19:
1454:
611:
316:
186:
146:
165:
266:, and often shutting in, between their northern and northeastern flank and the main mountain line from which they detach themselves, rich plains and fertile valleys. Behind them tower the massive ridges of the Euphrates and Zagros ranges, where the Tigris and Euphrates take their rise, and which cut off Assyria from
93:, referring to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, but the region can be broadly defined to include the area that is now most of Iraq, eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey. The oldest known occurrence of the name Mesopotamia dates to the 4th century BCE, when it was used to designate the land east of the
688:
on the western side of the Tigris. The
Pallacopas, called Pallukkatu in the Neo-Babylonian texts, started from Pallukkatu or Falluja, and running parallel to the western bank of the Euphrates as far as Iddaratu or Teredon, (?) watered an immense tract of land and supplied a large lake near Borsippa.
458:
the culture-god, was a little south of Ur on the west side of the
Euphrates. It is now about 130 miles (210 km) from the sea; as about 46 inches of land have been formed by the silting up of the shore since the foundation of Spasinus Charax (Mu/-zamrah) in the time of Alexander the Great,
262:. The numerous remains of old habitations show how thickly this level tract must once have been peopled, though now mostly a wilderness. North of the plateau rises a well-watered and undulating belt of country, into which run low ranges of limestone hills, sometimes arid, sometimes covered with
671:
The dense population arose from the elaborate irrigation of the
Babylonian plain, which had originally reclaimed it from a pestiferous and uninhabitable swamp, and had made it the most fertile country in the world. The science of irrigation and engineering seems to have been first developed in
767:
and its commentaries. These texts contain lists of toponyms, but circumstantial evidence is required to correlate these with their geographical location. The most useful category of texts for this purpose are itineraries, which list settlements in the sequence they are passed by a traveller.
404:(the Sepharvaim of Scripture, now Abu Habba), occupied both the Arabian and Chaldaean sides of the river. The Arakhtu, or "river of Babylon," flowed past the southern side of the city, and to the southwest of it on the Arabian bank lay the great inland freshwater sea of
672:
Babylonia, which was covered by a network of canals, all skillfully planned and regulated. The three chief of them carried off the waters of the
Euphrates to the Tigris above Babylon: the Zabzallat canal (or Nahr Sarsar) running from Faluja to
133:. In modern scientific usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation. In modern Western historiography of the region, the term "Mesopotamia" is usually used to designate the area from the beginning of time, until the
817:, past a branch which went north to that city. The Gibil continued on to Apisala where it intersected with the Ninagina Canal which flowed southeast from Zabalam. From Apisala, the Gibil went on to Umma, where it joined the Iturungal Canal.
459:
or some 115 feet (35 m) a year, the city would have existed perhaps 6000 years ago. The marshes in the south, like the adjoining desert, were frequented by
Aramaic tribes; of these, the most famous were the Chaldaeans, who, under
463:, made themselves masters of Babylon and gave their name in later days to the whole population of the country. The combined stream of the Euphrates and Tigris as it flowed through the marshes was known to the Babylonians as the
760:
etc. is known with certainty, while the location of minor settlements, situated along a network of canals, is more difficult to reconstruct. An important source of
Mesopotamian toponymy is the great Babylonian encyclopedia
408:, surrounded by red sandstone cliffs of considerable height, 40 miles (64 km) in length and 35 in breadth in the widest part. Above and below this sea, from Borsippa to Kufa, extend the famous Chaldaean marshes, where
569:'s capital. The rise of Sargon's empire was the probable cause of this extension of the name of Akkad; henceforward in the imperial title, "Sumer and Akkad" denoted the whole of Babylonia. After the
81:, were all on the east bank of the Tigris. The reason was its abundant supply of water, whereas the great plain on the western side had to depend on streams flowing into the Euphrates.
