557:
with peers, but can speak normally in other contexts, like at home with their family. These children generally have good comprehension of language and can understand conversations and instructions, but they struggle to communicate verbally in specific scenarios. Research demonstrates that these children are capable of speaking normally or nearly normally in some settings, which emphasizes that their challenge lies not in their ability to speak, but in the anxiety related to speaking in particular situations. Compared to those with social phobia alone, children with selective mutism exhibit higher levels of social anxiety and internalizing symptoms. Some children with selective mutism may also have minor difficulties with speech and language, which may not be as obvious in kids with social phobia who mainly show social anxiety without significant language problems. Kids with selective mutism can improve with specific interventions that focus on both their anxiety and any speech and language challenges they may have. It is crucial to refer these children to the right services early on to ensure they receive effective treatment and support.
148:β This involves the ability to combine words into grammatically correct sentences (syntax) and to combine parts of words together (morphology) such as adding grammatical endings to verbs like -ing or -ed or to add prefixes and suffixes like dis- or -ation. These different aspect of grammar are processed in the ventral stream in the same hemisphere (left), but in different parts of the brain: morphology is processed in the left anterior middle temporal gyrus and left anterior inferior temporal sulcus, and syntax is processed right below. This demonstrates the complexities of grammatical structure processing in the brain. A child with DLD might make certain grammar mistakes. For instance, a child may say 'me jump here', instead of 'I jumped here'. Comprehension of sentences can also be affected. For instance, there may be difficulty understanding meaning expressed by word order, and so confusion about what is blue in a sentence like 'the pencil on the shoe is blue', and a tendency to use general knowledge rather than linguistic cues to meaning, or problems in interpreting grammatical markers of number or tense.
154:β This refers to children's ability to understand the meaning of words and how meanings are expressed by combining words together. Semantic processing mainly happens in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Children with DLD often have limited vocabulary and may make heavy use of a small set of words with rather general meanings. As children with developmental language disorder get older, they may have a hard time understanding that some words have multiple meanings, for example the word "cold", which can mean a low temperature, a sickness, or being unfriendly. Moreover, studies indicate that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) encounter difficulties not only in effectively utilizing and producing various
670:
relationship between language development and peer interactions. Children with DLD experience lower levels of acceptance, particularly during the early school years, as indicated by peer nominations. Improvement in peer acknowledgments may not be solely attributed to language and communication interventions, suggesting that other factors influence friendships. Findings from social cognition tasks, the tendency for children with DLD to receive more positive peer nominations, and the discrepancies in their friendship acknowledgments collectively suggest that the ability to comprehend others and identify peers as friends may significantly impact social connections.
79:
recognizing it as a subset of language disorder within the broader spectrum of speech, language, and communication needs. This shift aimed to clarify understanding, increase public awareness, and improve access to services for affected children. Previously, various terms like "developmental dysphasia" and "developmental aphasia" were used, causing confusion by implying similarities to adult language problems caused by brain damage. Similarly, "specific language impairment" (SLI), commonly used in North
America, was considered too narrow as it only focused on language issues without considering other potential difficulties children may face.
195:β Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the way sounds are combined in words. Phonological information is stored in the superior temporal sulcus. Children with difficulties with phonology may fail to distinguish between certain speech sounds, such as 't' and 'k', so that 'cake' is produced as 'tate'. Such difficulties are not unusual as part of typical development in toddlers, but they would usually resolve by the time children are 4β5 years old. Difficulties with producing some speech sounds accurately may reduce intelligibility of speech. In addition, more subtle difficulties in recognizing specific sounds in words (
566:
became apparent that there was little generalization to everyday situations. Contemporary approaches to enhancing development of language structure, for younger children at least, are more likely to adopt 'milieu' methods, in which the intervention is interwoven into natural episodes of communication, and the therapist builds on the child's utterances, rather than dictating what will be talked about. Interventions for older children, may be more explicit, telling the children what areas are being targeted and giving explanations regarding the rules and structures they are learning, often with visual supports.
39:
116:(SLI), which has been widely adopted, especially in North America. The definition of SLI overlaps with DLD, but was rejected by the CATALISE panel because it was seen as overly restrictive in implying that the child had relatively pure problems with language in the absence of any other impairments. Children with such selective problems are relatively rare, and there is no evidence that they respond differently to intervention, or have different causal factors, from other children with language problems.
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practices for diagnosing DLD in multilingual children is inadequate. "Lack of knowledge about bilingual children and their needs is largely responsible for current referral and assessment practices." SLPs do not speak every language and are unable to properly assess many children for language disorders as a result. The best practices for assessing multilingual children involves a combination of approaches including but not limited to questionnaires, parent/guardian interviews, and direct assessment.
397:
conditions' by the CATALISE panel. Language disorders occurring with these conditions need to be assessed and children offered appropriate intervention, but a terminological distinction is made so that these cases would be diagnosed as language disorder associated with the main diagnosis being specified: e.g. "language disorder associated with autism spectrum disorder." The reasoning behind these diagnostic distinctions is discussed further by Bishop (2017).
250:
176:β Pragmatics refers to the ability to select the appropriate message, or interpret what others say, in relation to context. It is affected by right hemisphere brain damage. Pragmatic difficulties can give an impression of oddity, with the content of language not fitting the environmental or social context; comprehension may be over-literal; the child may chatter incessantly, be poor at turn-taking in conversation and maintaining a topic.
170:
conversation or expressive tasks. This difficulty in word retrieval can impact various aspects of language functioning, including expressive vocabulary, narrative coherence, and social communication. Additionally, word finding difficulties may manifest differently across individuals with DLD, ranging from occasional lapses in retrieval to more pervasive and persistent challenges in accessing words.
246:(speech-language pathology). These often resolve by around 4β5 years of age with specialist intervention, and so would not meet criteria for DLD. Where such problems continue beyond five years of age, they are usually accompanied by problems in broader language domains and have a poorer prognosis, so a diagnosis of DLD with speech sound disorder is then appropriate.
637:
comparison children. In the longer-term, studies of adult outcomes of children with DLD have found elevated rates of unemployment, social isolation and psychiatric disorder among those with early comprehension difficulties. However, better outcomes are found for children who have milder difficulties and do not require special educational provision.
653:
by
Tomblin et al., prevalence of DLD in racial/ethnic groups was highest in Native Americans, with African Americans being the next highest, followed by Hispanic people, and then White people. No students of Asian descent presented with DLD; however, other research does indicate that DLD is present in children of Asian descent.
299:
results when a child inherits a particularly detrimental combination of risk factors, each of which may have only a small effect. Nevertheless, study of the mode of action of the FOXP2 gene has helped identify other common genetic variants involved in the same neural pathways that may play a part in causing DLD.
529:, and then analyzed for a range of features: e.g., the grammatical complexity of the child's utterances, whether the child introduces characters to their story or jumps right in, whether the events follow a logical order, and whether the narrative includes a main idea or theme and supporting details.
