Endangered language

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interrotta la trasmissione transgenerazionale delle varietà locali. Potremmo aggiungere che in condizioni socioeconomiche di svantaggio l'atteggiamento linguistico dei parlanti si è posto in maniera negativa nei confronti della propria lingua, la quale veniva associata ad un'immagine negativa e di ostacolo per la promozione sociale. Un gran numero di parlanti, per marcare la distanza dal gruppo sociale di appartenenza, ha piano piano abbandonato la propria lingua per servirsi della lingua dominante e identificarsi in un gruppo sociale differente e più prestigioso.» Gargiulo, Marco (2013).

71: 25: 854: 674: 294: 695: 597:, as they work to promote a single national culture, limit the opportunities for using minority languages in the public sphere, schools, the media, and elsewhere, sometimes even prohibiting them altogether. Sometimes ethnic groups are forcibly resettled, or children may be removed to be schooled away from home, or otherwise have their chances of cultural and linguistic continuity disrupted. This has happened in the case of many 779:, have argued that language death is a natural part of the process of human cultural development, and that languages die because communities stop speaking them for their own reasons. Ladefoged argued that linguists should simply document and describe languages scientifically, but not seek to interfere with the processes of language loss. A similar view has been argued at length by linguist 817:, vocabulary, and oral traditions (e.g. stories, songs, religious texts) of endangered languages. It entails producing descriptive grammars, collections of texts and dictionaries of the languages, and it requires the establishment of a secure archive where the material can be stored once it is produced so that it can be accessed by future generations of speakers or scientists. 743:

structure of one's community is often reflected through speech and language behavior. This pattern is even more prominent in dialects. This may in turn affect the sense of identity of the individual and the community as a whole, producing a weakened social cohesion as their values and traditions are replaced with new ones. This is sometimes characterized as

285:. Many sign languages are used by small communities; small changes in their environment (such as contact with a larger sign language or dispersal of the deaf community) can lead to the endangerment and loss of their traditional sign language. Methods are being developed to assess the vitality of sign languages. 639:. The movement of people into urban areas can force people to learn the language of their new environment. Eventually, later generations will lose the ability to speak their native language, leading to endangerment. Once urbanization takes place, new families who live there will be under pressure to speak the 747:. Losing a language may also have political consequences as some countries confer different political statuses or privileges on minority ethnic groups, often defining ethnicity in terms of language. In turn, communities that lose their language may also lose political legitimacy as a community with special 960:

A language is said to be dead when no one speaks it any more. It may continue to have existence in a recorded form, of course traditionally in writing, more recently as part of a sound or video archive (and it does in a sense 'live on' in this way) but unless it has fluent speakers one would not talk

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was devoted to the study of ethnolinguistic vitality, Vol. 32.2, 2011, with several authors presenting their own tools for measuring language vitality. A number of other published works on measuring language vitality have been published, prepared by authors with varying situations and applications in

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commonly seems to entail a general «rifiuto del sardo da parte di chi vuole autopromuoversi socialmente e si considera "moderno" ne restringe l'uso a persona e contesti "tradizionali" (cioè socialmente poco competitivi), confermando e rafforzando i motivi del rifiuto per mezzo del proprio giudizio

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As a result, without professional guidance, figures in popular estimation see-sawed wildly, from several hundred to tens of thousands. It took some time for systematic surveys to be established. Ethnologue, the largest present-day survey, first attempted a world-wide review only in 1974, an edition

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creates a strong incentive for individuals to abandon their language (on behalf of themselves and their children as well) in favor of another more prestigious language; one example of this is assimilatory education. This frequently happens when indigenous populations and ethnic groups who were once

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Asserting that "Language diversity is essential to the human heritage", UNESCO's Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages offers this definition of an endangered language: "... when its speakers cease to use it, use it in an increasingly reduced number of communicative domains, and cease to pass

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The total number of contemporary languages in the world is not known, and it is not well defined what constitutes a separate language as opposed to a dialect. Estimates vary depending on the extent and means of the research undertaken, and the definition of a distinct language and the current state

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Linguists, members of endangered language communities, governments, nongovernmental organizations, and international organizations such as UNESCO and the European Union are actively working to save and stabilize endangered languages. Once a language is determined to be endangered, there are three

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A majority of linguists do consider that language loss is an ethical problem, as they consider that most communities would prefer to maintain their languages if given a real choice. They also consider it a scientific problem, because language loss on the scale currently taking place will mean that

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As communities lose their language, they often lose parts of their cultural traditions which are tied to that language. Examples include songs, myths, poetry, local remedies, ecological and geological knowledge, as well as language behaviors that are not easily translated. Furthermore, the social

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Historically, in colonies, and elsewhere where speakers of different languages have come into contact, some languages have been considered superior to others: often one language has attained a dominant position in a country. Speakers of endangered languages may themselves come to associate their

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UNESCO operates with four levels of language endangerment between "safe" (not endangered) and "extinct" (no living speakers), based on intergenerational transfer: "vulnerable" (not spoken by children outside the home), "definitely endangered" (children not speaking), "severely endangered" (only

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Ethnologue's 2005 count of languages in its database, excluding duplicates in different countries, was 6,912, of which 32.8% (2,269) were in Asia, and 30.3% (2,092) in Africa. This contemporary tally must be regarded as a variable number within a range. Areas with a particularly large number of

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or one spoken more widely, leading to the gradual decline and eventual death of the endangered language. The process of language shift is often influenced by factors such as globalisation, economic authorities, and the perceived prestige of certain languages. The ultimate result is the loss of

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Language maintenance refers to the support given to languages that need for their survival to be protected from outsiders who can ultimately affect the number of speakers of a language. UNESCO seeks to prevent language extinction by promoting and supporting the language in education, culture,

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accounts for most of the world's language endangerment. Scholars distinguish between several types of marginalization: Economic dominance negatively affects minority languages when poverty leads people to migrate towards the cities or to other countries, thus dispersing the speakers. Cultural

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defines languages as "safe" if it is considered that children will probably be speaking them in 100 years; "endangered" if children will probably not be speaking them in 100 years (approximately 60–80% of languages fall into this category) and "moribund" if children are not speaking them now.