676:, the Kutha canal from Sippara to Madam, passing Tell Ibrahim or Kuth'a on the way, and the King's canal or Ar-Malcha between the other two. This last, which perhaps owed its name to
380:, formed by the deposits of the two great rivers that encircled it. The soil was extremely fertile, and teemed with an industrious population. Eastward rose the mountains of
482:, though the name was properly restricted to "the plain" on the western bank of the river where the Bedouins pastured the flocks of their Babylonian masters. This "bank" or
121:
are also often included under the wider term
Mesopotamia. A further distinction is usually made between Upper or Northern Mesopotamia and Lower or Southern Mesopotamia.
246:
This vast flat is about 250 miles (400 km) in length, interrupted only by a single limestone range rising abruptly out of the plain, and branching off from the
1137:
Miquel, A.; Brice, W.C.; Sourdel, D.; Aubin, J.; Holt, P.M.; Kelidar, A.; Blanc, H.; MacKenzie, D.N.; Pellat, Ch. (2011), "ʿIrāḳ", in
Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.;
412:
was nearly lost (Arrian, Eup. Al. vii. 22; Strabo xvi. I, § 12); but these depend upon the state of the
Hindiya canal, disappearing altogether when it is closed.
1202:
Piotr
Steinkeller, On the Reading and Location of the Toponyms ÚR×Ú.KI and A.ḪA.KI, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Jan., 1980), pp. 23–33.
846:
canal departed from the left bank of the Iturungal canal downstream of Bad-tibira. It marked the eastern boundary of Ur and the western boundary of Lagash.
573:
conquest of the country, northern Babylonia came to be known as Kar-Duniyash, "the wall of the god Duniyask," from a line of forts similar to that built by
1234:
47:
1827:
542:
849:
The Ninagina canal ran from Iturungal at Zabalam southeast passing Girsu, Lagash, and Nina. It intersected with the Gibil canal at Apicella.
549:
or northern Babylonia. The original meaning of Urra was perhaps "clayey soil," but it came to signify "the upper country" or "highlands,"
1822:
290:. It remained the capital long after the Assyrians had become the dominant power in western Asia, but was finally supplanted by Calah (
632:
337:
255:
251:
207:
1878:
1227:
388:, while on the west the civilization of Babylonia encroached beyond the banks of the Euphrates, upon the territory of the nomadic
1439:
835:
canal left the Euphrates below Nippur running past Adab, Dabrum, Zabalam, Umma, Nagsu, Bad-tibira and Larsa and between Uruk and
1991:
1110:
1036:
1157:
Wilkinson, Tony J. (2000), "Regional Approaches to Mesopotamian Archaeology: the Contribution of Archaeological Surveys",
1569:
1220:
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canal, joined the Zubi canal above Push. Settlements along this canal included Hiritum, Hursitum, Sarru-Laba, Namzium.
439:) with its temple of the sun god, while eastward of the Shatt el-Hai, probably the ancient channel of the Tigris, was
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1128:
658:
363:
233:
57:, tends to separate them still more completely. In the earliest recorded times, the northern portion was included in
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345:
215:
1960:
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xviii. 11) states that it was cut twice, and afterwards was good keep for sheep, and Berossus remarked that wheat,
389:
46:. While the southern is flat and marshy, the near approach of the two rivers to one another, at a spot where the
692:
Thanks to this system of irrigation, the cultivation of the soil was highly advanced in Babylonia. According to
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636:
341:
211:
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between Sippar and Opis, to defend his kingdom from attacks from the north. As this last was "the Wall of
1965:
1847:
1842:
1777:
1453:
125:, also known as the Jazirah, is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to
137:
in the 630s, with the Arabic names Iraq and Jazirah being used to describe the region after that event.
