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1036:" use English pragmatically—they send their children to English-language schools precisely because they want them to grow up multilingual. Regarding Phillipson, Bisong maintains that "to interpret such actions as emanating from people who are victims of Centre linguistic imperialism is to bend sociolinguistic evidence to suit a preconceived thesis". If English should be abolished because it is foreign, Bisong argues, then Nigeria itself would also have to be dissolved, because it was conceived as a colonial structure.
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1028:: what "if the dominated... wanted to adopt English and continue to want to keep it? Phillipson's unfalsifiable answer must be that they don't, they can't, they've been persuaded against their better interests." It has thus been argued that Phillipson's theory is patronizing in its implication that developing countries lack independent decision-making capacity (to adopt or not to adopt ELT). In the context of
1228:...whereas for two centuries we exported our language and our customs in hot pursuit of... fresh markets, we now find that our language and our customs are returned to us but altered so that they can be used by others... so that our own language and culture discover new possibilities, fresh contradictions.
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It ought surely to be possible to say that an argument is confused, or an analysis flawed, without denying the justice of the cause they support. My view would be that if a case is just then we should look for ways of supporting it by coherent argument... And I would indeed argue that to do otherwise
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Mufwene also draws a distinction between settler colonies and exploitation colonies. In the latter, the process of colonization was focused on the extraction of raw materials needed in Europe. As a result, Europeans were less invested in their exploitation colonies, and few colonists planned to build
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and the Andean states, indigenous cultures were lost as aboriginal tribes mixed with colonists. In these countries, the establishment of new
European orders led to the adoption of colonial languages in governance and industry. In addition, European colonists also viewed the dissolution of indigenous
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has argued that "there is a fundamental contradiction in the idea that the language of itself exerts hegemonic control: namely that if this were the case, you would never be able to challenge such control". Additionally, the idea that the promotion of
English necessarily implies a demotion of local
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and Torres Strait
Islander vernaculars as official languages of Australia. We must change the linguistic landscape of Whyalla and elsewhere. Signs should be in both English and the local indigenous language. We ought to acknowledge intellectual property of indigenous knowledge including language,
343:
Trader colonization was often followed by settler colonization, where
European colonizers settled in these colonies to build new homes. Hamel, a Mexican linguist, argues that "segregation" and "integration" were two primary ways through which settler colonists engaged with aboriginal cultures. In
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over much of present-day
Germany and Central Europe, the German language and its dialects became the preferred language of many Central-European nobility. With varying success, German spread across much of Central and Eastern Europe as a language of trade and status. This ended with World War II
451:, Robert Henry Phillipson defines English linguistic imperialism as "the dominance of English... asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages." English is often called a worldwide "
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Those who see the increasing spread of
English in the world as a worrying development (which lowers the status of local and regional languages as well as potentially undermining or eroding cultural values) are likely to be more receptive to Phillipson's views.
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a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions who govern... a class of persons, Indian in blood and color, but
English in taste, in my opinion, in morals and in intellect" in his now-famous "Macaulay minutes", which were written in support of the
377:
homes in these colonies. As a result, indigenous languages were able to survive to a greater extent in these colonies compared to settler colonies. In exploitation colonies, colonial languages were often only taught to a small local elite. During the period of
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faith is seen as an aim of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab
Textbook Board openly states: "The board... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your home
1134:. An argument for de-anglicisation was delivered before the Irish National Literary Society in Dublin, 25 November 1892; "When we speak of 'The Necessity for De-Anglicising the Irish Nation', we mean it, not as a protest against imitating what is best in the
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is to do a disservice to the cause. For the procedures of ideological exposure by expedient analysis... can, of course be taken up to further any cause, right wing as well as left.... If you have the conviction and commitment, you will always find your witch.
