Health equity - Knowledge

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traditional in relying solely on herbal and natural remedies believing that the elaborate institutions of urban care are not best suited for serving individual needs. Medical pluralism, hence, is an adaptive tactic most effective for communities that include Indigenous people, and mixed rural-urban populations. Medical pluralism acknowledges the needs of a variety of people and is a step closer to health equity. Medical pluralism "avoids the extremes'' of most current healthcare delivery approaches and provides a middle-ground perspective on tackling health issues that are not solved by urban or rural health alone. By practicing integrative medicine, chronic and unresolved health issues are better treated, borrowing from the technological and philosophical approaches of both models of care. Aimed at embracing both medical techniques, medical pluralism is currently being considered in nations with diverse communities; it is manifested in the practice of integrative medicine which is a deliberate execution of that approach. There are currently ongoing efforts to implement this dual model of healthcare delivery regionally in nations composed of very diverse communities, and such is the case in many Latin American countries such as Ecuador that have a large indigenous population. The process of successfully implementing an integrative healthcare system is discussed as having six main steps that pose different challenges. Guito et al.'s guidelines for each steps describes the first as being 'imperceptible integration" to the sixth being "total integration".

907:. Many health-related settings provide interpreter services for their limited English proficient patients. This has been helpful when providers do not speak the same language as the patient. However, there is mounting evidence that patients need to communicate with a language concordant physician (not simply an interpreter) to receive the best medical care, bond with the physician, and be satisfied with the care experience. Having patient-physician language discordant pairs (i.e. Spanish-speaking patient with an English-speaking physician) may also lead to greater medical expenditures and thus higher costs to the organization. Additional communication problems result from a decrease or lack of cultural competence by providers. It is important for providers to be cognizant of patients' health beliefs and practices without being judgmental or reacting. Understanding a patients' view of health and disease is important for diagnosis and treatment. So providers need to assess patients' health beliefs and practices to improve quality of care. Patient health decisions can be influenced by religious beliefs, mistrust of Western medicine, and familial and hierarchical roles, all of which a white provider may not be familiar with. Other type of communication problems are seen in LGBT health care with the spoken heterosexist (conscious or unconscious) attitude on LGBT patients, lack of understanding on issues like having no sex with men (lesbians, gynecologic examinations) and other issues. 297:

In a 2007 Census Bureau, African American families made an average of $ 33,916, while their white counterparts made an average of $ 54,920. Due to a lack of affordable health care, the African American death rate reveals that African Americans have a higher rate of dying from treatable or preventable causes. According to a study conducted in 2005 by the Office of Minority Health—a U.S. Department of Health—African American men were 30% more likely than white men to die from heart disease. Also African American women were 34% more likely to die from breast cancer than their white counterparts. Additionally, among African American and Latino infants, mortality rates are 2 to 3 times higher than other racial groups. An analysis of more than 2 million pregnancies found that babies born to Black women worldwide had poorer outcomes (such as baby death and stillbirth) than White women. This was true even after controlling for older age and a lower level of education among mothers (an indicator of poorer economic and social status). In the same analysis, Hispanic women were 3 times more likely to experience a baby death than White women and South Asian women had an increased risk of

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institutions. In other words, medicine and public health organizations have evolved to better meet the needs of some groups more than others. While there are many examples of bias in medical and public health research, some general categories of exclusionary research practices include: 1) Structural invisibility – approaches to collection, analysis or publication of data which hide the potential contribution of social factors to the distribution of health risks or outcomes. For example, limitations in public health surveys in the United States to collect data on race, ethnicity, and nativity; (2) Institutionalized exclusion – codification of exclusionary social structures in research practices, instruments, and scientific models resulting in an inherent bias in favor of the normative group. For example, the definition of a human as an 80 kg man in toxicology; (3) Unexamined assumptions – cultural norms and unconscious bias that can impact all aspects of research. In other words, assuming that the researchers' perspective and understanding is objective and universally shared. For example, the lack of conceptual equivalence across multi-lingual survey instruments.

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from asbestos and radon that result in increase chronic disease, morbidity, and mortality. The quality of residential environment such as damaged housing has been shown to increase the risk of adverse birth outcomes, which is reflective of a communities health. This occurs through exposure to lead in paint and lead contaminated soil as well as indoor air pollutants such as second-hand smoke and fine particulate matter. Housing conditions can create varying degrees of health risk that lead to complications of birth and long-term consequences in the aging population. In addition, occupational hazards can add to the detrimental effects of poor housing conditions. It has been reported that a greater number of minorities work in jobs that have higher rates of exposure to toxic chemical, dust and fumes. One example of this is the environmental hazards that poor Latino farmworkers face in the United States. This group is exposed to high levels of particulate matter and pesticides on the job, which have contributed to increased cancer rates, lung conditions, and birth defects in their communities.

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ability of both individuals to effectively communicate. Language and culture both play a significant role in communication during a medical visit. Among the patient population, minorities face greater difficulty in communicating with their physicians. Patients when surveyed responded that 19% of the time they have problems communicating with their providers which included understanding doctor, feeling doctor listened, and had questions but did not ask. In contrast, the Hispanic population had the largest problem communicating with their provider, 33% of the time. Communication has been linked to health outcomes, as communication improves so does patient satisfaction which leads to improved compliance and then to improved health outcomes. Quality of care is impacted as a result of an inability to communicate with health care providers. Language plays a pivotal role in communication and efforts need to be taken to ensure excellent communication between patient and provider. Among

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tend to be segregated regardless of income level when compared to Latinos and Asians. Thus, segregation results in minorities clustering in poor neighborhoods that have limited employment, medical care, and educational resources, which is associated with high rates of criminal behavior. In addition, segregation affects the health of individual residents because the environment is not conducive to physical exercise due to unsafe neighborhoods that lack recreational facilities and have nonexistent park space. Racial and ethnic discrimination adds an additional element to the environment that individuals have to interact with daily. Individuals that reported discrimination have been shown to have an increase risk of hypertension in addition to other physiological stress related affects. The high magnitude of environmental, structural, socioeconomic stressors leads to further compromise on the psychological and physical being, which leads to poor health and disease.

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remains limited for marginalized groups such as the homeless, racial minorities, and those who are homebound or disabled. In Central and Eastern Europe, the privatization of dental healthcare has resulted in a shortage of affordable options for lower-income people. In Eastern Europe, school-age children formerly had access through school programs, but these have been discontinued. Therefore, many children no longer have access to care. Access to services and the breadth of services provided is greatly reduced in developing regions. Such services may be limited to emergency care and pain relief, neglecting preventative or restorative services. Regions like Africa, Asia, and Latin America do not have enough dental health professionals to meet the needs of the populace. In Africa, for example, there is only one dentist for every 150,000 people, compared to industrialized countries which average one dentist per 2,000 people.

116:. It is clear how a lack of financial capital can compromise the capacity to maintain good health. Income is an important determinant of access to healthcare resources. Because one's job or career is a primary conduit for both financial and social capital, work is an important, yet underrepresented, factor in health inequities research and prevention efforts. There are many ways that a job can affect one's health, such as the job's physical demands, exposure to hazards, mechanisms of employment, compensation and benefits, and availability of health and safety programs. In addition, those who are in steady jobs are less likely to face poverty and its implications and more likely to have access to health care. Maintenance of good health through the utilization of proper healthcare resources can be quite costly and therefore unaffordable to certain populations. 262:(CMS). The CMS provided an infrastructure for the delivery of healthcare to rural locations, as well as a framework to provide funding based upon communal contributions and government subsidies. In its absence, there was a significant decrease in the quantity of healthcare professionals (35.9%), as well as functioning clinics (from 71% to 55% of villages over 14 years) in rural areas, resulting in inequitable healthcare for rural populations. The significant poverty experienced by rural workers (some earning less than US$ 1 per day) further limits access to healthcare, and results in malnutrition and poor general hygiene, compounding the loss of healthcare resources. The loss of the CMS has had noticeable impacts on life expectancy, with rural regions such as areas of Western China experiencing significantly lower life expectancies. 846:, coverage limits, in-network versus out-of-network providers, and prior authorization. According to a United Health survey, only 9% of Americans surveyed understood these health insurance terms. To address issues in finding available insurance plans and confusion around the components of health insurance policies, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) set up state-mandated health insurance marketplaces or health exchanges, where individuals can research and compare different kinds of health care plans and their respective components. Between 2014 and 2020, over 11.4 million people have been able to sign up for health insurance through the Marketplaces. However, most Marketplaces focus more on the presentation of health insurances and their coverages, rather than including detailed explanations of the health insurance terms. 343:

population (16 and 15 times greater respectively), which is indicative of the poor healthcare of this ethnic group. At this point in time, the parities in life expectancy at birth between indigenous and non-indigenous peoples were highest in Australia, when compared to the US, Canada and New Zealand. In South America, indigenous populations faced similarly poor health outcomes with maternal and infant mortality rates that were significantly higher (up to 3 to 4 times greater) than the national average. The same pattern of poor indigenous healthcare continues in India, where indigenous groups were shown to experience greater mortality at most stages of life, even when corrected for environmental effects.

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access to healthcare in rural communities has recently become a matter of concern. Access to maternal obstetric care has decreased in rural communities due to the increase in both hospital closers and labor & delivery center closures that have placed an increased burden on families living in these areas. Burdens faced by women in these rural communities include financial burdens on traveling to receive adequate care. Millions of individuals living in rural areas in the United States are more at risk of having decreased access to maternal health care facilities if the community is low-income. These women are more at risk of experiencing adverse maternal outcomes like a higher risk of having

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international level, there is a positive correlation between developed countries with high economic equality and longevity. This is unrelated to average income per capita in wealthy nations. Economic gain only impacts life expectancy to a great degree in countries in which the mean per capita annual income is less than approximately $ 25,000. The United States shows exceptionally low health outcomes for a developed country, despite having the highest national healthcare expenditure in the world. The US ranks 31st in life expectancy. Americans have a lower life expectancy than their European counterparts, even when factors such as race, income, diet, smoking, and education are controlled for.

771:. This is where patients have problems obtaining, processing, and understanding basic health information. For example, patients with a poor understanding of good health may not know when it is necessary to seek care for certain symptoms. While problems with health literacy are not limited to minority groups, the problem can be more pronounced in these groups than in whites due to socioeconomic and educational factors. A study conducted in Mdantsane, South Africa depicts the correlation of maternal education and the antenatal visits for pregnancy. As patients have a greater education, they tend to use maternal health care services more than those with a lesser maternal education background. 657:

understanding of cervical cancer in lesbian and bisexual individuals it is unclear whether its prevalence in this community is a result of probability or some other preventable cause. For example, LGBT people report poorer cancer care experiences. It is incorrectly assumed that LGBT women have a lower incidence of cervical cancer than their heterosexual counterparts, resulting in lower rates of screening. Such findings illustrate the need for continued research focused on the circumstances and needs of LGBT individuals and the inclusion in policy frameworks of sexual orientation and gender identity as social determinants of health.

