585:. No decision was reached on whether the two lands should remain unified, but legislative elections for Rwanda were scheduled for 23 January. On 21 January Belgium reversed course. It stated it would abide by the recommendations of the UN General Assembly, whereby elections would be delayed until June, separate referendums would be held on the existence of the monarchy and the issue of independence, and a more broad-based provisional government would be installed. With the possibility of a coalition government including UNAR now likely, Kigeli made plans to return to the country. Hutu politicians and the colonial administration were infuriated by this decision, which was made by the metropolitan government. On 25 January Harroy declared that he was ceding internal autonomy to the provisional government, maintaining that this was necessary to prevent unrest by tempering Hutu disappointment with the postponement of the elections.
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improvement since July 1960—while UNAR came second with 17 percent and APROSOMA and RADER secured an inconsequential share. The population also voted overwhelmingly in favor of abolishing the monarchy. In
October the PARMEHUTU-dominated Legislative Assembly selected Kayibanda to succeed Mbonyumutwa as president. Rwanda became an independent state on 1 July 1962. A new constitution was adopted but it reflected some of the changes forced by the Gitarama coup; the first 11 articles detailed the republican nature of the new state, emphasising the removal of the monarchy and reiterating the adoption of the new national flag.
534:. In early December Harroy removed Preud'homme and appointed Logiest in his place. Later that month the Belgian metropolitan government decreed that Logiest and Harroy could veto any of the Mwami's decisions or depose him if deemed necessary. The elections scheduled for January were also delayed until June, giving PARMEHUTU more time to organise. In January 1960 Logiest declared "e must undertake an action in favour of the Hutu, who live in a state of ignorance and under oppressive influences. By virtue of the situation were are obliged to take sides. We cannot stay neutral and sit."
510:, a Hutu subchief who had refused to sign a letter protesting the transfer of the three chiefs. Mbonyumutwa fought off the youths and returned home, but rumours of his death spread and in the subsequent days a Hutu mob drove out the incumbent Tutsi chief of Ndiza District and elevated Mbonyumutwa to the post. Hutu mobs then engaged in violence across the country, burning and pillaging Tutsis’ homes. The Belgian administration struggled at first to contain the disorder, prompting Mwami Kigeli to request permission to raise a militia to put down the brigandage. Harroy and the
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614:. A total of 3,126 local officials were ultimately assembled. The group met in the town market to hear a series of speakers. About 25,000 people gathered nearby to watch. The first to speak was Rwasibo. He delivered a long speech critical of the monarchy, and finished by asking, "What will be the solution given to the problem of the monarchy? When shall we abandon the realm of the 'provisional'? It is incumbent upon you, burgomasters and councilors, representatives of the Rwandese people, to answer these questions." Gitera followed, speaking in
629:, electing a President of the Republic. After the vote split along regional lines for Kayibanda, Gitera, and Balthazar Bicamumpaka, the body selected Mbonyumutwa as a consensus candidate. It also elected a new 44-member Legislative Assembly, with 40 persons being from PARMEHUTU and four from APROSOMA. The crowd then asked Kayibanda to form a new government. By 7:00 p.m. a 10-member cabinet was agreed upon with Kayibanda as Prime Minister. A supreme court was also formulated and an 80-article republican constitution, inspired by the
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the new regime. PARMEHUTU leaders exerted control over the government, while
Belgian administrators continued to work and advised the ministers of the new regime. Despite this, the Belgian government never recognised the Gitarama constitution and indicated that it had no binding force. For their part, the Rwandan leaders never widely published the constitution and continued to accept and implement the colonial administration's legislative decisions.
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484:(APROSOMA, Association for Social Promotion of the Masses) initially campaigned for the interests of all impoverished people regardless of ethnicity but in response to UNAR's declarations it increasingly pushed for "Hutu liberation". The Belgians began to show favour towards the staunchly Catholic and anticommunist Hutu elite, as the Tutsi elite and UNAR became more aligned with anticolonialism and socialism.
618:. He declared the abolition of the monarchy and its regalia—including the royal drum—and proclaimed the establishment of the "democratic and sovereign Republic of Rwanda". The crowd responded with applause and several cheers of "Vive la République!" Kayibanda then addressed the crowd in French. He repeated Gitera's proclamation, initiating more applause. A new
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that the games are done and for that we need your help." Logiest wrote, "I could not possibly support him in the rebellious act, but I could not refuse to support him, either I promised to help him in organising the meeting to protect the public's welfare, host the delegates, to prepare for the place where it would be held and providing the speakers."
321:(UNAR), a party which demanded immediate independence under the Tutsi monarchy. The Belgians began to show favour towards the staunchly Catholic and anticommunist Hutu elite, as the Tutsi elite and UNAR became more aligned with anticolonialism and socialism. Political tensions rose dramatically after the creation of the political parties, and Colonel
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elections would be delayed, separate referendums would be held on the existence of the monarchy and the issue of independence, and a more broad-based provisional government would be installed. Hutu politicians were infuriated by this decision, and
Kayibanda met with Logiest to ask for his support in organising a coup to secure the Hutus' position.