179:, while only non-indigenous imperial (European) languages in the "Rest of the World". In the modern world, linguistic imperialism may also be considered in the context of international development, affecting the standard by which organizations like the
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describes trader colonization as one of the earliest forms of
European colonization. In regions such as the western coast of Africa as well as the Americas, trade relations between European colonizers and indigenous peoples led to the development of
825:) and therefore a language of higher status in England. Latin remained the tongue of church and learning. Although many words introduced by the Normans are today indistinguishable by most English-speakers from native Germanic words, later-learned
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Szasz, Margaret
Connell (April 2009). "Colin G. Calloway. White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal People and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Pp. 368. $ 35.00 (cloth)".
332:, were based on European ones. As trader colonization proceeded mainly via these hybrid languages, rather than the languages of the colonizers, scholars like Mufwene contend that it posed little threat to indigenous languages.
1017:("colonies should never have happened"); the other, that of romantic despair ("we shouldn't be doing what we are doing"). Rajagopalan goes a step farther and maintains that Phillipson's book has led to a guilt complex among
298:
Although it is not easy to determine the intentions of specific policies which have led to linguicism, some scholars believe that intent can be proven by observing whether imperialist practices are continued once their
394:. The linguistic differences between the local elite and other locals exacerbated class stratification, and also increased inequality in access to education, industry and civic society in postcolonial states.
1009:'Round up the usual suspects', he cries, outing those who have pretended all these years merely to teach applied linguistics, but who have really been plotting with the British Council to take over the world.
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Demonstrators in non-English-speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV audiences around the world. In some cases, demonstrators may not understand what their signs say.
1138:, for that would be absurd, but rather to show the folly of neglecting what is Irish, and hastening to adopt, pell-mell, and indiscriminately, everything that is English, simply because it is English."
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Some scholars believe that English's dominance is not due to specific language policies, but rather as a side-effect of the spread of English-speaking colonists through colonization and globalization.
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has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually accommodated teaching materials to a Cameroonian context. Non-Western topics are treated, such as rule by
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Many scholars have participated in lively discussions of Phillipson's claims. Alan Davies, for instance, envisions the ghost of Phillipson haunting the Department of Applied Linguistics in Edinburgh:
945:). In Spain, Spanish spread and was imposed over other languages, becoming the only official language of the state from the 18th to the 20th century. It was labelled "the companion of the Empire" by
361:. This led to efforts to destroy tribal languages and cultures: in Canada and the United States, for example, Native children were sent to boarding schools such as Col. Richard Pratt's
497:
A central theme of Phillipson's theory is the complex hegemonic processes which, he asserts, continue to sustain the pre-eminence of English in the world today. His book analyzes the
365:. Today, in countries such as the United States, Canada and Australia, which were once settler colonies, indigenous languages are spoken by only a small minority of the populace.
712:—originally the language of a limited region in central Italy—was imposed first on the rest of Italy and later on parts of Europe, largely displacing local languages, while in
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evaluate the trustworthiness and value of structural adjustment loans by virtue of views that are commonly foregrounded in English-language discourse and not neutral (
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At various times, especially in colonial settings or where a dominant culture has sought to unify a region under its control, a similar phenomenon has arisen. In the
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The impacts of colonization on linguistic traditions vary based on the form of colonization experienced: trader, settler or exploitation. Congolese-American linguist
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Thus it could be argued that, while those who follow Phillipson see choices about language as externally imposed, the other camp sees them as personal choices.
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arguments point out that English is well-established: that it has many speakers, and that there are trained teachers and a wealth of teaching material.