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lead to poor health choices and therefore outcomes. Minority neighborhoods have been continuously noted to have more fast food chains and fewer grocery stores than predominantly white neighborhoods. These food deserts affect a family's ability to have easy access to nutritious food for their children. This lack of nutritious food extends beyond the household into the schools that have a variety of vending machines and deliver over processed foods. These environmental condition have social ramifications and in the first time in US history is it projected that the current generation will live shorter lives than their predecessors will.

31: 199:, since the nation gained its independence, the likelihood of giving birth at home has increased rapidly among women with lower educational status. Education also has a significant impact on the quality of prenatal and maternal healthcare. Mothers with primary education consulted a doctor during pregnancy at significantly lower rates (72%) when compared to those with a secondary education (77%), technical training (88%) or a higher education (100%). There is also evidence for a correlation between socioeconomic status and health literacy; one study showed that wealthier 245: 214:

and services necessary to make the right health decisions, as well as being associated with a longer lifespan. Individuals with high grades have been observed to display better levels of protective health behavior and lower levels of risky health behaviors than their less academically gifted counterparts. Factors such as poor diets, inadequate physical activity, physical and emotional abuse, and teenage pregnancy all have significant impacts on students' academic performance and these factors tend to manifest themselves more frequently in lower-income individuals.

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sexual orientation (SO) to providers to help inform them of better care and safe treatment for these patients. Studies regarding patient-provider communication in the LGBT patient community show that providers themselves report a significant lack of awareness regarding the health issues LGBT-identifying patients face. As a component of this fact, medical schools do not focus much attention on LGBT health issues in their curriculum; the LGBT-related topics that are discussed tend to be limited to HIV/AIDS, sexual orientation, and gender identity.

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information needed) to make a complex decisions. Physicians are unaware of their implicit biases. Some research suggests that ethnic minorities are less likely than whites to receive a kidney transplant once on dialysis or to receive pain medication for bone fractures. Critics question this research and say further studies are needed to determine how doctors and patients make their treatment decisions. Others argue that certain diseases cluster by ethnicity and that clinical decision making does not always reflect these differences.

599:(WHO) recognizes that there is inadequate research data about the effects of LGBT discrimination on morbidity and mortality rates in the patient population. In addition, retrospective epidemiological studies on LGBT populations are difficult to conduct as a result of the practice that sexual orientation is not noted on death certificates. WHO has proposed that more research about the LGBT patient population is needed for improved understanding of its unique health needs and barriers to accessing care. 335:

Given that non-natives composed a considerable section of these nations (6%, 17%, 3%, 1%, and 6% respectively), this could have significant detrimental effects on the health equity of the nation. In France, an older study noted significant differences in access to healthcare between native French populations, and non-French/migrant populations based upon health expenditure; however this was not fully independent of poorer economic and working conditions experienced by these populations.

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the WHO. The study described the presence of significant ethnic parities in the child mortality rates among children younger than 5 years old, as well as in education and vaccine use. In South Africa, the legacy of apartheid still manifests itself as a differential access to social services, including healthcare based upon race and social class, and the resultant health inequities. Further, evidence suggests systematic disregard of indigenous populations in a number of countries. The

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others providing for them; young children are not capable of maintaining good health on their own. In addition, these children have higher mortality rates than those in richer families due to malnutrition. Because of their low socioeconomic status, receiving health care can be challenging. Children in poor families are less likely to receive health care in general, and if they do have access to care, it is likely that the quality of that care is not highly sufficient.

45:, specifically from wealth, power and prestige. Individuals who have consistently been deprived of these three determinants are significantly disadvantaged from health inequities, and face worse health outcomes than those who are able to access certain resources. It is not equity to simply provide every individual with the same resources; that would be equality. In order to achieve health equity, resources must be allocated based on an individual need-based principle. 10306: 491:, health disparities have distinguished medical treatment for men and women due to the cultural phenomenon of preference for male children. Recently, gender-based disparities have decreased as females have begun to receive higher-quality care. Additionally, a girl's chances of survival are impacted by the presence of a male sibling; while girls do have the same chance of survival as boys if they are the oldest girl, they have a higher probability of being 172:

status counterparts. The negative aspects of inequality are spread across the population. For example, when comparing the United States (a more unequal nation) to England (a less unequal nation), the US shows higher rates of diabetes, hypertension, cancer, lung disease, and heart disease across all income levels. This is also true of the difference between mortality across all occupational classes in highly equal Sweden as compared to less-equal England.

52:, "Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". The quality of health and how health is distributed among economic and social status in a society can provide insight into the level of development within that society. Health is a basic human right and human need, and all human rights are interconnected. Thus, health must be discussed along with all other basic human rights. 787:

health care services challenging for them physically. Also, they may not have the opportunity to access health information via the internet as less than 15% of Americans over the age of 65 have access to the internet. This could put older individuals at a disadvantage in terms of accessing valuable information about their health and how to protect it. On the other hand, older individuals in the US (65 or above) are provided with medical care via

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providers to ensure quality outcomes for patients. This interaction is complicated by the difficulty of distinguishing between sex and gender given their intertwined nature; sex modifies gender, and gender can modify sex, thereby impacting health. Sex and gender can both be considered sources of health disparity; both contribute to susceptibility to various health conditions, including cardiovascular disease and autoimmune disorders.

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providers to communicate with limited English proficient patients leads to more diagnostic procedures, more invasive procedures, and over prescribing of medications. Language barriers have not only hindered appointment scheduling, prescription filling, and clear communications, but have also been associated with health declines, which can be attributed to reduced compliance and delays in seeking care, which could affect particularly

10330: 361:, that almost 130 countries had not yet given a single dose. In early April 2021, the WHO reported that 87% of existing vaccines had been distributed to the wealthiest countries, while only 0.2% had been distributed to the poorest countries. As a result, one-quarter of the populations of those wealthy countries had already been vaccinated, while only 1 in 500 residents of the poor countries had been vaccinated. 10318: 682:

care, experience long waiting times at clinics, or are unable to obtain the necessary health care they need in a timely manner. Rural areas characterized by a largely Hispanic population average 5.3 physicians per 10,000 residents compared with 8.7 physicians per 10,000 residents in nonrural areas. Financial barriers to access, including lack of health insurance, are also common among the urban poor.

135:, it was demonstrated that wealthier families were far more likely to bring their children to a healthcare provider: a significant step towards stronger healthcare. Unequal income distribution itself can be a cause of poorer health for a society as a result of "underinvestment in social goods, such as public education and health care; disruption of social cohesion and the erosion of social capital". 10370: 84:

described as differences in health that are avoidable, unfair, and unjust, and cannot be explained by natural causes, such as biology, or differences in choice. Thus, if one population dies younger than another because of genetic differences, which is a non-remediable/controllable factor, the situation would be classified as a health inequality. Conversely, if a population has a lower

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health insurance rates for Americans, it also led many individuals to sign up for relatively inexpensive health insurance plans that did not provide adequate health coverage in order to avoid the repercussions of the mandate. Similar to those who lack health insurance, these underinsured individuals also deal with the side effects that occur as a result of lack of care.

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rate is higher for adult men than for adult women; for example, adult men develop fatal illnesses with more frequency than females. The leading causes of the higher male death rate are accidents, injuries, violence, and cardiovascular diseases. In most regions of the world, violence and traffic-related injuries account for the majority of mortality of adolescent males.

975:(1) training to enhance ability, (2) monetary incentives to enhance motivation, and (3) management feedback to enhance accountability led to successful reduction in pressure ulcers. Specifically, the detection gap between the two groups decreased. The researchers suggested additional replications with longer duration to assess the effectiveness of the AIM framework. 823:. The main types of health insurance in the United States includes taxpayer-funded health insurance and private health insurance. Funded through state and federal taxes, some common examples of taxpayer-funded health insurance include Medicaid, Medicare, and CHIP. Private health insurance is offered in a variety of forms, and includes plans such as 302:

their role as indicators of exposure to racialized social disadvantage. Racialized social disadvantage encompasses systemic and structural barriers, discrimination, and social exclusion experienced by individuals and communities based on their race or ethnicity, resulting in disparities in access to resources, opportunities, and health outcomes.

987:. The majority of high quality health services are distributed among the wealthy people in society, leaving those who are poor with limited options. In order to change this fact and move towards achieving health equity, it is essential that health care increases in areas or neighborhoods consisting of low socioeconomic families and individuals. 255:, for example, has demonstrable health spatial inequities with 12–14% of the population living in areas where healthcare is inaccessible. Inequity has decreased in some areas of the nation as a result of the work of healthcare reform programs, however those regions not served by the programs have experienced a slight increase in inequity. 955:

that practices associated with knowledge transfer and translation can increase the uptake of knowledge, that there are many different potential advocates and targets of advocacy and that advocacy efforts need to be tailored according to context and target. As a result of its work, it produced an online advocacy for health equity toolkit.

1005:(AI) can be helpful in identifying and improving issues of health disparities. A recent scoping review of the literature found that it is important to engage with various communities while AI health applications are being developed and also reviewed based on various biases that are later identified through this work. 970:

The Gradient Evaluation Framework. The evidence base defining which policies and interventions are most effective in reducing health inequalities is extremely weak. It is important therefore that policies and interventions which seek to influence health inequity be more adequately evaluated. Gradient

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Communication is critical for the delivery of appropriate and effective treatment and care, regardless of a patient's race, and miscommunication can lead to incorrect diagnosis, improper use of medications, and failure to receive follow-up care. The patient provider relationship is dependent on the

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Scarcity of providers. In inner cities, rural areas, and communities with high concentrations of minority populations, access to medical care can be limited due to the scarcity of primary care practitioners, specialists, and diagnostic facilities. This scarcity can also extend to the personnel in the

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Lack of a regular source of care. Without access to a regular source of care, patients have greater difficulty obtaining care, fewer doctor visits, and more difficulty obtaining prescription drugs. Compared to whites, minority groups in the United States are less likely to have a doctor they go to on

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Racial segregation is another environmental factor that occurs through the discriminatory action of those organizations and working individuals within the real estate industry, whether in the housing markets or rentals. Even though residential segregation is noted in all minority groups, Black people

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In addition, minority neighborhoods have various health hazards that result from living close to highways and toxic waste factories or general dilapidated structures and streets. These environmental conditions create varying degrees of health risk from noise pollution, to carcinogenic toxic exposures

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Minority populations have increased exposure to environmental hazards that include lack of neighborhood resources, structural and community factors as well as residential segregation that result in a cycle of disease and stress. The environment that surrounds us can influence individual behaviors and

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is an expression of behavior and lifestyle choices. Both sex and gender inform each other, and differences between genders influence disease manifestation and associated healthcare approaches. Understanding how the interaction of sex and gender contributes to disparity in the context of health allows

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are also closely associated with health inequities. Individuals with lower levels of education are more likely to incur greater health risks such as substance abuse, obesity, and injuries both intentional and unintentional. Education is also associated with greater comprehension of health information

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Health equity is defined by the CDC as "the state in which everyone has a fair and just opportunity to attain their highest level of health". It is closely associated with the social justice movement, with good health considered a fundamental human right. These inequities may include differences in

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applications continue to increase in clinical/medical applications. Historically, results from studies do not include underrepresented communities and races. The question of who benefits from publicly funded genomics is an important public health consideration, and attention will be needed to ensure

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Increasing awareness. The most cited measure to improving health equity relates to increasing public awareness. A lack of public awareness is a key reason why there has not been significant gains in reducing health disparities in ethnic and minority populations. Increased public awareness would lead

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Provider based incentives to improve healthcare for ethnic populations. One source of health inequity stems from unequal treatment of non-white patients in comparison with white patients. Creating provider based incentives to create greater parity between treatment of white and non-white patients is

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Advocacy. Advocacy for health equity has been identified as a key means of promoting favourable policy change. EuroHealthNet carried out a systematic review of the academic and grey literature. It found, amongst other things, that certain kinds of evidence may be more persuasive in advocacy efforts,

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identifies race as a significant determinant in the level of quality of care, with Black people receiving lower quality care than their white counterparts. This is in part because members of ethnic minorities such as African Americans are either earning low incomes, or living below the poverty line.

