127:, and advances in our understanding of the human body. Medical institutions were also transitioning to new hospital styles to try to prevent the spread of disease and stop over crowding with the mixing of the poor and the sick which had been a common practice. With the increasing rise in urban population, disease and epidemic crisis became much more prevalent and was seen as a consequence of urban living. Problems arose as both governments and the medical professionals at the time tried to get a handle on the spread of disease. They had yet to figure out what actually causes disease. So as those in authority scrambled to make leaps and bounds in science and track down what may be the cause of these epidemics, entire communities would be lost to the grips of terrible ailments.
108:
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823:. Babies born in Liverpool with a birthday in 1861 were only expected to live 26 years, and in larger cities, life expectancy was less than 35 years. Over time, the life expectancy changed as well as the number of fatalities from scarlet fever. There was a reduction in child mortality from scarlet fever when you compare the decades, 1851–60 and 1891–1900. The decline of mortality seen for scarlet fever was noticed after the identification of
696:
143:, discovered that he could greatly increase the survival rate of his patients by injecting saline solutions into their arms. However, due to the wide range of medicines being touted as cures and treatments, his technique failed to gain widespread adoption. Many other medical discoveries made in the 19th century failed to gain traction for similar reasons. With the increasing circulation of mass media and little content review in
22:
214:
806:, which is a bacterial disease. Scarlet fever spreads through respiratory droplets and children between the ages of 5 and 15 years were most affected by scarlet fever. Scarlet fever had several epidemic phases, and around 1825 to 1885 outbreaks began to recur cyclically and often highly fatal. In the mid-19th century, the mortality caused by scarlet fever rose in England and
588:
Smallpox is caused by either of the two viruses, Variola major and
Variola minor. Smallpox vaccine was available in Europe, the United States, and the Spanish Colonies during the last part of the century. The Latin names of this disease are Variola Vera. The words come from various (spotted) or varus
237:
practices. The prevalence of the disease in the South in areas of black populations convinced United States scientists that cholera was associated with
African Americans. Current researchers note they lived near the waterways by which travelers and ships carried the disease and their populations were
818:
In the UK, scarlet fever was considered benign for two centuries, but fatal epidemics were seen in the 1700s. Scarlet fever broke out in
England in the 19th century and was responsible for an enormous number of deaths in the 60-year period from 1825 to 1885; decades that followed had lower levels of
200:
made an inquiry into sanitation and used quantitative data to link poor living conditions and disease and low life expectancy. As a result, the Board of Health in London took measure to improve drainage and ventilation around the city. Unfortunately, the measures helped clean the city but it further
592:
The disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans annually during the 19th century and one-third of all the blindness of that time was caused by smallpox. 20 to 60% of all the people that were infected died and 80% of all the children with the infection also died. It caused also many deaths in the
147:, almost anyone with or without proper education could publish a potential cure for disease. Actual practicing medical professionals also had to compete with the ever expanding pharmacy companies that were all too ready to provide new elixirs and promising treatments for the epidemics of the time.
908:
opened a scarlet fever pavilion in 1887 to house patients with infectious diseases and saw nearly 25,000 patients during 1895–1905. In the mid-1800s, more specific epidemiological information was emerging and incidence in infants were found to be low. In 1870, the US census showed a decrease in
225:
During the second cholera pandemic of 1816–1837, the scientific community varied in its beliefs about its causes. In France, doctors believed cholera was associated with the poverty of certain communities or poor environment. Russians believed the disease was contagious and quarantined their
715:
Yellow fever accounted for the largest number of the 19th-century's individual epidemic outbreaks, and most of the recorded serious outbreaks of yellow fever occurred in the 19th century. It is most prevalent in tropical-like climates, but the United States was not exempted from the fever.
496:
outbreak of 1858–60, for example, is believed to have killed between 100,000 and 200,000 people in Tokyo alone. An outbreak of cholera in
Chicago in 1854 took the lives of 5.5% of the population (about 3,500 people). In 1853–4, London's epidemic claimed 10,738 lives.
589:(pimple). In England, this disease was first known as the "pox" or the "red plague". Smallpox settles itself in small blood vessels of the skin and in the mouth and throat. The symptoms of smallpox are rash on the skin and blisters filled with raised liquid.
711:
mosquito and prevention such as mosquito netting. They mostly infect other primates, but humans can be infected. The symptoms of the fever are: Headaches, back and muscle pain, chills and vomiting, bleeding in the eyes and mouth, and vomit containing blood.