565:
Treatment is usually carried out by speech and language therapists/pathologists, who use a wide range of techniques to stimulate language learning. In the past, there was a vogue for drilling children in grammatical exercises, using imitation and elicitation, but such methods fell into disuse when it
388:
have been used to document the first criterion. Tomblin et al. proposed the EpiSLI criterion, based on five composite scores representing performance in three domains of language (vocabulary, grammar, and narration) and two modalities (comprehension and production). Children scoring in the lowest 10%
302:
Language disorders are associated with aspects of home environment, and it is often assumed that this is a causal link, with poor language stimulation leading to weak language skills. Twin studies, however, show that two children in the same home environment can have very different language outcomes,
290:
method. Two twins growing up together are exposed to the same home environment, yet may differ radically in their language skills. Such different outcomes are, however, much more common in fraternal (non-identical) twins, who are genetically different. Identical twins share the same genes and tend to
652:
of DLD in five-year-olds at around 7%. Recently, an
Australian population based study demonstrated comparable prevalence of DLD amongst 10 year-old children. Therefore, the prevalence is about one in every 15 children. By these statistics, in a classroom of 30 students, 2 would have DLD. In research
577:
For school-aged children, teachers are increasingly involved in intervention, either in collaboration with speech and language therapists/pathologists, or as the main agents of delivery of the intervention. Evidence for the benefits of a collaborative approach is emerging, but the benefits of asking
549:
Children with Speech-Language
Impairment (SLI) have a higher likelihood of ASD compared to the general population. It is essential to conduct a detailed developmental history and a specific evaluation for autism characteristics. Use screening tools to help detect ASD. Verbal Children with Autism can
520:
is a parent questionnaire suitable for assessing everyday use of language in children aged four years and above who can speak in sentences. Informal assessments, such as language samples, are often used by speech-language therapists/pathologists to complement formal testing and give an indication of
188:
and learning β Problems with remembering words or sentences can affect both the learning of new vocabulary, and the understanding of long or complex sentences. Young children with DLD may say their first words later than other children. It may also take children with DLD longer to learn and remember
92:
The term developmental language disorder (DLD) was endorsed in a consensus study involving a panel of experts (CATALISE Consortium) in 2017. The study was conducted in response to concerns that a wide range of terminology was used in this area, with the consequence that there was poor communication,
632:
who have no other presenting risk factors. However, for children who still have significant language difficulties at school entry, reading problems are common, even for children who receive specialist help, and educational attainments are typically poor. Poor outcomes are most common in cases where
234:
can be distinguished from language disorders, they can also co-occur. When a child fails to produce distinctions between speech sounds for no obvious reason, this is typically regarded as a language problem affecting the learning of phonological contrasts. The classification of and terminology for
585:
methodology has not been widely used, and this makes it difficult to assess clinical efficacy with confidence. Children's language will tend to improve over time, and without controlled studies, it can be hard to know how much of observed change is down to a specific treatment. There is, however,
556:
is an anxiety disorder where individuals are unable to speak in certain social situations despite being capable of speaking in other environments. This disorder is strongly linked to social anxiety. Children who have selective mutism do not speak in certain social situations, such as at school or
396:
The third criterion specifies that DLD is used for children whose language disorder is not part of another biomedical condition, such as a genetic syndrome, a sensorineural hearing loss, neurological disease, autism spectrum disorder or intellectual disability β these were termed 'differentiating
298:
gene just in the affected family members. However, subsequent studies have found that, though DLD runs in families, it is not usually caused by a mutation in FOXP2 or another specific gene. Current evidence suggests that there are many different genes that can influence language learning, and DLD
140:
DLD can affect a range of areas of language and the degree of impairment in different areas of language can vary from child to child. However, although there have been attempts to define different subtypes, these have not generally resulted in robust categories. The recommendation of the CATALISE
636:
DLD is associated with an elevated risk of social, emotional and mental health concerns. For instance, in a UK survey, 64% of a sample of 11-year-olds with DLD scored above a clinical threshold on a questionnaire for psychiatric difficulties, and 36% were regularly bullied, compared with 12% of
78:
The field of developmental language disorders (DLD) has evolved significantly in recent years, with a move towards standardizing terminology to address confusion and improve communication. The CATALISE Consortium, composed of experts, endorsed the term "developmental language disorder" in 2017,
669:
Research has also suggested that peer nominations reveal differences in social understanding between children with DLD and their typically developing peers, as evidenced by the unequal distribution of peer acknowledgments. Research on peer and friendship acknowledgments offers insight into the
532:
There is, however, a large gap in assessment of developmental language disorder, specifically in bilingual and multilingual children. For a multilingual child to be diagnosed with DLD, they must be assessed in every language that they speak and show signs of DLD in each one. Current assessment
545:
can be broadened into three categories: sociability and empathy, imaginative play, and use of language. Sociability and
Empathy: Search for limitations in the child's capacity to participate in social interactions, comprehend others' emotions, and deduce their viewpoints. Communicative Use of
392:
The second criterion, persistence of language problems, can be difficult to judge in a young child, but longitudinal studies have shown that difficulties are less likely to resolve for children who have poor language comprehension, rather than difficulties confined to expressive language. In
169:
phenomenon. It reflects the inability to access specific lexical items for production, despite awareness of their existence within the mental lexicon. It is a common feature in developmental language disorders (DLD), where children may struggle to recall words accurately and fluently during
123:
The question of whether to refer to children's language problems as a 'disorder' was a topic of debate among the CATALISE consortium, but the conclusion was that 'disorder' conveyed the serious nature and potential consequences of persistent language deficits. It is also parallel with other
100:
The terminology for children's language disorders has been extremely wide-ranging and confusing, with many labels that have overlapping but not necessarily identical meanings. In part this confusion reflected uncertainty about the boundaries of DLD, and the existence of different subtypes.
661:
Much research has focused on trying to identify what makes language learning difficult for some children. A major divide is between theories that attribute the difficulties to a low-level problem with auditory temporal processing, and those that propose there is a deficit in a specialised
291:
be much more similar in language ability. There can be some variation in the severity and persistence of DLD in identical twins, indicating that non-genetic factors affect the course of disorder, but it is unusual to find a child with DLD who has an identical twin with typical language.
507:
Assessment will usually include an interview with the child's caregiver, observation of the child in an unstructured setting, a hearing test, and standardized tests of language. There is a wide range of language assessments in
English. Some are restricted for use by experts in
334:, both simple and complex. These difficulties also extend to speech-motor ability, particularly with the control of their articulatory movements. Children with DLD have difficulty with motor sequence learning and may show deficits in other procedural motor processes as well.
513:
318:
of affected males-to-females around 3 or 4:1. However, the sex difference is much less striking in epidemiological samples, suggesting that similar problems may exist in females but are less likely to be detected. The reason for the sex difference is not well understood.
546:
Language: Evaluate for challenges in utilizing language proficiently for communication. Imaginative Play: Assess the childβs capability to participate in inventive and imaginative play. Sensory
Responses: Observe any uncommon or modified reactions to sensory stimuli.
569:
In addition, there has been a move away from a focus solely on grammar and phonology toward interventions that develop children's social use of language, often working in small groups that may include typically developing as well as language-impaired peers.
586:
increasing evidence that direct 1:1 intervention with an SLT/P can be effective for improving vocabulary and expressive language. There have been few studies of interventions that target receptive language, though some positive outcomes have been reported.
550:
be classified as follows: Impaired: They experience significant challenges with using language. Borderline: They have language abilities but with some impairments. Normal: Their language use falls within typical ranges, considering the context of autism.
119:
In the UK education system, the term "speech, language and communication needs" is widely used, but this is far broader than DLD, and includes children with speech, language and social communication difficulties arising from a wide range of causes.
337:
Brain scans do not usually reveal any obvious abnormalities in children with DLD, although quantitative comparisons have found differences in brain size or relative proportions of white or grey matter in specific regions. In some cases, unusual
235:
disorders of speech sound production is a subject of considerable debate. In practice, even for those with specialist skills, it is not always easy to distinguish between phonological disorders and other types of speech production problem.
