Rwandan Civil War - Knowledge

1387:, attended by RPF leader Paul Kagame, and involving President Museveni and representatives of European nations. The Europeans insisted that RPF forces withdraw to the zone they had held before the February offensive. Kagame responded that he would agree to this only if the Rwandan army were forbidden from re-entering the newly conquered territory. Following a threat by Kagame to resume fighting and potentially take even more territory, the two sides reached a compromise deal. This entailed the RPF withdrawing to its pre-February territory, but also mandated the setting up of a demilitarised zone between the RPF area and the rest of the country. The deal was significant because it marked a formal concession by Habyarimana's regime of the northern zone to the rebels, recognising the RPF hold on that territory. There were many within the RPF senior command who felt Kagame had ceded too much, because the deal meant not only withdrawal to the pre-February boundaries, but also a promise not to encroach on the demilitarised zone. This therefore ended RPF ambitions of capturing more territory. Kagame used the authority he had accumulated through his successful leadership of the RPF to override these concerns, and the parties returned once more to the negotiating table in Arusha. 1265:

official opposition, which excluded the CDR. They had much more democratic and conciliatory aims but were also deeply suspicious of the RPF, whom they saw as trying to upset the "democratic" policy of Hutu rule established in the 1959 revolution. The third group was the RPF. Paul Kagame engaged with the peace process against the advice of some of his senior officers, in the knowledge that many of those on the other side of the table were hardliners who were not sincerely interested in negotiations. He feared that shunning the opportunity for peace would weaken the RPF politically and lose them international goodwill. Finally there was the group representing President Habyarimana himself, who sought primarily to hold on to his power in whatever form he could. This meant publicly striving for a middle ground compromise solution, but privately obstructing the process and trying to delay change to the status quo for as long as possible. Habyarimana recognised the danger posed to him by the radical Hutu faction and attempted in mid-1992 to remove them from senior army positions. This effort was only partially successful;

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troops stationed there successfully fought back. The RPF then crossed the demilitarised zone from their territory in the north and began an attack on three fronts, leaving their opponents unsure of their true intentions or whether an assault on Kigali was imminent. UNAMIR contingents in the demilitarised zone withdrew to their camps to avoid being caught in the fighting. Kagame refused to talk to the interim government, believing it was just a cover for Bagosora's rule and not committed to ending the genocide. Over the next few days the RPF moved steadily south through the eastern part of the country, capturing Gabiro and large areas of the countryside to the north and east of Kigali. Their unit stationed in Kigali was isolated from the rest of their forces but a unit of young soldiers successfully crossed government-held territory to link up with them. They avoided attacking Kigali or Byumba at this stage but conducted manoeuvres designed to encircle the cities and cut off supply routes. The RPF also allowed Tutsi refugees from Uganda to settle behind the front line in the RPF controlled areas.

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support was more symbolic than genuine. Habyarimana believed he could maintain power more easily through a combination of limited concessions to the opposition and RPF than he could if Hutu Power were allowed to disrupt the peace process. The negotiation of troop numbers was protracted and difficult; twice the talks almost collapsed. The Rwandan Government wanted to allocate only 15% of the officer corps to the RPF, reflecting the proportion of Tutsi in the country, while the RPF was arguing for a 50/50 split. The RPF were in a superior position following their successful February campaign and were backed in their demands by Tanzania, which was chairing the talks. The government eventually agreed to their demands. As well as 50% of the officer corps, the RPF was allocated up to 40% of the non-command troops. The deal also mandated large-scale demobilisation; of the 35,000 Rwandan Army and 20,000 RPF soldiers at the time of the accords, only 19,000 would be drafted into the new national army. With all details agreed the

