2212:
1687:
863:
799:
524:
278:
1854:
In mid-July most state property—covering a large majority of the East German economy—was transferred to the
1235:
562:
43:
2321:
1785:
776:
318:
1476:
1196:
810:
721:
1167:
Under the NES, the task of establishing future economic development was assigned to central planning.
1941:
1592:
1051:
388:, under Polish and Soviet administration/annexation, are shown as white, as is the likewise detached
122:
1459:
from East Berlin. Instead the SED focused on the progressive heritage of German history, including
825:), on October 7, 1949, the DWK formed a provisional government and proclaimed establishment of the
329:
175:
2082:
2072:
John Gimbel, "The American Reparations Stop in Germany: An Essay on the Political Uses of History"
2059:
1017:
and the Soviet Army suppressed the uprising, in which approximately 100 participants were killed.
854:
703:
to try to gain control of the whole of Berlin. The Western Allies decided to supply Berlin via an
1921:
1839:
as Prime Minister on April 12. Following negotiations between the two German states, a Treaty on
1484:
1464:
418:
381:
333:
75:
2197:
2193:
783:
The SED was structured as a Soviet-style "party of the new type". To that end, German communist
1869:
1195:
became divided into political and economic factions, the latter composed of members of the new
482:
430:
426:
306:
192:
1066:
1861:
792:
704:
2286:
1836:
1887:
1832:
1798:
1480:
1362:(demarcation or separation). Under this program, the country defined itself as a distinct "
1338:
1138:—PGs) incorporated one-third of the artisan sector during 1960–61, a rise from 6% in 1958.
911:
353:
1756:
8:
2273:
1908:
1200:
1161:
1151:
902:) and the Ministry of State Security had a role similar to Soviet intelligence agencies.
780:
Congress. According to official results, two-thirds of voters approved the unity lists.
537:
518:
389:
1554:
1916:
1415:
1410:
As part of the general détente between East and West, East Germany participated in the
1251:
653:
and generally limited ownership to 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi). Some 500
624:
589:
454:
1656:
545:
457:
of July/August 1945 officially recognized the zones and confirmed jurisdiction of the
2142:
2131:
2028:
1986:
1732:
1728:
1318:
1281:
Ulbricht's foreign policy from 1967 to 1971 responded to the beginning of the era of
1208:
1184:
1111:
1084:
506:
357:
277:, existed from 1949 to 1990. It covered the area of the present-day German states of
1374:(Berlin Agreement) in 1971 and the Basic Treaty with West Germany in December 1972.
517:, i.e. ethnic German migrants who fled or were expelled as part of a wider trend of
2228:
2208:
1844:
1492:
1342:
1168:
707:. This lasted 11 months until the Soviet Union lifted the blockade on 12 May 1949.
668:
573:
540:
establishing the Oder-Neisse line as a "border of peace", featuring the presidents
502:
402:
385:
270:
509:
were over a period of several years expelled and replaced by Polish settlers (see
501:
was placed under the control of the four powers. The German territory east of the
2167:
1526:
1496:
1460:
1363:
1130:
1096:
994:
920:
906:
784:
700:
692:
620:
578:
470:
349:
341:
258:
1843:
was signed on May 18 and came into effect on July 1, among things replacing the
871:
2138:
1985:. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 281.
1877:
1767:, who had been appointed prime minister only two weeks earlier, now became the
1500:
1346:
1302:
1224:
1157:
1104:
1092:
1034:
993:. The New Course in East Germany was based on the economic policy initiated by
957:
924:
803:
749:
683:) were manifested in the refusal in 1947 of the SMAD to take part in the USA's
569:
410:
361:
1968:
The Russians in Germany: a history of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949
915:—VEB). These enterprises incorporated 75% of the industrial sector. The First
425:
favored the maintenance of German unity, but supported its division among the
2440:
1522:
1488:
1255:
830:
745:
696:
684:
541:
490:
422:
406:
298:
2415:
2358:
2311:
1779:
Little of the structural economic and financial problems identified by the
1718:
1696:
1618:(mixed coffee), which was 51% coffee and 49% a range of fillers, including
1603:
1534:
1298:
1212:
1067:
Collectivization and nationalization of agriculture and industry, 1956–1963
1042:
1014:
834:
822:
688:
650:
598:
414:
337:
322:
310:
274:
2202:
521:
among the countries and regions of Eastern Europe following World War II.