101:
Historically, the terms "developmental dysphasia" or "developmental aphasia" were used to describe children with the clinical picture of DLD. These terms have, however, largely been abandoned, as they suggest parallels with adult-acquired
227:, are commonly seen in young children. These misarticulations should not be confused with language problems, which involve the ability to select and combine linguistic elements to express meanings, and the ability to comprehend meanings.
682:
with higher performance IQ than verbal IQ. The participants still exhibited a severe and persisting language disorder, severe literacy impairments, and significant deficits in theory of mind and phonological processing. Within the DLD
573:
Another way in contemporary remediation differ from the past is that parents are more likely to be directly involved, but this approach is largely used with preschool children, rather than those whose problems persist into school age.
662:
language-learning system. Other accounts emphasise deficits in specific aspects of learning and memory. It can be difficult to choose between theories because they do not always make distinctive predictions, and there is considerable
141:
panel was that the specific areas of impairment should be assessed and documented for individual children, while recognizing that different children might have different combinations of problems. The areas which can be affected are:
687:, higher childhood intelligence and language were associated with superior cognitive and language ability at final adult outcome. In their mid-thirties, the DLD cohort had significantly worse social adaptation (with prolonged
303:
suggesting we should consider other explanations for the link. Children with DLD often grow up into adults who have relatively low educational attainments, and their children may share a genetic risk for language disorder.
3247:
Johnson, Carla J.; Beitchman, Joseph H.; Brownlie, E. B. (February 2010). "Twenty-Year Follow-Up of
Children With and Without Speech-Language Impairments: Family, Educational, Occupational, and Quality of Life Outcomes".
521:
the child's language in a more naturalistic context. A language sample may be of a conversation or narrative retell. In a narrative language sample, an adult may tell the child a story using a wordless picture book (e.g.
517:
3513:
Snowling, Margaret J.; Bishop, D.V.M.; Stothard, Susan E.; Chipchase, Barry; Kaplan, Carole (9 June 2006). "Psychosocial outcomes at 15 years of children with a preschool history of speech-language impairment".
182:β Discourse refers to a level of organization of language beyond the sentence. A child with limitations in this domain may have limited ability to tell a story or describe a set of events in a logical sequence.
2202:
Fisher, Simon E.; Vargha-Khadem, Faraneh; Watkins, Kate E.; Monaco, Anthony P.; Pembrey, Marcus E. (February 1998). "Localisation of a gene implicated in a severe speech and language disorder".
678:
Relatively little research has been conducted to test the outcomes of DLD in adults. In a study comparing 17 men with DLD to siblings without DLD, researchers found that the DLD men had normal
3208:
Ebbels, Susan H.; Wright, Lisa; Brockbank, Sally; Godfrey, Caroline; Harris, Catherine; Leniston, Hannah; Neary, Kate; Nicoll, Hilary; Nicoll, Lucy; Scott, Jackie; MariΔ, NataΕ‘a (July 2017).
1862:
Kamhi, Alan G.; Catts, Hugh W.; Mauer, Daria; Apel, Kenn; Gentry, Betholyn F. (1 August 1988). "Phonological and
Spatial Processing Abilities in Language- and Reading-Impaired Children".
346:
systems. Differences in the brains of children with DLD versus typically developing children are subtle and may overlap with atypical patterns seen in other neurodevelopmental disorders.
3318:
Snowling, Margaret J.; Adams, John W.; Bishop, D. V. M.; Stothard, Susan E. (2001). "Educational attainments of school leavers with a preschool history of speech-language impairments".
633:
comprehension as well as expressive language is affected. There is also evidence that scores on tests of nonverbal ability of children with DLD decrease over the course of development.
2865:
Bryan, A., Colourful
Semantics., in Language disorders in children and adults: psycholinguistic approaches to therapy., S. Chiat, J. Law, and J. Marshall, Editors. 1997, Whurr: London
3478:
Clegg, J.; Hollis, C.; Mawhood, L.; Rutter, M. (February 2005). "Developmental language disorders - a follow-up in later adult life. Cognitive, language and psychosocial outcomes".
393:
addition, children with isolated difficulties in just one of the areas noted under 'subtypes' tend to make better progress than those whose language is impaired in several areas.
71:
or a known biomedical condition. The most obvious problems are difficulties in using words and sentences to express meanings, but for many children, understanding of language (
512:: speech and language therapists (SaLTs/SLTs) in the UK, speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in the US and Australia. A commonly used test battery for diagnosis of DLD is the
63:
that continue into school age and beyond. The language problems have a significant impact on everyday social interactions or educational progress, and occur in the absence of
1897:
Shriberg, Lawrence D.; Tomblin, J. Bruce; McSweeny, Jane L. (1 December 1999). "Prevalence of Speech Delay in 6-Year-Old Children and Comorbidity With Language Impairment".
3283:
Catts, Hugh W.; Fey, Marc E.; Tomblin, J. Bruce; Zhang, Xuyang (1 December 2002). "A Longitudinal Investigation of Reading Outcomes in Children With Language Impairments".
1933:
3922:"Reviewing the link between language abilities and peer relations in children with developmental language disorder: The importance of children's own perspectives"
242:
Speech sound disorders of unknown cause that are not accompanied by other language problems are a relatively common reason for young children to be referred to
2457:
Norbury, Courtenay Frazier; Gooch, Debbie; Wray, Charlotte; Baird, Gillian; Charman, Tony; Simonoff, Emily; Vamvakas, George; Pickles, Andrew (November 2016).
3169:"Improving comprehension in adolescents with severe receptive language impairments: a randomized control trial of intervention for coordinating conjunctions"
3818:
Ullman, Michael T.; Pierpont, Elizabeth I. (1 January 2005). "Specific Language Impairment is not Specific to Language: the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis".
2665:
Tomblin, J. Bruce; Records, Nancy L.; Zhang, Xuyang (December 1996). "A System for the Diagnosis of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children".
1677:
Van der Lely, Heather K. J. (1 February 1997). "Narrative discourse in Grammatical specific language impaired children: a modular language deficit?".
2939:
Tosh, Rachel; Arnott, Wendy; Scarinci, Nerina (May 2017). "Parent-implemented home therapy programmes for speech and language: a systematic review".
3791:
Gathercole, Susan E; Baddeley, Alan D (1 June 1990). "Phonological memory deficits in language disordered children: Is there a causal connection?".
3049:
Law, James; Garrett, Zoe; Nye, Chad (August 2004). "The Efficacy of Treatment for Children With Developmental Speech and Language Delay/Disorder".
2817:
Roth, F. P., & Worthington, C. K. (2010). Treatment resource manual for speech-language pathology, 4th edition. San Diego: Singular Publishing.
3713:
Rice, Mabel L.; Wexler, Kenneth; Cleave, Patricia L. (1 August 1995). "Specific Language Impairment as a Period of Extended Optional Infinitive".
3009:"Indirect language therapy for children with persistent language impairment in mainstream primary schools: outcomes from a cohort intervention"
2401:
Fundudis, T., Kolvin, I., & Garside, R. (1979). Speech Retarded and Deaf Children: Their Psychological Development. London: Academic Press.
3353:
Simkin, ZoΓ«; Conti-Ramsden, Gina (26 July 2016). "Evidence of reading difficulty in subgroups of children with specific language impairment".
2411:
Robinson, Roger J. (12 November 2008). "Causes and Associations of Severe and Persistent Specific Speech and Language Disorders in Children".
162:. These children tend to avoid plural forms altogether, instead favoring singular forms accompanied by words indicating duality or plurality.