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rule in the late 18th century, it is noted that «come conseguenza dell'italianizzazione dell'isola – a partire dalla seconda metà del XVIII secolo ma con un'accelerazione dal secondo dopoguerra – si sono verificati i casi in cui, per un lungo periodo e in alcune fasce della popolazione, si è

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in the linguistic literature—the language that is being lost generally undergoes changes as speakers make their language more similar to the language that they are shifting to. For example, gradually losing grammatical or phonological complexities that are not found in the dominant language.

587:). There are also cases where cultural hegemony may often arise not from an earlier history of domination or conquest, but simply from increasing contact with larger and more influential communities through better communications, compared with the relative isolation of past centuries. 153:

linguistic diversity and cultural heritage within affected communities. The general consensus is that there are between 6,000 and 7,000 languages currently spoken. Some linguists estimate that between 50% and 90% of them will be severely endangered or dead by the year 2100. The

751:. Language can also be considered as scientific knowledge in topics such as medicine, philosophy, botany, and more. It reflects a community's practices when dealing with the environment and each other. When a language is lost, this knowledge is often lost as well. 209:

of knowledge of remote and isolated language communities. The number of known languages varies over time as some of them become extinct and others are newly discovered. An accurate number of languages in the world was not yet known until the use of universal,

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subjected to colonisation and/or earlier conquest, in order to achieve a higher social status, have a better chance to get employment and/or acceptance in a given social network only when they adopt the cultural and linguistic traits of other groups with

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Often multiple of these causes act at the same time. Poverty, disease and disasters often affect minority groups disproportionately, for example causing the dispersal of speaker populations and decreased survival rates for those who stay behind.

353:) in place of local languages. In contrast, a language with only 500 speakers might be considered very much alive if it is the primary language of a community, and is the first (or only) spoken language of all children in that community. 2303: 828:. For case studies of this process, see Anderson (2014). Applied linguistics and education are helpful in revitalizing endangered languages. Vocabulary and courses are available online for a number of endangered languages. 823:

is the process by which a language community through political, community, and educational means attempts to increase the number of active speakers of the endangered language. This process is also sometimes referred to as

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Campbell, Lyle and Muntzel, Martha C.. 1989. The Structural Consequences of Language Death. In Dorian, Nancy C. (ed.), Investigating Obsolescence: Studies in Language Contraction and Death, 181–96. Cambridge University

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include religion and technology; religious groups may hold the belief that the use of a certain language is immoral or require its followers to speak one language that is the approved language of the religion (like the

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dominance occurs when literature and higher education is only accessible in the majority language. Political dominance occurs when education and political activity is carried out exclusively in a majority language.

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in the later half of the twentieth century. The majority of linguists in the early twentieth century refrained from making estimates. Before then, estimates were frequently the product of guesswork and very low.

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Boas, Franz. 1911. Introduction. In Boas, Franz (ed.) Handbook of American Indian Languages Part I (Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 40), 1–83. Washington, DC: Government Printing

457:. Any natural disaster severe enough to wipe out an entire population of native language speakers has the capability of endangering a language. An example of this is the languages spoken by the people of the 649:

can also cause language endangerment, as there will always be pressure to speak one language to each other. This may lead to children only speaking the more common language spoken between the married couple.

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endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages, often involving joint projects between language communities and linguists. Across the world, many countries have enacted

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Grinevald, Collette & Michel Bert. 2011. "Speakers and Communities" in Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia, eds. (2011). Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press.

168:. Once a language has reached the endangerment stage, there are only a few speakers left and children are, for the most part, not learning the language. The third stage of language extinction is 1436: 719:

language with negative values such as poverty, illiteracy and social stigma, causing them to wish to adopt the dominant language which is associated with social and economical progress and

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Gippert, Jost; Himmelmann, Nikolaus P. and Mosel, Ulrike (eds.) 2006. Essentials of Language Documentation (Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 178). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

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steps that can be taken in order to stabilize or rescue the language. The first is language documentation, the second is language revitalization and the third is language maintenance.

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that is at risk of disappearing as its speakers die out or shift to speaking other languages. Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers and becomes a "

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Many scholars have devised techniques for determining whether languages are endangered. One of the earliest is GIDS (Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) proposed by

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Generally the accelerated pace of language endangerment is considered to be a problem by linguists and by the speakers. However, some linguists, such as the phonetician

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Harrison, K. David. 2007. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press.

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future linguists will only have access to a fraction of the world's linguistic diversity, therefore their picture of what human language is—and can be—will be limited.

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Almost all of the study of language endangerment has been with spoken languages. A UNESCO study of endangered languages does not mention sign languages. However, some

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McConvell, Patrick; Thieberger, Nicholas (2006). "Keeping Track of Language Endangerment in Australia". In Cunningham, Denis; Ingram, David; Sumbuk, Kenneth (eds.).

842:, which allows indigenous language experts who do not have academic training to enter the U.S. as experts aiming to share their knowledge and expand their skills". 164:. This is when a language faces strong external pressure, but there are still communities of speakers who pass the language to their children. The second stage is 2645: 2013:

Anderson, Gregory D. S. (2011). "Language Hotspots: what (applied) linguistics and education should do about language endangerment in the twenty-first century".