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Poor health outcomes appear to be an effect of economic inequality across a population. Nations and regions with greater economic inequality show poorer outcomes in life expectancy, mental health, drug abuse, obesity, educational performance, teenage birthrates, and ill health due to violence. On an

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The AIM framework. In a pilot study, researchers examined the role of AIM—ability, incentives, and management feedback—in reducing care disparity in pressure-ulcer detection between African American and Caucasian residents. The results showed that while the program was implemented, the provision of

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patients in the United States, the linguistic barrier is even greater. Less than half of non-English speakers who say they need an interpreter during clinical visits report having one. The absence of interpreters during a clinical visit adds to the communication barrier. Furthermore, inability of

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coverage. According to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), 28.9 million people in the United States were uninsured in 2018, and that number would rise to an estimated 35 million people by 2029. Without health insurance, patients are more likely to postpone medical care, go without needed medical

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Individuals living in rural areas, especially poor rural areas, have access to fewer health care resources. Although 20 percent of the U.S. population lives in rural areas, only 9 percent of physicians practice in rural settings. Individuals in rural areas typically must travel longer distances for

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individuals leading to placement in misgendered hospital wards and medical discrimination. Seventeen European states mandate sterilization of individuals who seek recognition of a gender identity that diverges from their birth gender. In addition to many of the same barriers as the rest of the LGBT

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In one population study conducted in Harlem, New York, 86% of women reported having privatized or publicly assisted health insurance, while only 74% of men reported having any health insurance. This trend is representative of the general population of the United States. On the other hand, a woman's

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Gender and sex are both components of health disparity in the male population. In non-Western regions, males tend to have a health advantage over women due to gender discrimination, evidenced by infanticide, early marriage, and domestic abuse for females. In most regions of the world, the mortality

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The quality of health care varies among different socioeconomic groups. Children in families of low socioeconomic status are the most susceptible to health inequities. Children in poor families under 5 years of age are likely to face health disparities because the quality of their health depends on

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In a survey of five European countries (Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, Italy, and France), a 1995 survey noted that only Sweden provided access to translators for 100% of those who needed it, while the other countries lacked this service potentially compromising healthcare to non-native populations.

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Ethnic health inequities also appear in nations across the African continent. A survey of the child mortality of major ethnic groups across 11 African nations (Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Uganda, and Zambia) was published in 2000 by

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There are also considerable racial disparities in access to insurance coverage, with ethnic minorities generally having less insurance coverage than non-ethnic minorities. For example, Hispanic Americans tend to have less insurance coverage than white Americans and as a result receive less regular

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and having a baby with low birthweight compared with White women. A 2023 scoping review of the literature found that in studies involving multiracial or multiethnic populations, the incorporation of race or ethnicity variables lacked thoughtful conceptualization and informative analysis concerning

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lacking in skilled nursing facilities, as well as rehabilitation, psychiatric and intensive care units. In rural areas, there are approximately 68 primary care doctors per 100,000 people, whereas there are 84 doctors per 100,000 in urban centers. According to the National Rural Health Association,

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report on the relationship between health and poverty. Marmot described his findings as illustrating a "social gradient in health": the life expectancy for the poorest is seven years shorter than for the most wealthy, and the poor are more likely to have a disability. In its report on this study,

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Prioritize treatment among the poor. Because of the challenges that arise from accessing health care with low economic status, many illnesses and injuries go untreated or are not given sufficient treatment. Promoting treatment as a priority among the poor will give them the resources they need in

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or goal modified stereotypes. Automated stereotyping is when stereotypes are automatically activated and influence judgments/behaviors outside of consciousness. Goal modified stereotype is a more conscious process, done when specific needs of clinician arise (time constraints, filling in gaps in

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occurs when health care providers either unconsciously or consciously treat certain racial and ethnic patients differently from other patients. This may be due to stereotypes that providers may have towards ethnic/racial groups. A March, 2000 study from Social Science & Medicine suggests that

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by the policy holder before an insurance provider will pay any expenses. Under the ACA, individuals were subject to a fee called the Shared Responsibility Payment, which occurred as a result of not buying health insurance despite being able to afford it. While this mandate was aimed at increasing

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Age. Age can also be a factor in health disparities for a number of reasons. As many older Americans exist on fixed incomes which may make paying for health care expenses difficult. Additionally, they may face other barriers such as impaired mobility or lack of transportation which make accessing

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Additionally, members of the LGBT community contend with health care disparities due, in part, to lack of provider training and awareness of the population's healthcare needs. Transgender individuals believe that there is a higher importance of providing gender identity (GI) information more than

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individuals face is discrimination from healthcare workers or institutions themselves. LGBT people often face significant difficulties in accessing care as a result to discrimination and homophobia from healthcare professionals. This discrimination can take the form of verbal abuse, disrespectful

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both in the United States and worldwide. In Europe, women who grew up in poverty are more likely to have lower muscle strength and higher disability in old age. Women have better access to healthcare in the United States than they do in many other places in the world, yet having sufficient health

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studies looked at the rates of cardiovascular disease and other health risks in British civil servants and found that, even when lifestyle factors were controlled for, members of lower status in the institution showed increased mortality and morbidity on a sliding downward scale from their higher

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Preamble to the Constitution of WHO as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19 June – 22 July 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of WHO, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. The definition has not been amended

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approaches emphasize the need for a system that represents the duality of the populations it intends to serve. Urban medicine generally believes that technological advancement is the best way to help treat illness as it allows for a more "sophisticated" mode of care; alternative medicine is more

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Using Evidence Based Medicine (EBM). Evidence Based Medicine (EBM) shows promise in reducing healthcare provider bias in turn promoting health equity. In theory EBM can reduce disparities however other research suggests that it might exacerbate them instead. Some cited shortcomings include EBM's

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Physicians tend to offer invasive procedures to male patients more often than to female patients. Furthermore, men are more likely to smoke than women and experience smoking-related health complications later in life as a result; this trend is also observed in regard to other substances, such as

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Social inequities are a key barrier to accessing health-related educational resources. Patients in lower socioeconomic areas will have less access to information about health in general, leading to less awareness of different diseases and health issues. Health education has proven to be a strong

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Research to identify health inequities, how they arise and what can be done to address them is essential to securing health equity. However, the same exclusionary social structures that contribute to health inequities in society also influence and are reproduced by researchers and public health

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Monitoring actions on the social determinants of health. In 2017, citing the need for accountability for the pledges made by countries in the Rio Political Declaration on Social Determinants of Health, the World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund called for the monitoring of

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In many countries, dental healthcare is less accessible than other kinds of healthcare resulting in increased risk for oral and systemic diseases. In Western countries, dental healthcare providers are present, and private or public healthcare systems typically facilitate access. However, access

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has shown that the aforementioned disparities cannot solely be accounted for in terms of certain demographic characteristics like: insurance status, household income, education, age, geographic location and quality of living conditions. Even when the researchers corrected for these factors, the

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Similarly, populations in rural Tajikistan experience spatial health inequities. A study by Jane Falkingham noted that physical access to healthcare was one of the primary factors influencing quality of maternal healthcare. Further, many women in rural areas of the country did not have adequate

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due to lack of access to medications, the situation would be classified as a health inequity. These inequities may include differences in the "presence of disease, health outcomes, or access to health care". Although, it is important to recognize the difference in health equity and equality, as

660:

LGB people are at higher risk of some cancers and LGBTI are at higher risk of mental illness. The causes of these health inequities are "i) cultural and social norms that preference and prioritise heterosexuality; ii) minority stress associated with sexual orientation, gender identity and sex

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than non-Aborigine populations. Aborigine populations experienced 10 times greater mortality in the 30–40 age range; 2.5 times greater infant mortality rate, and 3 times greater age standardized mortality rate. Rates of diarrheal diseases and tuberculosis are also significantly greater in this

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of communities on the basis of income occurs in nations worldwide and has a significant impact on quality of health as a result of a decrease in social capital for those trapped in poor neighborhoods. Social interventions, which seek to improve healthcare by enhancing the social resources of a

166:

Relative inequality negatively affects health on an international, national, and institutional levels. The patterns seen internationally hold true between more and less economically equal states in the United States, that is, more equal states show more desirable health outcomes. Importantly,

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in the United States says fragmentation of the U.S. health care delivery and financing system is a barrier to accessing care. Racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to be enrolled in health insurance plans which place limits on covered services and offer a limited number of health care

83:

Health inequity differs from health inequality in that the latter term is used in a number of countries to refer to those instances whereby the health of two demographic groups (not necessarily ethnic or racial groups) differs despite similar access to health care services. It can be further

228:

For some populations, access to healthcare and health resources is physically limited, resulting in health inequities. For instance, an individual might be physically incapable of traveling the distances required to reach healthcare services, or long distances can make seeking regular care

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and the death rate for colon cancer has increased among African Americans and Hispanic populations. Furthermore, limited English proficient patients are also less likely to receive preventive health services such as mammograms. Studies have shown that use of professional interpreters have

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LGBT health issues have received disproportionately low levels of medical research, leading to difficulties in assessing appropriate strategies for LGBT treatment. For instance, a review of medical literature regarding LGBT patients revealed that there are significant gaps in the medical

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differences between predominantly white health care providers and minority patients. Only 4% of physicians in the United States are African American, and Hispanics represent just 5%, even though these percentages are much less than their groups' proportion of the United States

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Sheikh J, Allotey J, Kew T, Fernández-Félix BM, Zamora J, Khalil A, Thangaratinam S (December 2022). "Effects of race and ethnicity on perinatal outcomes in high-income and upper-middle-income countries: an individual participant data meta-analysis of 2 198 655 pregnancies".

1041:

Health inequality is the term used in a number of countries to refer to those instances whereby the health of two demographic groups (not necessarily ethnic or racial groups) differs despite comparative access to health care services. Such examples include higher rates of

1150:

approved two gene therapy treatments that use gene editing machinery known as CRISPR/Cas9 to alleviate the sickling of the red blood cells. This will greatly improve the livelihoods of millions, but especially people of color who are much more at risk for this condition.