657:. Spreading to England, and called "Irish fever", it was noted for its virulence. It killed people of all social classes, as lice were endemic and inescapable, but it hit particularly hard in the lower or "unwashed" social strata. In Canada alone, the
891:
considered scarlet fever to be benign for two centuries. In the early 19th century the scarlet fever impact drastically changed and lethal epidemics started to arise in the United States. The United States had a notable outbreak of scarlet fever in
1826:
770:, China in 1855. This episode of bubonic plague spread to all inhabited continents in the 1890s and first years of the 1900s, and ultimately led to more than 12,000,000 deaths in India and China, with about 10,000,000 killed in India alone.
1323:
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to exploit the demand for minerals, primarily copper, in the latter half of the 19th century. By 1850, the population had exploded to over 7,000,000 people. Increasing transportation throughout the region brought people in contact with
810:. The major outbreak in England and Wales took place during 1825–1885 with high mortality marking this as remarkable. There were several other notable outbreaks across Europe, South America, and the United States in the 19th century.
191:
in the cities. Sanitation prior to this was very poor and sometimes attempts to get better sanitation often exacerbated the diseases, especially during the cholera epidemics because their understanding of diseases relied on the
319:. Prior to this time, many physicians believed that microorganisms were spontaneously generated, and disease was caused by direct exposure to filth and decay. Koch helped establish that the disease was more specifically
720:
was plagued with major epidemics during the 19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853. At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the
Americas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including particularly serious ones in
294:, as to contaminated drinking water being the likely source of the disease, relatively quickly identified the East London Water Company as the source of the contaminated water. Quick action prevented further deaths.
1995:
Marr, J. S., & Cathey, J. T. (n.d.). The 1802 Saint-Domingue yellow fever epidemic and the
Louisiana Purchase. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 19(1), 77–82. doi:10.1097/PHH.0b013e318252eea8
1823:
558:(1881–1896), according to Dr A. J. Wall, the 1883–1887 part of the epidemic cost 250,000 lives in Europe and at least 50,000 in the Americas. Cholera claimed 267,890 lives in Russia (1892); 120,000 in
425:
in 1848, and claimed 52,000 lives. In 1849, outbreak occurred again in Paris, and in London, killing 14,137, over twice as many as the 1832 outbreak. Cholera hit
Ireland in 1849 and killed many of the
1469:
On a Sunday in July 1832, a fearful and somber crowd of New
Yorkers gathered in City Hall Park for more bad news. The epidemic of cholera, cause unknown and prognosis dire, had reached its peak.
1329:
261:, rather than particles in the air (referred to as "miasmata"). His study proved contaminated water was the main agent spreading cholera, although he did not identify the contaminant. Though
900:
had a lethal epidemic in 1832–1833. Scarlet fever had low mortality rates in New York for many years before 1828, but remained high for long after. Cases of scarlet fever were also seen in
226:
citizens. The United States believed that cholera was brought by recent immigrants, specifically the Irish. Lastly, some
British thought the disease might arise from divine intervention.
286:
In London, in June 1866), a localized epidemic in the East End claimed 5,596 lives, just as the city was completing construction of its major sewage and water treatment systems.
410:
and New York City the following year. Cholera reached the
Pacific coast of North America by 1834, reaching into the center of the country by steamboat and other river traffic.
323:
and was transmittable through the contaminated water supply. The fifth was the last serious European cholera outbreak, as cities improved their sanitation and water systems.
104:. Thus throughout the majority of the 19th century, there was only the most basic, common-sense understanding of the causes, amelioration, and treatment of epidemic disease.
441:
system. Thousands died in New York City, a major destination for Irish immigrants. Cholera killed 200,000 people in Mexico. That year, cholera was transmitted along the
737:
suffered the loss of several thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak affecting
1422:
593:
20th century, over 300–500 million. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart also had smallpox when he was only 11 years old. He survived the smallpox outbreak in Austria.
726:
111:
Medical advancements in the practice of autopsy helped lead to a better understanding of how the body works and what were the functions of various body parts.
649:
Moscow in 1812, more French soldiers died of typhus than were killed by the Russians. A major epidemic occurred in Ireland between 1816 and 1819, during the
1530:
777:
of plague is located in western Yunnan and is an ongoing health risk today. The third pandemic of plague originated in this area after a rapid influx of
369:(waste product) of an infected person, including one with no apparent symptoms, can pass on the disease if it contacts the water supply by any means.