694:, became the Minister of Foreign Affairs and assumed the portfolio for African Affairs. The new government adopted a policy of closer cooperation with the UN to improve its image and attempted to more closely supervise the colonial administration. While the question of the monarchy had yet to be decided via the referendum, Rwanda operated as a
514:, André Preud'homme, denied the request. On 7 November Kigeli and other Tutsi chiefs went ahead with a campaign of repression, leading to the assassination of 20 PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA leaders—including Gitera's brother, the arrest of hundreds of Hutus, and creation of a militia. A UNAR militia attempted to attack Gitera's home near
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divisions which existed in the party. Having superseded the outmoded chiefdoms and initially having unclear limits placed on their power, the new burgomasters enjoyed considerable authority. The
Belgian attitude towards UNAR hardened further with the independence of the Congo, as its members forged links with the left-leading
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and those of French colonies, was promulgated. The declaration of the republic sparked mass demonstrations of support across the country, particularly in PARMEHUTU bastions. The new regime indicated its willingness to remain a trust territory under
Belgian supervision and expressed its desire to meet
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Minister of
Interior Jean-Baptiste Rwasibo called for a national meeting of local elected officials, ostensibly to discuss the maintenance of order in the upcoming elections before independence. Early in the morning on 28 January 1961, trucks began bringing communal councilors and burgomasters to the
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in Urundi, where the
Governor of Ruanda-Urundi resided. As part of their rule, the Belgians institutionalised a racial hierarchy which favoured the Tutsis at the expense of the Hutus. The Belgians supported racial theories which held the Tutsis to be of superior, non-African origin and entrusted them
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In the lead up to the
September 1961 elections, political violence between PARMEHUTU, APROSOMA, and UNAR members killed hundreds of people and led thousands to flee their homes. The elections and the referendum on the monarchy were held on 25 September. PARMEHUTU won nearly 80 percent of the vote—an
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As a result of the violence, 21 Tutsi chiefs and 332 subchiefs were forced out of office and over the following months more than 300 Hutus were appointed to replace them. At the same time, Hutu leaders began to reconsider their previous positions of calling for intensive reform in favor of abolition
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officials maintained that Harroy seemed responsible for the coup and that he hardly reported on the affair to the metropolitan government. The telegram also stated that the
Belgian government was considering recalling Harroy because of his actions, but this never occurred. Belgium officially denied
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In his 1988 memoirs, Logiest wrote that on 25 January
Kayibanda met with him. According to this account, Kayibanda stated that Hutu leaders were worried about the UN resolutions—which favored the Tutsi leadership—and thus they wanted "to organize a big coup which will convince Usumbura and Brussels
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formal elections for a Legislative Assembly would be held in January 1961. Faced with diminishing domestic prospects of success, UNAR petitioned the UN to intervene, requesting that it ensure the repatriation of the Mwami and refugees of the 1959 violence and oversee new elections. In response, the
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In March 1960, a UN delegation visited Ruanda to assess the country's progress towards independence. The major political parties encouraged street demonstrations, which deteriorated into fresh outbreaks of violence, during the UN visit. Tutsi homes were burnt in view of the delegation, leading them
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as president and Kayibanda as prime minister. The new regime indicated its willingness to remain under Belgian supervision and expressed its desire to meet with Belgian and UN officials. In turn, the Belgian colonial administration announced that it would work with the new Rwandan government. A new
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recognition to the new regime. One colonial official stated, "If Kayibanda had not done this, there would have been a lot of trouble, and the United Nations would have had an even bigger mess to answer for." The Belgian metropolitan government also expressed its willingness to meet with leaders of
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Following the coup, Mbonyumutwa embarked upon a three-week-long goodwill tour of the country to demonstrate that he had taken the symbolic place of the Mwami. UNAR was left marginalised by the events and ultimately split into a domestic wing determined to participate in the elections and an exile
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issued a resolution on 20 December, calling for the return of Kigeli and the refugees, the institution of a political amnesty, and the postponement of the legislative elections until Ruanda had experienced a process of national reconciliation. In 1961 the Belgian administration officially renamed
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On 26 October 1960 the Belgian administration established a provisional government in Ruanda on the basis of the results of the summer contests. Kayibanda was appointed head of the government. The Legislative Council was organised and Gitera was elected its president. It was also announced that
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veto over their decisions. The elections were overwhelmingly won by PARMEHUTU which secured 2,390 local offices. APROSOMA, a political ally, came second with 233 seats while UNAR won only 56 contests. PARMEHUTU's victory was partially overstated by UNAR boycotts at the polls and by the regional
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documents reveals that it is not entirely correct to say that Belgium unanimously supported the coup, as some Belgian ministers were seemingly unaware of the possibility of a coup, or, at least, they had disagreements with the local administration." A telegram from the United States Embassy in
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and a council to oversee each of Ruanda's communes, administrative units that would supersede sub-chiefdoms. From these, an indirectly elected Legislative Council would be formed, which would exercise joint legislative authority with the Mwami, though the colonial administration would retain a
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republic. In the lead up to Rwanda's legislative elections, political violence killed hundreds of people and led thousands to flee their homes. The elections and the referendum on the monarchy were held on 25 September. PARMEHUTU won nearly 80 percent of the vote, and the population also voted
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protested the situation, and demanded that Kigeli be allowed to return and a political amnesty be declared before national legislative elections were held. In early 1961 the Belgian metropolitan government reversed course, stating that it would abide by the recommendations of the UN, whereby
480:(UNAR, Rwandese National Union), a party which demanded immediate independence under the Tutsi monarchy. Other parties such as the Rassemblement DĂ©mocratique du Rwanda (RADER, Democratic Rally of Rwanda), a moderate grouping, were created but failed to gain popular traction. Joseph Gitera's
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wrote in 1970, "Although the evidence is admittedly lacking, there seems little question that the metropolitan government did co-operate on on fairly close basis with the Residency in planning the coup if nothing else, the Special Resident must have received unofficial assurance from the
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government in Belgium was formed in April and it adopted a policy of closer cooperation with the UN to improve its image and attempted to more closely supervise the colonial administration. While the question of the monarchy had yet to be decided via the referendum, Rwanda operated as a
476:(PARMEHUTU, Party of the Hutu Emancipation Movement), a political party which called for the end of Tutsi domination of social life and rejected anti-European hostility and supported gradual democratisation. At around the same time, conservative Tutsi created the
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that Brussels would not interfere with the course of action upon which the Hutu leaders were about to embark, no matter how serious the legal implications." In contrast, international studies scholar Aya Tsuruta wrote in 2017, "A careful reading of the
317:(PARMEHUTU), a political party which called for the end of Tutsi domination of social life and rejected anti-European hostility and supported gradual democratisation. At around the same time, conservative Tutsi created the
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to ban further political meetings and order the reassignment of three chiefs who were UNAR leaders. The chiefs refused to leave their jurisdictions and rallied crowds to their cause to protest. Mwami
506:, a young monarch who had only inherited the throne in July, sided with the chiefs, troubling relations between UNAR and the administration. On 1 November nine members of UNAR's youth wing assaulted
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Belgium reported "it is apparent Belgian administration Ruanda (specifically Harroy) undoubtedly connived at January 28 'coup d'Ă©tat' without consulting Brussels." According to the report,
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In 1960 the colonial administration hosted municipal elections which were won by PARMEHUTU, and set up a provisional national government in accordance with the results while barring Mwami
442:. Belgium remained responsible for administering the territory but under these new arrangements was officially obligated to provide for the "political advancement" of its people.