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Austin, Peter K. (ed.). 2009. One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost. London: Thames and Hudson and Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

388: 2372:

Fishman, Joshua. 2001a. Can Threatened Languages be Saved? Reversing Language Shift, Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

1735: 2271:, Australia State of the Environment Second Technical Paper Series (Natural and Cultural Heritage), Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. 2304:'Stop, Revive, Survive: Lessons from the Hebrew Revival Applicable to the Reclamation, Maintenance and Empowerment of Aboriginal Languages and Cultures' 1337:(2007). "Keynote – Mass Language Extinction and Documentation: The Race Against Time". In Miyaoka, Osahito; Sakiyama, Osamu; Krauss, Michael E. (eds.). 2099: 246: 2226:

Hale, Kenneth; Krauss, Michael; Watahomigie, Lucille J.; Yamamoto, Akira Y.; Craig, Colette; Jeanne, LaVerne M. et al. 1992. Endangered Languages.

157:, each with more than 50 million speakers, are spoken by 50% of the world's population, but most languages are spoken by fewer than 10,000 people. 2569: 913: 2415: 154: 2548: 2760: 2754: 2126:"Infinity of Nations: Art and History in the Collections of the National Museum of the American Indian – George Gustav Heye Center, New York" 877: 345:, have tens of thousands of speakers but are endangered because children are no longer learning them, and speakers are shifting to using the 122:

speakers. Although languages have always become extinct throughout human history, they are currently dying at an accelerated rate because of

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Open infrastructure for building language models and tools (spellers etc.) for languages with complex grammars and (next to) no text corpora

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Another option is "post-vernacular maintenance": the teaching of some words and concepts of the lost language, rather than revival proper.

2715: 1613: 1570: 893: 734:

Language endangerment affects both the languages themselves and the people that speak them. This also affects the essence of a culture.

367: 943: 2274:

Nettle, Daniel and Romaine, Suzanne. 2000. Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Maffi L, ed. 2001. On Biocultural Diversity: Linking Language, Knowledge, and the Environment. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Inst. Press

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Dorian, Nancy. 1981. Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

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Ehala, Martin. 2009. An Evaluation Matrix for Ethnolinguistic Vitality. In Susanna Pertot, Tom Priestly & Colin Williams (eds.),

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Ehala, Martin. 2009. An Evaluation Matrix for Ethnolinguistic Vitality. In Susanna Pertot, Tom Priestly & Colin Williams (eds.),

62:. In such countries and around them are the areas that are the most linguistically diverse in the world (denoted in blue on the map). 462: 1988: 1048: 2070: 2361: 1420: 196:. Recognizing that most of the world's endangered languages are unlikely to be revitalized, many linguists are also working on 2589: 2366:

Hinton, Leanne and Ken Hale (eds.) 2001. The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

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Assessing levels of endangerment in the Catalogue of Endangered Languages (ELCat) using the Language Endangerment Index (LEI).

2326: 1683: 1084: 1058: 1007: 1499:

In a social process of radical "De-Sardization" amongst the Sardinian families (Bolognesi, Roberto; Heeringa Wilbert, 2005.

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Evans, Nicholas (2001). "The Last Speaker is Dead – Long Live the Last Speaker!". In Newman, Paul; Ratliff, Martha (eds.).

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Some linguists consider linguistic diversity to be analogous to biological diversity, and compare language endangerment to

2268: 2776: 2726: 118:". A dead language may still be studied through recordings or writings, but it is still dead or extinct unless there are 2389:"One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered and Lost", edited by Peter K. Austin. University of California Press (2008) 1924:

Mufwene, Salikoko (2008). Language Evolution: Contact, Competition and Change. Continuum International Publishing Group.

172:. During this stage, a language is unlikely to survive another generation and will soon be extinct. The fourth stage is 2207: 1346: 1152: 1779: 361:

spoken by the oldest generations), and "critically endangered" (spoken by few members of the oldest generation, often

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More than 50% of the world's endangered languages are located in just eight countries (denoted in red on the map):

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Lingue e diritti. Lingua come fattore di integrazione politica e sociale, Minoranze storiche e nuove minoranze

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Dialects and accents have seen similar levels of endangerment during the 21st century due to similar reasons.

2797: 867: 2125: 2103: 2732: 2610:"Minority Languages in a Society in Turmoil: The Case of the Northern Languages of the Russian Federation" 754:

In contrast, language revitalization is correlated with better health outcomes in indigenous communities.

2616:(new ed.). Edinburgh: Foundation for Endangered Languages & Helsinki University. pp. 58–63. 2163: 282: 546:. This is also the most common cause of language endangerment. Ever since the Indian government adopted 1813:

C. 1978. The Fate of Morphological Complexity in Language Death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic.

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Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). "Introduction". In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (eds.).

882: 2573: 1231: 2676: 921: 887: 598: 2685: 2552: 2419: 2349:

Landweer, M. Lynne. 2011. Methods of Language Endangerment Research: a Perspective from Melanesia.

1464:, edited by Elizabeth M. Tyler, Studies in the Early Middle Ages 27, Turnhout, Brepols, pp. 145–170 2149: 1399:

M. Lynne Landweer. 2011. Methods of Language Endangerment Research: A Perspective from Melanesia.

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Bickford, J. Albert, M. Paul Lewis, Gary F. Simons. 2014. Rating the vitality of sign languages.

825: 820: 274: 184: 2536: 2071:"FAQ on endangered languages | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization" 1882:

Mufwene, Salikoko (2004). "Language birth and death". Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 201–222.

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it on from one generation to the next. That is, there are no new speakers, adults or children."