831:
in the 1930s, and the decline in mortality was due to the quality of air, food, and water improving. Outbreaks of scarlet fever also took place in
543:
Outbreaks in North America in 1866–1873 killed some 50,000 Americans. In 1866, localized epidemics occurred in the East End of London, in southern
365:
primarily by drinking water or eating food that has been contaminated by the cholera bacterium. The bacteria multiply in the small intestine; the
1508:
1948:
Miller JC (2005). "The Wages of Blackness: African American Workers and the Meanings of Race during Philadelphia's 1793 Yellow Fever Epidemic".
150:
Emerging from the medical chaos were legitimate and life changing treatments. The late 19th century was the beginning of widespread use of
1900:
1857:
551:. In the 1870s, cholera spread in the U.S. as an epidemic from New Orleans along the Mississippi River and to ports on its tributaries.
135:
During these many outbreaks, members of the medical profession rapidly began trying different cures to treat their patients. During the
707:
has led to it being known as the Yellow Fever Mosquito. The transmission of yellow fever is entirely a matter of available habitat for
1791:
1715:
2018:
233:, Tunisia, which had not been affected by the two previous pandemics, thought Europeans had brought the disease. They blamed their
80:(viruses and bacteria) had been discovered in the 18th century, but it was not until the late 19th century that the experiments of
76:
Epidemics of the 19th century were faced without the medical advances that made 20th-century epidemics much rarer and less lethal.
2420:
2410:
373:
2395:
221:, 1832—the outdated public health advice demonstrates the lack of understanding of the disease and its actual causative factors
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Chile reported scarlet fever the first time in 1827 and highest rates were seen during winter months. The disease spread from
2253:
1773:
1743:
1558:
1363:
1013:
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528:, killing 70,000 in 1869–70. Cholera claimed 90,000 lives in Russia in 1866. The epidemic of cholera that spread with the
1160:
2129:
242:
1419:
1006:
The Ghost Map: The Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic and How It Changed Science, Cities, and the Modern World
653:; an estimated 100,000 Irish perished. Typhus appeared again in the late 1830s, and between 1846 and 1849 during the
2086:
1980:
1585:
1379:
1303:
1197:
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started in 1816, spread across India by 1820, and extended to Southeast Asia and Central Europe, lasting until 1826.
871:
from 1831 to 1832 and claimed 7,000 lives. There were multiple outbreaks in different locations of Chile, including
827:, but the decline was not associated with a treatment. A treatment would not be available until the introduction of
794:
such as the steam engine made it easier for both humans and rats to spread the disease along existing trade routes.
429:
survivors, already weakened by starvation and fever. In 1849, cholera claimed 5,308 lives in the major port city of
970:
646:
501:, cholera caused more than 236,000 deaths in 1854–55. In 1854, it entered Venezuela; Brazil also suffered in 1855.
417:
began in 1846 and lasted until 1860. It hit Russia hardest, with over one million deaths. In 1846, cholera struck
2400:
332:
60:
1698:
Kaoru Sugihara, Peter Robb, Haruka Yanagisawa, Local Agrarian Societies in Colonial India: Japanese Perspectives
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in 1859. In 1859, an outbreak in Bengal contributed to transmission of the disease by travelers and troops to
158:, and a vaccine, the first to immunize humans against a bacterial disease, was developed by Spanish physician
107:
218:
2271:
Health and History, Incarceration, Migration, Dispossession, and Discovery: Medicine in Colonial Australia
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1295:
115:
The 19th century did, however, mark a transformation period in medicine. This included the first uses of
56:
1917:
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This disease is transmitted by the bite of female mosquito; the higher prevalence of transmission by
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1606:"The 1832 Cholera Epidemic in New York State: 19th Century Responses to Cholerae Vibrio (part 2)"
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517:
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177:
1812:
1325:
Oceans, Climate, and Health: Cholera as a Model of Infectious Diseases in a Changing Environment
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and Russia. Japan suffered at least seven major outbreaks of cholera between 1858 and 1902. The
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298:
254:
230:
89:
2354:
Katz AR, Morens DM (January 1992). "Severe Streptoccal Infections in Historical Perspective".
2277:(2). Australian and New Zealand Society of the History of Medicine: 116–133 – via JSTOR.