1970:
1579:
1029:
Archaeology under Fire: Nationalism, Politics and Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East
1027:
Bahrani, Z. (1998), "Conjuring Mesopotamia: Imaginative Geography a World Past", in Meskell, L. (ed.),
701:
910:
396:(Mugheir, more correctly Muqayyar) the earliest capital of the country; and Babylon, with its suburb,
1654:
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101:. In modern times it has been more generally applied to all the lands between the Euphrates and the
1609:
1138:
1046:
911:"history of Mesopotamia | Definition, Civilization, Summary, Agriculture, & Facts | Britannica"
696:(1.193), wheat commonly returned two hundredfold to the sower, and occasionally three hundredfold.
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B. Meissner may be right in identifying it with "the Canal of the Sun-god" of the early texts.
134:
1619:
1045:
Canard, M. (2011), "al-ḎJazīra, Ḏjazīrat Aḳūr or Iḳlīm Aḳūr", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.;
680:, was conducted from the Euphrates towards Upi or Opis, which has been shown by H. Winckler (
460:
1996:
1837:
1797:
1276:
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282:, now Qal'at Sherqat (Kaleh Shergat), on the right bank of the Tigris, midway between the
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above Nippur to run by the city of Isin, and thence to rejoin the Euphrates at Kisurra.
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and many kinds of shelled fruit grew wild, as wheat still does in the neighbourhood of
173:
376:
In contrast with the arid plateau of Mesopotamia stretched the rich alluvial plain of
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being "the lowlands." In Semitic times, Urra was pronounced Un and confounded with
468:
247:
118:
533:, "the land of Sumer". Sumer has been supposed to be the original of the Biblical
18:
1751:
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740:'s army to the shores of the Persian Gulf was one continuous forest of verdure.
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canal ran southwest from the Tigris to a point south of the frontier city of
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593:(Anab. ii. 4. 12), traces of which were found by F.R. Chesney extending from
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486:, together with the corresponding western bank of the Tigris (according to
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Eastward of the Euphrates and southward of Sippara, Kutha and Babylon were
130:
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423:(Niffer)-where stood the great sanctuary of El-lu, the older Bel-Uruk or
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58:
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169:
105:, thereby incorporating not only parts of Syria but also almost all of
1212:
1086:
384:, southward were the sea-marshes and the Kaldy or Chaldeans and other
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1477:
1364:
1301:
1199:
Douglas Frayne, The Early Dynastic List of Geographical Names (1992).
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717:
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154:
94:
43:
31:
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69:, the original capital of Assyria, the chief cities of the country,
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1584:
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Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 18, No. 3 (1964), pp. 57–88
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685:
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54:
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poem celebrated the 360 uses of the palm (Strabo xvi. I. 14), and
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447:), which played an important part in early Babylonian history.
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274:. The name Assyria itself was derived from that of the city of
259:
164:
158:
114:
110:
102:
74:
39:
1787:
1424:
1419:
1399:
836:
565:- written Akkattim in the Elamite inscriptions - the name of
557:, "city" as a geographical term, however, it was replaced by
451:
432:
405:
275:
98:
78:
66:
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or Kasdin of the Hebrew Bible. In the early inscriptions of
1374:
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799:. Settlements along this canal included Hibaritum and Push.
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725:
455:
424:
381:
145:
106:
490:, the modern Shatt el-Uai), gave its name to the land of
117:
to the west of the Euphrates and the western part of the
939:
1136:
1121:
The Archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and Approaches
1001:
393:
302:(Khorsabad), some 60 miles (97 km) farther north.