1817:
Rvachew, S., & Brosseau-Lapre, F. (2012). Developmental Phonological Disorders: Foundations of clinical Practice: Plural Publishing Inc.
516:. Assessments that can be completed by a parent or teacher can be useful to identify children who may require more in-depth evaluation. The
354:
DLD is defined purely in behavioural terms: there is no biological test. There are three points that need to be met for a diagnosis of DLD:
2761:
Paul, R. (2006). Language Disorders from Infancy through Adolescence: Assessment and Intervention, 3rd Edition. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book.
525:), then ask the child to use the pictures and tell the story back. Language samples can be transcribed using computer software such as the
342:
are found. To date, no consistent 'neural signature' for DLD has been found, although some studies have noted evidence for involvement of
3703:
Bishop, D. V. M. (1997). Uncommon Understanding: Development and Disorders of Language Comprehension in Children. Hove: Psychology Press.
3440:
Conti-Ramsden, Gina; Botting, Nicola (1 February 2004). "Social Difficulties and Victimization in Children With SLI at 11 Years of Age".
2159:
Bishop, D. V. M.; North, T.; Donlan, C. (12 November 2008). "Genetic Basis of Specific Language Impairment: Evidence from a Twin Study".
616:
Keep them in school: children who are school-refusers have poorer language skills overall, and a higher incidence of language impairments
165:
Word finding β Children with word finding difficulties may know a word, but have difficulty accessing it for production β similar to the
1199:
Paul, Rhea (June 1990). "Comprehension strategies: Interactions between world knowledge and the development of sentence comprehension".
1642:
Adams, Catherine (January 2001). "Clinical diagnostic and intervention studies of children with semanticβpragmatic language disorder".
3422:
Cohen, Nancy (2001). Language impairment and psychopathology in infants, children, and adolescents. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
2904:
Roberts, Megan Y.; Kaiser, Ann P. (1 August 2011). "The Effectiveness of Parent-Implemented Language Interventions: A Meta-Analysis".
894:"Phase 2 of CATALISE: a multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development: Terminology"
294:
There was considerable excitement when a large, multigenerational family with a high rate of DLD were found to have a mutation of the
93:
lack of public recognition, and in some cases children were denied access to services. Developmental language disorder is a subset of
1075:
van Weerdenburg, Marjolijn; Verhoeven, Ludo; van Balkom, Hans (February 2006). "Towards a typology of specific language impairment".
306:
One non-genetic factor that is known to have a specific impact on language development is being a younger sibling in a large family.
1755:
Montgomery, James W. (May 2002). "Information Processing and Language Comprehension in Children with Specific Language Impairment".
1934:"How should children with speech sound disorders be classified? A review and critical evaluation of current classification systems"
326:
are commonly found in children with DLD. Standardized measures of motor ability confirm that children with DLD exhibit deficits in
267:
2548:
Sanjeevan, Teenu; Rosenbaum, David A.; Miller, Carol; van Hell, Janet G.; Weiss, Daniel J.; Mainela-Arnold, Elina (24 June 2015).
2459:"The impact of nonverbal ability on prevalence and clinical presentation of language disorder: evidence from a population study"
1065:. Nottingham: DCSF Publications. However, the UK special educational needs system uses in a manner which is more similar to DLD.
4058:
3136:"Effectiveness of intervention for grammar in school-aged children with primary language impairments: A review of the evidence"
1593:
2749:
2508:"Non-specific nature of specific language impairment: a review of the literature with regard to concomitant motor impairments"
666:
among children with DLD. It has also been suggested that DLD may only arise when more than one underlying deficit is present.
2888:
1529:
3549:
Tomblin, J. Bruce; Records, Nancy L.; Buckwalter, Paula; Zhang, Xuyang; Smith, Elaine; o'Brien, Marlea (1 December 1997).
1164:
Bishop, D. V. M. (January 1982). "Comprehension of Spoken, Written and Signed Sentences in Childhood Language Disorders".
1056:
The Bercow Report: A Review of Services for Children and Young People (0-19) with Speech, Language and Communication Needs
4053:
1983:
Broomfield, Jan; Dodd, Barbara (January 2004). "Children with speech and language disability: caseload characteristics".
275:
3655:
Tomblin, J. Bruce; Records, Nancy L.; Buckwalter, Paula; Zhang, Xuyang; Smith, Elaine; OβBrien, Marlea (December 1997).
3989:
Paul, Rhea (2007). Language disorders from infancy through adolescence: assessment & intervention. Mosby Elsevier.
1120:
Conti-Ramsden, Gina; Botting, Nicola (1 October 1999). "Classification of Children With Specific Language Impairment".
770:"CATALISE: A Multinational and Multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus Study. Identifying Language Impairments in Children"
364:
The problems are not associated with a known biomedical condition such as brain injury, neurodegenerative conditions,
3994:
3984:
3427:
2355:"Adult psychosocial outcomes of children with specific language impairment, pragmatic language impairment and autism"
1519:
211:
is the act of articulating sounds, and this can be impaired for all kinds of reasons β a structural problem such as
4043:
699:
692:
1058:
768:
Bishop, D. V. M.; Snowling, Margaret J.; Thompson, Paul A.; Greenhalgh, Trisha; Schiller, Niels O. (8 July 2016).
4015:
3600:"The prevalence of and potential risk factors for Developmental Language Disorder at 10 years in the Raine Study"
1286:
Rice, Mabel L.; Bode, John V. (1993). "GAPS in the verb lexicons of children with specific language impairment".
132:. Where there are milder or more transient difficulties, 'language difficulties' may be a more appropriate term.
3979:
Beitchman, J. H., & Brownlie, E. B. (2014). Language Disorders in Children and Adolescents Boston: Hogrefe.
3748:
van der Lely, Heather K.J. (February 2005). "Domain-specific cognitive systems: insight from Grammatical-SLI".
993:
Rapin, Isabelle (September 1996). "Practitioner Review: Developmental Language Disorders: A Clinical Update".
286:
It is generally accepted that DLD is strongly influenced by genetic factors. The best evidence comes from the
744:
243:
3210:"Effectiveness of 1:1 speech and language therapy for older children with (developmental) language disorder"
628:
indicate that problems are largely resolved by five years of age in around 40% of four-year-olds with early
536:
3598:
Calder, Samuel; Brennan-Jones, Christopher; Robinson, Monique; Whitehouse, Andrew; Hill, Elizabeth (2022).
2308:
Fisher, Simon E.; Scharff, Constance (April 2009). "FOXP2 as a molecular window into speech and language".
2020:"Speech and language therapy interventions for children with primary speech and language delay or disorder"
719:
113:
4048:
1154:
Leonard, L. B. (2014). Children with specific language impairment, 2nd edition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
582:
578:
education staff to be the main deliverers of SLT intervention (the "consultative" approach) are unclear.
263:
2702:"Why is it so hard to reach agreement on terminology? The case of developmental language disorder (DLD)"
1594:"Differentiating SLI from ADHD using children's sentence recall and production of past tense morphology"
358:
The child has language difficulties that create obstacles to communication or learning in everyday life,
2772:
2630:
Herbert, Martha R.; Kenet, Tal (June 2007). "Brain Abnormalities in Language Disorders and in Autism".
377:
212:
1827:
Klein, Edward S.; Flint, Cari B. (July 2006). "Measurement of Intelligibility in Disordered Speech".
1396:
1355:
509:
3832:
38:
3085:
3008:
892:
Bishop, Dorothy V.M.; Snowling, Margaret J.; Thompson, Paul A.; Greenhalgh, Trisha (October 2017).