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Diseases and epidemics of the 19th century reached epidemic proportions in the case of cholera
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1897:
750:
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pilgrims died from the disease. Cholera ravaged northern Africa in 1865 and southeastward to
246:
1117:
2052:
Yellow Jack: How Yellow Fever ravaged America and Walter Reed Discovered Its Deadly Secrets
1788:
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in the cholera years of 1849–1855. In 1851, a ship coming from Cuba carried the disease to
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http://coloquioscanariasamerica.casadecolon.com/index.php/CHCA/article/viewFile/9072/8523
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1637:"Vibrio cholerae in recreational beach waters and tributaries of Southern California"
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376:. Cholera came in seven waves, the last two of which occurred in the 20th century.
2290:"The Dynamics of Scarlet Fever Epidemics in England and Wales in the 19th Century"
1969:
1904:
1830:
1795:
1719:
1577:
The plains across: the overland emigrants and the trans-Mississippi West, 1840–60
1426:
1085:(1999). "Edward Jenner's Inquiry; a bicentenary analysis". Vaccine 17 (4): 301–07
607:
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as contaminated and convinced officials to remove its handle. Snow believed that
77:
1328:. Rice University: James A Baker III Institute for Public Policy. Archived from
1141:
943:. United States of America: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–10, 150–156.
819:
annual mortality from scarlet fever. In NW England there was heavy mortality in
472:
The pandemic spread east to Indonesia by 1852, and China and Japan in 1854. The
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876:
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403:
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520:(1863–1875) spread mostly in Europe and Africa. At least 30,000 of the 90,000
433:, England, an embarkation point for immigrants to North America, and 1,834 in
2389:
1971:
Almost History: Close Calls, Plan B's, and Twists of Fate in American History
1922:
1846:
1050:
1034:"The history of vaccines and immunization: familiar patterns, new challenges"
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killed more than 20,000 people from 1847 to 1848, mainly Irish immigrants in
615:
391:
272:
193:
85:
49:
26:
2074:
The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe
1861:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 262–267.
864:
843:
in 1861, and in the rest of United Kingdom. The United Kingdom saw cases in
602:
271:
as the causative agent for cholera that year, it would be many years before
2269:
Looper Md (2017). "'This Most Dreadful Scourge': Scarlet Fever in Sydney".
2207:
1319:
1101:(Microscopic observations and pathological deductions on Asiatic cholera),
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to explain how bacteria caused disease. His work helped to establish the
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1099:"Osservazioni microscopiche e deduzioni patologiche sul cholera asiatico"
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1735:
Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: from Ancient Times to the Present
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spread of European empires and the development of new forms of transport
119:
and nitrous dioxides as anesthesia, important discoveries in regards of
2182:"Modelling the Dynamics of Scarlet Fever Epidemics in the 19th Century"
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Oxford Journals—Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
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205:(the primary drinking water for the city) and the epidemic got worse.
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and other forms of quarantine, who had contracted the disease aboard
548:
430:
120:
1356:
Sherris medical microbiology: an introduction to infectious diseases
802:
Haemolytic streptococcus, which was identified in the 1880s, causes
453:, killing people that are believed to have died on their way to the
1927:
868:
840:
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642:
525:
353:
184:, discovered in 1928, was not available as a treatment until 1950.
37:
2019:"Gibraltar's 1804 Yellow Fever Scourge: The Search for Scapegoats"
154:. The cholera bacterium was isolated in 1854 by Italian anatomist
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571:
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187:
A big response and potential cure to these epidemics were better
151:
124:
53:
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901:
836:
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is caused by the bacteria Rickettsia Prowazekii; it comes from
570:, cholera claimed more than 58,000 lives. The 1892 outbreak in
489:
462:
41:
21:
1850:
2006:
The Mississippi Valley's Great Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878,
1580:. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. pp. 408–10.
807:
567:
544:
536:. In 1867, 113,000 died from cholera in Italy. and 80,000 in
521:
493:
477:
418:
399:
366:
1258:
1256:
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underserved with sanitation infrastructure and health care.
1824:
Vibrio Cholerae and Cholera – The History and Global Impact
1292:
The cholera years: the United States in 1832, 1849 and 1866
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is caused by the Orientia Tsutsugamushi bacteria, from the
619:
611:
563:
485:
481:
458:
172:
drugs did not appear until the middle of the 20th century.
968:
909:
scarlet fever mortality in children below the age of one.
1253:
939:
Bynun W, Hardy A, Jacyn S, Lawrente C, Tanaey E( (2006).