810: 278: 197: 131: 1547: 1312: 2356:

Lewis, M. Paul & Gary F. Simons. 2010. Assessing Endangerment: Expanding Fishman's GIDS.

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Paris, Brian. The impact of immigrants on language vitality: A case study of Awar and Kayan.

1490:, Atti a cura di Paolo Caretti e Andrea Cardone, Accademia della Crusca, Firenze, pp. 132-133 1412:

Lewis, M. Paul & Gary F. Simons. 2010. Assessing Endangerment: Expanding Fishman's GIDS.

1023: 723:. Immigrants moving into an area may lead to the endangerment of the autochthonous language. 2614:

Endangered Languages: What Role for the Specialist? Proceedings of the Second FEL Conference

1657: 2278: 663: 646: 590: 559: 487: 270: 1632:"As Chinese dialects decline, Australia offers a safe haven for some endangered languages" 8: 2154: 1288: 350: 2666: 2638:"Winona LaDuke Speaks on Biocultural Diversity, Language and Environmental Endangerment" 2440: 423:

who died from diseases, and many extinct and endangered languages of the Americas where

2592:. Electronic Metadata for Endangered Languages Data (E-MELD). 2001–2008. Archived from 2177: 2030: 1865: 1857: 1780:"Healing through language: Positive physical health effects of indigenous language use" 1535: 795: 701: 527: 519: 424: 238: 408:

Causes that put the populations that speak the languages in physical danger, such as:

2519: 2322: 2286: 2254: 2238: 2203: 2181: 2034: 1905: 1869: 1342: 1334: 1208: 1163: 1131: 1102: 1080: 1054: 1003: 949: 748: 618: 539: 375: 346: 218: 210: 149: 84: 1417: 2593: 2167: 2022: 1897: 1849: 1791: 859: 780: 683: 626: 614: 602: 551: 446: 428: 193: 115: 55: 1796: 1501:

Sardegna fra tante lingue, il contatto linguistico in Sardegna dal Medioevo a oggi

1286: 2689: 2026: 1617: 1424: 784: 776: 711: 679: 610: 564: 499: 474: 458: 436: 242: 234: 230: 189: 200:

the thousands of languages of the world about which little or nothing is known.

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Native Tongue Title: Proposed Compensation for the Loss of Aboriginal Languages

872: 783:, who sees the cycles of language death and emergence of new languages through 547: 511: 503: 495: 383: 301:

While there is no definite threshold for identifying a language as endangered,

145: 139: 135: 127: 88: 76: 2515: 2791: 2721: 1901: 1525: 1507:, Condaghes, p. 29), the language shift to Italian and resulting pressure to 640: 531: 507: 483: 362: 266: 254: 123: 111: 1219: 469:

Causes which prevent or discourage speakers from using a language, such as:

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Many projects are under way aimed at preventing or slowing language loss by

70: 2621: 2609: 2546: 2479: 1810: 710:

Among the causes of language endangerment cultural, political and economic

636: 594: 572: 80: 2172: 1853: 1484:

La politica e la storia linguistica della Sardegna raccontata dai parlanti

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Tools and techniques for endangered-language assessment and revitalization

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How UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger classifies languages

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Whalen, D. H., & Simons, G. F. (2012). Endangered language families.

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Rights, Promotion and Integration Issues for Minority Languages in Europe

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Linguistic Genocide in Education or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?

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Rights, promotion and integration issues for minority languages in Europe

584: 2743:

CILLDI, Canadian Indigenous Languages Literacy and Development Institute

2551:. Arlington, Virginia: Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Archived from 1449: 1341:(illustrated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–24. 1593:

Non solo arabi: le radici berbere nel nuovo Nordafrica, in Limes 5 - 11

222: 24: 2463: 2452: 1861: 2771: 1767:(2nd ed.). CreateSpace Independent Publishing. pp. 209–219. 1710:"New Mexico Is Losing a Form of Spanish Spoken Nowhere Else on Earth" 720: 580: 440: 432: 342: 47: 43: 2460:"Endangered Languages: Information and Resources on Dying Languages" 1760: 1150: 673: 319:

Proportion of speakers existing within the total (global) population

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International Conference on Language Documentation and Conservation

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Schmidt, Annette. 1985. "The Fate of Ergativity in Dying Dyirbal".

1504: 853: 839: 694: 420: 419:. Examples of this are the language(s) of the native population of 416: 293: 250: 107: 59: 2622:"Selected Descriptive, Theoretical and Typological Papers (index)" 2742: 1840:

Ladefoged, Peter (1992). "Another view of endangered languages".

914:"What Is an Endangered Language? | Linguistic Society of America" 814: 576: 515: 454: 119: 51: 1563:"India speaks 780 languages, 220 lost in last 50 years – survey" 405:, there are four main types of causes of language endangerment: 2547:

Horne, Adele; Peter Ladefoged; Rosemary Beam de Azcona (2006).

744: 630: 622: 450: 302: 192:

aimed at protecting and stabilizing the language of indigenous

39: 35: 2782: 2710: 2683:

Society to Advance Indigenous Vernaculars of the United States

2624:. Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages. 1997–2007 2457: 1053:. Memory of Peoples (3rd ed.). Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 813:

is the documentation in writing and audio-visual recording of

225:, kept up to date by the contributions of linguists globally. 1933:

Hale, Krauss, Watahomigie, Yamamoto, Craig, & Jeanne 1992

1313:"UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger" 568: 555: 535: 523: 328:

Availability of materials for language education and literacy

31: 2700: 2251:

Language Diversity in the Pacific: Endangerment and Survival

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Whalen, D. H.; Moss, Margaret; Baldwin, Daryl (9 May 2016).