440:
2420:
2223:
1873:
1764:
1602:
compared to 1972–75. This caused severe financial problems for the
1571:
1542:
1228:
1047:
1031:
998:
945:
935:
887:
879:
867:
838:
594:
582:
478:
290:
282:
1317:
to conclude bilateral mutual assistance treaties with East Germany. The
2238:
1744:
1722:
Logo for the 40th anniversary of the German Democratic Republic in 1989
1664:
1627:
1550:
1204:
1006:
986:
753:
744:—LDPD), was formed in July 1945. The KPD (with 600,000 members, led by
466:
241:
1518:
1282:
1037:
was invited to Moscow and, between September 17 and 20, concluded the
605:, the Deschimag shipyards at Bremen-Weser, and Gendorf power station.
557:
2275:
1802:
1712:
1681:
1648:
1610:
1436:
1431:
1404:
1330:
1294:
1247:
1188:
1122:
1088:
619:—SAG) were formed. The remaining confiscated industrial property was
602:
494:
302:
356:
with the former being absorbed into the latter's existing system of
64:
1856:
1813:
1763:
the Politburo, and the Central Committee resigned two days later.
1440:
1314:
788:
680:
664:
377:
1731:
and most of the Warsaw Pact leaders in attendance, members of the
2425:
1737:
1708:
1704:
1692:
1635:
1619:
1452:
1310:
1071:
833:, a party leader, was elected first president. On October 9, the
642:
1386:
561:
Allocation policy for "surplus" German heavy industry under the
532:
1700:
1599:
1306:
909:, which resulted in the formation of the People's Enterprises (
716:
657:
estates were converted into collective people's farms (German:
654:
609:
498:
486:
434:
294:
286:
944:
Minister of Justice, Helmut Brandt; the Vice-President of the
2218:
1337:
In August 1970, the Soviet Union and West Germany signed the
1192:
899:
768:—SED) under pressure from the occupation authorities. In the
646:
641:) expropriated all land belonging to owners of more than 100
775:
In May 1949, elections were held in the Soviet zone for the
748:) and the SPD in East Germany (with 680,000 members, led by
1983:
The Politics of Economic Decline in East Germany, 1945-1989
1322:
1220:
315:
former eastern lands annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union
392:. Berlin is the multinational area within the Soviet zone.
1736:
on the regime to reform. One of the largest occurred in
1623:
1581:
1095:
within the SED leadership demanded reform. To this end,
1641:
1352:
1882:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
1026:
had been dissolved and replaced by fifteen districts (
384:
borders in Germany, 1947. The territories east of the
2274:
Countries of Eastern and Central Europe during their
1970:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 9.
1366:" and emphasized its allegiance to the Soviet Union.
608:
Military industries and those owned by the state, by
1898:
1727:
However, the parade proved to be a harbinger. With
1711:demanded the legalization of opposition groups and
89:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2130:
1771:leader of a country in a state of utter collapse.
2198:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
2124:
2122:
2120:
1145:
2438:
1412:Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe
1039:Treaty on Relations between the USSR and the GDR
623:, leaving 40% of total industrial production to
463:Sowjetische Militäradministration in Deutschland
1116:Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften
2133:Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire
2117:
1827:in March 1990. The SED had reorganized as the
1774:
925:exodus of East German citizens to West Germany
2259:
2179:Treaty on Monetary, Economic and Social Union
2018:Naimark (1995), The Russians in Germany, p168
1942:"The Birth of the German Democratic Republic"
1325:formally recognized East German sovereignty.
1061:
660:Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaft
1560:
1390:Inter-German Border Strip at the Berlin Wall
1265:
974:
752:), which was under strong pressure from the
1586:
433:, representing the United States, Britain,
52:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2266:
2252:
2194:End of East Germany and Following Problems
1606:, which perennially lacked hard currency.