532:(1866) is estimated to have killed 165,000 people in the
282:
Disinfection team in the 1892 cholera outbreak in Hamburg
1807:
Matthew R. Smallman-Raynor PhD and Andrew D. Cliff DSc,
677:
and Washington DC between 1865 and 1873, and during the
1765:
Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M
1550:
Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M
1358:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 376–7.
1230:
Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History
1215:
Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History
938:
1687:
mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44370 p.545–546
786:, the primary vector between the yellow-breasted rat (
2160:
Urban Disease and Mortality in the Nineteenth Century
2047:
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is caused by the Rickettsia Australis bacteria, from
618:
is caused by the Rickettsia Typhi bacteria, from the
1918:"M993X.5.1529.1 | The government inspector's office"
1286:
421:, killing over 15,000. A two-year outbreak began in
904:during a period of decreasing severity after 1885.
2049:
1968:
1950:The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
1452:"How Epidemics Helped Shape the Modern Metropolis"
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1206:
372:History does not recount any incidents of cholera
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1573:
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2246:Rheumatic Fever and Scarlet Fever: Global Status
1789:Eastern European Plagues and Epidemics 1300–1918
1529:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
1217:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 214–219.
1192:. New York: H.W Wilson Company. pp. 22–47.
100:'s discovery of micro-organisms as the cause of
36:included long-standing epidemic threats such as
2120:. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press. pp.
1542:
1540:
1511:. Archived from the original on 27 October 2009
71:
1353:
1027:
1025:
969:Victoria and Albert Museum OM (14 July 2011).
733:; outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and again in 1828.
669:. In the United States, epidemics occurred in
162:in 1885, and by Russian–Jewish bacteriologist
59:as an epidemic threat and spread worldwide in
2288:Duncan C, Duncan S, Scott S (December 1996).
2157:
1008:. United States of America: Riverhead Books.
2248:. Gideon Informatics, Inc. pp. 54–104.
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2102:Infectious Diseases: Plague Through History
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1232:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 233.
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1022:
390:began in 1829, reached Russia, causing the
208:
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2300:(3). Cambridge University Press: 493–499.
2117:Bubonic plague in eighteenth-century China
2107:
2056:. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. p.
1599:
1597:
1449:
1354:Ryan KJ, Ray CG, Sherris JC, eds. (2004).
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1347:
1242:
941:The Western Medical Tradition 1800 to 2000
34:Diseases and epidemics of the 19th century
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2197:
2162:. St. Martin's Press Inc. pp. 37–67.
1841:
1839:
1752:
1652:
1265:
1049:
851:in 1870 with 106 deaths and in 1875, and
835:in 1896 with 1,354 cases and 149 deaths,
729:. Major outbreaks occurred repeatedly in
437:, England. Cholera spread throughout the
2113:
1898:The Historical Impact of Epidemic Typhus
1845:
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1246:On the Mode of Communication of Cholera
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928:
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922:
562:; 90,000 in Japan and over 60,000 in
196:. During the first cholera epidemic,
2180:Duncan S, Scott S, Duncan C (2000).
2070:
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1809:Impact of Infectious Diseases on War
1738:. Infobase Publishing. p. 369.
1731:
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1484:Asiatic Cholera Pandemic of 1846–63
1439:Asiatic Cholera Pandemic of 1826–37
847:from 1839 to 1865 with 305 deaths,
13:
2330:
2243:
2222:
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2138:
1178:
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1103:Gazzetta Medica Italiana: Toscana
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919:
29:'s cowpox-derived smallpox vaccine
14:
2442:
1399:Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)
988:
957:
813:
2186:European Journal of Epidemiology
2048:John Pierce, Jim Writer (2005).
1420:Cholera Epidemic in Egypt (1947)
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1489:
1486:. UCLA School of Public Health.
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1221:
1116:Reprinted (more legibily) as a
684:
333:Cholera outbreaks and pandemics
290:, using the work of John Snow,
243:Soho outbreak in London in 1854
2421:Intestinal infectious diseases
2411:19th-century disease outbreaks
2008:Louisiana State U. Press, 1993
1395:"Cholera – Biological Weapons"
1135:
1124:
1088:
469:, killing up to 6,000 people.
1:
2396:19th-century health disasters
1378:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1161:"Cholera in Victorian London"
912:
219:New York City Board of Health
2356:Clinical Infectious Diseases
2158:Woods R, Woodward J (1984).
1450:Wilford JN (15 April 2008).
402:in 1831, and London, Paris,
72:Medicine in the 19th century
63:in the nineteenth century.