348:, segregation and genocide decimated indigenous societies. Widespread death due to war and illness caused many indigenous populations to lose their
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As being ideological, in that it encourages beliefs that the dominant language form is more prestigious than others. These ideas are hegemonic and
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Phillipson's theory supports the historic spread of English as an international language and that language's continued dominance, particularly in
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208:, has led to considerable debate about its merits and shortcomings. Phillipson found denunciations of linguistic imperialism that dated back to
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arguments describe the English language as "providential", "rich", "noble" and "interesting". Such arguments tend to assert what English
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Those who support the arguments favoring the existence of linguistic imperialism claim that arguments against it are often advanced by
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The English language during the Middle Ages was an object of linguistic imperialism by the French language, particularly following the
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Some who reject the idea of linguistic imperialism argue that the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of
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languages has been challenged. Holborrow points out that "not all Englishes in the centre dominate, nor are all speakers in the
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In Italy there is a situation similar to the French one, with Italian that has expanded at the expense of languages such as
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Such an "internationalization" of English may also offer new possibilities to English native-speakers. McCabe elaborates:
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Phillipson, Robert (2008). "Lingua franca or lingua frankensteinia? English in European integration and globalisation1".
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Portuguese and Spanish colonization made these languages prevalent in South America and in parts of Africa and Asia (the
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As having a subtractive influence on other languages, in that learning the dominant language is at the expense of others.
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Models, Norms and Goals for English as an International Language Pedagogy and Task Based Language Teaching and Learning.
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In the Far East, Africa and the Americas, regional languages have been or are being coercively replaced or slighted—
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which benefits and grants power to the dominating/oppressing language and its speakers. As summarized by linguists
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Mufwene, Salikoko (2002). "Colonisation, globalisation, and the future of languages in the twenty-first century".
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Master, Peter (1998) Positive and Negative Aspects of the Dominance of English. TESOL Quarterly, 32/4. 716–727.
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to western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and the
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As a form of linguicism, which manifests in favoring the dominant language over another along similar lines as
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as the sole official language which was vehemently opposed by various provinces, particularly by the state of
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settings such as Wales, Scotland, Ireland, India, Pakistan, Uganda, Zimbabwe, etc., but also increasingly in "
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As a structurally manifested idea, where more resources and infrastructure are given to the dominant language
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Parameswaran, Radhika E. (February 1997). "Colonial Interventions and the Postcolonial Situation in India".
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428:
1639:. Guovdageiadnu / Kautokeino, Norway : Gáldu - Resource Centre for the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
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Indigenous children's education as linguistic genocide and a crime against humanity? : a global view
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Kramsch and Sullivan describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local
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In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. 221–240.
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Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove; Dunbar, Bob; Peoples, Gáldu-Resource Centre for the Rights of Indigenous (2010).
1484:"Linguistic imperialism: still a valid construct in relation to language policy for Irish Sign Language"
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Englischer Kurturimperialismus. Der British Council als Werkzeug der geistigen Einkreisung Deutschlands
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includes lessons such as "Pakistan, My Country", "Our Flag," and "Our Great Leader", which might sound
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Hamel, Rainer Enrique (1995). "Indigenous education in Latin America: Policies and legal frameworks".
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native-speakers of English who may see the current status of English as a fact worthy of celebration.
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and so on. Arabization has eliminated many indigenous Berber languages in North Africa and restricted
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Furthermore, the assumption that the English language itself is imperialistic has come under attack.
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becoming extinct or losing their local eminence due to the rise and competing prominence of English.
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to other people". This language "transfer" (or rather unilateral imposition) comes about because of
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According to Phillipson, those who promote English—organizations such as the British Council, the
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As intertwined with the same structure as imperialism in culture, education, media, and politics.
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if other languages are used much, standards of English will drop ("the subtractive fallacy").
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Since the early 1990s, linguistic imperialism has attracted attention among scholars of
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had similar linguistic diversity when it was ruled by small native states. Under the
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Phillipson, Robert (2012). "Imperialism and Colonialism". In Spolsky, Bernard (ed.).
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the more English is taught, the better the results ("the maximum-exposure fallacy");
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Master, Peter (1998). "Positive and Negative Aspects of the Dominance of English".
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Warrant for the urgent removal of Basque language inscriptions from tombstones in
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the earlier English is taught, the better the results ("the early-start fallacy");
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and inequality between those who use the dominant language and those who do not.