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Conceptualizing Multilingualism in England, c. 800 – c. 1250

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UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages (2003).

1235: 1026:, Shakuto-Neoh, Shiori & Quer, Giovanni Matteo (2014), 609:, as well as European and Asian minority languages such as 543: 114:". If no one can speak the language at all, it becomes an " 2705: 2221:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 250–281. 494:); examples of this kind of endangerment are the cases of 2567: 1160:

Endangered languages: Current Issues and Future Prospects

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outlines nine factors for determining language vitality:

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Using an alternative scheme of classification, linguist

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most commonly occurs when speakers switch to a language

2671: 2497:"Is There Hope for Europe's Endangered Native Tongues?" 2447: 2269:

State of Indigenous Languages in Australia – 2001 (PDF)

2094: 1765:

Languages of the Pacific Islands: Introductory Readings

770: 2757:, practical vocal recording tips for non-professionals 2253:. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. pp. 54–84. 2048: 1526:

Mary Noebel Noguchi, Sandra Fotos (edited by) (2000).

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categorises 2,473 languages by level of endangerment.

288: 2696:

Advocates for Indigenous California Language Survival

2416:"Endangered Languages at the UNESCO Official Website" 1272:

Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development

491: 389:

Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development

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First Nations endangered languages chat applications

2765: 2695: 1681: 1590: 1258:

Tribal "hand talk" considered an endangered language

849: 2777:

Do-it-yourself grammar and reading in your language

2480:"Bibliography of Materials on Endangered Languages" 2285:. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2267:McConvell, Patrick and Thieberger, Nicholas. 2001. 2248: 1989:"Saving Endangered Languages Before They Disappear" 1684:"Japan's most endangered languages face extinction" 1158:. In Lenore A. Grenoble; Lindsay J. Whaley (eds.). 657: 554:government, Hindi has taken over many languages in 2351:International Journal of the Sociology of Language 1530:. Multilingual Matters Ltd. pp. 45–67, 68–97. 1401:International Journal of the Sociology of Language 1101:. England: Cambridge University Press. p. 3. 2722:Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages 2542:. Dallas, Texas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. 2102:. The Australian Higher Education. Archived from 1777: 325:Response to language use in new domains and media 322:Language use within existing contexts and domains 2789: 2537:"Thirty Endangered Languages in the Philippines" 2458:Akasaka, Rio; Machael Shin; Aaron Stein (2008). 2150:"Special issue: gender and endangered languages" 2568:Malone, Elizabeth; Nicole Rager Fuller (2008). 2313: 2277: 2191:Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages 1162:. Cambridge University Press. pp. xi–xii. 1151:Grenoble, Lenore A.; Lindsay J. Whaley (1998). 995: 427:have been subjected to genocidal violence. The 229:languages that are nearing extinction include: 1736:"Four Things That Happen When a Language Dies" 1708:Romero, Simon; Rios, Desiree (April 9, 2023). 1282: 1280: 762:During language loss—sometimes referred to as 331:Government and institutional language policies 2572:. National Science Foundation. Archived from 1758: 878:List of endangered languages with mobile apps 79:can be the result of language shift in which 2499:. The Quarterly Conversation. Archived from 2482:. Yinka Déné Language Institute (YDLI). 2006 832:communication and information, and science. 826:language revival or reversing language shift 260: 217:One of the most active research agencies is 2738:DoBeS Documentation of endangered languages 2494: 2436:Static list and spreadsheet of UNESCO Data. 1658:"Are America's distinct accents dying out?" 1435:Lee, Nala Huiying, and John Van Way. 2016. 1277: 991: 989: 686:, in an engraved portrait published in 1781 2462:. Endangered-Languages.com. Archived from 2441:"Endangered Language Resources at the LSA" 2319:Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages 1759:Guérin, Valérie; Yourupi, Paulina (2017). 1707: 1339:The Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim 1232:"Hand Talk: American Indian Sign Language" 999:Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages 987: 985: 983: 981: 979: 977: 975: 973: 971: 969: 948:. Cambridge University Press. p. 11. 403:Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages 2761:Learning indigenous languages on Nintendo 2672:Hans Rausing Endangered Languages Project 2448:Resource Network for Linguistic Diversity 2346:, 123–137. Houndmills: PalgraveMacmillan. 2202:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2171: 1896:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1839: 1795: 1390:, 123–137. Houndmills: PalgraveMacmillan. 1042: 1040: 737: 334:Community attitudes toward their language 160:The first step towards language death is 16:Language that is at risk of going extinct 2607: 2570:"A Special Report: Endangered Languages" 2534: 2012: 1763:. In Hiroko Sato; Joel Bradshaw (eds.). 1682:Economist"], ["The (December 15, 2022). 1050:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger 894:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger 838:As of June 2012 the United States has a 463:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami 368:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger 292: 150:associated with social or economic power 2197: 1892:Mufwene, Salikoko S. (30 August 2001). 1891: 1655: 1560: 1473:With reference to a language shift and 1220:ELAR – The Endangered Languages Archive 1209:Endangered languages in Europe: indexes 1125: 1096: 1046: 966: 941: 757: 313:Intergenerational language transmission 2790: 2766:Pointers on How to Learn Your Language 2391:http://www.economist.com/node/12483451 2147: 2100:"Aboriginal Languages Deserve Revival" 1477:which first started in Sardinia under 1333: 1037: 203: 2428:"Endangered languages: the full list" 2216: 2188: 2148:Ahlers, Jocelyn C. (September 2012). 1607:Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 1450:https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:301101 1327: 461:, who were seriously affected by the 2549:"Interviews on Endangered Languages" 1701: 1675: 1656:Pomeroy, Ross (September 25, 2023). 1629: 1289:"Language Vitality and Endangerment" 771:Ethical considerations and attitudes 593:. This has frequently happened when 386:in 1991. In 2011 an entire issue of 341:Many languages, for example some in 2779:, Breath of Life 2010 presentations 2755:Recording your elder/Native speaker 1733: 1439:Language in Society 45(02):271-292. 337:Amount and quality of documentation 289:Defining and measuring endangerment 13: 2408: 2339:. Clevendon: Multilingual Matters. 1365:. Clevendon: Multilingual Matters. 1047:Moseley, Christopher, ed. (2010). 700:The last three native speakers of 307:Language vitality and endangerment 14: 2809: 2317:; Sallabank, Julia, eds. (2011). 2310:Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 111–127. 2308:Australian Journal of Linguistics 1894:The Ecology of Language Evolution 1261:Billings Gazette, August 13, 2010 787:as a continuous ongoing process. 473:Cultural, political, or economic 2677:Documenting Endangered Languages 2660: 1528:Studies in Japanese Bilingualism 852: 693: 672: 658:Marginalization and endangerment 550:as the official language of the 443:have been affected by civil war. 69: 23: 2748: 2118: 2088: 2063: 2041: 2006: 1981: 1972: 1963: 1954: 1945: 1936: 1927: 1918: 1885: 1876: 1833: 1820: 1804: 1771: 1752: 1727: 1649: 1623: 1599: 1584: 1554: 1519: 1493: 1467: 1454: 1442: 1429: 1406: 1393: 1380: 1368: 1355: 1305: 1264: 1249: 1224: 1213: 1202: 1176: 486:them, through various means of 2362:Online version of the article. 2358:Revue Roumaine de linguistique 2321:. Cambridge University Press. 1630:Boaz, Judd (January 5, 2024). 1414:Revue Roumaine de linguistique 1144: 1119: 1090: 1073: 1016: 1002:. Cambridge University Press. 935: 906: 221:, which maintains a database, 176:, followed by the fifth stage 83:members no longer learn their 1: 2701:Indigenous Language Institute 2679:, National Science Foundation 2667:Linguistic Society of America 2612:. In Ostler, Nicholas (ed.). 2141: 2049:"Reviews of Language Courses" 1797:10.12688/f1000research.8656.1 1591:Vermondo Brugnatelli (2011). 1032:Australian Aboriginal Studies 961:of it as a 'living language'. 