1064:, became the RPF's liaison with Rwandan opposition parties. Most of the other senior recruits at the time were Ugandan-based Tutsi. Personnel numbers grew steadily, volunteers coming from the exile communities in Burundi, Zaire and other countries. Kagame maintained tight discipline in his army, enforcing a regimented training routine, as well as a large set of rules for soldier conduct. Soldiers were expected to pay for goods purchased in the community, refrain from alcohol and drugs, and to establish a good reputation for the RPF amongst the local population. The RPF punished personnel who broke these rules, sometimes with beatings, while more serious offences such as murder, rape, and desertion, were punishable by death. 1641:, as well as other secure UN sites, and to assist with the evacuation of foreign nationals. The Belgian Government, which had been one of the largest troop contributors to UNAMIR, pulled out in mid-April following the deaths of its ten soldiers protecting Prime Minister Uwilingiliyimana. In mid-May the UN conceded that "acts of genocide may have been committed", and agreed to reinforcement. The new soldiers started arriving in June, and following the end of the genocide in July they stayed to maintain security and stability, until the termination of their mission in 1996. Fifteen UN soldiers were killed in Rwanda between April and July 1994, including the ten Belgians, three Ghanaians, a Uruguayan, and Senegalese 1482: 960:(DSP). Unlike the French, the Zairian troops went straight to the front line and began fighting the RPF, but their discipline was poor. The Zairian soldiers raped Rwandan civilians in the north of the country and looted their homes, prompting Habyarimana to expel them back to Zaire within a week of their arrival. With French assistance, and benefiting from the loss of RPF morale after Rwigyema's death, the Rwandan Army enjoyed a major tactical advantage. By the end of October they had regained all the ground taken by the RPF and pushed the rebels all the way back to the Ugandan border. Many soldiers deserted; some crossed back into Uganda and others went into hiding in the 10018: 1823: 1240:(PL), but the one-party state law had remained in place. In mid-1991 Habyarimana officially allowed multi-party politics to begin, a change that saw a plethora of new parties come into existence. Many had manifestos which favoured full democracy and rapprochement with the RPF, but these were quite ineffective and had no political influence. The older opposition groups registered themselves as official parties and the country was notionally moving towards a multi-party inclusive cabinet with proper representation, but progress was continually hampered by the regime. The last opposition party to form was the 997: 828:

Rwanda, with the goal of allowing the refugees to return home. As well as fulfilling their army duties, the pair began building a covert network of Rwandan Tutsi refugees within the army's ranks, intended as the nucleus for such an attack. With the pro-refugee Museveni in power, RANU was able to move back to Kampala. At its 1987 convention it renamed itself to the Rwandan Patriotic Front and it too committed to returning the refugees to Rwanda by any means possible. In 1988, a leadership crisis within the RPF prompted Fred Rwigyema to intervene in the organisation and take control, replacing

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Kagame's troops attacked the Rwandan Army forces repeatedly and frequently, keen to ensure the diplomatic and psychological effect of the RPF's resurgence was not lost. Kagame employed tactics such as attacking simultaneously in up to ten locations across the north of the country, to prevent his opponents from concentrating their force in any one place. This low intensity war continued for many months, both sides launching successful attacks on the other, and neither able to gain the upper hand in the war. The RPF made some territorial gains including capturing the border town of

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of whom were Rwandans, led to a wider debate on indigeneity and eventually to the explicit labeling of all Rwandan refugees as non-citizens. Realising the precariousness of their own positions, the opportunity afforded by both the renewed drive of refugees to leave Uganda, and the instability on the Rwandan domestic scene, Rwigyema and Kagame decided in mid-1990 to effect their invasion plans immediately. It is likely President Museveni knew of the planned invasion but did not explicitly support it. In mid-1990 Museveni ordered Rwigyema to attend an officer training course at the

278: 243: 225: 134: 147: 8333: 1654: 1545:, the temporary home of the interim government, and by 13 June had taken Gitarama itself. The taking of Gitarama followed an unsuccessful attempt by the Rwandan Army forces to reopen the road. The interim government was forced to relocate to Gisenyi in the far north-west. As well as fighting the war Kagame recruited heavily at this time to expand the RPF. The new recruits included Tutsi survivors of the genocide and Rwandan Tutsi refugees who had been living in Burundi, but they were less well trained and disciplined than the earlier recruits. 1703:

genocide. Many buildings were uninhabitable and the former regime had taken all currency and moveable assets when they fled the country. Human resources were severely depleted, with over 40% of the population having fled or been killed. Women constituted about 70 percent of the population, as many men had fled or been killed. Outside of civilian deaths, 7,500 combatants had been killed during the war. Many of the remainder were traumatised: most had lost relatives, witnessed killings, or participated in the genocide. The long-term effects of

633: 1109:, south of the Virunga mountains. The city was the only provincial capital that could be attacked quickly from the Virungas while maintaining an element of surprise. Kagame also favoured an attack on Ruhengeri for cultural reasons. President Habyarimana, as well as his wife and her powerful family, came from the north-west of Rwanda and most Rwandans regarded the region as the heartland of the regime. An attack there guaranteed the population would become aware of the RPF's presence and Kagame hoped this would destabilise the government. 1090: 1395:, a movement which transcended party politics. Apart from the CDR there was no party that was exclusively part of the Power movement. Instead almost every party was split into "moderate" and "Power" wings, with members of both camps claiming to represent the legitimate leadership of that party. Even the ruling party contained a Power wing, consisting of those who opposed Habyarimana's intention to sign a peace deal. Several radical youth militia groups emerged, attached to the Power wings of the parties; these included the 1252:

announced in January 1992 which prompted large scale protests in Kigali, forcing Habyarimana to make real concessions. He announced his intention to negotiate with the RPF, and formed a multi-party cabinet in April. This was still dominated by Habyarimana's party, but with opposition figures in some key positions. The opposition members of this cabinet met with the RPF, and negotiated a ceasefire. In July 1992 the rebels agreed to stop fighting, and the parties began peace negotiations in the Tanzanian city of