216:(European aristocracy was, at the time, agreeing on the use of English), and to
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Punjab Text Book Board (1997) My English Book Step IV. Lahore: Metro Printers.
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Latin was dominant only until it and the native languages were displaced by
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For Davies, two cultures inhabit linguistic imperialism: one, a culture of
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501:'s use of rhetoric to promote English, and discusses key tenets of English
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Transfer of a dominant language to other people as a demonstration of power
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Linguistic Genocide in Education--or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?
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its economic utility: it enables people to get access to some technologies
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along with the language. In spatial terms, a few of Europe's hundreds of
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arguments emphasize the usefulness of English as a gateway to the world.
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Canagarajah, A. Suresh, Thomas Ricento & Terrence G. Wiley (2002)
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632: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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its status might be seen as symbol for material advance and efficiency.
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societies and traditions as necessary for the development of a unified
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Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 17/6: 485–596.
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and English-language-teaching methodology. These tenets hold that:
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911:), historically persecuted, are now co-official in those regions (
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Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers.
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Language Choice and cultural Imperialism: a Nigerian Perspective.
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Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18/3 248.
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and its substitution for Spanish (1949), according to ordinance
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Another theme in Phillipson's work is "linguicism"—the kind of
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its ideological function: it is said as standing for modernity;
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countries such as Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and those in the
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1936:"The history of anti-Hindi imposition movements in Tamil Nadu"
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The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language
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the elimination of English influence, language, customs, etc.
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Globalization and language vitality: Perspectives from Africa
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455:", but Phillipson argues that when its dominance leads to a
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A photo of students at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School
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Kawamura, Yuniya; Jung-Whan, Marc de Jong (July 14, 2022).
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Holborrow (1993), p. 359; see also Bisong (1995 ), p. 124.
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As being contested and resisted, because of these factors.
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Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts.
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The Theory and Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis.
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Struggle to Teach English as an International Language
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may also be applied to the critical applied linguists:
993:, linguistic imperialism manifests as pushes to impose
320:. Some of these languages, such as Delaware Pidgin and
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is occasionally defined as "the transfer of a dominant
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Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon.
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Journal of Nationalism, Memory & Language Politics
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Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice.
2147:"Cultural Appropriation in Fashion and Entertainment"
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have been slighted in France. This process, known as
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Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching
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Davies also argues that Phillipson's claims are not
2624:Tsui, Amy B.M. & James W. Tollefson (in press)
1376:"Global Language Politics: Eurasia versus the Rest"
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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2321:Review Article: ironising the Myth of Linguicism.
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1709:Mufwene, Salikoko; Vigouroux, CĂ©cile B. (2008).
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1679:International Journal on Multicultural Societies
1189:. Bobda argues for bi-cultural, Cameroonian and
284:As having an exploitative essence, which causes
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2582:& Robert Phillipson ; Mart Rannut (1995),
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1482:Conama, John Bosco; Rose, Heath (2018-08-01).
958:Russian linguistic imperialism can be seen in
490:'s theory, and in particular on his notion of
2413:Kramsch, Klaire and Patricia Sullivan (1996)
2279:Journal of Language, Identity, and Education.
421:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies
147:. The transfer is considered to be a sign of
2619:The Spread of English and its Appropriation.
2281:Special issue. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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848:French has also expanded. Languages such as
734:, the tongue of the conqueror served as the
2100:"De-Anglicisation - Free Online Dictionary"
2567:Ideology, Politics, and Language Policies.
2539:Of EFL Teachers, Conscience and Cowardice.
2080:"The Necessity for De-Anglicising Ireland"
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1522:
1481:
1102:fall into this group and are described as
431:this issue before removing this message.
23:. For broader coverage of this topic, see
2477:Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows.
2449:English and the Discourses of Colonialism
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1401:
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692:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
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459:, it can be more aptly titled a "lingua
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334:
2373:Review Article: linguistic Imperialism.