868:Lists of endangered languages 682:, last native speaker of the 571:, with the pressure for many 269:are also endangered, such as 2733:Endangered Languages Project 2727:Endangered Language Alliance 2644:. 2012-03-29. Archived from 2535:Headland, Thomas N. (2003). 2453:Endangered Languages Project 2027:10.1080/09500782.2011.577218 271:Alipur Village Sign Language 7: 2495:Constantine, Peter (2010). 2302:and Walsh, Michael. 2011. 1942:Austin & Sallabank 2011 1114:containing 5,687 languages. 845: 801: 316:Absolute number of speakers 283:Plains Indian Sign Language 10: 2814: 2590:"Nearly Extinct Languages" 883:Lists of extinct languages 729: 661: 305:'s 2003 document entitled 2608:Salminen, Tapani (1998). 1951:Nettle & Romaine 2000 1448:ELDIA EuLaViBar Toolkit, 1190:. SIL International. 2009 918:www.linguisticsociety.org 888:List of revived languages 396: 261:Endangered sign languages 247:Northwest Pacific Plateau 2768:(scroll to link on page) 2337:Reversing Language Shift 1902:10.1017/CBO9780511612862 1830:Vol. 61, No. 2: 378–396. 1817:Vol. 54, No. 3: 590–609. 1374:Dwyer, Arienne M. 2011. 1363:Reversing Language Shift 1130:. Cambridge. p. 3. 900: 155:20 most common languages 130:, cultural replacement, 2716:Enduring Voices Project 2335:Fishman, Joshua. 1991. 2198:Crystal, David (2000). 1761:"Language Endangerment" 1361:Fishman, Joshua. 1991. 1184:"Statistical Summaries" 1126:Crystal, David (2000). 1097:Crystal, David (2002). 942:Crystal, David (2002). 821:Language revitalization 567:as the language of the 275:Adamorobe Sign Language 2516:"Endangered languages" 2015:Language and Education 1460:Fulton, Helen (2012). 1188:Ethnologue Web Version 811:Language documentation 738:Effects on communities 480:enough power imbalance 298: 279:Ban Khor Sign Language 162:potential endangerment 2718:, National Geographic 2422:on September 9, 2016. 2279:Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove 2219:Linguistic Field Work 2173:10.1558/genl.v6i2.259 2106:on September 23, 2009 1993:The Solutions Journal 1960:Skuttnabb-Kangas 2000 1854:10.1353/lan.1992.0013 796:wildlife endangerment 296: 249:. Other hotspots are 2798:Endangered languages 2193:. London: Heinemann. 2189:Abley, Mark (2003). 1740:Smithsonian Magazine 1561:Lalmalsawma, David. 1512:sui sardoparlanti» ( 758:Effects on languages 664:Minoritized language 607:Australian languages 591:Political repression 560:cultural imperialism 488:ingroup and outgroup 484:culturally integrate 190:specific legislation 170:seriously endangered 142:(language killing). 2466:on 24 November 2018 2300:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2155:Gender and Language 2098:(August 26, 2009). 2096:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 1595:. pp. 258–259. 1024:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 840:J-1 specialist visa 204:Number of languages 100:endangered language 2688:2012-02-27 at the 2555:on 7 February 2009 1995:. 21 February 2016 1714:The New York Times 1616:2020-10-20 at the 1546:has generic name ( 1423:2015-12-27 at the 1335:Krauss, Michael E. 1255:Hederpaly, Donna. 520:Sardinian language 425:indigenous peoples 299: 257:of South America. 239:Northern Australia 211:systematic surveys 194:speech communities 2520:SIL International 2328:978-0-521-88215-6 1085:978-0-521-88215-6 1060:978-92-3-104096-2 1022:See pp. 55-56 of 1009:978-0-521-88215-6 749:collective rights 558:. Other forms of 540:Chamorro language 447:Natural disasters 401:According to the 376:Michael E. Krauss 347:national language 281:of Thailand, and 273:(AVSL) of India, 219:SIL International 104:moribund language 85:heritage language 2805: 2656: 2654: 2653: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2617: 2604: 2602: 2601: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2543: 2541: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2511: 2509: 2508: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2444: 2435: 2434:. 15 April 2011. 2423: 2418:. Archived from 2360:55(2). 103–120. 2332: 2296: 2264: 2222: 2213: 2194: 2185: 2175: 2136: 2135: 2133: 2132: 2122: 2116: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2092: 2086: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2045: 2039: 2038: 2010: 2004: 2003: 2001: 2000: 1985: 1979: 1976: 1970: 1967: 1961: 1958: 1952: 1949: 1943: 1940: 1934: 1931: 1925: 1922: 1916: 1915: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1874: 1873: 1837: 1831: 1824: 1818: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1799: 1775: 1769: 1768: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1747: 1746: 1731: 1725: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1705: 1699: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1679: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1653: 1647: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1627: 1621: 1603: 1597: 1596: 1588: 1582: 1581: 1579: 1578: 1569:. Archived from 1558: 1552: 1551: 1545: 1541: 1539: 1531: 1523: 1517: 1497: 1491: 1471: 1465: 1458: 1452: 1446: 1440: 1433: 1427: 1416:55(2). 103–120. 1410: 1404: 1397: 1391: 1384: 1378: 1372: 1366: 1359: 1353: 1352: 1351:. 9780199266623. 1331: 1325: 1324: 1322: 1320: 1309: 1303: 1302: 1300: 1298: 1293: 1284: 1275: 1268: 1262: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1244: 1243: 1234:. Archived from 1228: 1222: 1217: 1211: 1206: 1200: 1199: 1197: 1195: 1180: 1174: 1173: 1157: 1148: 1142: 1141: 1123: 1117: 1116: 1094: 1088: 1077: 1071: 1070: 1068: 1067: 1044: 1035: 1020: 1014: 1013: 993: 964: 963: 939: 933: 932: 930: 929: 920:. Archived from 910: 862: 860:Languages portal 857: 856: 781:Salikoko Mufwene 697: 684:Cornish language 676: 603:Louisiana French 429:Miskito language 116:extinct language 73: 56:Papua New Guinea 27: 2813: 2812: 2808: 2807: 2806: 2804: 2803: 2802: 2788: 2787: 2751: 2729:, New York City 2690:Wayback Machine 2663: 2651: 2649: 2636: 2627: 2625: 2620: 2599: 2597: 2588: 2579: 2577: 2576:on 9 March 2010 2558: 2556: 2539: 2525: 2523: 2514: 2506: 2504: 2485: 2483: 2478: 2469: 2467: 2439: 2426: 2414: 2411: 2409:Further reading 2329: 2315:Austin, Peter K 2293: 2261: 2210: 2144: 2139: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2109: 2107: 2093: 2089: 2079: 2077: 2069: 2068: 2064: 2054: 2052: 2047: 2046: 2042: 2011: 2007: 1998: 1996: 1987: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1964: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1919: 1912: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1838: 1834: 1825: 1821: 1809: 1805: 1776: 1772: 1757: 1753: 1744: 1742: 1732: 1728: 1718: 1716: 1706: 1702: 1692: 1690: 1680: 1676: 1666: 1664: 1654: 1650: 1640: 1638: 1628: 1624: 1618:Wayback Machine 1604: 1600: 1589: 1585: 1576: 1574: 1559: 1555: 1543: 1542: 1533: 1532: 1524: 1520: 1498: 1494: 1472: 1468: 1459: 1455: 1447: 1443: 1434: 1430: 1425:Wayback Machine 1411: 1407: 1398: 1394: 1385: 1381: 1373: 1369: 1360: 1356: 