1276:
766:Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands
2128:
1421:
844:
742:Liberal Demokratische Partei Deutschlands
710:
536:1951 East German stamp commemorating the
459:Soviet Military Administration in Germany
448:
229:Learn how and when to remove this message
211:Learn how and when to remove this message
149:Learn how and when to remove this message
1980:
1880:. With the 12 September signing of the
1717:
1671:
1457:equestrian statue of Frederick the Great
1430:
1385:
1070:
964:. At the end of 1954 the draft of a new
853:
556:
531:
523:
439:
376:
240:
174:This article includes a list of general
1965:
849:
667:. State farms were also set up, called
511:Expulsion of Germans after World War II
417:agreed on the division of Germany into
396:
352:for 41 years until 3 October 1990 when
2439:
1959:
1582:Decline and fall of the GDR, 1975–1989
1414:in Europe and in July 1975 signed the
1125:sector produced 90% of East Germany's
1020:
372:
367:
336:reflected its status as a part of the
247:flag of the German Democratic Republic
2247:
1678:Monday demonstrations in East Germany
1293:In the late 1960s, Ulbricht made the
1079:In 1956, at the 20th Congress of the
674:
601:underground aircraft-engine plant at
1841:Monetary, Economic, and Social Union
1642:Developing international debt crisis
1381:
1358:"defensive" position of ideological
1353:Honecker and East-West Rapprochement
473:rivers to the demarcation line. The
160:
87:adding citations to reliable sources
58:
17:
2452:East Germany–Soviet Union relations
1755:spokesman, East Berlin party chief
1173:Vereinigungen Volkseigener Betriebe
1081:Communist Party of the Soviet Union
738:Liberal Democratic Party of Germany
630:
13:
1513:State Secretary for Church Affairs
1199:elite. Because of the emphasis on
354:East and West Germany were unified
180:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
2463:
2187:
1272:Foreign relations of East Germany
991:Planned Construction of Socialism
929:Planned Construction of Socialism
33:This article has multiple issues.
2341:
2285:
2239:Time line of East German history
2209:RFE/RL East German Subject Files
1901:
1792:
1241:
1187:to younger members who had more
1091:. Around this time, an academic
981:Uprising of 1953 in East Germany
762:Socialist Unity Party of Germany
616:Sowjetische Aktiengesellschaften
346:Socialist Unity Party of Germany
165:
63:
22:
2172:
2155:
2089:
2075:
1426:
878:) and a lower house called the
344:, with the nation ruled by the
263:Deutsche Demokratische Republik
74:needs additional citations for
41:or discuss these issues on the
2066:
2052:
2039:
2021:
2012:
1999:
1974:
1934:
1372:Four Power Agreement on Berlin
1146:New Economic System, 1963–1970
734:Christlich-Demokratische Union
552:
477:included the former states of
1:
2213:Blinken Open Society Archives
1927:
1829:Party of Democratic Socialism
1655:, after its principal author
1609:As a result, in mid-1977 the
1506:
1491:and to the organizers of the
1223:increased, and the supply of
815:Deutsche Wirtschaftskomission
405:, held in February 1945, the
1862:five original federal states
1236:Economic System of Socialism
1075:Economic activity in the GDR
758:merged in April 1946 to form
321:(FRG, known colloquially as
307:occupied by the Soviet Union
7:
2097:"Potsdam Reparations Begin"
1966:Naimark, Norman M. (1995).
1894:
1786:International Monetary Fund
1775:Financial situation in 1990
1743:Honecker's replacement was
1136:Produktionsgenossenschaften
919:(1951–55) introduced
819:Federal Republic of Germany
348:(SED) and operating with a
319:Federal Republic of Germany
10:
2468:
2129:Sebetsyen, Victor (2009).
1981:Kopstein, Jeffrey (1997).