7:
2077:. A Hodder Arnold. p.
1296:University of Chicago Press
1032:Stern AM, Markel H (2005).
577:
10:
2447:
2294:Epidemiology and Infection
1574:Unruh, John David (1993).
1498:, cbc.ca, 2 December 2008.
1393:Pike J (23 October 2007).
1262:Johnson, S: The Ghost Map(
748:
688:
603:Typhus § 19th century
600:
581:
476:were infected in 1858 and
330:
326:
249:identified a neighborhood
245:ended after the physician
123:and the perfection of the
2306:10.1017/S0950268800059161
1768:. ABC-CLIO. p. 107.
1553:. ABC-CLIO. p. 101.
1496:Cholera's seven pandemics
744:
596:
508:1892 cholera outbreak in
275:would fall out of favor.
131:Exploring Potential Cures
2368:10.1093/clinids/14.1.298
2192:(7). Springer: 619–626.
1829:16 December 2008 at the
1718:20 February 2008 at the
1610:The Early America Review
1425:22 November 2010 at the
1051:10.1377/hlthaff.24.3.611
855:in 1886 with six cases.
209:Beliefs about the Causes
137:cholera epidemic of 1832
2199:10.1023/A:1007645110006
1903:6 November 2009 at the
1858:Encyclopædia Britannica
1654:10.1023/A:1013152407425
1131:onlinelibrary.wiley.com
971:"Health & Medicine"
691:History of yellow fever
659:typhus epidemic of 1847
630:on humans and rodents.
518:fourth cholera pandemic
388:second cholera pandemic
348:is an infection of the
255:germ-contaminated water
194:miasma (bad air) theory
92:conclusively, allowing
2401:19th-century epidemics
1873:"The cholera in Spain"
1109:(50) : 397–401;
1097:Fillipo Pacini (1854)
1038:Health Aff. (Millwood)
700:
632:Queensland tick typhus
556:fifth cholera pandemic
513:
415:third cholera pandemic
381:first cholera pandemic
374:until the 19th century
342:
317:germ theory of disease
299:fifth cholera pandemic
283:
222:
139:, a doctor in London,
112:
90:spontaneous generation
30:
1712:Chicago Daily Tribune
1604:Beardsley GW (2000).
1142:haffkineinstitute.org
887:Similarly to Europe,
784:plague-infected fleas
757:third plague pandemic
751:Third plague pandemic
698:
651:Year Without a Summer
574:killed 8,600 people.
507:
340:
281:
216:
110:
24:
1401:. GlobalSecurity.com
1288:Charles E. Rosenberg
1113:(51) : 405–412.
906:Boston City Hospital
455:California Gold Rush
102:disease transmission
2114:Benedict C (1996).
1907:. Joseph M. Conlon.
1794:5 June 2011 at the
1243:Snow, John (1855).
839:from 1862 to 1884,
584:History of smallpox
530:Austro-Prussian War
217:Hand bill from the
160:Jaume Ferran i Clua
82:Lazzaro Spallanzani
25:An 1802 cartoon of
2416:Bacterial diseases
2378:– via JSTOR.
2326:– via JSTOR.
2218:– via JSTOR.
1877:The New York Times
1509:"The Irish Famine"
1457:The New York Times
1332:on 26 October 2013
1004:Johnson S (2006).
790:) and humans. The
788:Rattus flavipectus
701:
699:Yellow fever virus
655:Great Irish Famine
514:
343:
284:
257:was the source of
223:
113:
31:
2406:Disease outbreaks
2255:978-1-4988-1653-3
2004:Khaled J. Bloom,
1775:978-0-313-34102-1
1762:Byrne JP (2008).
1745:978-0-8160-6935-4
1701:, (1996), p. 313.
1635:Jiang SC (2001).
1560:978-0-313-34102-1
1547:Byrne JP (2008).
1365:978-0-8385-8529-0
1015:978-1-59448-925-9
775:natural reservoir
439:Mississippi River
423:England and Wales
251:Broad Street pump
201:contaminated the
178:appear until 1935
164:Waldemar Haffkine
67:Medical responses
2438:
2380:
2379:
2351:
2328:
2327:
2317:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2241:
2220:
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2201:
2177:
2164:
2163:
2155:
2136:
2135:
2111:
2105:
2104:, sciencemag.org
2099:
2093:
2092:
2071:Cohn SK (2003).
2068:
2062:
2061:
2055:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2029:on 16 March 2011
2025:. Archived from
2015:
2009:
2002:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1974:
1967:Bruns R (2000).