623:

community, globally the transgender individuals often also face a higher disease burden. Transgender people also face significant levels of discrimination. Due to this experience, many transgender people avoid seeking necessary medical care out of fear of discrimination.

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care, go without prescription medicines, and be denied access to care. Minority groups in the United States lack insurance coverage at higher rates than whites. This problem does not exist in countries with fully funded public health systems, such as the examplar of the

191:

Education is an important factor in healthcare utilization, though it is closely intertwined with economic status. An individual may not go to a medical professional or seek care if they do not know the ills of their failure to do so, or the value of proper treatment.

942:, a universal service free at the point of use, which forms part of the NHS, offers regular screening to any member of the population considered to be in an at-risk group (such as individuals over 45) for major disease (such as colon cancer, or diabetic-retinopathy). 123:

left many of the rural poor uninsured and unable to access the resources necessary to maintain good health. Increases in the cost of medical treatment made healthcare increasingly unaffordable for these populations. This issue was further perpetuated by the rising

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Underinsured or inefficient health insurance coverage. While there are many causes of underinsurance, a common a reason is due to low premiums, the up front yearly or monthly amount individuals pay for their insurance policy, and high deductibles, the amount paid

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plays a significant role in the health of individuals and their communities. It has been shown that those who are better connected to the resources provided by the individuals and communities around them (those with more social capital) live longer lives. The

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Structural barriers. These barriers include poor transportation, an inability to schedule appointments quickly or during convenient hours, and excessive time spent in the waiting room, all of which affect a person's ability and willingness to obtain needed

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was created to enable dialogue and discussion of issues related to the visibility of racial and ethnic disparities in health and health care as a national problem, the development of programs and strategies to reduce disparities and the emergence of new

284:

Along with the socioeconomic factor of health disparities, race is another key factor. The United States historically had large disparities in health and access to adequate healthcare between races, and current evidence supports the notion that

2789:

Chomitz VR, Slining MM, McGowan RJ, Mitchell SE, Dawson GF, Hacker KA (January 2009). "Is there a relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement? Positive results from public school children in the northeastern United States".

653:", reflecting that simply identifying as transgender is not itself pathological and that the diagnosis is instead for the distress a transgender person may experience as a result of the discordance between assigned gender and gender identity. 6535: 1135:, leads a team that seeks to qualify and better understand the disparities and reduce the gap in access to genetic counseling, inclusion of minority communities in original research, and access to genetic information to improve health. 920:

doctors may be more likely to ascribe negative racial stereotypes to their minority patients. This may occur regardless of consideration for education, income, and personality characteristics. Two types of stereotypes may be involved,

798:, and mental health treatments. Mental illness accounts for about one-third of adult disability globally. Conventional drug treatments have dominated psychiatry for decades, without a breakthrough in mental healthcare. Access to 728:

who have been in the country fewer than five years. Another example could be when a non-English speaking person attends a clinic where the receptionist does not speak the person's language. This is mostly seen in people who have

827:(HMO's) and Preferred Provider Organization (PPO's). While health insurance increases the affordability of healthcare in the United States, issues of access along with additional related issues act as barriers to health equity. 470:

In addition, women's pain tends to be treated less seriously and initially ignored by clinicians when compared to their treatment of men's pain complaints. Historically, women have not been included in the design or practice of

8196:

Guido PC, Ribas A, Gaioli M, Quattrone F, Macchi A (February 2015). "The state of the integrative medicine in Latin America: The long road to include complementary, natural, and traditional practices in formal health systems".

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counts with a Genomics and Health Disparities Interest Group to tackle the issues of accessibility and application of genomic medicine to communities not normally represented. The Director of the Health Disparities Group,

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than those in developed countries. The highest risk of dying during childbirth is 1 in 6 in Afghanistan and Sierra Leone, compared to nearly 1 in 30,000 in Sweden—a disparity that is much greater than that for neonatal or

8936: 8357: 638:, often complicated by access-based under-utilization or fear of health services. Transgender and gender-variant individuals have been found to experience higher rates of mental health disparity than LGB individuals. 529:

as well. The estimated 3 million girls who are subjected to FGM each year potentially suffer both immediate and lifelong negative effects. Immediately following FGM, girls commonly experience excessive bleeding and

289:

and are a significant social health issue. The disparities in access to adequate healthcare include differences in the quality of care based on race and overall insurance coverage based on race. A 2002 study in the

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preventative measure that can be taken to decrease levels of illness and increase levels of visiting healthcare providers. The lack of health education can contribute to worsened health outcomes in these areas.

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Changing the distribution of health services. Health services play a major role in health equity. Health inequities stem from lack of access to care due to poor economic status and an interaction among other

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Such disparities also prevalently attack indigenous communities. As members of indigenous communities adjust to western lifestyles, they have become more susceptible to developing certain chronic illnesses.

719:

barriers. Access to medical care by low-income immigrant minorities can be hindered by legal barriers to public insurance programs. For example, in the United States federal law bars states from providing

402:

marijuana, in Jamaica, where the rate of use is 2–3 times more for men than women. Men are also more likely to have severe chronic conditions and a lower life expectancy than women in the United States.

502:, gender-based health inequities are apparent in early childhood. Many families provide better nutrition for boys in the interest of maximizing future productivity given that boys are generally seen as 5070:

Morison L, Scherf C, Ekpo G, Paine K, West B, Coleman R, Walraven G (August 2001). "The long-term reproductive health consequences of female genital cutting in rural Gambia: a community-based survey".

2069:

Sun X, Jackson S, Carmichael G, Sleigh AC (January 2009). "Catastrophic medical payment and financial protection in rural China: evidence from the New Cooperative Medical Scheme in Shandong Province".

933:

According to the 2009 National Healthcare Disparities Report, uninsured Americans are less likely to receive preventive services in health care. For example, minorities are not regularly screened for

6539: 6595:

National Health Law Program and the Access Project (NHeLP), Language Services Action Kit: Interpreter Services in Health Care Settings for People With Limited English Proficiency (February 2004).

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argued that the material causes of this contextual health inequality include unhealthful lifestyles – smoking remains more common, and obesity is increasing fastest, amongst the poor in Britain.

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for those in lower occupational classes than those in higher occupational classes, and the increased likelihood of those from ethnic minorities being diagnosed with a mental health disorder. In

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Saldanha, Ian J.; Adam, Gaelen P.; Kanaan, Ghid; Zahradnik, Michael L.; Steele, Dale W.; Chen, Kenneth K.; Peahl, Alex F.; Danilack-Fekete, Valery A.; Stuebe, Alison M.; Balk, Ethan M. (2023).

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Lack of financial resources. Although the lack of financial resources is a barrier to health care access for many Americans, the impact on access appears to be greater for minority populations.

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Schellenberg JA, Victora CG, Mushi A, de Savigny D, Schellenberg D, Mshinda H, Bryce J (February 2003). "Inequities among the very poor: health care for children in rural southern Tanzania".

1090: 6944:

Billioux A, Verlander K, Anthony S, Alley D (2017-05-30). "Standardized Screening for Health-Related Social Needs in Clinical Settings: The Accountable Health Communities Screening Tool".

5750: 9113: 7423:

Flores G, Laws MB, Mayo SJ, Zuckerman B, Abreu M, Medina L, Hardt EJ (January 2003). "Errors in medical interpretation and their potential clinical consequences in pediatric encounters".

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Evaluation Framework (GEF) is an action-oriented policy tool that can be applied to assess whether policies will contribute to greater health equity amongst children and their families.

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used by some programs in the developing world appear to lead to a reduction in the likelihood of being sick. Such evidence can guide resource allocations to effective interventions.

8940: 2896: 2450:

In Woolf, S. H., In Aron, L. Y., National Academies (U.S.)., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2013). U.S. health in international perspective: Shorter lives, poorer health.

1105:, the Joint Action aims to achieve greater equity in health in Europe across all social groups while reducing the inter-country heterogeneity in tackling health inequalities. 479:

among women, resulting in several drugs being pulled from the market. However, the clinical research industry is aware of the problem, and has made progress in correcting it.

128:

in the Chinese population. Poor Chinese were often unable to undergo necessary hospitalization and failed to complete treatment regimens, resulting in poorer health outcomes.

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James S, Herman J, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi MA. The report of the 2015 US transgender survey (Report). Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality.

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James S, Herman J, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi MA. The report of the 2015 US transgender survey (Report). Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality.

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having equality in health is essential to begin achieving health equity. The importance of equitable access to healthcare has been cited as crucial to achieving many of the

104:

is both a strong predictor of health, and a key factor underlying health inequities across populations. Poor socioeconomic status has the capacity to profoundly limit the

6508: 3066: 5647: 3046:

Weinick RM, Zuvekas SH, Cohen JW (2000). "Racial and ethnic differences in access to and use of health care services, 1977 to 1996. Medical care research and review".

3333:

Cené, Crystal W.; Viswanathan, Meera; Fichtenberg, Caroline M.; Sathe, Nila A.; Kennedy, Sara M.; Gottlieb, Laura M.; Cartier, Yuri; Peek, Monica E. (January 2023).

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almost 10% of rural counties had no doctors in 2017. Rural communities face lower life expectancies and increased rates of diabetes, chronic disease, and obesity.

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Cené, Crystal W.; Viswanathan, Meera; Fichtenberg, Caroline M.; Sathe, Nila A.; Kennedy, Sara M.; Gottlieb, Laura M.; Cartier, Yuri; Peek, Monica E. (2023-01-19).

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of Congo, for instance, are excluded from government health programs, discriminated against during public health campaigns, and receive poorer overall healthcare.

2462:"Unconditional cash transfers for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities: effect on use of health services and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries" 8584:"Heart Attacks, Bloody Noses, and Other "Emotional Problems": Cultural and Conceptual Issues With the Spanish Translation of Self-Report Emotional Health Items" 438:(SES) and therefore have more barriers to accessing healthcare. Being of lower SES also tends to increase societal pressures, which can lead to higher rates of 8358:"G20 Health Summit Series Initiates Affordable Healthcare Model In Srikakulam With A New 100 Bed Pulsus Vijaya Multi-Speciality Hospital & Research Centre" 7211: 4689:

Mu R, Zhang X (January 2011). "Why does the Great Chinese Famine affect the male and female survivors differently? Mortality selection versus son preference".

8337: 9168: 8770: 8319: 2754:

Valois RF, MacDonald JM, Bretous L, Fischer MA, Drane JW (1 November 2002). "Risk factors and behaviors associated with adolescent violence and aggression".

642: 546:, and difficulties in childbirth that include prolonged labor, vaginal tears, and excessive bleeding. Women who have undergone FGM also have higher rates of 506:. In addition, boys receive better care than girls and are hospitalized at a greater rate. The magnitude of these disparities increases with the severity of 8810: 8024:

Maxey RW, Williams RA (2011). "Perspective: Second-Class Medicine – Implications of Evidence-Based Medicine for Improving Minority Access to Health Care".

5776: 2850: 258:

China experienced a serious decrease in spatial health equity following the Chinese economic revolution in the 1980s as a result of the degradation of the

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as their regular source of care. In the United Kingdom, which is much more racially harmonious, this issue arises for a different reason; since 2004, NHS

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one proposed solution to eliminate provider bias. These incentives typically are monetary because of its effectiveness in influencing physician behavior.