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with privileged access to education and administrative positions, while most Hutus were relegated to economic subservience to help Belgian businesses. Following
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ethnic minority, a group which wielded considerable social, political economic power based on ownership of cattle. Of subordinate status to the Tutsis was the
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A small Hutu counter-elite began to form in the post-war era, consisting of persons who had been granted access to education and publications through the
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ethnic majority. As part of their rule, the Belgians institutionalised a racial hierarchy which favoured the Tutsis at the expense of the Hutus.
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to declare in April that Belgian plans for June elections were unworkable. Belgium disregarded this advisement and proceeded with the contests.
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Gillroy, Harry (30 January 1961). "Ruanda Declares its Independence: Republic Set Up in Trust Region After Postponing of Election".
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309:, which challenged Tutsi-minority domination of Ruanda as an exploitation of the majority by foreigners. One of the new leaders was
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overwhelmingly in favor of abolishing the monarchy. Rwanda became an independent state with Kayibanda as president on 1 July 1962.
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and declared the dissolution of the monarchy and the creation of the "Republic of Rwanda". They then created a new government with
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ethnic minority, a group which wielded considerable social, political economic power. Of subordinate status to the Tutsis was the
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The Constitutions of Burundi, Malagasy and Rwanda. A Comparison and Explanation of East African French Language Constitutions
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On 1 February the Belgian colonial administration announced that, in the interest of avoiding civil disorder, it would give
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Tsuruta, Aya (2017). "Expanding the Archival Horizon: American Archives for Researching Postcolonial Rwandan History".
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wing that rejected the legitimacy of Rwanda's political system. A new government in Belgium was formed in April, and
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Political tensions rose dramatically after the creation of the political parties, leading Governor of Ruanda-Urundi
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There is academic consensus that the coup was achieved with complicity of Belgian officials. Political scientist
564:, the capital of the Congo, in July and was denied permission to return to Ruanda by the Belgian administration.
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before being dispersed by the colonial gendarmerie. The Belgian administration flew in reinforcements from the
395:(king). The Mwami ruled through an administration of chiefs and subchiefs in the context of a feudal system of
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that strengthened the Mwami's position, the Belgian colonial administration undermined the monarchy, promoted
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282:(king), who ruled through an administration of chiefs and subchiefs in the context of a feudal system of
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any involvement in the coup, but the UN was nevertheless angered by the events which had transpired.
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republic. Republican ideals also gained limited traction among some Hutu politicians in Burundi.
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Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era
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According to an American diplomatic telegram, officials in Belgium thought that Governor
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In early January 1961 delegates of political parties from Rwanda and Burundi met in
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1323:"Belgium to Aid Ruanda: Brussels Ready to Meet Heads of Newly-Declared State".
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270:) was an event which occurred on 28 January 1961 in which the monarchy in
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in 1918, the victorious states partitioned the colonies of the defeated
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ethnic majority, a group of people largely associated with farming.
383:—two conjoined territories in East Africa—under the auspices of the
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526:, the Belgian forces put down most of the violence by 14 November.
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was brought in by the colonial administration to maintain order.
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1207:"What Could Have Motivated The 1961 Gitarama Coup In Rwanda?"
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472:, a former seminarian. In October 1959 Kayibanda founded the
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1640:, Occasional Paper no. 3, Syracuse: Syracuse University,
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305:, and its members began to promote an ideology known as
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464:. The new elites began to promote an ideology known as
403:. The Mwami and most of his chiefs were members of the
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On 28 January 1961 Hutu politicians met in the town of
290:. The Mwami and most of his chiefs were members of the
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On the Path to Genocide: Armenia and Rwanda Reexamined
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1565:. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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546:The municipal elections involved the election of a
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522:and initiated a full intervention. Led by Colonel
414:While the Germans had tended to favor a system of
482:Association pour la promotion sociale de la masse
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1386:. Associated Press. 1 February 1961. p. 12.
622:of red, yellow, and green was also introduced.
301:A small Hutu counter-elite began to form after
538:Municipal elections and provisional government
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625:The local officials then proceed to act as a
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274:, then a part of the Belgian mandate of
16:1961 abolition of the monarchy in Rwanda
3698:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2024)
3312:Democratic Republic of the Congo (2004)
2316:Democratic Republic of the Congo (1965)
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1559:Nyrop, Richard F.; et al. (1969).
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601:The coup resulted in the adoption of a
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431:, the Ruanda-Urundi mandate became a
3763:1960s coups d'Ă©tat and coup attempts
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690:, a former secretary-general of the
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2323:Central African Republic (1965–66)
692:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
14:
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1213:. 6 November 2018. Archived from
573:Ruanda-Urundi as Rwanda-Burundi.