2309:, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press.
2002:
1735:. DE GRUYTER MOUTON. pp. 271–288.
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1255:English as a second or foreign language
1162:—that English is used around the world
19:For the book by Robert Phillipson, see
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1019:English language learning and teaching
2605:The Local Politics of Global English.
2403:, Central European University Press.
1902:Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (2022-12-25).
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903:, while languages such as German (in
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1603:Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove (2000-02-01).
818:was the language of administration (
630:adding citations to reliable sources
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401:
244:Linguistic imperialism is a form of
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
2643:EIL: squaring the Circles. A Reply.
2395:Kontra, Miklos, Robert Phillipson,
2225:" The Asian EFL Journal Vol. 8 2006
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1653:
1032:, Bisong holds that people in the "
832:Following the establishment of the
814:. For hundreds of years, French or
425:create a more balanced presentation
13:
2078:Hyde, Douglas (25 November 1892).
1717:
1699:
949:(1492) in the introduction to his
751:and regional Chinese varieties by
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278:and naturalized as being "normal".
14:
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2652:Applied Linguistics 19/1 136–151.
2560:Language and Politics in Pakistan
952:Gramática de la lengua castellana
572:Other arguments for English are:
363:Carlisle Indian Industrial School
2562:Karachi: Oxford University Press
2401:Language: A Right and a Resource
2065:Henry Widdowson (1998b), p. 150.
1984:Henry Widdowson (1998a), p. 398.
1881:10.1111/j.1467-971X.2008.00555.x
1265:International auxiliary language
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1048:equally discriminated against".
962:both in the former dispute over
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406:
171:are employed in the function of
34:
2510:, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2465:, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2291:Canagarajah, A. Suresh (2004)
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2124:The Australian Higher Education
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2033:Language Planning and Education
2030:Ferguson, Gibson (2006-03-14).
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1996:
1987:
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1472:Phillipson, Robert (1992), p36.
1463:. Berlin: Junker und DĂĽnnhaupt.
617:needs additional citations for
520:("the native-speaker fallacy");
474:" settings such as continental
155:but also, in the modern world,
45:needs additional citations for
2600:. Alfa, Rev. LinguĂst. 63 (2).
2546:The English-Vernacular Divide.
2537:Rajagopalan, Kanavilli (1999)
2242:Brutt-Griffler, Janina (2002)
2199:Punjab Text Book Board (1997).
2036:. Edinburgh University Press.
2009:. Cambridge University Press.
1623:
1596:
1571:
1516:
1475:
1466:
1453:
1418:
1367:
977:, there were attempts to make
1:
2645:World Englishes 17/3 397–401.
2628:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2621:University of Vienna, Vienna.
2295:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2214:
1842:Phillipson, Robert (1992), p
1802:Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands)
478:. His theory draws mainly on
392:English Education Act of 1835
385:highlighted the need for "...
239:
2692:English as a global language
2506:Phillipson, Robert (2000),
2463:Critical Applied Linguistics
2461:Pennycook, Alastair (2001),
2447:Pennycook, Alastair (1998),
2433:Pennycook, Alastair (1995),
2399:& Tibor Varady (1999),
2307:English as a Global Language
2235:Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997)
2181:Kramsch and Sullivan (1996).
1578:Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2016).
1535:10.1017/CBO9780511979026.013
1245:Critical applied linguistics
1000:
513:("the monolingual fallacy");
7:
2617:Spichtinger, Daniel (2000)
2544:Ramanathan, Vaidehi (2005)
2496:, Oxford University Press.
2475:Pennycook, Alastair (2006)
2385:, Oxford University Press.
1957:Rajagopalan (1999), p. 200.
1814:10.1177/0016549297059001003
1232:
1115:critical discourse analysis
1073:
1058:England's regional dialects
773:Malayo-Polynesian languages
181:International Monetary Fund
10:
2713:
2598:Language policy in Oceania
2520:Phillipson, Robert (2003)
2190:Malik (1993), pp. 5, 6, 7.