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Pandemic Treaty. The WHO's member states made health equity the central principle of the convention or other international instrument under negotiation.

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medical laboratory with some geographical regions having significantly diminished access to advanced diagnostic methods and pathology care. In the UK,

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Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), "National Healthcare Disparities Report," U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (July 2003).

10101: 4069: 803: 6607:"Determinants of access to and use of maternal health care services in the Eastern Cape, South Africa: a quantitative and qualitative investigation" 3746:

Anderson I, Crengle S, Kamaka ML, Chen TH, Palafox N, Jackson-Pulver L (May 2006). "Indigenous health in Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific".

2711:

Breese PE, Burman WJ, Goldberg S, Weis SE (December 2007). "Education level, primary language, and comprehension of the informed consent process".

1292: 346:

Due to systemic health and social inequities people from racial and ethnic minority groups in the United States are disproportionately affected by

5301: 487:

Health disparities are also due in part to cultural factors that involve practices based not only on sex, but also gender status. For example, in

384:

is characterized by female and male biological differences in regards to gene expression, hormonal concentration, and anatomical characteristics.

9048: 8925: 7715: 5946: 3481:

Gaskin DJ, Headen AE, White-Means SI (December 2004). "Racial Disparities in Health and Wealth: The Effects of Slavery and past Discrimination".

1236: 641:

These mental health facts are informed by a history of anti-LGBT bias in health care. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (

9110: 7509:

Kleinman A, Eisenberg L, Good B (February 1978). "Culture, illness, and care: clinical lessons from anthropologic and cross-cultural research".

8535:"Collection of Data on Race, Ethnicity, Language, and Nativity by US Public Health Surveillance and Monitoring Systems: Gaps and Opportunities" 3334: 626:

The stigmatization represented particularly in the transgender population creates a health disparity for LGBT individuals with regard to

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In spite of recent advances, LGBT populations in China, India, and Chile continue to face significant discrimination and barriers to care. The

5831:"The cancer care experiences of gay, lesbian and bisexual patients: A secondary analysis of data from the UK Cancer Patient Experience Survey" 6553:

Lilley CM, Mirza KM (April 2021). "Critical role of pathology and laboratory medicine in the conversation surrounding access to healthcare".

4906: 4821:

Behrman JR (March 1988). "Intrahousehold Allocation of Nutrients in Rural India: Are Boys Favored? Do Parents Exhibit Inequality Aversion?".

3670:

Bollini P, Siem H (September 1995). "No real progress towards equity: health of migrants and ethnic minorities on the eve of the year 2000".

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There are a multitude of strategies for achieving health equity and reducing disparities outlined in scholarly texts, some examples include:

320: 9089: 9069: 7611:"Understanding the provider contribution to race/ethnicity disparities in pain treatment: insights from dual process models of stereotyping" 138:

The role of socioeconomic status in health equity extends beyond simple monetary restrictions on an individual's purchasing power. In fact,

7545: 1030: 645:) listed homosexuality as a disorder until 1973; transgender status was listed as a disorder until 2012. This was amended in 2013 with the 6656:

Brodie M, Flournoy RE, Altman DE, Blendon RJ, Benson JM, Rosenbaum MD (2000). "Health information, the Internet, and the digital divide".

5930:"State-of-the-art study focusing on the health inequalities faced by LGBTI people D1.1 State-of-the-Art Synthesis Report (SSR) June, 2017" 1802:

Morris S, Sutton M, Gravelle H (March 2005). "Inequity and inequality in the use of health care in England: an empirical investigation".

292: 967:

to increased congressional awareness, greater availability of disparity data, and further research into the issue of health disparities.

10151: 9158: 5507:

Alencar Albuquerque G, de Lima Garcia C, da Silva Quirino G, Alves MJ, Belém JM, dos Santos Figueiredo FW, et al. (January 2016).

4936:"Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation | Reproductive Health Matters: reproductive & sexual health and rights" 6079:"Moving environmental justice indoors: understanding structural influences on residential exposure patterns in low-income communities" 4377:

Vaidya V, Partha G, Karmakar M (February 2012). "Gender differences in utilization of preventive care services in the United States".

2904: 9003: 3723: 3706: 1191: 2872: 2537: 5929: 5380: 4935: 1286: 1127: 475:, which has slowed the understanding of women's reactions to medications and created a research gap. This has led to post-approval 157: 10430: 10184: 10156: 9196: 9059: 5381:

Addressing the causes of disparities in health service access and utilization for lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) persons

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Londoño JL, Frenk J (July 1997). "Structured pluralism: towards an innovative model for health system reform in Latin America".

7571:

van Ryn M, Burke J (March 2000). "The effect of patient race and socio-economic status on physicians' perceptions of patients".

4142:

Courtenay WH (May 2000). "Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health".

3188: 10161: 9477: 3592:

McIntyre D, Gilson L (June 2002). "Putting equity in health back onto the social policy agenda: experience from South Africa".

619: 6461:"Field-Based Outreach Workers Facilitate Access to Health Care and Social Services for Underserved Individuals in Rural Areas" 6023:"Where health disparities begin: the role of social and economic determinants—and why current policies may make matters worse" 10219: 10126: 8137: 8041: 8008: 7895: 7860: 7555: 7090:

Sommers BD, Gawande AA, Baicker K (August 2017). "Health Insurance Coverage and Health – What the Recent Evidence Tells Us".

6888: 5163: 2695: 2575: 2547: 1395: 1002: 57: 6131:"Associations between the quality of the residential built environment and pregnancy outcomes among women in North Carolina" 1516:: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives, conference ed. in two vols. (Washington, D.C., January 2000). 203:

families were more likely to recognize disease in their children than those that were coming from lower income backgrounds.

10445: 10209: 6839: 6413:"Neighborhood stressors and race/ethnic differences in hypertension prevalence (the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis)" 286: 248:

Global concentrations of healthcare resources, as depicted by the number of physicians per 100,000 individuals, by country.

237: 7376:"Physician language ability and cultural competence. An exploratory study of communication with Spanish-speaking patients" 3393:"Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Insurance Coverage: Dynamics of Gaining and Losing Coverage over the Life-Course" 707:

have not been responsible for care out of normal GP surgery opening hours, leading to significantly higher attendances in

10166: 9730: 9318: 904: 439: 7470:"Professional interpreters and bilingual physicians in a pediatric emergency department: effect on resource utilization" 7077:

Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured (KCMU), "The Uninsured and Their Access to Health Care" (December 2003).

5580:"Is It Okay To Ask: Transgender Patient Perspectives on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Collection in Healthcare" 3884: 310:

medical care. The level of insurance coverage is directly correlated with access to healthcare including preventive and

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Linguistic barriers. Language differences restrict access to medical care for minorities in the United States who have

9105: 6178:

Williams DR, Collins C (August 1995). "US Socioeconomic and Racial Differences in Health: Patterns and Explanations".

5035:

Behrendt A, Moritz S (May 2005). "Posttraumatic stress disorder and memory problems after female genital mutilation".

3008:

Wang H, Xu T, Xu J (October 2007). "Factors contributing to high costs and inequality in China's health care system".

1528:"Sociopolitical values and social institutions: Studying work and health equity through the lens of political economy" 10224: 9750: 9333: 7005:"Federal Subsidies for Health Insurance Coverage for People Under Age 65: 2019 to 2029 | Congressional Budget Office" 5881:"The case for the World Health Organization's Commission on Social Determinants of Health to address gender identity" 3627:

Ohenjo N, Willis R, Jackson D, Nettleton C, Good K, Mugarura B (June 2006). "Health of Indigenous people in Africa".

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significantly reduced disparities in the rates of fecal occult testing, flu immunizations and pap smears. In the UK,

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conduct, refusal of care, the withholding of health information, inadequate treatment, and outright violence.

17: 7699:

Smedley B, Stith A, Nelson A (2002). "Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care".

7215: 10440: 8292: 5155: 4330:"Childhood socioeconomic circumstances and disability trajectories in older men and women: a European cohort study" 2594:

Falkingham J (March 2003). "Inequality and changes in women's use of maternal health-care services in Tajikistan".

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treatment and care, may help to avoid additional preventable hospital readmission and emergency department visits.

9135: 9074: 834:

Health Insurance Literacy. Within these health insurance plans, common aspects of the insurance include premiums,

10395: 9867: 9495: 9472: 9095: 1998:

Shi L, Starfield B, Kennedy B, Kawachi I (April 1999). "Income inequality, primary care, and health indicators".

1142:, which disproportionately impacts Black people where every 1 of 365 births has the condition, is treatable with 824: 9144: 9009: 7835: 5275: 4525:

Garcia KK, Hunter SK (December 2022). "Proposed Solutions for Improving Maternal Health Care in Rural America".

1526:

Fujishiro, Kaori; Ahonen, Emily Q.; Gimeno Ruiz de Porras, David; Chen, I.-Chen; Benavides, Fernando G. (2021).

1102: 10450: 10322: 10141: 10091: 9903: 9800: 9561: 9462: 9375: 8997: 5455:"A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people" 4888: 339: 9149: 2925:

Rosero-Bixby L (April 2004). "Spatial access to health care in Costa Rica and its equity: a GIS-based study".

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and chronic stress and, in turn, negatively impact health. Women are also more likely than men to suffer from

10334: 9974: 9745: 8533:

Rodriguez-Lainz A, McDonald M, Fonseca-Ford M, Penman-Aguilar A, Waterman SH, Truman BI, et al. (2018).

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Pega F, Valentine NB, Rasanathan K, Hosseinpoor AR, Torgersen TP, Ramanathan V, et al. (November 2017).

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Health disparities in the quality of care exist and are based on language and ethnicity/race which includes:

547: 42: 8385: 6979: 5566:

The Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: Building a Foundation for Better Understanding

5509:"Access to health services by lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons: systematic literature review" 10410: 9839: 9566: 9053: 7974: 4093: 2327: 1216: 1147: 1022: 370: 90: 7652:"Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients" 7374:

Fernandez A, Schillinger D, Grumbach K, Rosenthal A, Stewart AL, Wang F, Pérez-Stable EJ (February 2004).

5407:

Kalra G, Ventriglio A, Bhugra D (3 September 2015). "Sexuality and mental health: Issues and what next?".

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Liu Y, Hsiao WC, Eggleston K (November 1999). "Equity in health and health care: the Chinese experience".

56:

the "presence of disease, health outcomes, or access to health care" between populations with a different

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characteristics; iii) victimisation; iv) discrimination (individual and institutional), and; v) stigma."

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videos presentations from expert lecturers, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health

4986:"The obstetric consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 1126:

that implementation of genomic medicine does not further entrench social‐equity concerns. Currently the

10425: 10348: 10056: 9981: 9886: 9422: 9139: 9035:

video presentations from expert lecturers, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health

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Lomas J (November 1998). "Social capital and health: implications for public health and epidemiology".

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injection of clinical inflexibility in decision making and its origins as a purely cost driven measure.