525:
A more comprehensive name of southern Mesopotamia was
1100:
948:
1101:
Foster, Benjamin R.; Polinger Foster, Karen (2009),
129:. Lower Mesopotamia is the area from Baghdad to the
65:
after the rise of the Assyrian monarchy. Apart from
585:(xi. 14. 8), Kar-Duniyash may have represented the
1123:, Approaching the past, Milton Square: Routledge,
113:, and parts of southwestern Iran. The neighboring
748:The location of most of the major cities such as
89:Mesopotamia means "(Land) between two rivers" in
1983:
684:, ii. pp. 509 seq.) to have been close to
419:(Ultaimir, 9 miles (14 km) E. of Hillah),
736:(xxiv. 3) says that from the point reached by
168:Typical view of farmland in the area north of
1228:
997:
995:
980:
968:
1823:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
1064:
933:
639:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
478:The alluvial plain of Babylonia was called
344:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
214:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1235:
1221:
1141:; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),
1049:; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.),
927:
1156:
1105:, Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1065:Finkelstein, J.J. (1962), "Mesopotamia",
992:
974:
659:Learn how and when to remove this message
364:Learn how and when to remove this message
234:Learn how and when to remove this message
1118:
986:
959:
957:
471:1:21), a name originally applied to the
163:
144:
38:, centered on the two great rivers, the
17:
1242:
1031:, London: Routledge, pp. 159–174,
1026:
1012:
600:
514:. The coastland was similarly known as
84:
1984:
1143:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
1051:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
1044:
963:
450:The primitive seaport of the country,
1216:
954:
856:canal ran southeast from Ur to Eridu.
50:of the north sinks suddenly into the
22:Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia
637:adding citations to reliable sources
604:
342:adding citations to reliable sources
309:
305:
212:adding citations to reliable sources
179:
140:
771:Important canals of Sumer included
13:
1193:
1159:Journal of Archaeological Research
541:. Opposed to Kengi and Sumer were
400:(Birs Nimrud), as well as the two
14:
2008:
949:Foster & Polinger Foster 2009
824:canal left the right bank of the
743:
502:, the whole district is known as
1961:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary
1452:
791:between the locations of modern
609:
390:ancient Semitic-speaking peoples
314:
184:
153:, one of the tributaries to the
1067:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
1020:
839:before rejoining the Euphrates.
298:(Nebi Vunus and Kuyunjik), and
1518:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
1513:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
1006:
903:
1:
1900:Ancient Mesopotamian religion
1297:Tigris–Euphrates river system
1103:Civilizations of Ancient Iraq
897:
454:, the seat of the worship of
1992:Geography of the Middle East
682:Altorientalische Forschungen
7:
1966:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
1848:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations
1843:Indus-Mesopotamia relations
860:
10:
2013:
1971:Chicago Hittite Dictionary
510:equivalent of the Semitic
1938:
1892:
1866:
1770:
1667:
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1468:
1461:
1450:
1332:
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1250:
1145:, Leiden: Brill Online,
1119:Matthews, Roger (2003),
1053:, Leiden: Brill Online,
467:, "the salt river" (cp.
28:geography of Mesopotamia
1171:10.1023/A:1009487620969
537:and the Sankhar of the
61:; it was marked off as
1803:Babylonian mathematics
787:), a short-cut of the
561:, the Semitic form of
392:(or Suti). Here stood
177:
176:visible on the horizon
161:
23:
522:) "bank of the sea."
461:Marduk-apla-iddina II
167:
148:
21:
1798:Babylonian astronomy
1277:Mesopotamian Marshes
734:Ammianus Marcellinus
633:improve this section
601:Perennial irrigation
338:improve this section
208:improve this section
85:Defining Mesopotamia
1879:Destruction by ISIL
1833:Sumerian literature
1808:Akkadian literature
1244:Ancient Mesopotamia
892:Geography of Turkey
877:Geography of Kuwait
410:Alexander the Great
250:under the names of
30:, encompassing its
1915:Mesopotamian myths
1205:William W. Hallo,
1002:Miquel et al. 2011
977:, pp. 222–223
915:www.britannica.com
882:Geography of Syria
178:
172:, with an ancient
162:
157:, in southeastern
48:undulating plateau
24:
1979:
1978:
1930:Ziggurat (Temple)
1905:Sumerian religion
1663:
1662:
1610:Middle Babylonian
1552:Kish civilization
1448:
1447:
1272:Lower Mesopotamia
1267:Upper Mesopotamia
1112:978-0-691-13722-3
1038:978-0-415-19655-0
887:Geography of Iran
867:Geography of Iraq
669:
668:
661:
575:Nebuchadnezzar II
529:, "the land," or
374:
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366:
306:Lower Mesopotamia
244:
243:
236:
141:Upper Mesopotamia
123:Upper Mesopotamia
109:and southeastern
2004:
1828:Sumerian cuisine
1818:Warfare in Sumer
1813:Economy of Sumer
1466:
1465:
1456:
1340:Fertile Crescent
1324:Sinjar Mountains
1319:Hamrin Mountains
1314:Zagros Mountains
1292:Taurus Mountains
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1207:The Road to Emar
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1858:List of rulers
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1047:Bosworth, C.E.