1964:
1958:
1957:
1945:
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1799:
1786:
1780:
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1749:
1732:Kohn GC (2008).
1729:
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1316:
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1260:
1251:
1250:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1228:Hayes J (2005).
1225:
1219:
1218:
1213:Hayes J (2005).
1210:
1204:
1203:
1190:Global Epidemics
1188:Mari CM (2007).
1185:
1176:
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1157:
1144:
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1128:
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1001:
986:
985:
983:
981:
966:
955:
954:
936:
898:Augusta, Georgia
499:Throughout Spain
341:Cholera bacteria
145:medical journals
2446:
2445:
2441:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2435:
2431:Epidemic typhus
2386:
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2100:
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2017:
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1965:
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1916:
1915:
1911:
1905:Wayback Machine
1896:
1892:
1882:
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1871:
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1866:
1852:"Cholera"
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1831:Wayback Machine
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1796:Wayback Machine
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753:
747:
727:Memphis in 1878
693:
687:
608:Epidemic typhus
605:
599:
586:
580:
534:Austrian Empire
512:, hospital ward
394:. It spread to
358:Vibrio cholerae
350:small intestine
335:
329:
308:Vibrio cholerae
268:Vibrio cholerae
211:
133:
78:Micro-organisms
74:
69:
52:. In addition,
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2165:
2137:
2131:978-0804726610
2130:
2106:
2094:
2087:
2063:
2040:
2010:
1997:
1988:
1981:
1959:
1940:
1909:
1890:
1879:. 20 June 1890
1864:
1849:, ed. (1911).
1835:
1816:
1800:
1781:
1774:
1751:
1744:
1724:
1722:, 12 July 1854
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1198:
1177:
1165:Science Museum
1145:
1134:
1123:
1121:
1120:
1114:
1105:, 2nd series,
1087:
1083:Baxby, Derrick
1072:
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916:
914:
911:
884:
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815:
814:United Kingdom
812:
799:
796:
766:that began in
761:bubonic plague
749:Main article:
746:
743:
689:Main article:
686:
683:
601:Main article:
598:
595:
582:Main article:
579:
576:
398:, Germany and
352:caused by the
331:Main article:
328:
325:
263:Filippo Pacini
231:third pandemic
210:
207:
198:Edwin Chadwick
166:in July 1892.
156:Filippo Pacini
132:
129:
73:
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68:
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2088:0-340-70646-5
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2024:
2020:
2014:
2007:
2001:
1992:
1984:
1982:0-7868-8579-3
1978:
1973:
1972:
1963:
1956:(2): 163–194.
1955:
1951:
1944:
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1924:
1923:McCord Museum
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1642:
1641:Hydrobiologia
1638:
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1587:0-252-06360-0
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1305:0-226-72677-0
1301:
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1199:9780824210687
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1044:(3): 611–21.
1043:
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1007:
1000:
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996:
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992:
976:
975:www.vam.ac.uk
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859:South America
856:
854:
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842:
838:
834:
830:
829:sulphonamides
826:
825:streptococcus
822:
811:
809:
805:
804:scarlet fever
798:Scarlet Fever
795:
793:
789:
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776:
771:
769:
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762:
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742:
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736:
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724:
723:Santo Domingo
719:
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705:Aedes aegypti
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682:
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664:
660:
656:
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628:harvest mites
625:
621:
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616:Murine typhus
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451:Oregon Trails
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397:
393:
392:Cholera riots
389:
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364:
361:. Cholera is
360:
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351:
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324:
322:
318:
314:
311:and proposed
310:
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276:
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273:miasma theory
270:
269:
265:had isolated
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118:
109:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
86:Louis Pasteur
83:
79:
64:
62:
61:six pandemics
58:
55:
51:
50:scarlet fever
47:
43:
39:
35:
28:
27:Edward Jenner
23:
19:
2359:
2355:
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2293:
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2274:
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2189:
2185:
2159:
2116:
2109:
2097:
2073:
2066:
2051:
2043:
2031:. Retrieved
2027:the original
2022:
2013:
2005:
2000:
1991:
1975:. Hyperion.