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than men in developing nations. Additionally, women in developing countries have a much higher risk of

354: 259: 223: 120: 8929: 8372:"G20 nations unite for 'Health Equity: Launch of the Affordable and Accessible Healthcare Initiative'" 7031:"Hospital Payer and Racial/Ethnic Mix at Private Academic Medical Centers in Boston and New York City" 4850:"Gender gap in parents' financing strategy for hospitalization of their children: evidence from India" 2827:"'Out here, it's just me': In the medical desert of rural America, one doctor for 11,000 square miles" 105: 10415: 10178: 10173: 10041: 9740: 9447: 9405: 9369: 9276: 7029:

Tikkanen RS, Woolhandler S, Himmelstein DU, Kressin NR, Hanchate A, Lin MY, et al. (July 2017).

1221: 596: 521:, though is difficult to know the worldwide extent of this practice. While generally thought of as a 514: 447: 49: 7437: 4279:"Association of early- and adult-life socioeconomic circumstances with muscle strength in older age" 4156: 10420: 10016: 9715: 9427: 9323: 9038: 8057: 5965:"Environmental health disparities: a framework integrating psychosocial and environmental concepts" 5084: 4914: 4724:

Anson O, Sun S (September 2002). "Gender and health in rural China: evidence from Hebei Province".

2392: 1256: 788: 411: 347: 7788:"Impact of interpreter services on delivery of health care to limited-English-proficient patients" 2510: 830:

There are many issues due to health insurance that affect health equity, including the following:

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Hulbert-Williams NJ, Plumpton CO, Flowers P, McHugh R, Neal RD, Semlyen J, Storey L (July 2017).

2223:

Musterd S, De Winter M (1998). "Conditions for spatial segregation: some European perspectives".

1276: 859: 615: 563: 535: 8291:

Gostin LO, Klock KA, Ginsbach KF, Halabi SF, Hall-Debnam T, Lewis J, et al. (May 9, 2023).

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Cheval B, Boisgontier MP, Orsholits D, Sieber S, Guessous I, Gabriel R, et al. (May 2018).

3935:"WHO says more than 87% of the world's Covid vaccine supply has gone to higher-income countries" 10435: 10390: 10310: 10282: 10061: 9785: 9271: 9182: 9154: 8435:"Im/migration, Work, and Health: Anthropology and the Occupational Health of Labor Im/migrants" 7432: 5578:

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when "gender identity disorder" was replaced with "