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975:Wilkinson 2000
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744:Ancient canals
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617:
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539:Amarna letters
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1287:Syrian Desert
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987:Matthews 2003
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690:
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634:
628:
627:
623:
618:This section
616:
612:
607:
606:
598:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
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523:
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497:
494:, whence the
493:
489:
485:
481:
476:
474:
470:
466:
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457:
453:
448:
446:
442:
438:
434:
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399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
368:
365:
357:
347:
343:
339:
333:
332:
328:
323:This section
321:
317:
312:
311:
303:
301:
300:Dur-Sharrukin
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
238:
235:
227:
217:
213:
209:
203:
202:
198:
193:This section
191:
187:
182:
181:
175:
171:
166:
160:
156:
152:
147:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
91:ancient Greek
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
20:
16:
1853:Royal titles
1778:Architecture
1615:Neo-Assyrian
1462:(Pre)history
1282:Persian Gulf
1251:
1206:
1162:
1158:
1142:
1120:
1102:
1073:(2): 73–92,
1070:
1066:
1050:
1028:
1021:Bibliography
1013:Bahrani 1998
1008:
982:
970:
936:, p. 73
929:
918:. Retrieved
914:
905:
853:
843:
832:
821:
810:
803:
784:
780:
776:
770:
764:Urra=hubullu
762:
747:
691:
681:
670:
655:
649:January 2021
646:
631:Please help
619:
562:
558:
554:
550:
530:
526:
524:
520:Kisad tamtim
519:
515:
511:
503:
488:Fritz Hommel
483:
477:
473:Persian Gulf
464:
449:
444:
436:
428:
414:
375:
360:
354:January 2021
351:
336:Please help
324:
245:
230:
224:January 2021
221:
206:Please help
194:
149:View of the
131:Persian Gulf
88:
27:
25:
15:
1997:Mesopotamia
1956:Hittitology
1946:Assyriology
1867:Archaeology
1737:Old Persian
1547:Jemdet Nasr
989:, p. 5
964:Canard 2011
951:, p. 6
783:, Akkadian
587:Median Wall
531:Kengi Sumer
512:Kisad Edini
465:ndr marrati
151:Murat River
59:Mesopotamia
1986:Categories
1920:Divination
1630:Achaemenid
1595:Isin-Larsa
1488:Trialetian
1483:Mousterian
1470:Prehistory
920:2022-02-05
898:References
822:Issinnitum
597:to Jibar.