2120:"Stop, revive and survive"
1948:Alan Davies (1996), p. 485
1767:Journal of British Studies
1526:www.forskningsdatabasen.dk
1374:Kamusella, Tomasz (2020).
1104:critical applied linguists
878:Flanders' Flemish Movement
397:
306:
173:official (state) languages
159:. Aspects of the dominant
18:
2677:Linguistic discrimination
2603:Sonntag, Selma K. (2003)
2541:ELT Journal 53/3 200–206.
2417:ELT Journal 50/3 199–212.
2375:ELT Journal 47/4 358–360.
2371:Holborrow, Marnie (1993)
2232:ELT Journal 49/2 122–132.
2003:Spolsky, Bernard (2004).
1741:10.1515/9783110866391.271
1501:10.1007/s10993-017-9446-2
1459:Franz Thierfelder. 1940.
801:Coptic Christian Orthodox
552:and what other languages
372:Portrait of Lord Macaulay
224:as the language of world
2648:Widdowson, H.G. (1998b)
2596:Silva, Diego B. (2019).
2565:Ricento, Thomas (2000)
2135:E.g. Spichtinger (2000).
1361:
1350:Father Tongue hypothesis
805:Coptic Catholic Churches
641:"Linguistic imperialism"
69:"Linguistic imperialism"
2584:Linguistic Human Rights
2305:Crystal, David (2003),
2265:Oxford University Press
2228:Bisong, Joseph (1995 )
1975:Bisong (1995 ), p. 125.
1733:Linguistic Human Rights
1393:10.2478/jnmlp-2020-0008
1290:Language revitalization
964:the name of the country
941:, and for a short time
516:the ideal teacher is a
509:English is best taught
2548:Multilingual Matters.
2494:Linguistic Imperialism
2257:Canagarajah, A. Suresh
2246:Multilingual Matters.
2151:ProQuest Ebook Central
2056:Davies (1997), p. 248.
1230:
1124:
1011:
930:
769:Mesoamerican languages
449:Linguistic Imperialism
373:
340:
205:Linguistic Imperialism
133:Linguistic imperialism
21:Linguistic Imperialism
2687:Cultural assimilation
2586:, Mouton De Gruyter.
2580:Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove
2558:Rahman, Tariq (1996)
2415:Appropriate Pedagogy.
2208:McCabe (1985), p. 45.
2172:Bobda (1997), p. 234.
2163:Bobda (1997), p. 225.
1966:Davies (1996), p. 488
1305:Language secessionism
1270:International English
1226:
1209:Primary Stage English
1119:
1021:(ELT) professionals.
1007:
973:In post-independence
924:
379:British rule in India
371:
338:
189:linguistic relativism
2522:English-Only Europe?
2397:Tove Skutnabb-Kangas
2359:Politics of English.
2344:Palgrave Macmillan.
2342:in an Age of Empire.
2328:Response to a Reply.
2326:Davies, Alan (1997)
2319:Davies, Alan (1996)
1529:. pp. 203–225.
1183:traditional medicine
968:Alexander Lukashenko
785:Philippine languages
626:improve this article
592:endangered languages
350:indigenous languages
169:indigenous languages
137:language imperialism
54:improve this article
25:Cultural imperialism
2361:Sage Publications.
2116:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
1054:New Zealand English
997:almost everywhere.
797:liturgical language
742:Anatolian languages
732:Hellenistic empires
503:applied linguistics
196:applied linguistics
2508:Rights to Language
2490:Phillipson, Robert
2221:Acar, A. (2006). "
1584:scholar.google.com
1275:Language immersion
1198:Vietnamese culture
1164:for local purposes
1150:music and dance."