1654:Historical Dictionary of Burundi
1521:. New York: Praeger Publishers.
435:subject to the oversight of the
387:. Within Ruanda there existed a
55:
50:
45:
3572:Central African Republic (2021)
3470:Central African Republic (2013)
3256:Central African Republic (2003)
3242:Central African Republic (2001)
2793:Central African Republic (1982)
2772:Central African Republic (1981)
2712:Central African Republic (1979)
1581:A History of Genocide in Africa
1479:. Oxford University Press USA.
1375:
1298:
1295:, The Constitution of Gitarama.
634:with Belgian and UN officials.
1727:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
1578:Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017).
1466:
1327:. 2 February 1961. p. 22.
1:
3635:Burkina Faso (September 2022)
1656:. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press.
1494:Kamatali, Jean-Marie (2020).
705:
673:was responsible for the coup.
357:
3642:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe (2022)
3277:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe (2003)
3196:Republic of the Congo (1998)
3133:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe (1995)
3070:Sierra Leone (December 1992)
2947:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe (1988)
2919:Republic of the Congo (1987)
2523:Republic of the Congo (1972)
2421:Republic of the Congo (1968)
2372:Republic of the Congo (1966)
2225:Republic of the Congo (1960)
637:
558:Mouvement National Congolais
7:
3758:Political history of Rwanda
3621:Burkina Faso (January 2022)
2814:Upper Volta (February 1983)
2079:Water supply and sanitation
1584:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
1497:Introduction to Rwandan Law
649:Ministry of African Affairs
10:
3789:
3168:Sierra Leone (August 1996)
1652:Weinstein, Warren (1976).
1636:Webster, John. B. (1964),
1534:Mayersen, Deborah (2014).
576:
491:
375:. Belgium was awarded the
363:Social situation in Ruanda
313:, who in 1959 founded the
3707:
3556:
3377:
3219:
2984:
2821:Upper Volta (August 1983)
2721:
2465:
2216:
2144:
2087:
2029:
2020:
1968:
1959:
1868:
1859:
1817:
1808:
1712:
1515:Lemarchand, René (1970).
478:Union Nationale Rwandaise
319:Union Nationale Rwandaise
3773:Belgium–Rwanda relations
3768:Military coups in Rwanda
3305:Equatorial Guinea (2004)
2705:Equatorial Guinea (1979)
1562:Area Handbook for Rwanda
1459:, The 1962 constitution.
2337:Burundi (November 1966)
592:
488:November 1959 disorders
268:coup d'etat de Gitarama
3607:Sudan (September 2021)
2442:Libya (September 1969)
2358:Nigeria (January 1966)
674:
659:Belgian Foreign Office
631:Constitution of France
606:
457:
332:from the country. The
267:
3098:Bophuthatswana (1994)
2456:Libya (December 1969)
2246:French Algeria (1961)
1500:. London: Routledge.
1473:Carney, J.J. (2014).
668:
600:
508:Dominique Mbonyumutwa
448:
367:Following the end of
346:Dominique Mbonyumutwa
158:Coup d'Ă©tat of 5 July
3691:Guinea-Bissau (2023)
3628:Guinea-Bissau (2022)
3614:Sudan (October 2021)
3463:Libya (October 2013)
3421:Guinea-Bissau (2012)
3407:Guinea-Bissau (2011)
3270:Guinea-Bissau (2003)
3249:CĂ´te d'Ivoire (2002)
3228:CĂ´te d'Ivoire (2001)
3210:CĂ´te d'Ivoire (1999)
3189:Guinea-Bissau (1998)
2744:Guinea-Bissau (1980)
2211:in Africa since 1960
627:constituent assembly
530:of the monarchy and
504:Kigeli V Ndahindurwa
389:traditional monarchy
330:Kigeli V Ndahindurwa
3684:Sierra Leone (2023)
3677:Burkina Faso (2023)
3512:Burkina Faso (2016)
3505:Burkina Faso (2015)
3284:Burkina Faso (2003)
3182:Sierra Leone (1997)
3140:Sierra Leone (1996)
3056:Sierra Leone (1992)
2954:Burkina Faso (1989)
2905:Burkina Faso (1987)
2407:Sierra Leone (1968)
2365:Nigeria (July 1966)
2330:Burundi (July 1966)
1920:Chamber of Deputies
1423:, pp. 156–157.
1238:, pp. 192–193.
1193:, pp. 275–276.
1068:, pp. 184–185.
1056:, pp. 181–182.
964:, pp. 128–129.
928:, pp. 166–167.
904:, pp. 124–125.
880:, pp. 123–124.
868:, pp. 108–109.
856:, pp. 100–102.
570:UN General Assembly
440:Trusteeship Council
399:relations based on
286:relations based on
2807:Upper Volta (1982)
2751:Upper Volta (1980)
2649:Uganda (June 1977)
2537:Upper Volta (1974)
2351:Upper Volta (1966)
1998:Telecommunications
1766:Rwandan Revolution
1754:Colonial residents
1744:German East Africa
1613:10.1017/hia.2017.6
1518:Rwanda and Burundi
1384:The New York Times
1325:The New York Times
1307:The New York Times
1109:, pp. 21, 23.
733:, pp. 6, 8–9.