703:
542:
2255:
Fisher, S (September 2006). "Tangled webs: Tracing the connections between genes and cognition".
1397:"The Acquisition of Jordanian Arabic Plural Morphology by Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder"
691:
and a paucity of close friendships and love relationships) compared with both their siblings and
68:
3007:
McCartney, Elspeth; Boyle, James; Ellis, Sue; Bannatyne, Susan; Turnbull, Mary (26 March 2010).
2881:
Language, Learning, and Behavior Disorders: Developmental, Biological, and Clinical Perspectives
97:, which is itself a subset of the broader category of speech, language and communication needs.
3827:
2829:"Teaching grammar to school-aged children with specific language impairment using Shape Coding"
1547:"Word learning by preschoolers with specific language impairment: predictors and poor learners"
271:
196:
2879:. In Beitchman, Joseph H.; Cohen, Nancy J.; Konstantareas, M. Mary; Tannock, Rosemary (eds.).
2876:
253:
Developmental language disorder impairment compared to other common language related disorders
75:) is also a challenge. This may not be evident unless the child is given a formal assessment.
278:. These do not preclude a diagnosis of DLD, but should be noted as co-occurring conditions.
236:
1436:
German, Diane J. (November 1992). "Word-finding intervention for children and adolescents".
2750:
https://www.boystownhospital.org/knowledge-center/red-flags-developmental-language-disorder
1356:"The Use of Jordanian Arabic Possessive Pronouns by Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder"
1236:"Tense and Aspect in Sentence Interpretation by Children with Specific Language Impairment"
781:
625:
369:
60:
3388:
Botting, Nicola (March 2005). "Non-verbal cognitive development and language impairment".
3261:
2917:
2330:
2277:
2224:
1028:
Leonard, Laurence B. (April 1991). "Specific Language Impairment as a Clinical Category".
112:
Although the term DLD has been used for many years, it has been less common than the term
8:
1787:"Developmental Language Disorder: The Childhood Condition We Need to Start Talking About"
1323:"Developmental Language Disorder: The Childhood Condition We Need to Start Talking About"
729:
684:
537:
Autism Spectrum Disorder and Selective Mutism in Children with Speech and Language Delays
385:
2507:
785:
698:
cohorts, matched on childhood IQ and social class. Self-reports showed a higher rate of
3954:
3921:
3897:
3872:
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3773:
3681:
3656:
3637:
3624:
3599:
3575:
3550:
3370:
3116:
2848:
2726:
2701:
2607:
2582:
2550:"Motor Issues in Specific Language Impairment: a Window into the Underlying Impairment"
2483:
2458:
2436:
2424:
2379:
2354:
2290:
2237:
2184:
2172:
2136:
2111:
2044:
2019:
1973:
Bowen, C. (2015). Children's Speech Sound Disorders (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
1737:
1702:
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1303:
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1006:
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72:
3841:
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3062:
1840:
1562:
1413:
1372:
4063:
3998:
3990:
3980:
3959:
3941:
3902:
3873:"Developmental cognitive genetics: How psychology can inform genetics and vice versa"
3845:
3804:
3765:
3730:
3686:
3641:
3629:
3580:
3531:
3527:
3495:
3491:
3457:
3423:
3405:
3401:
3374:
3335:
3300:
3265:
3229:
3190:
3108:
3104:
3066:
3031:
2956:
2921:
2884:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2731:
2682:
2647:
2612:
2530:
2488:
2428:
2384:
2335:
2282:
2229:
2176:
2141:
2127:
2089:
2049:
2000:
1956:
1952:
1914:
1879:
1844:
1768:
1741:
1694:
1659:
1624:
1616:
1574:
1566:
1525:
1500:
1492:
1473:"Sparkling at the end of the tongue: The etiology of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenology"
1457:
1449:
1418:
1395:
Al-Thunebat, Sateh Abdullah; Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman; Thneibat, Amal (2024-04-11).
1377:
1307:
1265:
1220:
1212:
1181:
1137:
1102:
1088:
1010:
975:
923:
865:
809:
331:
166:
94:
27:
4027:
3777:
3120:
2852:
2294:
2268:
2188:
1720:
Gathercole, Susan E. (25 July 2016). "Word learning in language-impaired children".
1706:
124:
neurodevelopmental conditions and consistent with diagnostic frameworks such as the
3949:
3933:
3892:
3884:
3857:
3837:
3800:
3757:
3722:
3676:
3668:
3619:
3611:
3570:
3562:
3523:
3487:
3449:
3397:
3362:
3327:
3292:
3257:
3221:
3180:
3147:
3100:
3058:
3023:
2987:
2948:
2913:
2840:
2784:
2721:
2713:
2674:
2639:
2602:
2594:
2561:
2522:
2478:
2470:
2440:
2420:
2374:
2366:
2325:
2317:
2272:
2264:
2241:
2219:
2211:
2168:
2131:
2123:
2081:
2039:
2031:
1992:
1948:
1906:
1871:
1836:
1798:
1764:
1729:
1686:
1651:
1608:
1558:
1484:
1445:
1408:
1367:
1334:
1295:
1255:
1247:
1208:
1173:
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1092:
1084:
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1002:
965:
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913:
905:
855:
847:
799:
789:
739:
553:
365:
327:
4021:
2748:
Identifying Red Flags for Developmental Language Disorder. (n.d.). Retrieved from
3209:
2828:
1996:
1612:
1062:
836:"Ten questions about terminology for children with unexplained language problems"
794:
522:
231:
64:
2976:"SLP-educator classroom collaboration: A review to inform reason-based practice"
314:
It has long been noted that males are more affected by DLD than females, with a
3761:
2598:
2072:
Bishop, D. V. M.; Edmundson, A. (1 May 1987). "Language-Impaired 4-Year-Olds".
1733:
1299:
629:
400:
361:
The child's language problems are unlikely to resolve by five years of age, and
3937:
3888:
3366:
3027:
2771:
Hambly, Helen; Wren, Yvonne; McLeod, Sharynne; Roulstone, Sue (January 2013).
2643:
2566:
2549:
2526:
2370:
2353:
Whitehouse, Andrew J O; Watt, Helen J; Line, E A; Bishop, Dorothy V M (2009).
2321:
2035:
1690:
1251:
1041:
4037:
3945:
3167:
Ebbels, Susan H.; MariΔ, NataΕ‘a; Murphy, Aoife; Turner, Gail (January 2014).
3152:
3135:
2992:
2975:
2844:
2796:
1655:
1620:
1570:
1496:
1422:
1381:
707:
663:
373:
185:
3672:
3566:
3225:
3185:
3168:
3084:
Boyle, James; McCartney, Elspeth; O'Hare, Anne; Law, James (November 2010).
2952:
2717:
1910:
1803:
1786:
1546:
1339:
1322:
1133:
851:
389:
on two or more composite scores are identified as having language disorder.
3963:
3906:
3849:
3769:
3633:
3535:
3499:
3461:
3409:
3339:
3331:
3304:
3269:
3233:
3194:
3112:
3086:"Intervention for mixed receptive-expressive language impairment: a review"
3070:
3035:
2960:
2925:
2804:
2735:
2678:
2651:
2616:
2581:
Krishnan, Saloni; Watkins, Kate E.; Bishop, Dorothy V.M. (September 2016).