1796:
1675:
1590:
1510:
1477:Karl August von Hardenberg
1269:
1149:
1062:Economic policy, 1956–1975
978:
934:Under a law passed by the
921:centralized state planning
827:German Democratic Republic
811:German Economic Commission
730:Christian Democratic Union
645:of land as well as former
255:German Democratic Republic
2411:
2392:
2350:
2339:
2292:
2283:
1593:East German coffee crisis
1561:10th Party Congress, 1981
1266:Foreign policy, 1967–1975
975:The uprising of June 1953
613:stock companies (German:
563:"Level of Industry" plans
98:"History of East Germany"
2083:"GHDI - Document - Page"
2060:"GHDI - Document - Page"
1825:its first free elections
1587:Coffee crisis, 1976–1979
864:National Front coalition
777:German People's Congress
671:(State-owned Property).
2447:History of East Germany
2047:The Russians in Germany
2007:The Russians in Germany
1922:Leaders of East Germany
1485:Gerhard von Scharnhorst
1473:Karl Freiherr vom Stein
1277:Ulbricht versus détente
896:Staatssicherheitsdienst
862:The SED controlled the
195:more precise citations.
1870:Allies of World War II
1723:
1448:
1422:Domestic policy, 1970s
1391:
1076:
1052:National People's Army
898:, better known as the
859:
845:Early years, 1949–1955
809:In November 1948, the
770:October 1946 elections
711:Political developments
565:
549:
529:
483:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
475:Soviet occupation zone
449:The Potsdam Conference
445:
431:Allied Control Council
393:
279:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
262:
250:
2219:Der Demokrat (German)
1721:
1672:Regime collapse, 1989
1434:
1389:
1127:agricultural products
1074:
857:
793:democratic centralism
635:The agrarian reform (
560:
535:
527:
443:
380:
244:
2205:(public domain text)
1888:German reunification
1833:Alliance for Germany
1799:German reunification
1481:Wilhelm von Humboldt
1465:German Peasants' War
1056:Nationale Volksarmee
912:Volkseigener Betrieb
888:Council of Ministers
850:SED as leading party
689:West German republic
444:The Oder-Neisse Line
397:The Yalta Conference
83:improve this article
2224:DDR Wissen (German)
2203:LOC Country studies
1909:East Germany portal
1201:professionalization
1162:New Economic System
1152:New Economic System
1058:—NVA) was created.
1021:Growing Sovereignty
989:which replaced the
858:The logo of the SED
538:Treaty of Zgorzelec
519:population transfer
373:Division of Germany
368:Creation, 1945–1949
342:Communist countries
2166:2015-06-10 at the
1948:. 16 December 2015
1917:History of Germany
1878:European Community
1837:Lothar de Maizière
1823:East Germany held
1724:
1449:
1447:from 1953 to 1990)
1416:Helsinki Final Act
1392:
1252:Consumer socialism
1083:, First Secretary
1077:
960:; and the editor,
860:
675:Political tensions
625:private enterprise
590:Potsdam conference
566:
550:
530:
455:Potsdam Conference
446:
394:
269:), often known in
251:
2434:
2433:
2148:978-0-375-42532-5
2137:. New York City:
1757:GĂĽnter Schabowski
1729:Mikhail Gorbachev
1382:Two German states
1319:Ulbricht Doctrine
1231:, improved much.
1209:technical college
1185:Central Committee
1085:Nikita Khrushchev
821:(better known as
515:Heimatvertriebene
507:Potsdam Agreement
465:, SMAD) from the
390:Saar protectorate
358:liberal democracy
340:of Soviet-allied
239:
238:
231:
221:
220:
213:
159:
158:
151:
133:
56:
2459:
2345:
2289:
2268:
2261:
2254:
2245:
2244:
2181:
2176:
2170:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2136:
2126:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2101:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2056:
2050:
2045:Naimark (1995),
2043:
2037:
2025:
2019:
2016:
2010:
2005:Naimark (1995),
2003:
1997:
1996:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1938:
1911:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1845:East German mark
1555:EisenhĂĽttenstadt
1493:Spartacus League
1343:Oder-Neisse line
1295:Council of State
1169:Decentralization
1050:and in 1956 the
956:, the deputy to
954:Bruno Foldhammer
884:People's Chamber
829:(East Germany).