675:
607:
512:Resident of Ruanda
494:Rwandan Revolution
470:Grégoire Kayibanda
458:
450:Grégoire Kayibanda
311:Grégoire Kayibanda
256:Rwandan Revolution
135:Republic of Rwanda
79:German East Africa
3735:
3734:
3712:: successful coup
3491:The Gambia (2014)
3428:Mali (April 2012)
3414:Mali (March 2012)
3386:Madagascar (2010)
3368:Madagascar (2009)
3354:Mauritania (2008)
3340:Madagascar (2006)
3326:Mauritania (2005)
3263:Mauritania (2003)
2835:Mauritania (1984)
2786:Seychelles (1981)
2758:Mauritania (1981)
2730:Mauritania (1980)
2691:Mauritania (1979)
2684:Mauritania (1978)
2635:Seychelles (1977)
2175:
2174:
2140:
2139:
2064:Human trafficking
2016:
2015:
1955:
1954:
1932:Political parties
1883:Foreign relations
1855:
1854:
1783:Rwandan Civil War
1778:Bugesera invasion
1759:Ruzagayura famine
1732:Kingdom of Rwanda
1663:978-0-8108-0962-8
1601:History in Africa
1217:on 7 October 2021
892:, pp. 19–20.
844:, pp. 37–38.
817:, pp. 36–37.
781:, pp. 35–36.
757:, pp. 34–35.
745:, pp. 10–11.
560:. Kigeli went to
385:League of Nations
252:
251:
219:
218:
208:COVID-19 pandemic
148:Bugesera invasion
3780:
3748:Rwandan monarchy
3728:
3720:
3713:
3700:
3693:
3686:
3679:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3651:
3644:
3637:
3630:
3623:
3616:
3609:
3602:
3595:
3588:
3581:
3574:
3567:
3549:
3542:
3535:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3486:
3479:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3451:
3444:
3437:
3430:
3423:
3416:
3409:
3402:
3395:
3388:
3370:
3363:
3356:
3349:
3342:
3335:
3328:
3321:
3314:
3307:
3300:
3293:
3286:
3279:
3272:
3265:
3258:
3251:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3212:
3205:
3198:
3191:
3184:
3177:
3170:
3163:
3156:
3149:
3142:
3135:
3128:
3121:
3114:
3107:
3100:
3093:
3086:
3079:
3072:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3044:
3037:
3030:
3023:
3016:
3009:
3002:
2995:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2956:
2949:
2942:
2935:
2928:
2921:
2914:
2907:
2900:
2893:
2886:
2879:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2851:
2844:
2837:
2830:
2823:
2816:
2809:
2802:
2795:
2788:
2781:
2774:
2767:
2760:
2753:
2746:
2739:
2732:
2714:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2630:
2623:
2616:
2609:
2602:
2595:
2588:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2560:
2553:
2546:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2497:
2490:
2483:
2476:
2458:
2451:
2444:
2437:
2430:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2381:
2374:
2367:
2360:
2353:
2346:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2318:
2311:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2269:
2262:
2255:
2248:
2241:
2234:
2227:
2202:
2195:
2188:
2179:
2178:
2160:
2153:
2027:
2026:
1981:
1966:
1965:
1927:Decentralization
1866:
1865:
1815:
1814:
1800:Second Congo War
1788:Rwandan genocide
1771:Coup of Gitarama
1695:
1688:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1648:
1632:
1595:
1574:
1555:
1530:
1511:
1490:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1358:
1352:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1320:
1311:
1310:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1281:
1275:
1262:
1256:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1203:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1165:
1159:
1150:
1144:
1133:
1127:
1110:
1104:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1080:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1051:
1045:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1018:
1012:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
923:
917:
911:
905:
899:
893:
887:
881:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
830:
824:
818:
812:
806:
800:
794:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
728:
722:
716:
688:Paul-Henri Spaak
671:Jean-Paul Harroy
500:Jean-Paul Harroy
260:coup of Gitarama
244:
237:
230:
215:
198:Second Congo War
142:
125:Coup of Gitarama
104:
65:
64:
59:
54:
49:
39:
21:
20:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3777:
3738:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3723:
3716:
3711:
3703:
3696:
3689:
3682:
3675:
3668:
3661:
3654:
3647:
3640:
3633:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3570:
3563:
3552:
3547:Ethiopia (2019)
3545:
3538:
3531:
3526:Zimbabwe (2017)
3524:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3496:
3489:
3482:
3475:
3468:
3461:
3454:
3447:
3440:
3433:
3426:
3419:
3412:
3405:
3398:
3391:
3384:
3373:
3366:
3359:
3352:
3345:
3338:
3331:
3324:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3296:
3289:
3282:
3275:
3268:
3261:
3254:
3247:
3240:
3233:
3226:
3215:
3208:
3201:
3194:
3187:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3103:
3096:
3089:
3082:
3075:
3068:
3061:
3054:
3047:
3040:
3033:
3026:
3019:
3012:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2961:Ethiopia (1989)
2959:
2952:
2945:
2938:
2933:Transkei (1987)
2931:
2924:
2917:
2910:
2903:
2896:
2889:
2882:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2847:
2842:Cameroon (1984)
2840:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2812:
2805:
2798:
2791:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2763:
2756:
2749:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2696:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2668:
2661:
2654:
2647:
2640:
2633:
2626:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2598:
2591:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2563:
2558:Ethiopia (1974)
2556:
2549:
2542:
2535:
2528:
2521:
2514:
2507:
2500:
2493:
2486:
2479:
2472:
2461:
2454:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2426:
2419:
2412:
2405:
2398:
2391:
2384:
2377:
2370:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2342:
2335:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2307:
2300:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2272:
2265:
2258:
2251:
2244:
2237:
2232:Ethiopia (1960)
2230:
2223:
2212:
2206:
2176:
2171:
2163:
2156:
2149:
2136:
2127:Public holidays
2083:
2049:Gender equality
2012:
1979:
1951:
1900:Law enforcement
1851:
1804:
1708:
1699:
1664:
1592:
1552:
1508:
1487:
1469:
1464:
1463:
1455:
1451:
1443:
1439:
1431:
1427:
1419:
1415:
1409:Lemarchand 1970
1407:
1403:
1397:Lemarchand 1970
1395:
1391:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1368:
1361:
1353:
1344:
1338:Lemarchand 1970
1336:
1332:
1322:
1321:
1314:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1284:
1276:
1265:
1259:Lemarchand 1970
1257:
1242:
1236:Lemarchand 1970
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1205:
1204:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1177:
1168:
1160:
1153:
1145:
1136:
1128:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1072:
1066:Lemarchand 1970
1064:
1060:
1054:Lemarchand 1970
1052:
1048:
1042:Lemarchand 1970
1040:
1036:
1030:Lemarchand 1970
1028:
1021:
1013:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
980:
974:Lemarchand 1970
972:
968:
960:
956:
950:Lemarchand 1970
948:
944:
938:Lemarchand 1970
936:
932:
926:Lemarchand 1970
924:
920:
912:
908:
900:
896:
888:
884:
876:
872:
864:
860:
852:
848:
840:
833:
825:
821:
813:
809:
801:
797:
789:
785:
777:
773:
765:
761:
753:
749:
741:
737:
729:
725:
717:
713:
708:
644:René Lemarchand
640:
595:
583:Ostend, Belgium
579:
540:
496:
490:
462:Catholic Church
433:trust territory
365:
360:
248:
213:
188:First Congo War
140:
106:
103:(Ruanda-Urundi)
102:
101:
100:Belgian mandate
89:Rumanura famine
37:
30:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3786:
3776:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3753:1961 in Rwanda
3750:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3726:attempted coup
3721:
3714:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3694:
3687:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3659:
3652:
3645:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3610:
3603:
3596:
3593:Tunisia (2021)
3589:
3582:
3575:
3568:
3560:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3543:
3536:
3529:
3522:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3498:Burundi (2015)
3494:
3487:
3484:Lesotho (2014)
3480:
3473:
3466:
3459:
3452:
3445:
3442:Eritrea (2013)
3438:
3431:
3424:
3417:
3410:
3403:
3396:
3389:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3350:
3343:
3336:
3329:
3322:
3315:
3308:
3301:
3294:
3287:
3280:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3235:Burundi (2001)
3231:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3206:
3199:
3192:
3185:
3178:
3171:
3164:
3157:
3154:Burundi (1996)
3150:
3143:
3136:
3129:
3126:Comoros (1995)
3122:
3119:Liberia (1994)
3115:
3112:Lesotho (1994)
3108:
3101:
3094:
3091:Nigeria (1993)
3087:
3080:
3077:Burundi (1993)
3073:
3066:
3063:Algeria (1992)
3059:
3052:
3045:
3042:Lesotho (1991)
3038:
3031:
3024:
3017:
3010:
3003:
3000:Nigeria (1990)
2996:
2988:
2986:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2978:
2971:
2964:
2957:
2950:
2943:
2936:
2929:
2926:Tunisia (1987)
2922:
2915:
2912:Burundi (1987)
2908:
2901:
2894:
2891:Lesotho (1986)
2887:
2884:Liberia (1985)
2880:
2873:
2866:
2863:Nigeria (1985)
2859:
2852:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2828:Nigeria (1983)
2824:
2817:
2810:
2803:
2796:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2754:
2747:
2740:
2737:Liberia (1980)
2733:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2715:
2708:
2701:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2670:Comoros (1978)
2666:
2663:Somalia (1978)
2659:
2652:
2645:
2638:
2631:
2624:
2617:
2614:Nigeria (1976)
2610:
2607:Burundi (1976)
2603:
2600:Comoros (1976)
2596:
2589:
2586:Nigeria (1975)
2582:
2575:
2568:
2565:Comoros (1975)
2561:
2554:
2547:
2540:
2533:
2526:
2519:
2516:Morocco (1972)
2512:
2505:
2502:Dahomey (1972)
2498:
2491:
2488:Morocco (1971)
2484:
2477:
2474:Lesotho (1970)
2469:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2449:Somalia (1969)
2445:
2438:
2431:
2428:Dahomey (1969)
2424:
2417:
2410:
2403:
2400:Algeria (1967)
2396:
2389:
2382:
2379:Dahomey (1967)
2375:
2368:
2361:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2333:
2326:
2319:
2312:
2309:Burundi (1965)
2305:
2302:Dahomey (1965)
2298:
2295:Algeria (1965)
2291:
2284:
2277:
2274:Dahomey (1963)
2270:
2267:Algeria (1962)
2263:
2260:Senegal (1962)
2256:
2253:Somalia (1961)
2249:
2242:
2235:
2228:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2213:
2205:
2204:
2197:
2190:
2182:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2169:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2093:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1993:Stock Exchange
1990:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1947:Prime Minister
1944:
1942:Vice President
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1917:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1837:National parks
1834:
1829:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1793:Initial events
1785:
1780:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1746:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1698:
1697:
1690:
1683:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1662:
1649:
1633:
1596:
1590:
1575:
1556:
1550:
1542:Berghahn Books
1531:
1512:
1506:
1491:
1485:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1449:
1437:
1435:, p. 157.
1425:
1413:
1411:, p. 344.
1401:
1399:, p. 170.
1389:
1374:
1372:, p. 130.
1359:
1357:, p. 279.
1342:
1340:, p. 192.
1330:
1312:
1297:
1282:
1280:, p. 156.
1263:
1261:, p. 193.
1240:
1228:
1195:
1183:
1181:, p. 275.
1166:
1164:, p. 278.
1151:
1149:, p. 155.
1134:
1111:
1099:
1097:, p. 247.
1095:Weinstein 1976
1087:
1085:, p. 138.
1070:
1058:
1046:
1044:, p. 181.
1034:
1032:, p. 176.
1019:
1002:
1000:, p. 136.
990:
988:, p. 135.
978:
976:, p. 175.
966:
954:
952:, p. 168.
942:
940:, p. 173.