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Bonham Jr. 1087:European Commission 1037:Health inequalities 540:bacterial vaginosis 523:Sub-Saharan African 418:experience greater 152:Economic inequality 9851:disease prevention 9786:Case–control study 9458:Security of person 9307:Health care reform 9116:2007-09-30 at the 8784:CDC (2022-05-02). 8392:. 11 February 2010 7995:. pp. 83–97. 6807:10.7812/TPP/17-024 6611:BMC Research Notes 5624:Human Rights Watch 5597:10.1111/acem.13182 4212:(9542): 1189–200. 3883:CDC (2020-02-11). 2326:, Zhang X (2005). 2040:(1 Pt 2): 215–27. 1085:In June 2018, the 416:developing nations 250: 169:Whitehall I and II 70:sexual orientation 36: 10426:Medical sociology 10344: 10343: 10296: 10295: 10206:Higher education 10037:Positive deviance 10032:Health psychology 10008:Health behavioral 9935:safety management 9909:Social distancing 9683:Population health 9663:Smoking cessation 9611:Pharmacovigilance 9582:Injury prevention 9550:Infection control 9468:Social psychology 9418:Prisoners' rights 9361:Medical sociology 9329:Public health law 9225:Biological hazard 9120:, April 4, 2007, 8643:(18): 1831–1832. 8451:10.1111/awr.12151 8139:978-1-118-92439-6 8043:978-1-4419-7135-7 8010:978-1-934115-42-8 7897:978-92-4-156370-3 7714:Habib JL (2010). 7557:978-0-306-45443-1 6890:978-1-4473-4285-4 6542:on 25 April 2014. 5850:10.1111/ecc.12670 5306:www.aljazeera.com 5165:978-0-306-45443-1 4621:Pharmacy Practice 4418:JAMA Network Open 4121:10.1002/msj.21336 4068:Barker G (2000). 3797:(9525): 1859–69. 3754:(9524): 1775–85. 3705:Mooney G (1996). 3635:(9526): 1937–46. 3282:JAMA Network Open 3054:(Suppl 1): 36–54. 2697:978-0-16-050260-6 2577:978-1-61039-160-3 2549:978-92-4-156397-0 1961:(7086): 1037–40. 1429:(9593): 1153–63. 1397:978-3-319-51345-4 1262:Population health 1242:Immigrant paradox 876:Dental healthcare 359:COVID-19 vaccines 126:income inequality 48:According to the 18:Health inequality 16:(Redirected from 10458: 10416:Health economics 10373: 10372: 10371: 10361: 10360: 10352: 10332: 10331: 10320: 10319: 10308: 10307: 10202:Health education 10079: 10078: 9933:Food hygiene and 9914:Tropical disease 9726:Infant mortality 9701:Community health 9577:Controlled Drugs 9513:Health promotion 9443:Right to housing 9287:Health economics 9199: 9192: 9185: 9176: 9175: 8986: 8976: 8951: 8949: 8948: 8933: 8920: 8910: 8877: 8867: 8825: 8824: 8822: 8821: 8806: 8800: 8799: 8797: 8796: 8781: 8775: 8774: 8768: 8760: 8750: 8718: 8712: 8711: 8701: 8677: 8671: 8670: 8660: 8628: 8622: 8621: 8611: 8579: 8573: 8572: 8562: 8530: 8524: 8523: 8513: 8503: 8479: 8473: 8472: 8462: 8430: 8424: 8423: 8421: 8419: 8408: 8402: 8401: 8399: 8397: 8382: 8376: 8375: 8368: 8362: 8361: 8354: 8348: 8347: 8334: 8328: 8327: 8315: 8309: 8308: 8288: 8282: 8281: 8263: 8253: 8229: 8223: 8222: 8193: 8187: 8186: 8158: 8152: 8151: 8117: 8111: 8110: 8100: 8068: 8062: 8061: 8054: 8048: 8047: 8021: 8015: 8014: 7988: 7982: 7981: 7979: 7971: 7965: 7964: 7957: 7951: 7950: 7940: 7908: 7902: 7901: 7882: 7876: 7875: 7873: 7872: 7863:. 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Archived from 7832: 7826: 7825: 7815: 7783: 7777: 7776: 7766: 7734: 7728: 7727: 7711: 7705: 7704: 7696: 7690: 7689: 7679: 7647: 7641: 7640: 7630: 7606: 7597: 7596: 7568: 7562: 7561: 7541: 7535: 7534: 7506: 7500: 7499: 7489: 7465: 7459: 7458: 7440: 7420: 7414: 7413: 7403: 7371: 7365: 7364: 7340: 7334: 7333: 7323: 7313: 7289: 7283: 7282: 7272: 7248: 7242: 7241: 7233: 7227: 7226: 7224: 7223: 7208: 7199: 7198: 7188: 7178: 7154: 7148: 7147: 7145: 7144: 7130: 7124: 7123: 7087: 7078: 7075: 7069: 7068: 7058: 7026: 7020: 7019: 7017: 7016: 7001: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6991: 6976: 6970: 6969: 6958:10.31478/201705b 6946:NAM Perspectives 6941: 6935: 6934: 6932: 6931: 6917: 6908: 6907: 6906: 6905: 6865: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6835: 6829: 6828: 6818: 6786: 6780: 6779: 6769: 6737: 6731: 6730: 6720: 6688: 6682: 6681: 6653: 6647: 6646: 6636: 6626: 6602: 6596: 6593: 6587: 6586: 6550: 6544: 6543: 6531: 6522: 6519: 6513: 6512: 6505: 6499: 6498: 6478: 6472: 6471: 6469: 6468: 6457: 6451: 6450: 6440: 6408: 6402: 6401: 6391: 6367: 6361: 6360: 6350: 6318: 6312: 6311: 6301: 6277: 6268: 6267: 6257: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6205:Núñez M (2019). 6202: 6196: 6195: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6158: 6126: 6117: 6116: 6106: 6074: 6068: 6067: 6059: 6053: 6052: 6042: 6018: 6003: 6002: 5992: 5981:10.1289/ehp.7074 5960: 5951: 5950: 5944: 5936: 5934: 5925: 5919: 5918: 5908: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5835: 5826: 5820: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5780: 5774: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5736: 5730: 5729: 5727: 5718: 5712: 5711: 5701: 5669: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5659: 5644: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5631: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5599: 5575: 5569: 5562: 5549: 5548: 5538: 5528: 5504: 5495: 5494: 5484: 5474: 5450: 5441: 5440: 5404: 5393: 5392: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5359: 5327: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5286: 5271: 5265: 5264: 5228: 5219: 5218: 5208: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5087: 5067: 5061: 5060: 5032: 5026: 5025: 5015: 5005: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4972: 4971: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4947: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4913:. Archived from 4903: 4897: 4896: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4866:10.1002/hec.1468 4854:Health Economics 4845: 4839: 4838: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4756: 4750: 4749: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4676: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4644: 4612: 4606: 4605: 4565: 4559: 4558: 4522: 4509: 4508: 4498: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4449: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4374: 4368: 4367: 4357: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4308: 4298: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4247: 4238: 4237: 4201: 4195: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4159: 4150:(10): 1385–401. 4139: 4133: 4132: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4092:. Archived from 4091: 4065: 4054: 4053: 4043: 4011: 4005: 4004: 3994: 3962: 3949: 3948: 3946: 3945: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3920: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3895: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3863: 3853: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3726: 3711:Health Economics 3702: 3696: 3695: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3624: 3618: 3617: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3537: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3478: 3472: 3471: 3461: 3437: 3431: 3430: 3420: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3330: 3324: 3323: 3313: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3248: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3141: 3130: 3119: 3118: 3108: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3071: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3043: 3034: 3033: 3005: 2999: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2922: 2916: 2915: 2913: 2912: 2903:. Archived from 2893: 2887: 2886: 2884: 2883: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2855: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2838: 2837: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2708: 2702: 2701: 2689: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2626: 2620: 2619: 2591: 2582: 2581: 2563: 2554: 2553: 2533: 2522: 2521: 2518:NAM Perspectives 2515: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2489: 2457: 2451: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2433: 2414: 2413: 2395: 2375: 2369: 2368: 2358: 2332: 2320: 2311: 2310: 2282: 2276: 2275: 2247: 2241: 2240: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2177: 2171: 2170: 2134: 2125: 2124: 2104: 2095: 2094: 2083:10.1002/hec.1346 2071:Health Economics 2066: 2060: 2059: 2049: 2025: 2016: 2015: 1995: 1989: 1988: 1978: 1946: 1937: 1936: 1926: 1886: 1880: 1879: 1869: 1837: 1828: 1827: 1799: 1793: 1792: 1782: 1765:(7037): 1013–4. 1750: 1744: 1743: 1733: 1709: 1703: 1702: 1678: 1672: 1671: 1661: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1612: 1595:(Suppl 2): 5–8. 1580: 1574: 1573: 1563: 1523: 1517: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1495: 1480: 1479: 1477: 1476: 1461: 1455: 1454: 1418: 1412: 1408: 1402: 1401: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1358: 1326: 1252:Inverse care law 1172:Drift hypothesis 1109:Bias in research 855:health insurance 821:health insurance 815:Health insurance 651:gender dysphoria 483:Cultural factors 177:reducing poverty 21: 10466: 10465: 10461: 10460: 10459: 10457: 10456: 10455: 10421:Health sciences 10381: 10380: 10379: 10369: 10367: 10355: 10347: 10345: 10340: 10292: 10263:Margaret Sanger 10231: 10190: 10074: 10072: 10066: 10009: 10003: 9975:Safety scandals 9934: 9928: 9850: 9844: 9778: 9772: 9768:Social medicine 9761:Race and health 9696:Child mortality 9677: 9636:Open defecation 9518:Human nutrition 9508:Family planning 9496:Behavior change 9482: 9438:Right to health 9351:Maternal health 9341:Health politics 9292:Health literacy 9208: 9203: 9118:Wayback Machine 8994: 8989: 8946: 8944: 8935: 8833: 8831:Further reading 8828: 8819: 8817: 8807: 8803: 8794: 8792: 8782: 8778: 8762: 8761: 8719: 8715: 8678: 8674: 8629: 8625: 8580: 8576: 8531: 8527: 8480: 8476: 8431: 8427: 8417: 8415: 8410: 8409: 8405: 8395: 8393: 8384: 8383: 8379: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8356: 8355: 8351: 8336: 8335: 8331: 8316: 8312: 8289: 8285: 8230: 8226: 8194: 8190: 8159: 8155: 8140: 8118: 8114: 8083:(11): 784–787. 8069: 8065: 8056: 8055: 8051: 8044: 8022: 8018: 8011: 7989: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7972: 7968: 7959: 7958: 7954: 7909: 7905: 7898: 7884: 7883: 7879: 7870: 7868: 7859: 7858: 7854: 7845: 7843: 7834: 7833: 7829: 7784: 7780: 7735: 7731: 7712: 7708: 7697: 7693: 7648: 7644: 7607: 7600: 7569: 7565: 7558: 7542: 7538: 7507: 7503: 7480:(11): 1108–13. 7466: 7462: 7438:10.1.1.488.9277 7421: 7417: 7372: 7368: 7341: 7337: 7290: 7286: 7249: 7245: 7234: 7230: 7221: 7219: 7210: 7209: 7202: 7155: 7151: 7142: 7140: 7132: 7131: 7127: 7088: 7081: 7076: 7072: 7027: 7023: 7014: 7012: 7003: 7002: 6998: 6989: 6987: 6978: 6977: 6973: 6942: 6938: 6929: 6927: 6925:Healthcare Dive 6919: 6918: 6911: 6903: 6901: 6891: 6867: 6866: 6857: 6848: 6846: 6836: 6832: 6787: 6783: 6738: 6734: 6689: 6685: 6654: 6650: 6603: 6599: 6594: 6590: 6551: 6547: 6532: 6525: 6520: 6516: 6507: 6506: 6502: 6480: 6479: 6475: 6466: 6464: 6459: 6458: 6454: 6409: 6405: 6368: 6364: 6319: 6315: 6278: 6271: 6234: 6230: 6203: 6199: 6176: 6172: 6127: 6120: 6089:(S1): S238-45. 6075: 6071: 6060: 6056: 6019: 6006: 5975:(17): 1645–53. 5961: 5954: 5938: 5937: 5932: 5926: 5922: 5877: 5873: 5833: 5827: 5823: 5814: 5810: 5802: 5795: 5788: 5784: 5768: 5767: 5760: 5758: 5749: 5748: 5744: 5737: 5733: 5725: 5719: 5715: 5670: 5666: 5657: 5655: 5646: 5645: 5638: 5629: 5627: 5618: 5617: 5613: 5576: 5572: 5563: 5552: 5505: 5498: 5451: 5444: 5405: 5396: 5377: 5373: 5328: 5319: 5310: 5308: 5298: 5294: 5284: 5282: 5272: 5268: 5239:(10076): 1286. 5229: 5222: 5191:(7): 991–1006. 5177: 5173: 5166: 5148: 5144: 5121: 5117: 5068: 5064: 5033: 5029: 4982: 4978: 4969: 4967: 4959: 4958: 4954: 4945: 4943: 4934: 4933: 4929: 4920: 4918: 4905: 4904: 4900: 4885: 4881: 4846: 4842: 4819: 4815: 4792: 4788: 4767:(12): 1885–98. 4757: 4753: 4722: 4718: 4687: 4683: 4674: 4672: 4670:orwh.od.nih.gov 4662: 4658: 4613: 4609: 4566: 4562: 4523: 4512: 4467: 4463: 4424:(6): e2316536. 4410: 4406: 4375: 4371: 4326: 4322: 4275: 4271: 4248: 4241: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4157:10.1.1.462.4452 4140: 4136: 4105: 4101: 4066: 4057: 4026:(7443): 823–6. 4012: 4008: 3963: 3952: 3943: 3941: 3931: 3927: 3918: 3916: 3907: 3906: 3902: 3893: 3891: 3881: 3877: 3830: 3826: 3787: 3783: 3744: 3740: 3703: 3699: 3668: 3664: 3625: 3621: 3600:(11): 1637–56. 3590: 3586: 3565:(10): 1529–38. 3555: 3551: 3514: 3510: 3489:(3–4): 95–110. 3479: 3475: 3438: 3434: 3389: 3385: 3356:(9683): 65–75. 3346: 3342: 3331: 3327: 3288:(1): e2250654. 3274: 3270: 3220: 3216: 3187: 3186: 3182: 3151: 3147: 3139: 3131: 3122: 3099:(10): 1288–94. 3085: 3081: 3069: 3063: 3059: 3044: 3037: 3016:(16): 1928–30. 3006: 3002: 2993: 2989: 2968:(10): 1349–56. 2958: 2954: 2923: 2919: 2910: 2908: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2881: 2879: 2869: 2865: 2853: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2835: 2833: 2831:Washington Post 2823: 2819: 2787: 2783: 2752: 2748: 2709: 2705: 2698: 2674: 2670: 2627: 2623: 2592: 2585: 2578: 2564: 2557: 2550: 2534: 2525: 2513: 2507: 2503: 2472:(3): CD011135. 2458: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2434: 2417: 2376: 2372: 2330: 2321: 2314: 2299:10.2307/3341855 2283: 2279: 2248: 2244: 2221: 2217: 2188:(4865): 540–5. 2178: 2174: 2145:(9357): 561–6. 2135: 2128: 2105: 2098: 2067: 2063: 2026: 2019: 1996: 1992: 1947: 1940: 1887: 1883: 1838: 1831: 1800: 1796: 1751: 1747: 1710: 1706: 1679: 1675: 1630: 1626: 1581: 1577: 1524: 1520: 1511: 1507: 1496: 1483: 1474: 1472: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1419: 1415: 1409: 1405: 1398: 1376: 1372: 1327: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1157: 1120: 1111: 1039: 1015: 948: 931: 913: 895: 887: 878: 817: 697:emergency rooms 688: 667: 636:substance abuse 590:gender identity 566: 560: 532:urine retention 485: 473:clinical trials 429:child mortality 420:mortality rates 408: 395: 378: 373: 367: 299:premature birth 282: 280:Race and health 276: 226: 220: 189: 160: 154: 99: 86:life expectancy 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10464: 10454: 10453: 10448: 10443: 10438: 10433: 10428: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10378: 10377: 10365: 10342: 10341: 10339: 10338: 10326: 10314: 10301: 10298: 10297: 10294: 10293: 10291: 10290: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10270: 10265: 10260: 10255: 10250: 10245: 10239: 10237: 10233: 10232: 10230: 10229: 10228: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10204: 10198: 10196: 10192: 10191: 10189: 10188: 10181: 10176: 10171: 10170: 10169: 10164: 10159: 10154: 10146: 10145: 10144: 10139: 10131: 10130: 10129: 10121: 10120: 10119: 10114: 10106: 10105: 10104: 10096: 10095: 10094: 10085: 10083: 10076: 10071:Organizations, 10068: 10067: 10065: 10064: 10059: 10054: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10013: 10011: 10005: 10004: 10002: 10001: 10000: 9999: 9994: 9984: 9979: 9978: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9947: 9938: 9936: 9930: 9929: 9927: 9926: 9921: 9916: 9911: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9895: 9894: 9884: 9883: 9882: 9872: 9871: 9870: 9860: 9854: 9852: 9846: 9845: 9843: 9842: 9837: 9836: 9835: 9827: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9782: 9780: 9777:Biological and 9774: 9773: 9771: 9770: 9765: 9764: 9763: 9758: 9753: 9743: 9738: 9736:Multimorbidity 9733: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9698: 9693: 9687: 9685: 9679: 9678: 9676: 9675: 9673:Vector control 9670: 9665: 9660: 9658:School hygiene 9655: 9654: 9653: 9648: 9643: 9641:Sanitary sewer 9638: 9633: 9628: 9618: 9613: 9608: 9607: 9606: 9599:Patient safety 9596: 9595: 9594: 9589: 9584: 9579: 9574: 9569: 9559: 9558: 9557: 9552: 9547: 9542: 9532: 9531: 9530: 9525: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9504: 9503: 9492: 9490: 9484: 9483: 9481: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9414: 9413: 9408: 9403: 9398: 9393: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9337: 9336: 9331: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9310: 9309: 9304: 9294: 9289: 9284: 9282:Harm reduction 9279: 9274: 9269: 9264: 9263: 9262: 9257: 9247: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9216: 9214: 9210: 9209: 9202: 9201: 9194: 9187: 9179: 9173: 9172: 9171:(NIOSH), 2022. 9162: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9125:Paula Braveman 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9087: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9030: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9007: 9000: 8993: 8992:External links 8990: 8988: 8987: 8952: 8932:on 2008-05-15. 