669:Volkseigenes Gut
631:Agrarian reforms
574:demilitarization
503:Oder-Neisse line
421:. Soviet leader
419:occupation zones
403:Yalta Conference
386:Oder-Neisse line
305:. This area was
234:
227:
216:
209:
205:
202:
196:
191:this article by
182:inline citations
169:
168:
161:
154:
147:
143:
140:
134:
132:
91:
67:
59:
48:
26:
25:
18:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2407:
2404:
2388:
2385:
2346:
2337:
2334:
2290:
2279:
2272:
2190:
2185:
2184:
2177:
2173:
2168:Wayback Machine
2160:
2156:
2149:
2127:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2090:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1979:
1975:
1964:
1960:
1951:
1949:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1907:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1805:
1795:
1789:reunification.
1777:
1684:
1674:
1657:Gerhard SchĂĽrer
1644:
1595:
1589:
1584:
1563:
1539:Die Alternative
1527:Robert Havemann
1515:
1509:
1497:Karl Liebknecht
1463:'s role in the
1445:Karl-Marx-Stadt
1429:
1424:
1384:
1364:socialist state
1355:
1279:
1274:
1268:
1244:
1154:
1148:
1131:nationalization
1097:Wolfgang Harich
1069:
1064:
1023:
995:Georgi Malenkov
983:
977:
968:was published.
907:nationalization
852:
847:
785:Walter Ulbricht
736:—CDU), and the
713:
701:Berlin Blockade
693:currency reform
677:
633:
555:
546:Bolesław Bierut
451:
399:
382:Occupation zone
375:
370:
350:command economy
334:economic system
328:East Germany's
235:
224:
223:
222:
217:
206:
200:
197:
187:Please help to
186:
170:
166:
155:
144:
138:
135:
92:
90:
80:
68:
27:
23:
12:
11:
5:
2465:
2455:
2454:
2449:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2399:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2307:Czechoslovakia
2304:
2299:
2293:
2291:
2284:
2281:
2280:
2271:
2270:
2263:
2256:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2206:
2200:
2189:
2188:External links
2186:
2183:
2182:
2171:
2154:
2147:
2139:Pantheon Books
2116:
2088:
2074:
2065:
2051:
2038:
2020:
2011:
1998:
1991:
1973:
1958:
1946:German Culture
1932:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1896:
1893:
1794:
1791:
1781:SchĂĽrer-Papier
1776:
1773:
1688:National Front
1673:
1670:
1653:SchĂĽrer-Papier
1643:
1640:
1591:Main article:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1562:
1559:
1508:
1505:
1501:Rosa Luxemburg
1461:Thomas MĂĽntzer
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1383:
1380:
1354:
1351:
1347:Erich Honecker
1303:Czechoslovakia
1278:
1275:
1270:Main article:
1267:
1264:
1243:
1240:
1225:consumer goods
1158:Evsei Liberman
1150:Main article:
1147:
1144:
1105:heavy industry
1093:intelligentsia
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1035:Otto Grotewohl
1032:Prime Minister
1022:
1019:
979:Main article:
976:
973:
958:Gerhard Eisler
917:Five-Year Plan
876:States Chamber
851:
848:
846:
843:
804:denazification
800:National Front
750:Otto Grotewohl
712:
709:
676:
673:
632:
629:
570:denazification
554:
551:
497:. The city of
450:
447:
411:United Kingdom
398:
395:
374:
371:
369:
366:
362:market economy
313:excluding the
309:at the end of
299:Sachsen-Anhalt
237:
236:
219:
218:
201:September 2008
173:
171:
164:
157:
156:
71:
69:
62:
57:
31:
30:
28:
21:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2464:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2442:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2410:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2391:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2355:Soviet Russia
2353:
2352:
2349:
2344:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2288:
2282:
2277:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2257:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2180:
2175:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2150:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2134:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2105:
2098:
2092:
2084:
2078:
2069:
2061:
2055:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2034:
2033:3-406-44554-3
2030:
2024:
2015:
2008:
2002:
1994:
1992:0-8078-5707-6
1988:
1984:
1977:
1969:
1962:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1933:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1899:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1852:
1850:
1849:Deutsche Mark
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1815:
1810:
1804:
1800:
1793:Reunification
1790:
1787:
1782:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1751:government's
1748:
1746:
1741:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1679:
1669:
1666:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1639:
1637:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1579:
1575:
1573:
1567:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1528:
1524:
1523:Wolf Biermann
1520:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1489:Martin Luther
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1388:
1379:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1339:Moscow Treaty
1335:
1332:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1273:
1263:
1259:
1257:
1256:working class
1253:
1249:
1242:The Main Task
1239:
1237:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1153:
1143:
1139:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1073:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1029:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1011:1953 Uprising
1008:
1003:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
982:
972:
969:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
942:
937:
932:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
913:
908:
903:
901:
897:
892:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
856:
842:
840:
837:withdrew her
836:
832:
831:Wilhelm Pieck
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
807:
805:
801:
796:
794:
791:principle of
790:
786:
781:
778:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
746:Wilhelm Pieck
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
718:
708:
706:
702:
698:
697:Deutsche Mark
694:
690:
686:
685:Marshall Plan
682:
672:
670:
666:
662:
661:
656:
652:
651:war criminals
648:
644:
640:
639:
628:
626:
622:
618:
617:
611:
606:
604:
600:
596:
591:
586:
584:
580:
575:
571:
564:
559:
547:
543:
542:Wilhelm Pieck
539:
534:
526:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
491:Saxony-Anhalt
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
442:
438:
436:
432:
428:
424:
423:Joseph Stalin
420:
416:
412:
408:
407:United States
404:
391:
387:
383:
379:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
248:
243:
233:
230:
215:
212:
204:
194:
190:
184:
183:
177:
172:
163:
162:
153:
150:
142:
131:
128:
124:
121:
117:
114:
110:
107:
103:
100: –
99:
95:
94:Find sources:
88:
84:
78:
77:
72:This article
70:
66:
61:
60:
55:
53:
46:
45:
40:
39:
34:
29:
20:
19:
16:
2416:Eastern Bloc
2359:Soviet Union
2312:East Germany
2229:Tillis Story
2174:
2157:
2132:
2109:14 September
2107:. Retrieved
2103:
2091:
2077:
2068:
2054:
2046:
2041:
2023:
2014:
2006:
2001:
1982:
1976:
1967:
1961:
1950:. Retrieved
1945:
1936:
1885:
1867:
1855:
1853:
1848:
1822:
1818:
1806:
1780:
1778:
1768:
1761:
1752:
1749:
1742:
1725:
1697:Iron Curtain
1685:
1661:
1652:
1645:
1632:
1615:
1608:
1596:
1576:
1568:
1564:
1547:
1535:Rudolf Bahro
1532:
1517:In spite of
1516:
1469:
1450:
1444:
1439:monument in
1427:GDR identity
1409:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1376:
1367:
1359:
1356:
1336:
1327:
1299:conservatism
1292:
1288:
1280:
1260:
1245:
1233:
1229:luxury items
1227:, including
1217:
1213:trade school
1197:technocratic
1177:
1172:
1166:
1155:
1140:
1135:
1120:
1115:
1109:
1101:
1078:
1055:
1043:Soviet Union
1027:
1024:
1015:Volkspolizei
1004:
984:
970:
950:Joseph Rambo
933:
910:
904:
895:
893:
883:
875:
872:Länderkammer
861:
835:Soviet Union
826:
823:West Germany
818:
814:
808:
797:
782:
774:
765:
741:
733:
714:
678:
658:
636:
634:
621:nationalized
614:
607:
599:Daimler-Benz
587:
583:Deutschmarks
567:
514:
462:
452:
415:Soviet Union
400:
338:Eastern Bloc
327:
323:West Germany
311:World War II
275:East Germany
266:
254:
252:
225:
207:
198:
179:
145:
136:
126:
119:
112:
105:
93:
81:Please help
76:verification
73:
49:
42:
36:
35:Please help
32:
15:
2421:Warsaw Pact
2397:Byelorussia
1874:Helmut Kohl
1765:Hans Modrow
1616:Mischkaffee
1572:Afghanistan
1543:Der Spiegel
1525:, who with
1087:repudiated
1048:Warsaw Pact
966:family code
946:Volkskammer
936:Volkskammer
880:Volkskammer
870:called the
868:upper house
839:East Berlin
638:Bodenreform
595:Schweinfurt
579:reparations
553:Reparations
479:Brandenburg
291:West Berlin
289:(excluding
283:Brandenburg
249:, 1959–1990
193:introducing
139:August 2008
2441:Categories
2332:Yugoslavia
2215:, Budapest
1952:2020-01-14
1928:References
1797:See also:
1745:Egon Krenz
1713:democratic
1676:See also:
1665:microchips
1628:sugar beet
1551:censorship
1511:See also:
1507:Dissidents
1405:Intershops
1400:Abgrenzung
1368:Abgrenzung
1360:Abgrenzung
1205:university
1112:industrial
1007:New Course
1005:While the
1002:material.