930:
918:
916:, p. 125.
906:
894:
882:
870:
858:
846:
842:Stapleton 2017
831:
827:Stapleton 2017
819:
815:Stapleton 2017
807:
803:Stapleton 2017
795:
783:
779:Stapleton 2017
771:
759:
755:Stapleton 2017
747:
735:
723:
719:Stapleton 2017
710:
709:
707:
704:
639:
636:
594:
591:
578:
575:
539:
536:
489:
486:
437:United Nations
364:
361:
359:
356:
334:United Nations
250:
249:
247:
246:
239:
232:
224:
221:
220:
217:
216:
210:
204:
203:
200:
194:
193:
190:
184:
183:
180:
174:
173:
170:
164:
163:
160:
154:
153:
150:
144:
143:
137:
131:
130:
127:
121:
120:
117:
111:
110:
107:
98:
95:
94:
91:
85:
84:
81:
75:
74:
71:
61:
60:
42:
41:
32:
31:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3785:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3727:
3722:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3709:
3706:
3699:
3695:
3692:
3688:
3685:
3681:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3660:
3657:
3653:
3650:
3649:Gambia (2022)
3646:
3643:
3639:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3615:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3601:
3600:Guinea (2021)
3597:
3594:
3590:
3587:
3583:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3569:
3566:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3548:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3492:
3488:
3485:
3481:
3478:
3474:
3471:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3397:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3376:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3351:
3348:
3347:Guinea (2008)
3344:
3341:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3320:
3316:
3313:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3267:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3253:
3250:
3246:
3243:
3239:
3236:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3218:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3200:
3197:
3193:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3179:
3176:
3175:Zambia (1997)
3172:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3151:
3148:
3147:Guinea (1996)
3144:
3141:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3120:
3116:
3113:
3109:
3106:
3105:Gambia (1994)
3102:
3099:
3095:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3067:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3053:
3050:
3046:
3043:
3039:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3025:
3022:
3021:Ciskei (1990)
3018:
3015:
3011:
3008:
3007:Zambia (1990)
3004:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2983:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2962:
2958:
2955:
2951:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2878:
2877:Guinea (1985)
2874:
2871:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2856:Uganda (1985)
2853:
2850:
2849:Guinea (1984)
2846:
2843:
2839:
2836:
2832:
2829:
2825:
2822:
2818:
2815:
2811:
2808:
2804:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2766:
2765:Gambia (1981)
2762:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2713:
2709:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2660:
2657:
2656:Angola (1977)
2653:
2650:
2646:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2559:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2544:Uganda (1974)
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2530:Rwanda (1973)
2527:
2524:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2489:
2485:
2482:
2481:Uganda (1971)
2478:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2376:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2334:
2331:
2327:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2306:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2282:
2278:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2261:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2240:
2239:Rwanda (1961)
2236:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2215:
2210:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2189:
2184:
2183:
2180:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Ethnic groups
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1973:National Bank
1971:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1749:Ruanda-Urundi
1747:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1696:
1691:
1689:
1684:
1682:
1677:
1676:
1673:
1665:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1591:9781440830525
1587:
1583:
1582:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1553:
1551:9781782382850
1547:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1513:
1509:
1507:9781000025149
1503:
1499:
1498:
1492:
1488:
1486:9780199982271
1482:
1478:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1458:
1457:Kamatali 2020
1453:
1446:
1441:
1434:
1429:
1422:
1417:
1410:
1405:
1398:
1393:
1385:
1378:
1371:
1370:Mayersen 2014
1366:
1364:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1339:
1334:
1326:
1319:
1317:
1308:
1301:
1294:
1293:Kamatali 2020
1289:
1287:
1279:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1237:
1232:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1202:
1200:
1192:
1187:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1148:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1132:, p. 23.
1131:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1108:
1103:
1096:
1091:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1067:
1062:
1055:
1050:
1043:
1038:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1017:, p. 21.
1016:
1011:
1009:
1007:
999:
994:
987:
982:
975:
970:
963:
958:
951:
946:
939:
934:
927:
922:
915:
910:
903:
898:
891:
886:
879:
874:
867:
862:
855:
850:
843:
838:
836:
829:, p. 38.
828:
823:
816:
811:
805:, p. 36.
804:
799:
793:, p. 15.
792:
787:
780:
775:
769:, p. 14.
768:
763:
756:
751:
744:
739:
732:
727:
721:, p. 34.