1349: 1332: 1328: 1318: 1316: 1311: 1310: 1306: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1285: 1278: 1269: 1265: 1254: 1250: 1241: 1239: 1230: 1229: 1225: 1218: 1214: 1207: 1203: 1193: 1191: 1182: 1181: 1177: 1170: 1155: 1149: 1145: 1138: 1124: 1120: 1109: 1095: 1091: 1078: 1074: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1045: 1038: 1021: 1017: 1010: 994: 967: 956: 940: 936: 927: 925: 912: 911: 907: 903: 858: 851: 848: 804: 777:Peter Ladefoged 773: 760: 740: 732: 712:marginalization 708: 707: 706: 705: 704: 698: 689: 688: 687: 680:Dolly Pentreath 677: 666: 660: 599:Native American 565:Arabic language 500:Scottish Gaelic 475:marginalization 459:Andaman Islands 437:Mayan languages 399: 291: 263: 243:Central America 235:Central Siberia 231:Eastern Siberia 206: 96: 95: 94: 93: 92: 74: 65: 64: 63: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2811: 2801: 2800: 2786: 2785: 2780: 2774: 2769: 2763: 2758: 2750: 2747: 2746: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2730: 2724: 2719: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2692:, (Savius.org) 2680: 2674: 2669: 2662: 2659: 2658: 2657: 2634: 2618: 2605: 2586: 2565: 2544: 2532: 2512: 2492: 2476: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2437: 2424: 2410: 2407: 2406: 2405: 2394: 2387: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2354: 2347: 2340: 2333: 2327: 2311: 2297: 2291: 2275: 2272: 2265: 2259: 2246: 2235: 2224: 2214: 2209:978-0521012713 2208: 2200:Language Death 2195: 2186: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2137: 2117: 2087: 2075:www.unesco.org 2062: 2040: 2021:(4): 273–289. 2005: 1980: 1971: 1962: 1953: 1944: 1935: 1926: 1917: 1910: 1884: 1875: 1848:(4): 809–811. 1832: 1819: 1803: 1770: 1751: 1734:Eschner, Kat. 1726: 1700: 1674: 1648: 1622: 1598: 1583: 1553: 1518: 1492: 1475:Italianization 1466: 1453: 1441: 1428: 1418:Online version 1405: 1392: 1379: 1367: 1354: 1348:978-0199266623 1347: 1326: 1315:. UNESCO. 2010 1304: 1276: 1263: 1248: 1223: 1212: 1201: 1175: 1168: 1143: 1136: 1128:Language Death 1118: 1107: 1099:Language Death 1089: 1072: 1059: 1036: 1034:2014/1: 55-71. 1015: 1008: 965: 954: 945:Language Death 934: 904: 902: 899: 898: 897: 890: 885: 880: 875: 873:Language death 870: 864: 863: 847: 844: 803: 800: 772: 769: 759: 756: 739: 736: 731: 728: 699: 692: 691: 690: 678: 671: 670: 669: 668: 667: 662:Main article: 659: 656: 651: 650: 644: 634: 588: 490:coercion (see 467: 466: 444: 398: 395: 384:Joshua Fishman 339: 338: 335: 332: 329: 326: 323: 320: 317: 314: 290: 287: 267:sign languages 262: 259: 205: 202: 146:Language shift 136:neocolonialism 128:mass migration 89:first language 77:Language death 75: 68: 67: 66: 29: 22: 21: 20: 19: 18: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2810: 2799: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2784: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2744: 2741: 2739: 2736: 2734: 2731: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2664: 2661:Organizations 2648:on 2015-08-07 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2596:on 2011-07-26 2595: 2591: 2587: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2538: 2533: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2503:on 2010-06-24 2502: 2498: 2493: 2481: 2477: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2412: 2404:(1), 155–173. 2403: 2399: 2395: 2392: 2388: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2353:212: 153–178. 2352: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2298: 2294: 2292:0-8058-3468-0 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2244: 2243:0-19-518192-1 2240: 2236: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2146: 2145: 2127: 2121: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2076: 2072: 2066: 2050: 2044: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2009: 1994: 1990: 1984: 1975: 1966: 1957: 1948: 1939: 1930: 1921: 1913: 1911:0-511-01934-3 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1888: 1879: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1836: 1829: 1823: 1816: 1812: 1811:Dorian, Nancy 1807: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1784:F1000Research 1781: 1774: 1766: 1762: 1755: 1741: 1737: 1730: 1715: 1711: 1704: 1689: 1688:The Economist 1685: 1678: 1663: 1659: 1652: 1637: 1633: 1626: 1619: 1615: 1612: 1609:32.2: 62-75. 1608: 1602: 1594: 1587: 1573:on 2013-09-10 1572: 1568: 1567:Reuters Blogs 1564: 1557: 1549: 1544:|author= 1537: 1529: 1522: 1515: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1496: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1470: 1463: 1457: 1451: 1445: 1438: 1432: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1409: 1403:212: 153–178. 1402: 1396: 1389: 1383: 1377: 1371: 1364: 1358: 1350: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1330: 1314: 1308: 1290: 1283: 1281: 1273: 1267: 1260: 1259: 1252: 1238:on 2014-10-24 1237: 1233: 1227: 1221: 1216: 1210: 1205: 1189: 1185: 1179: 1171: 1169:0-521-59102-3 1165: 1161: 1154: 1147: 1139: 1133: 1129: 1122: 1115: 1110: 1104: 1100: 1093: 1086: 1082: 1076: 1062: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1043: 1041: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1019: 1011: 1005: 1001: 1000: 992: 990: 988: 986: 984: 982: 980: 978: 976: 974: 972: 970: 962: 957: 951: 947: 946: 938: 924:on 2022-03-23 923: 919: 915: 909: 905: 896: 895: 891: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 865: 861: 855: 850: 843: 841: 836: 833: 829: 827: 822: 818: 816: 812: 808: 799: 797: 792: 788: 786: 782: 778: 768: 765: 755: 752: 750: 746: 735: 727: 724: 722: 716: 713: 703: 696: 685: 681: 675: 665: 655: 648: 647:Intermarriage 645: 642: 641:lingua franca 638: 635: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 595:nation-states 592: 589: 586: 582: 578: 574: 573:North African 570: 566: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 534:languages in 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 508:Great Britain 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 476: 472: 471: 470: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 445: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 411: 410: 409: 406: 404: 394: 391: 390: 385: 380: 377: 372: 370: 369: 364: 363:semi-speakers 358: 354: 352: 348: 344: 336: 333: 330: 327: 324: 321: 318: 315: 312: 311: 310: 308: 304: 295: 286: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 258: 256: 255:Southern Cone 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 226: 224: 220: 215: 212: 201: 199: 195: 191: 186: 181: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 158: 156: 151: 147: 143: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 124:globalization 121: 117: 113: 112:dead language 109: 105: 101: 90: 86: 82: 78: 72: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 26: 2749:Technologies 2650:. 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