1143:Ghil'ad Zuckermann
1092:Suresh Canagarajah
1088:Alastair Pennycook
947:Antonio de Nebrija
931:
874:Breton nationalism
590:which can lead to
374:
341:
330:Cameroonian Pidgin
2667:Linguistic rights
2607:Lexington Books.
1750:978-3-11-086639-1
1340:Untranslatability
1335:Official language
1300:Linguistic purism
1285:Language planning
1250:Cultural hegemony
834:Holy Roman Empire
740:. The indigenous
702:
701:
694:
676:
492:cultural hegemony
445:
444:
423:. Please help to
415:This section may
212:critiques of the
200:Robert Phillipson
198:. In particular,
130:
129:
122:
104:
2704:
2697:Sociolinguistics
2672:Language contact
2569:John Benjamins.
2379:Holliday, Adrian
2355:Holborow, Marnie
2209:
2206:
2200:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2173:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2127:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2075:
2066:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2000:
1994:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1976:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1958:
1955:
1949:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1922:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1864:
1847:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1728:
1715:
1714:
1706:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1674:
1651:
1650:
1638:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1562:
1558:
1556:
1548:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1503:
1479:
1473:
1470:
1464:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1405:
1395:
1371:
1173:Bobda shows how
987:Hindi imposition
907:) or French (in
753:Mandarin Chinese
697:
690:
686:
683:
677:
675:
634:
610:
602:
440:
437:
410:
409:
402:
388:
318:pidgin languages
313:Salikoko Mufwene
230:world domination
151:; traditionally
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2639:Widdowson, H.G.
2429:10.2307/3588002
2217:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2126:, June 6, 2012.
2114:
2110:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2084:
2082:
2076:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2006:Language Policy
2001:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1943:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1920:
1918:
1900:
1896:
1869:World Englishes
1865:
1850:
1841:
1837:
1798:
1794:
1762:
1758:
1751:
1729:
1718:
1707:
1700:
1692:10.1.1.109.2253
1675:
1654:
1647:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1601:
1597:
1588:
1586:
1576:
1572:
1560:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1521:
1517:
1488:Language Policy
1480:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1458:
1454:
1439:10.2307/3588002
1427:TESOL Quarterly
1423:
1419:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1330:Translanguaging
1320:Multilingualism
1280:Language policy
1235:
1156:
1111:Henry Widdowson
1096:Adrian Holliday
1076:
1062:Cornish English
1050:Hiberno-English
1041:Henry Widdowson
1003:
812:Norman conquest
698:
687:
681:
678:
635:
633:
623:
611:
600:
598:Other languages
499:British Council
488:Antonio Gramsci
463:" by his view.
441:
435:
432:
411:
407:
400:
386:
381:, for example,
326:Nigerian Pidgin
322:Mobilian Jargon
309:
301:sociolinguistic
242:
214:British Council
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2710:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2654:
2653:
2646:
2636:
2622:
2615:
2601:
2594:
2577:
2563:
2556:
2542:
2535:
2532:
2518:
2504:
2487:
2473:
2459:
2445:
2431:
2421:
2418:
2411:
2393:
2376:
2369:
2352:
2338:(Re-)Locating
2331:
2324:
2317:
2303:
2289:
2275:
2254:
2244:World English.
2240:
2233:
2226:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2201:
2192:
2183:
2174:
2165:
2156:
2137:
2128:
2108:
2091:
2067:
2058:
2049:
2042:
2022:
2015:
1995:
1986:
1977:
1968:
1959:
1950:
1941:
1938:. 4 June 2019.
1927:
1894:
1875:(2): 250–267.
1848:
1835:
1792:
1779:10.1086/598899
1773:(2): 522–524.
1756:
1749:
1716:
1698:
1685:(2): 162–193.
1652:
1645:
1622:
1615:
1595:
1570:
1561:|journal=
1543:
1515:
1494:(3): 385–404.
1474:
1465:
1452:
1433:(4): 716–727.