720:
715:
711:
703:
699:
697:
693:
689:
683:
680:
672:
667:
663:
660:
655:
650:
645:
635:
632:
628:
623:
621:
620:national flag
617:
613:
604:
603:national flag
599:
590:
586:
584:
574:
571:
565:
563:
559:
554:
549:
544:
535:
533:
532:republicanism
527:
525:
521:
520:Belgian Congo
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
495:
485:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
455:
451:
447:
443:
441:
438:
434:
430:
425:
421:
417:
416:indirect rule
412:
410:
406:
402:
398:
397:patron-client
394:
390:
386:
382:
381:Ruanda-Urundi
378:
374:
373:German Empire
370:
355:
352:
347:
343:
338:
335:
331:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
284:patron-client
281:
277:
276:Ruanda-Urundi
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
245:
240:
238:
233:
231:
226:
225:
223:
222:
211:
209:
206:
205:
201:
199:
196:
195:
191:
189:
186:
185:
181:
179:
176:
175:
171:
169:
166:
165:
161:
159:
156:
155:
151:
149:
146:
145:
138:
136:
133:
132:
128:
126:
123:
122:
118:
116:
113:
112:
108:
105:
97:
96:
92:
90:
87:
86:
82:
80:
77:
76:
72:
70:
67:
66:
63:
62:
58:
53:
48:
44:
43:
40:
34:
33:
28:
23:
22:
19:
3725:
3724:no sign for
3670:Gabon (2023)
3663:Niger (2023)
3656:Sudan (2023)
3579:Niger (2021)
3540:Sudan (2019)
3533:Gabon (2019)
3519:Libya (2016)
3477:Libya (2014)
3456:Egypt (2013)
3435:Sudan (2012)
3400:Niger (2011)
3393:Niger (2010)
3361:Sudan (2008)
3298:Sudan (2004)
3203:Niger (1999)
3161:Niger (1996)
3084:Libya (1993)
3049:Sudan (1992)
3028:Venda (1990)
2993:Sudan (1990)
2975:Sudan (1989)
2940:Benin (1988)
2870:Sudan (1985)
2800:Kenya (1982)
2779:Ghana (1981)
2698:Ghana (1979)
2677:Ghana (1978)
2642:Sudan (1977)
2628:Benin (1977)
2621:Sudan (1976)
2579:Libya (1975)
2572:Sudan (1975)
2551:Niger (1974)
2509:Ghana (1972)
2495:Sudan (1971)
2435:Sudan (1969)
2386:Ghana (1967)
2344:Ghana (1966)
2288:Gabon (1964)
2238:
2209:Coups d'Ă©tat
2069:Prostitution
2034:Demographics
1888:Human rights
1873:Constitution
1770:
1653:
1637:
1604:
1600:
1580:
1561:
1536:
1517:
1496:
1475:
1452:
1447:, p. 1.
1445:Webster 1964
1440:
1428:
1416:
1404:
1392:
1383:
1377:
1355:Tsuruta 2017
1333:
1324:
1309:. p. 1.
1306:
1300:
1231:
1221:22 September
1219:. Retrieved
1215:the original
1210:
1191:Tsuruta 2017
1186:
1179:Tsuruta 2017
1162:Tsuruta 2017
1102:
1090:
1061:
1049:
1037:
993:
981:
969:
957:
945:
933:
921:
909:
897:
885:
873:
861:
849:
822:
810:
798:
786:
774:
762:
750:
738:
726:
714:
700:
695:
684:
678:
676:
641:
624:
608:
587:
580:
566:
562:LĂ©opoldville
552:
545:
541:
528:
497:
459:
452:, leader of
429:World War II
420:Christianity
413:
366:
350:
339:
327:
303:World War II
300:
259:
253:
124:
73: ?–1962
18:
3586:Mali (2021)
3565:Mali (2020)
3449:Chad (2013)
3333:Chad (2006)
3319:Togo (2005)
3291:Chad (2004)
3035:Mali (1991)
3014:Chad (1990)
2968:Chad (1989)
2898:Togo (1986)
2593:Chad (1975)
2414:Mali (1968)
2393:Togo (1967)
2281:Togo (1963)
1893:LGBT rights
1607:: 265–283.
1467:Works cited
1433:Carney 2014
1421:Carney 2014
1278:Carney 2014
1147:Carney 2014
1083:Carney 2014
998:Carney 2014
986:Carney 2014
962:Carney 2014
914:Carney 2014
902:Carney 2014
878:Carney 2014
866:Carney 2014
854:Carney 2014
616:Kinyarwanda
548:burgomaster
524:Guy Logiest
369:World War I
323:Guy Logiest
36:History of
3742:Categories
2112:Literature
2059:Healthcare
1980:(currency)
1910:Parliament
1827:Ecoregions
1130:Nyrop 1969
1107:Nyrop 1969
1015:Nyrop 1969
890:Nyrop 1969
791:Nyrop 1969
767:Nyrop 1969
743:Nyrop 1969
731:Nyrop 1969
706:References
492:See also:
466:Hutu Power
456:, in 1962
358:Background
307:Hutu Power
115:Revolution
3718:self-coup
2107:Languages
2039:Education
2008:Transport
1937:President
1878:Elections
1842:Volcanoes
1810:Geography
1646:846680671
1629:164408674
1621:1558-2744
1571:905626482
1527:254366212
638:Aftermath
454:Parmehutu
391:led by a
202:1998–2003
192:1996–1997
182:1993–1994
172:1990–1994
168:Civil War
119:1959–1962
109:1922–1962
93:1916–1918
83:1885–1919
2167:Category
2074:Religion
1905:Military
1861:Politics
1847:Wildlife
1722:Timeline
1706:articles
696:de facto
679:de facto
612:Gitarama
610:town of
553:de facto
424:Usumbura
351:de facto
342:Gitarama
178:Genocide
27:a series
25:Part of
2151:Outline
2097:Cuisine
2089:Culture
2022:Society
2003:Tourism
1961:Economy
1714:History
1211:Taarifa
577:Prelude
516:Astrida
401:tribute
377:mandate
288:tribute
254:In the
214:present
141:present
69:Kingdom
2054:Health
1988:Mining
1978:Franc
1915:Senate
1822:Cities
1704:
1702:Rwanda
1660:
1644:
1627:
1619:
1588:
1569:
1548:
1525:
1504:
1483:
272:Rwanda
264:French
258:, the
38:Rwanda
29:on the
3557:2020s
3378:2010s
3220:2000s
2985:1990s
2722:1980s
2466:1970s
2217:1960s
2158:Index
2132:Sport
2122:Music
2117:Media
1832:Lakes
1737:kings
1625:S2CID
405:Tutsi
393:Mwami
292:Tutsi
280:Mwami
212:2020–
139:1962–
2102:Flag
1658:ISBN
1642:OCLC
1617:ISSN
1586:ISBN
1567:OCLC
1546:ISBN
1523:OCLC
1502:ISBN
1481:ISBN
1223:2021
654:NARA
593:Coup
409:Hutu
296:Hutu
162:1973
152:1963
129:1961
1609:doi
379:of
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266::
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