1970:
1962:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1931:. Retrieved
1921:
1912:
1893:
1881:. Retrieved
1876:
1867:
1856:
1819:
1808:
1803:
1784:
1764:
1734:
1727:
1711:
1706:
1696:
1692:
1683:
1671:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1618:. Retrieved
1613:
1609:
1576:
1569:
1549:
1513:. Retrieved
1503:
1491:
1468:
1461:. Retrieved
1455:
1445:
1434:
1415:
1403:. Retrieved
1398:
1388:
1355:
1334:. Retrieved
1330:the original
1324:
1320:Rita Colwell
1314:
1291:
1245:
1238:
1229:
1223:
1214:
1208:
1189:
1168:. Retrieved
1164:
1137:
1126:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1090:
1041:
1037:
1005:
978:. Retrieved
974:
940:
896:in 1847 and
886:
875:in 1875 and
862:
817:
801:
787:
772:
759:was a major
756:
754:
725:in 1803 and
714:
702:
685:Yellow fever
679:US Civil War
667:coffin ships
647:retreat from
640:
624:Scrub typhus
606:
591:
587:
553:
542:
515:
471:
467:Gran Canaria
427:Irish Famine
412:
385:
378:
371:
356:
345:
344:
306:
296:
291:
288:William Farr
285:
266:
240:
228:
224:
203:River Thames
186:
174:Sulfonamides
168:
149:
141:Thomas Latta
134:
114:
75:
46:yellow fever
33:
32:
18:
2362:: 298–307.
1647:: 157–164.
1294:. Chicago:
779:Han Chinese
739:New Orleans
718:New Orleans
663:fever sheds
474:Philippines
363:transmitted
303:Robert Koch
297:During the
229:During the
98:Robert Koch
94:germ theory
2390:Categories
2244:Berger S.
1933:22 January
1883:8 December
1847:Chisholm H
1620:1 February
1463:1 February
1405:1 February
1336:23 October
1170:6 November
980:4 December
913:References
865:Valparaiso
853:Manchester
845:Canterbury
443:California
321:contagious
313:postulates
235:sanitation
189:sanitation
182:penicillin
170:Antibiotic
117:chloroform
88:disproved
1374:cite book
1118:pamphlet.
894:Minnesota
879:in 1876.
821:Liverpool
735:Barcelona
731:Gibraltar
671:Baltimore
622:on rats.
549:Amsterdam
431:Liverpool
354:bacterium
305:isolated
247:John Snow
121:pathology
2426:Smallpox
2216:12451068
2208:11078118
1928:Montreal
1901:Archived
1827:Archived
1792:Archived
1716:Archived
1663:20591955
1525:cite web
1423:Archived
1290:(1987).
1060:15886151
869:Santiago
841:Scotland
764:pandemic
643:Napoleon
578:Smallpox
526:Zanzibar
176:did not
152:vaccines
38:smallpox
2376:1571445
2324:8972674
2315:2271647
2033:5 April
889:America
877:Caldera
873:Copaipo
849:Bristol
675:Memphis
641:During
572:Hamburg
554:In the
538:Algeria
510:Hamburg
408:Ontario
396:Hungary
346:Cholera
327:Cholera
259:cholera
125:autopsy
57:emerged
54:cholera
2374:
2322:
2312:
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2206:
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2122:47, 70
2085:
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1362:
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1196:
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1012:
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902:Boston
837:Norway
833:Dublin
768:Yunnan
745:Plague
709:vector
597:Typhus
564:Persia
547:, and
490:Arabia
463:Oregon
447:Mormon
404:Quebec
292:et al.
180:, and
48:, and
42:typhus
2212:S2CID
1678:p.626
1659:S2CID
1094:See:
808:Wales
636:ticks
620:fleas
568:Egypt
566:. In
560:Spain
545:Wales
522:Mecca
494:Ansei
478:Korea
419:Mecca
400:Egypt
367:feces
2372:PMID
2320:PMID
2250:ISBN
2204:PMID
2126:ISBN
2083:ISBN
2035:2013
1977:ISBN
1935:2012
1885:2008
1770:ISBN
1740:ISBN
1622:2010
1582:ISBN
1555:ISBN
1531:link
1517:2014
1465:2010
1407:2010
1380:link
1360:ISBN
1338:2013
1300:ISBN
1194:ISBN
1172:2020
1056:PMID
1010:ISBN
982:2020
945:ISBN
755:The
612:lice
516:The
486:Iraq
482:Iran
461:and
459:Utah
449:and
435:Hull
413:The
379:The
241:The
96:and
84:and
2364:doi
2310:PMC
2302:doi
2298:117
2194:doi
2079:336
1954:129
1649:doi
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1616:(2)
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