987:New Course
754:Communists
728:, the new
544:(GDR) and
413:, and the
176:references
109:newspapers
38:improve it
2383:1982–1991
2378:1964–1982
2373:1953–1964
2368:1927–1953
2363:1917–1927
2276:Communist
2196:from the
1847:with the
1809:Basic Law
1803:die Wende
1715:reforms.
1682:Die Wende
1649:Politburo
1611:Politburo
1443:(renamed
1437:Karl Marx
1398:Although
1331:democracy
1248:Main Task
1189:education
1181:Politburo
1123:socialist
1089:Stalinism
1041:with the
705:airbridge
603:Obrigheim
495:Thuringia
461:(German:
330:political
303:ThĂĽringen
44:talk page
2302:Bulgaria
2164:Archived
2104:wisc.edu
1895:See also
1857:Treuhand
1814:Saarland
1769:de facto
1753:de facto
1441:Chemnitz
1435:GDR era
1315:Bulgaria
1183:and the
999:consumer
962:Lex Ende
789:Leninist
715:An SMAD
681:Cold War
665:refugees
643:hectares
548:(Poland)
2426:Comecon
2402:Ukraine
2327:Romania
2317:Hungary
2297:Albania
1738:Leipzig
1709:Leipzig
1705:Dresden
1693:Hungary
1636:Vietnam
1620:chicory
1519:détente
1453:Prussia
1311:Hungary
1283:détente
1028:Bezirke
401:At the
295:Sachsen
271:English
257:(GDR),
189:improve
123:scholar
2322:Poland
2278:period
2145:
2049:, p169
2031:
2009:, p167
1989:
1701:Prague
1626:, and
1600:coffee
1499:, and
1483:, and
1313:, and
1307:Poland
724:, the
717:decree
655:Junker
597:, the
499:Berlin
493:, and
487:Saxony
471:Neisse
435:France
427:Allies
360:and a
301:, and
287:Berlin
259:German
178:, but
125:
118:
111:
104:
96:
2100:(PDF)
1221:wages
1211:, or
1193:elite
900:Stasi
647:Nazis
130:JSTOR
116:books
2143:ISBN
2111:2023
2029:ISBN
1987:ISBN
1886:see
1801:and
1707:and
1680:and
1323:Bonn
1246:The
760:the
649:and
610:Nazi
572:and
469:and
467:Oder
453:The
332:and
253:The
245:The
102:news
1891:).
1733:FDJ
1624:rye
1604:GDR
1537:'s
941:SED
726:SPD
722:KPD
293:),
273:as
267:DDR
85:by
2443::
2361::
2357:/
2211:,
2141:.
2119:^
2102:.
1944:.
1630:.
1622:,
1503:.
1495:,
1479:,
1475:,
1309:,
1305:,
1215:.
1207:,
1107:.
952:;
948:,
756:,
627:.
489:,
485:,
481:,
409:,
364:.
297:,
285:,
281:,
261::
47:.
2267:e
2260:t
2253:v
2151:.
2113:.
2085:.
2062:.
1995:.
1955:.
1651:(
1134:(
1054:(
882:(
874:(
813:(
764:(
740:(
732:(
265:(
232:)
226:(
214:)
208:(
203:)
199:(
185:.
152:)
146:(
141:)
137:(
127:·
120:·
113:·
106:·
79:.
54:)
50:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