2534:
2492:
2388:
2339:
2286:
2145:
2053:
2004:
1960:
1918:
1848:
1663:
1628:
1578:
1504:
1269:
1141:
1106:
979:
961:
927:
869:
813:
688:
679:
645:
589:
220:
106:
4002:
3734:
3726:
3690:
3584:
2686:
2432:
2233:
2180:
2093:
2085:
1883:
1875:
1698:
1185:
1014:
2773:"The influence of bilingualism on speech production: A systematic review"
734:
343:
323:
215:, a neurological problem affecting motor control of the speech apparatus
706:. Four DLD adults had serious mental health problems (two had developed
2474:
2215:
1488:
909:
649:
287:
257:
216:
173:
155:
3615:
1097:
1055:
249:
3657:"Prevalence of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children"
3597:
3551:"Prevalence of Specific Language Impairment in Kindergarten Children"
1472:
315:
192:
179:
151:
32:
946:"Developmental Aphasia Observed in a Department of Child Psychiatry"
648:
studies of children in the US and the UK converge in estimating the
189:
novel words. This is due to the effect of DLD on declarative memory.
3473:
3471:
724:
1074:
219:, or inability to perceive distinctions between sounds because of
475:
Difficulty asking questions and finding words to express thoughts
145:
102:
4018:
Dyslexia and developmental language disorder: same or different?
3468:
2877:"Social-interactional approaches to child language intervention"
2547:
2201:
891:
767:
3512:
3320:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
3214:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
3173:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
3016:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
2941:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
2777:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
2706:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
2515:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
2359:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
1985:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
1941:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
1644:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
840:
International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders
526:
384:
For research and epidemiological purposes, specific cutoffs on
208:
159:
129:
1394:
239:
is any problem with speech production arising from any cause.
3654:
3548:
339:
295:
125:
56:
3207:
3006:
1354:
Alkhatib, Razan N.; Altakhaineh, Abdel Rahman (2023-10-29).
673:
429:
Makes minimal attempts to communicate with gestures or words
401:
Benchmarks for children with developmental language disorder
3317:
3083:
601:
Point to signs in the grocery store, at school, and outside
224:
4024:: Check the progress of your child's language development
2770:
2583:"Neurobiological Basis of Language Learning Difficulties"
3477:
3246:
2352:
1281:
1279:
590:
How to help a child with developmental language disorder
3166:
2112:"What Causes Specific Language Impairment in Children?"
1896:
380:, autism spectrum disorder, or intellectual disability.
3920:
Janik Blaskova, Lenka; Gibson, Jenny L (3 June 2021).
2580:
2456:
1276:
203:
3919:
3439:
3282:
2018:
Law, James; Garrett, Zoe; Nye, Chad (21 July 2003).
1780:
1778:
1119:
595:
Talk to the child often to help them learn new words
258:
Relationship with other neurodevelopmental disorders
3352:
2664:
1861:
1353:
514:
Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF)
3790:
2938:
1314:
3715:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
3661:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
3555:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
3442:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
3285:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
3051:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
2667:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
2158:
1899:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
1829:Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools
1775:
1551:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
1122:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
1030:Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools
4035:
3712:
2883:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 418β435.
604:Speak to the child in the language you know best
3926:Autism & Developmental Language Impairments
2980:Autism & Developmental Language Impairments
2071:
1785:Kuiack, Alyssa; Archibald, Lisa (9 July 2019).
1784:
1321:Kuiack, Alyssa; Archibald, Lisa (9 July 2019).
1320:
598:Read to them every day. Point out words you see
223:. Some distortions of speech sounds, such as a
135:
3817:
2452:
2450:
1982:
1234:Leonard, Laurence B.; Deevy, Patricia (2010).
105:. This is misleading, as DLD is not caused by
4016:Helpful article by Professor Maggie Snowling:
3250:American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
3048:
2906:American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
2903:
2307:
2105:
2103:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2017:
3877:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
3747:
3093:Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology
2629:
2413:Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology
2161:Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology
1931:
1676:
1233:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
829:
827:
825:
823:
763:
761:
759:
2447:
2116:Current Directions in Psychological Science
944:Ingram, T. T. S.; Reid, J. F. (June 1956).
4030:: Database of evidence-based interventions
3516:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
3480:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
3390:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
2463:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
2100:
2060:
1826:
1754:
1719:
1521:Children with Specific Language Impairment
1166:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
1077:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
995:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
943:
898:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
518:Childrenβs Communication Checklist (CCCβ2)
37:
3953:
3896:
3831:
3680:
3623:
3574:
3184:
3151:
2991:
2973:
2874:
2725:
2606:
2565:
2482:
2378:
2329:
2276:
2223:
2135:
2043:
1802:
1412:
1371:
1338:
1259:
1096:
969:
917:
876:
859:
820:
803:
793:
756:
674:Developmental language disorder in adults
452:Limited understanding of simple questions
2410:
1470:
1285:
527:Systematic Analysis of Language Software
486:Speech is not understandable to teachers
268:attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
248:
3387:
2700:Bishop, Dorothy V. M. (November 2017).
2554:Current Developmental Disorders Reports
2074:Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders
2024:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1932:Waring, R.; Knight, R. (January 2013).
1864:Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders
1591:
1517:
1027:
613:Give the child time to answer questions
469:Speech is not understandable to parents
262:DLD often co-occurs with other, milder
4036:
3870:
3133:
2826:
2699:
2254:
2109:
1435:
1163:
833:
607:Listen and answer when the child talks
472:Takes a long time to understand others
435:Difficulty following simple directions
1641:
992:
309:
2505:
2110:Bishop, Dorothy V M (October 2006).
1601:Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics
1544:
1198:
939:
937:
458:Frustration related to communication
199:) can lead to literacy difficulties.
3355:Child Language Teaching and Therapy
3140:Child Language Teaching and Therapy
2974:Archibald, Lisa MD (January 2017).
2833:Child Language Teaching and Therapy
2506:Hill, Elisabeth L. (January 2001).
1722:Child Language Teaching and Therapy
1518:Leonard, Laurence B. (2014-06-13).
1471:Schwartz, Bennett L. (1999-09-01).
405:Common signs at one year of age:
276:developmental coordination disorder
13:
3973:
2632:Pediatric Clinics of North America
2425:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1991.tb14811.x
2173:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1995.tb11932.x
1178:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1982.tb00045.x
1007:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01456.x
610:Get the child to ask you questions
498:Difficulty with peer interactions
492:Difficulty with complex directions
204:Relationship with speech disorders
14:
4075:
4009:
3134:Ebbels, Susan (9 December 2013).
1477:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1414:10.31470/2309-1797-2024-35-2-6-23
1373:10.31470/2309-1797-2023-34-1-6-27
934:
82:
3528:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01631.x
3492:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00342.x
3402:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00355.x
3105:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2010.03750.x
2789:10.1111/j.1460-6984.2012.00178.x
2128:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00439.x
1953:10.1111/j.1460-6984.2012.00195.x
1769:10.1097/00011363-200205000-00007
1450:10.1097/00011363-199211000-00006
1213:10.1097/00011363-199006000-00007
1089:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01454.x
950:Archives of Disease in Childhood
693:National Child Development Study
523:Frog Where Are You?, Mayer, 1969
432:Has not spoken their first words
3913:
3864:
3811:
3784:
3741:
3706:
3697:
3648:
3591:
3542:
3506:
3433:
3416:
3381:
3346:
3311:
3276:
3262:10.1044/1058-0360(2009/08-0083)
3240:
3201:
3160:
3127:
3077:
3042:
3000:
2967:
2932:
2918:10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0055)
2897:
2868:
2859:
2820:
2811:
2764:
2755:
2742:
2693:
2658:
2623:
2574:
2541:
2499:
2404:
2395:
2346:
2301:
2269:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.004
2248:
2195:
2152:
2011:
1976:
1967:
1925:
1890:
1855:
1820:
1811:
1748:
1713:
1670:
1635:
1585:
1538:
1511:
1464:
1429:
1388:
1347:
1227:
1192:
1157:
1148:
483:Speaks only in simple sentences
281:
158:pronouns but also in mastering
49:Developmental Language Disorder
22:Developmental language disorder
3871:Bishop, Dorothy V. M. (2006).