8921: 8878: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8826: 8801: 8776: 8713: 8692:(3): 204–206. 8672: 8623: 8574: 8525: 8474: 8445:(2): 116–123. 8425: 8403: 8377: 8374:. 2 June 2023. 8363: 8360:. 2 June 2023. 8349: 8346:. 2 June 2023. 8329: 8310: 8283: 8224: 8188: 8153: 8138: 8112: 8063: 8049: 8042: 8016: 8009: 7983: 7966: 7952: 7923:(2): 392–437. 7903: 7896: 7877: 7852: 7827: 7778: 7729: 7706: 7691: 7642: 7598: 7563: 7556: 7536: 7501: 7460: 7415: 7366: 7349:Health Reports 7335: 7284: 7257:Health Affairs 7243: 7228: 7200: 7149: 7138:HealthCare.gov 7125: 7098:(6): 586–593. 7079: 7070: 7041:(3): 460–476. 7021: 6996: 6971: 6936: 6909: 6889: 6855: 6830: 6781: 6732: 6703:(5): 279–281. 6683: 6658:Health Affairs 6648: 6597: 6588: 6545: 6523: 6514: 6500: 6473: 6452: 6403: 6382:(1): 103–124. 6362: 6313: 6286:Health Affairs 6269: 6242:Health Affairs 6228: 6197: 6186:(1): 349–386. 6170: 6118: 6069: 6054: 6033:(10): 1852–9. 6027:Health Affairs 6004: 5952: 5920: 5871: 5821: 5808: 5793: 5782: 5742: 5731: 5713: 5684:(2): 154–156. 5664: 5636: 5611: 5590:(6): 655–667. 5570: 5550: 5496: 5459:BMC Psychiatry 5442: 5394: 5371: 5317: 5292: 5266: 5220: 5171: 5164: 5142: 5115: 5085:10.1.1.569.744 5062: 5027: 4976: 4952: 4927: 4898: 4879: 4840: 4813: 4802:(3): 529–535. 4786: 4751: 4732:(6): 1039–54. 4716: 4681: 4656: 4607: 4560: 4533:(4): 868–876. 4510: 4461: 4404: 4369: 4320: 4289:(3): 398–407. 4283:Age and Ageing 4269: 4258:(1): 371–386. 4239: 4196: 4187: 4134: 4099: 4055: 4006: 3977:(7): 596–603. 3950: 3925: 3900: 3875: 3824: 3781: 3738: 3697: 3662: 3619: 3584: 3549: 3508: 3473: 3452:(8): 666–668. 3432: 3403:(2): 181–201. 3383: 3340: 3325: 3268: 3214: 3195:. 2023-05-25. 3180: 3161:(14): 1417–8. 3145: 3120: 3079: 3057: 3035: 3000: 2987: 2952: 2933:(7): 1271–84. 2917: 2888: 2863: 2842: 2817: 2781: 2746: 2703: 2696: 2668: 2621: 2583: 2576: 2555: 2548: 2523: 2501: 2452: 2443: 2415: 2393:10.1.1.460.596 2370: 2341:(2): 189–204. 2312: 2293:(4): 497–528. 2277: 2258:(3): 331–348. 2242: 2231:(4): 665–673. 2215: 2172: 2126: 2115:(3): 461–483. 2096: 2061: 2017: 1990: 1938: 1901:(4): 258–281. 1881: 1852:(3): 306–311. 1829: 1810:(6): 1251–66. 1794: 1745: 1704: 1673: 1624: 1575: 1518: 1505: 1481: 1456: 1413: 1403: 1396: 1370: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1119: 1116: 1110: 1107: 1095:European Union 1071:Michael Marmot 1056:LaLonde report 1038: 1035: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1009: 1006: 1000: 992: 988: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 947: 944: 930: 927: 917:discrimination 912: 909: 894: 891: 886: 883: 877: 874: 873: 872: 863: 847: 816: 813: 812: 811: 792: 784: 772: 765: 758: 750: 738: 734: 714: 711: 687: 684: 666: 663: 582:gender-variant 559: 556: 519:women's health 484: 481: 477:adverse events 424:maternal death 407: 404: 394: 391: 377: 374: 366: 363: 275: 272: 219: 216: 188: 185: 153: 150: 140:social capital 131:Similarly, in 114:social capital 98: 95: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10463: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10436:Public health 10434: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10391:Health equity 10389: 10388: 10386: 10376: 10366: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10353: 10350: 10337: 10336: 10327: 10325: 10324: 10315: 10313: 10312: 10303: 10302: 10299: 10289: 10286: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10258:Joseph Lister 10256: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10244: 10241: 10240: 10238: 10234: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10207: 10205: 10203: 10200: 10199: 10197: 10193: 10186: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10172: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10153: 10150: 10149: 10147: 10143: 10140: 10138: 10137:Health Canada 10135: 10134: 10132: 10128: 10125: 10124: 10122: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10109: 10107: 10103: 10100: 10099: 10097: 10093: 10090: 10089: 10087: 10086: 10084: 10082:Organizations 10080: 10077: 10069: 10063: 10060: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10014: 10012: 10006: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9989: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9980: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9940: 9939: 9937: 9931: 9925: 9922: 9920: 9919:Vaccine trial 9917: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9893: 9890: 9889: 9888: 9885: 9881: 9878: 9877: 9876: 9873: 9869: 9866: 9865: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9855: 9853: 9847: 9841: 9838: 9834: 9832: 9828: 9826: 9824: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9803: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9796:Relative risk 9794: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9784: 9783: 9781: 9775: 9769: 9766: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9756:Health equity 9754: 9752: 9749: 9748: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9721:Health system 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9711:Global health 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9697: 9694: 9692: 9691:Biostatistics 9689: 9688: 9686: 9684: 9680: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9652: 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9600: 9597: 9593: 9590: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9564: 9563: 9560: 9556: 9553: 9551: 9548: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9537: 9536: 9533: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9520: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9502: 9499: 9498: 9497: 9494: 9493: 9491: 9489: 9485: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9433:Right to food 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9399: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9388: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9371: 9367: 9366:Mental health 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9326: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9314:Housing First 9312: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9302:Health system 9300: 9299: 9298: 9297:Health policy 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9252: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9217: 9215: 9211: 9207: 9206:Public health 9200: 9195: 9193: 9188: 9186: 9181: 9180: 9177: 9170: 9166: 9163: 9160: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9130: 9126: 9123: 9119: 9115: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9034: 9031: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9011: 9008: 9006: 9005: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8995: 8984: 8980: 8975: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8958: 8953: 8943:on 2012-09-20 8942: 8938: 8931: 8927: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8888: 8884: 8879: 8875: 8871: 8866: 8861: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8836: 8835: 8816: 8812: 8805: 8791: 8787: 8780: 8772: 8766: 8758: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8728: 8724: 8717: 8709: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8676: 8668: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8634: 8627: 8619: 8615: 8610: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8578: 8570: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8552: 8548: 8544: 8540: 8536: 8529: 8521: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8478: 8470: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8429: 8413: 8407: 8391: 8390:The Economist 8387: 8381: 8373: 8367: 8359: 8353: 8345: 8344: 8339: 8333: 8325: 8321: 8314: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8294: 8287: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8251:10.2196/42936 8247: 8244:(1): e42936. 8243: 8239: 8235: 8228: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8192: 8184: 8180: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8164: 8163:Health Policy 8157: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8116: 8108: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8090: 8086: 8082: 8078: 8074: 8067: 8059: 8053: 8045: 8039: 8035: 8031: 8027: 8020: 8012: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7987: 7976: 7970: 7962: 7956: 7948: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7907: 7899: 7893: 7890:. WHO. 2008. 7889: 7888: 7881: 7867:on 2014-03-25 7866: 7862: 7856: 7842:on 2014-06-25 7841: 7837: 7831: 7823: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7798:(7): 468–74. 7797: 7793: 7789: 7782: 7774: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7733: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7710: 7702: 7695: 7687: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7662:(9): 1231–8. 7661: 7657: 7653: 7646: 7638: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7621:(2): 119–34. 7620: 7616: 7615:Pain Medicine 7612: 7605: 7603: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7579:(6): 813–28. 7578: 7574: 7567: 7559: 7553: 7549: 7548: 7540: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7505: 7497: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7479: 7475: 7471: 7464: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7430: 7426: 7419: 7411: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7386:(2): 167–74. 7385: 7381: 7377: 7370: 7362: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7339: 7331: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7288: 7280: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7263:(2): 435–44. 7262: 7258: 7254: 7247: 7239: 7232: 7218:on 2012-09-11 7217: 7213: 7207: 7205: 7196: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7153: 7139: 7135: 7129: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7086: 7084: 7074: 7066: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7025: 7010: 7006: 7000: 6985: 6981: 6975: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6940: 6926: 6922: 6916: 6914: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6864: 6862: 6860: 6845: 6841: 6834: 6826: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6801:(4): 17–024. 6800: 6796: 6792: 6785: 6777: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6736: 6728: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6664:(6): 255–65. 6663: 6659: 6652: 6644: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6601: 6592: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6549: 6541: 6537: 6530: 6528: 6518: 6510: 6504: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6477: 6462: 6456: 6448: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6423:(2): 187–93. 6422: 6418: 6414: 6407: 6399: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6366: 6358: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6333:(5): 404–16. 6332: 6328: 6324: 6317: 6309: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6292:(2): 325–34. 6291: 6287: 6283: 6276: 6274: 6265: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6248:(2): 325–34. 6247: 6243: 6239: 6232: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6201: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6174: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6125: 6123: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6073: 6065: 6058: 6050: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6011: 6009: 6000: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5959: 5957: 5948: 5942: 5931: 5924: 5916: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5891:(3): e58-62. 5890: 5886: 5882: 5875: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5844:(4): e12670. 5843: 5839: 5832: 5825: 5818: 5812: 5805: 5800: 5798: 5786: 5778: 5772: 5756: 5752: 5746: 5735: 5724: 5717: 5709: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5668: 5653: 5649: 5643: 5641: 5625: 5621: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5567: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5546: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5501: 5492: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5449: 5447: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5375: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5342:(2): 229–37. 5341: 5337: 5333: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5307: 5303: 5296: 5281: 5277: 5270: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5225: 5216: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5175: 5167: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5078:(8): 643–53. 5077: 5073: 5066: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5043:(5): 1000–2. 5042: 5038: 5031: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4966: 4962: 4956: 4941: 4937: 4931: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4902: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4860:(3): 265–79. 4859: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4720: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4697:(1): 92–105. 4696: 4692: 4685: 4671: 4667: 4660: 4652: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4611: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4564: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4519: 4517: 4515: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4481:(6): 909–16. 4480: 4476: 4472: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4408: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4373: 4365: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4324: 4316: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4246: 4244: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4200: 4191: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4138: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4072: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3940: 3936: 3929: 3914: 3910: 3904: 3890: 3886: 3879: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3838:PLOS Medicine 3835: 3828: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3717:(2): 99–103. 3716: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3678:(6): 819–28. 3677: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3623: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3512: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3344: 3336: 3329: 3321: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3272: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3247: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3218: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3193:NIHR Evidence 3190: 3184: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3138: 3137: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3075: 3068: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3042: 3040: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3004: 2997: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2956: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2907:on 2020-05-24 2906: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2878: 2874: 2867: 2859: 2852: 2846: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2762:(6): 454–64. 2761: 2757: 2750: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2707: 2699: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2588: 2579: 2573: 2569: 2562: 2560: 2551: 2545: 2541: 2540: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2519: 2512: 2505: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2456: 2447: 2439: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2386:(9): 1181–8. 2385: 2381: 2374: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2325: 2319: 2317: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2281: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2246: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2219: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2176: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2133: 2131: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2103: 2101: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2077:(1): 103–19. 2076: 2072: 2065: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2024: 2022: 2013: 2009: 2006:(4): 275–84. 2005: 2001: 1994: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1945: 1943: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1836: 1834: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1798: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1749: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1708: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1677: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1644:(9): 647–52. 1643: 1639: 1635: 1628: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1579: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 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