1417:
1386:(2): 118–151.
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1345:World language
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1325:Code-switching
1322:
1317:
1312:
1310:Monolingualism
1307:
1302:
1297:
1295:Language death
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1222:
1221:
1201:
1194:
1191:Anglo-American
1171:
1155:
1152:
1136:English people
1113:’s remarks on
1075:
1072:
1002:
999:
915:Italianization
700:
699:
614:
612:
605:
599:
596:
584:
583:
580:
577:
570:
569:
563:
557:
531:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:native speaker
514:
461:frankensteinia
443:
442:
427:. Discuss and
414:
412:
405:
399:
396:
308:
305:
296:
295:
292:
289:
282:
279:
272:
269:
241:
238:
234:anti-globalism
202:'s 1992 book,
157:economic power
153:military power
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2709:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2634:0-8058-5694-3
2631:
2627:
2623:
2620:
2616:
2614:
2613:0-7391-0598-1
2610:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2593:
2592:3-11-014878-1
2589:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2575:1-55619-670-9
2572:
2568:
2564:
2561:
2557:
2555:
2554:1-85359-769-4
2551:
2547:
2543:
2540:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2530:0-415-28807-X
2527:
2523:
2519:
2517:
2516:0-8058-3835-X
2513:
2509:
2505:
2503:
2502:0-19-437146-8
2499:
2495:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2485:0-415-37497-9
2482:
2478:
2474:
2472:
2471:0-8058-3792-2
2468:
2464:
2460:
2458:
2457:0-415-17848-7
2454:
2451:, Routledge.
2450:
2446:
2444:
2443:0-582-23473-5
2440:
2436:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2412:
2410:
2409:963-9116-64-5
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2392:
2391:0-19-442184-8
2388:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2370:
2368:
2367:0-7619-6018-X
2364:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2350:1-4039-8530-8
2347:
2343:
2341:
2335:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2316:
2315:0-521-53032-6
2312:
2308:
2304:
2302:
2301:0-8058-4593-3
2298:
2294:
2290:
2288:
2287:0-8058-9629-5
2284:
2280:
2276:
2274:
2273:0-19-442154-6
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2252:1-85359-577-2
2249:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2220:
2219:
2205:
2196:
2187:
2178:
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2152:
2148:
2141:
2132:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2105:
2101:
2095:
2081:
2074:
2072:
2062:
2053:
2045:
2043:9780748626588
2039:
2035:
2034:
2026:
2018:
2016:9780521011754
2012:
2008:
2007:
1999:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1963:
1954:
1945:
1937:
1931:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1898:
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1659:
1657:
1648:
1646:9788281440494
1642:
1635:
1634:
1626:
1618:
1616:9781135662363
1612:
1609:. Routledge.
1608:
1607:
1599:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1566:
1554:
1546:
1544:9780511979026
1540:
1536:
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1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1240:Anglicisation
1238:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1160:appropriation
1154:Appropriation
1151:
1148:
1144:
1141:According to
1139:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1118:
1116:
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902:
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886:
881:
880:in Belgium).
879:
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871:
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863:
859:
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846:
844:
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841:Germanization
835:
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813:
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790:
786:
782:
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766:
763:by Japanese,
762:
758:
754:
750:
745:
744:disappeared.
743:
739:
738:
737:lingua franca
733:
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721:
719:
715:
711:
707:
696:
693:
685:
674:
671:
667:
664:
660:
657:
653:
650:
646:
643: –
642:
638:
637:Find sources:
631:
627:
621:
620:
615:This section
613:
609:
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603:
595:
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589:
581:
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515:
512:
511:monolingually
508:
507:
506:
504:
500:
495:
493:
489:
485:
481:
480:Johan Galtung
477:
473:
469:
464:
462:
458:
454:
453:lingua franca
450:
439:
430:
426:
422:
420:
413:
404:
403:
395:
393:
384:
383:Lord Macaulay
380:
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