3793:Journal of Memory and Language
2827:Ebbels, Susan (25 July 2016).
2331:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-CA31-7
2278:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-CB28-2
2225:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-CBD9-5
1545:Gray, Shelley (October 2004).
1113:
1068:
1048:
1021:
986:
834:Bishop, D. V. M. (July 2014).
489:Difficulty answering questions
87:
1:
4059:Speech and language pathology
3842:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70276-4
1592:Redmond, Sean M. (May 2005).
750:
745:Pragmatic language impairment
640:
502:
438:Inconsistent response to "no"
3805:10.1016/0749-596X(90)90004-J
3750:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
2875:Gallagher, Tanya M. (1996).
2587:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1997:10.1080/13682820310001625589
1757:Topics in Language Disorders
1613:10.1080/02699200410001669870
1438:Topics in Language Disorders
1201:Topics in Language Disorders
795:10.1371/journal.pone.0158753
720:Auditory processing disorder
560:
349:
264:neurodevelopmental disorders
136:Areas of language difficulty
114:specific language impairment
7:
3454:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/013)
3297:10.1044/1092-4388(2002/093)
3063:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/069)
1841:10.1044/0161-1461(2006/021)
1563:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/083)
713:
656:
583:randomized controlled trial
266:of unknown origin, such as
10:
4080:
4054:Developmental disabilities
3762:10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.002
2599:10.1016/j.tics.2016.06.012
1734:10.1177/026565909300900302
1300:10.1177/014272379301303707
620:
495:Difficulty telling stories
378:sensorineural hearing loss
213:cleft lip and cleft palate
3938:10.1177/23969415211021515
3889:10.1080/17470210500489372
3367:10.1191/0265659006ct310xx
3028:10.3109/13682820903560302
2644:10.1016/j.pcl.2007.02.007
2567:10.1007/s40474-015-0051-9
2527:10.1080/13682820010019874
2371:10.1080/13682820802708098
2322:10.1016/j.tig.2009.03.002
2036:10.1002/14651858.CD004110
1791:Frontiers for Young Minds
1691:10.1017/s0305000996002966
1679:Journal of Child Language
1327:Frontiers for Young Minds
1252:10.1017/S0305000909990018
1240:Journal of Child Language
1042:10.1044/0161-1461.2202.66
510:speech-language pathology
455:Difficulty naming objects
26:
21:
3153:10.1177/0265659013512321
2993:10.1177/2396941516680369
2845:10.1191/0265659007072143
1656:10.1080/lcd.36.3.289.305
704:schizoaffective disorder
543:Autism Spectrum Disorder
466:Uses only 3-word phrases
4044:Communication disorders
3673:10.1044/jslhr.4006.1245
3604:J Paediatr Child Health
3567:10.1044/jslhr.4006.1245
3226:10.1111/1460-6984.12297
3186:10.1111/1460-6984.12047
2953:10.1111/1460-6984.12280
2718:10.1111/1460-6984.12335
1911:10.1044/jslhr.4206.1461
1804:10.3389/frym.2019.00094
1340:10.3389/frym.2019.00094
1134:10.1044/jslhr.4205.1195
852:10.1111/1460-6984.12101
449:Incomprehensible speech
442:At three years of age:
421:Limited use of gestures
244:speech-language therapy
69:intellectual disability
55:) is identified when a
3332:10.1080/13682820120976
2679:10.1044/jshr.3906.1284
962:10.1136/adc.31.157.161
479:At five years of age:
462:At four years of age:
272:developmental dyslexia
254:
197:phonological awareness
3727:10.1044/jshr.3804.850
3430:. OCLC 45749780.
2086:10.1044/jshd.5202.156
1876:10.1044/jshd.5303.316
446:Limited use of speech
425:At two years of age:
252:
237:Speech sound disorder
626:Longitudinal studies
409:No reaction to sound
386:language assessments
370:chromosome disorders
61:language development
3932:: 239694152110215.
2986:: 239694151668036.
1054:Bercow, J. (2008).
786:2016PLoSO..1158753B
730:Language processing
4049:Language disorders
2475:10.1111/jcpp.12573
2310:Trends in Genetics
2216:10.1038/ng0298-168
1489:10.3758/BF03210827
1061:2012-10-16 at the
910:10.1111/jcpp.12721
415:Difficulty feeding
366:genetic conditions
310:Associated factors
255:
73:receptive language
59:has problems with
3616:10.1111/jpc.16149
3610:(11): 2044β2050.
2890:978-0-521-47229-6
2469:(11): 1247β1257.
1531:978-0-262-32402-1
1524:. The MIT Press.
1401:Psycholinguistics
1360:Psycholinguistics
904:(10): 1068β1080.
702:features but not
332:gross motor skill
167:tip of the tongue
95:language disorder
46:
45:
16:Medical condition
4071:
3968:
3967:
3957:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3900:
3883:(7): 1153β1168.
3868:
3862:
3861:
3835:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3710:
3704:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3684:
3667:(6): 1245β1260.
3652:
3646:
3645:
3627:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3578:
3561:(6): 1245β1260.
3546:
3540:
3539:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3475:
3466:
3465:
3437:
3431:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3291:(6): 1142β1157.
3280:
3274:
3273:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3188:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3090:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3046:
3040:
3039:
3013:
3004:
2998:
2997:
2995:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2753:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2729:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2673:(6): 1284β1294.
2662:
2656:
2655:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2610:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2512:
2503:
2497:
2496:
2486:
2454:
2445:
2444:
2408:
2402:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2382:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2333:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2280:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2227:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2139:
2107:
2098:
2097:
2069:
2058:
2057:
2047:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1938:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1905:(6): 1461β1481.
1894:
1888:
1887:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1782:
1773:
1772:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1717:
1711:
1710:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1598:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1557:(5): 1117β1132.
1542:
1536:
1535:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1416:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1375:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1283:
1274:
1273:
1263:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1196:
1190:
1189:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1128:(5): 1195β1204.
1117:
1111:
1110:
1100:
1072:
1066:
1052:
1046:
1045:
1025:
1019:
1018:
990:
984:
983:
973:
956:(157): 161β172.
941:
932:
931:
921:
889:
874:
873:
863:
831:
818:
817:
807:
797:
765:
740:Origin of speech
554:Selective Mutism
232:speech disorders
42:
41:
19:
18:
4079:
4078:
4074:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4069:
4068:
4034:
4033:
4012:
3976:
3974:Further reading
3971:
3918:
3914:
3869:
3865:
3833:10.1.1.211.8238
3816:
3812:
3789:
3785:
3746:
3742:
3711:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3653:
3649:
3596:
3592:
3547:
3543:
3511:
3507:
3476:
3469:
3438:
3434:
3421:
3417:
3386:
3382:
3351:
3347:
3316:
3312:
3281:
3277:
3245:
3241:
3206:
3202:
3165:
3161:
3132:
3128:
3099:(11): 994β999.