518:(Akkadian
288:Little Zab
170:al-Hasakah
52:Babylonian
1793:Cuneiform
1669:Languages
1478:Acheulean
1365:Babylonia
1302:Euphrates
1252:Geography
1187:140771958
1179:1573-7756
1151:624382576
1095:222432558
1059:624382576
844:Nanagugal
833:Iturungal
826:Euphrates
694:Herodotus
678:Hammurabi
674:Ctesiphon
620:does not
579:Semiramis
545:(Un) and
504:Gu-Edinna
325:does not
272:Kurdistan
264:dwarf oak
195:does not
155:Euphrates
97:in north
95:Euphrates
44:Euphrates
32:ethnology
1939:Academia
1893:Religion
1762:Urartian
1757:Sumerian
1742:Parthian
1677:Akkadian
1650:Sasanian
1640:Parthian
1635:Seleucid
1585:Simurrum
1575:Akkadian
1508:Khiamian
1498:Natufian
1410:Simurrum
1395:Kassites
1390:Hittites
1345:Adiabene
861:See also
785:Izubitum
686:Seleucia
595:Fallujah
591:Xenophon
516:Gu-gubba
508:Sumerian
435:(Arabic
427:(Arabic
398:Borsippa
386:Arameans
55:alluvium
1925:Prayers
1910:Deities
1874:Looting
1717:Kassite
1712:Hurrian
1707:Hittite
1697:Elamite
1692:Eblaite
1687:Aramaic
1682:Amorite
1605:Kassite
1580:Gutians
1562:History
1527:Samarra
1523:Hassuna
1493:Zarzian
1415:Subartu
1405:Mitanni
1370:Chaldea
1360:Assyria
1333:Ancient
797:Baghdad
793:Samarra
779:canal (
730:Persian
641:removed
626:sources
571:Kassite
437:Senkera
402:Sippars
378:Chaldea
346:removed
331:sources
296:Nineveh
268:Armenia
256:Hainrin
252:Sarazur
216:removed
201:sources
127:Baghdad
115:steppes
71:Nineveh
63:Assyria
36:history
1752:Sutean
1727:Median
1722:Luwian
1702:Gutian
1590:Ur III
1503:Nemrik
1440:Cities
1435:Urartu
1385:Hamazi
1380:Gutium
1355:Armani
1307:Tigris
1260:Modern
1185:
1177:
1149:
1127:
1109:
1093:
1087:543884
1085:
1057:
1035:
854:Susuka
804:Irnina
789:Tigris
758:Lagash
738:Julian
722:apples
714:ophrys
710:barley
706:sesame
583:Strabo
559:Akkadu
535:Shinar
506:, the
500:Lagash
496:Kasdim
492:Chesed
441:Lagash
431:) and
421:Nippur
292:Nimrud
260:Sinjar
159:Turkey
111:Turkey
103:Tigris
79:Arbela
40:Tigris
1838:Music
1788:Akitu
1645:Roman
1537:Ubaid
1532:Halaf
1430:Tukri
1425:Sumer
1420:Suhum
1400:Media
1350:Akkad
1183:S2CID
1091:S2CID
1083:JSTOR
837:Enegi
811:Gibil
781:Izubi
718:palms
702:H. N.
563:Agade
551:kengi
547:Akkad
527:Kengi
484:kisad
452:Eridu
445:Tello
433:Larsa
429:Warka
406:Najaf
284:Great
276:Assur
99:Syria
75:Kalaḫ
67:Assur
1884:Tell
1542:Uruk
1375:Elam
1175:ISSN
1147:OCLC
1125:ISBN
1107:ISBN
1055:OCLC
1033:ISBN
852:The
842:The
831:The
820:The
815:Kesh
809:the
802:the
795:and
777:Zubi
775:the
754:Uruk
750:Kish
728:. A
726:Anah
624:any
622:cite
543:Urra
480:Edin
425:Uruk
417:Kish
382:Elam
329:any
327:cite
286:and
280:Asur
270:and
258:and
199:any
197:cite
174:tell
107:Iraq
77:and
42:and
34:and
26:The
1783:Art
1167:doi
1075:doi
635:by
589:of
555:uru
340:by
294:),
278:or
210:by
1988::
1181:,
1173:,
1161:,
1089:,
1081:,
1071:21
1069:,
994:^
956:^
941:^
913:.
756:,
752:,
720:,
716:,
712:,
708:,
475:.
456:Ea
394:Ur
254:,
73:,
1525:/
1236:e
1229:t
1222:v
1169::
1163:8
1077::
923:.
700:(
662:)
656:(
651:)
647:(
643:.
629:.
443:(
367:)
361:(
356:)
352:(
348:.
334:.
237:)
231:(
226:)
222:(
218:.
204:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