3088:
3082:
3078:
3047:
3043:
3011:
3005:
3001:
2972:
2968:
2937:
2933:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2747:
2743:
2698:
2694:
2663:
2659:
2628:
2624:
2579:
2575:
2546:
2542:
2510:
2504:
2500:
2455:
2448:
2419:(11): 943β962.
2409:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2351:
2347:
2306:
2302:
2253:
2249:
2204:Nature Genetics
2200:
2196:
2157:
2153:
2108:
2101:
2070:
2061:
2030:(3): CD004110.
2016:
2012:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1936:
1930:
1926:
1895:
1891:
1860:
1856:
1825:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1783:
1776:
1753:
1749:
1718:
1714:
1675:
1671:
1640:
1636:
1596:
1590:
1586:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1516:
1512:
1469:
1465:
1434:
1430:
1393:
1389:
1352:
1348:
1319:
1315:
1294:(37): 113β131.
1284:
1277:
1232:
1228:
1197:
1193:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1118:
1114:
1073:
1069:
1063:Wayback Machine
1053:
1049:
1026:
1022:
991:
987:
942:
935:
890:
877:
832:
821:
780:(7): e0158753.
766:
757:
753:
716:
676:
659:
646:Epidemiological
643:
630:language delays
623:
592:
581:In this field,
563:
539:
505:
403:
352:
312:
284:
260:
206:
138:
90:
85:
65:autism spectrum
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4077:
4067:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4032:
4031:
4025:
4019:
4011:
4010:External links
4008:
4007:
4006:
3987:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3912:
3863:
3826:(3): 399β433.
3810:
3799:(3): 336β360.
3783:
3740:
3721:(4): 850β863.
3705:
3696:
3647:
3590:
3541:
3522:(8): 759β765.
3505:
3486:(2): 128β149.
3467:
3448:(1): 145β161.
3432:
3415:
3396:(3): 317β326.
3380:
3361:(3): 315β331.
3345:
3326:(2): 173β183.
3310:
3275:
3239:
3220:(4): 528β539.
3200:
3159:
3126:
3076:
3057:(4): 924β943.
3041:
2999:
2966:
2947:(3): 253β269.
2931:
2912:(3): 180β199.
2896:
2889:
2867:
2858:
2819:
2810:
2763:
2754:
2741:
2712:(6): 671β680.
2692:
2657:
2638:(3): 563β583.
2622:
2593:(9): 701β714.
2573:
2560:(3): 228β236.
2540:
2521:(2): 149β171.
2498:
2446:
2403:
2394:
2365:(4): 511β528.
2345:
2316:(4): 166β177.
2300:
2263:(2): 270β297.
2247:
2210:(2): 168β170.
2194:
2151:
2122:(5): 217β221.
2099:
2080:(2): 156β173.
2059:
2010:
1991:(3): 303β324.
1975:
1966:
1924:
1889:
1870:(3): 316β327.
1854:
1835:(3): 191β199.
1819:
1810:
1774:
1747:
1728:(3): 187β199.
1712:
1685:(1): 221β256.
1669:
1650:(3): 289β305.
1634:
1607:(2): 109β127.
1584:
1537:
1530:
1510:
1483:(3): 379β393.
1463:
1428:
1387:
1346:
1313:
1288:First Language
1275:
1246:(2): 395β418.
1226:
1191:
1156:
1147:
1112:
1083:(2): 176β189.
1067:
1047:
1020:
1001:(6): 643β655.
985:
933:
875:
846:(4): 381β415.
819:
754:
752:
749:
748:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
715:
712:
675:
672:
658:
655:
642:
639:
622:
619:
618:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
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591:
588:
562:
559:
538:
535:
504:
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496:
493:
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487:
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477:
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460:
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433:
430:
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419:
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382:
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362:
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311:
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283:
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259:
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205:
202:
201:
200:
190:
183:
177:
171:
163:
149:
137:
134:
89:
86:
84:
83:Classification
81:
44:
43:
30:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4076:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4022:Talking Point
4020:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3995:0-323-03685-6
3992:
3988:
3986:
3985:9780889373389
3982:
3978:
3977:
3965:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3916:
3908:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3867:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3814:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3787:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3744:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3709:
3700:
3692:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3651:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3545:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3509:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3474:
3472:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3436:
3429:
3428:0-7619-2025-0
3425:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3384:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3314:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3204:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3163:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3087:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3010:
3003:
2994:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
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2935:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
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2907:
2900:
2892:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2871:
2862:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2814:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2767:
2758:
2751:
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2737:
2733:
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2707:
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2696:
2688:
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2649:
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2609:
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2596:
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2327:
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2266:
2262:
2258:
2251:
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2239:
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2231:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2106:
2104:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1979:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1928:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1893:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
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1823:
1814:
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1800:
1796:
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1708:
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1123:
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1057:
1051:
1043:
1039:
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1031:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
989:
981:
977:
972:
967:
963:
959:
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951:
947:
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938:
929:
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920:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
888:
886:
884:
882:
880:
871:
867:
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849:
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841:
837:
830:
828:
826:
824:
815:
811:
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801:
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791:
787:
783:
779:
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771:
764:
762:
760:
755:
746:
743:
741:
738:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
717:
711:
709:
708:schizophrenia
705:
701:
697:
694:
690:
686:
681:
671:
667:
665:
664:heterogeneity
654:
651:
647:
638:
634:
631:
627:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
593:
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579:
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371:
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233:
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218:
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194:
191:
187:
186:Verbal memory
184:
181:
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161:
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133:
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117:
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3253:
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2870:
2861:
2839:(1): 67β93.
2836:
2832:
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2813:
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2766:
2757:
2744:
2709:
2705:
2695:
2670:
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2358:
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2303:
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2250:
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2164:
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1988:
1984:
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1969:
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1540:
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1404:
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540:
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441:
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418:No imitation
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395:
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353:
336:
324:motor skills
321:
313:
305:
301:
293:
285:
282:Risk factors
261:
241:
229:
221:hearing loss
207:
160:plural forms
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107:brain damage
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91:
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4028:What Works
1098:2066/54578
751:References
650:prevalence
641:Prevalence
503:Assessment
340:brain gyri
288:twin study
217:dysarthria
174:Pragmatics
156:possessive
67:disorder,
4003:487807750
3946:2396-9415
3828:CiteSeerX
3642:251315830
3375:145300877
2797:1368-2822
2257:Cognition
1742:145471438
1621:0269-9206
1571:1092-4388
1497:1531-5320
1458:143899095
1423:2415-3397
1382:2415-3397
1308:144261715
1221:144481133
561:Treatment
350:Diagnosis
316:sex ratio
230:Although
193:Phonology
180:Discourse
152:Semantics
33:Neurology
28:Specialty
4064:Aphasias
3964:36381523
3907:16769616
3850:15871604
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3770:15668097
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3410:15755307
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2189:21594745
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2054:12918003
2005:15204443
1961:23317382
1919:10599627
1849:16837442
1707:42861103
1664:11491481
1629:15704501
1579:15603466
1505:12198776
1270:19698206
1142:10515515
1107:16423149
1059:Archived
980:13328151
928:28369935
870:25142090
814:27392128
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725:Dyslexia
714:See also
657:Research
372:such as
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3898:2409179
3858:1027740
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1261:3640588
1186:6174536
1015:8894945
971:2011959
919:5638113
861:4314704
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782:Bibcode
696:control
621:Outcome
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103:aphasia
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1454:S2CID
1304:S2CID
1217:S2CID
322:Poor
296:FOXP2
126:DSM-5
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3999:OCLC
3991:ISBN
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