1549: 265: 207: 187: 118: 1372: 1135:, who ordered him to kill every inmate in the prison to avoid escape and defections during the fighting. He also wanted to prevent high-profile political prisoners and former insiders from sharing secret information with the RPF. Uwihoreye refused to obey, even after Sagatwa called him and repeated the order, having confirmed it with the president. Eventually, the RPF stormed the buildings and the prisoners were liberated. Several prisoners were recruited into the RPF, including 1352:, and many observers believed an assault on the city was imminent. The assault did not take place, and the RPF instead declared a cease-fire. Whether or not the RPF intended to advance on the capital is unknown. Kagame later said his aim at this point was to inflict as much damage as possible on Rwandan Army forces, capture their weapons, and gain ground slowly, but not to attack the capital or seek to end the war with an outright RPF victory. Kagame told journalist and author 1739: 1113:

against the invasion. The Rwandan Police and army succeeded in briefly repelling the invasion in areas around their stations, killing large numbers of rebel fighters in the process. It is likely the Rwandan Army forces were assisted by French troops, as the French Government later rewarded around fifteen French paratroopers for having taken part in the rearguard. By noon, the defending forces were defeated and the RPF held the whole city. Most of the civilian population fled.

42: 584:, and Germany established a presence in 1897 with the formation of an alliance with the King. German policy was to rule through the Rwandan monarchy, enabling colonisation with fewer European troops. The colonists favoured the Tutsi over the Hutu when assigning administrative roles, believing them to be migrants from Ethiopia and racially superior. The Rwandan King welcomed the Germans, and used their military strength to reinforce his rule and expand the kingdom. 10349: 1521:. Both alleged that Kagame and the RPF were responsible. At the end of 2010 the judges succeeding Bruguière ordered a more thorough scientific examination, which employed experts in ballistics and acoustics. This report seemed to reaffirm the initial theory that Hutu extremists assassinated Habyarimana. But the report did not lead the judges to drop the charges against the RPF suspects; this was finally done in 2018, due to lack of evidence. 10028: 295: 161: 1533:

Belgian UNAMIR soldiers charged with her protection and other prominent moderate politicians and journalists. The crisis committee appointed an interim government, still effectively controlled by Bagosora, which began ordering the systematic killing of huge numbers of Tutsi, as well as some politically moderate Hutu, through well-planned attacks. Over the course of approximately 100 days between 500,000 and 1,000,000 were killed.

1033:, along the northwestern border. Kagame knew that the rugged terrain of the Virungas offered protection from attacks, even if the RPF's position was discovered. The march west took almost a week during which the soldiers crossed the border into Uganda several times, with the permission of President Museveni, taking advantage of personal friendships between the RPF soldiers and their ex-colleagues in the Ugandan Army. 804: 1286:

from which they hoped to effect a move away from the more conciliatory tone adopted by Habyarimana and the moderate opposition. Their goal was to take over from Habyarimana's government as the perceived source of power in the country amongst the Hutu masses, to maintain the line that the RPF and Tutsi more generally were a threat to Hutu freedoms, and to find a way to thwart any agreement negotiated in Arusha.

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would not have been achieved with the same ease that the RPF had conquered the north. Fighting for the capital would have been a much more difficult and dangerous operation. Several of Kagame's senior officers urged him to go for outright victory but he overruled them. By the end of the February war more than a million civilians, mostly Hutu, had left their homes in the country's largest exodus to date.

1763:, as well as scholars such as Prunier, allege that the death toll might be as high as 100,000, and that Kagame and the RPF elite either tolerated or organised the killings. In an interview with Stephen Kinzer, Kagame acknowledged that killings had occurred but said they were carried out by rogue soldiers and had been impossible to control. The killings gained international attention after the 1995 1048:. Following the attack, the Rwandan Government accused Uganda of deliberately sheltering the RPF. The RPF's new tactics inflicted heavy casualties on the Rwandan Army, which reacted by shelling Ugandan territory. Ugandan civilians were killed and a significant amount of damage to property was incurred, and there were reports of Rwandan troops crossing the border to loot and abduct locals. 1029:

troops, many of whom had fought with him in the Ugandan Army, and they welcomed his arrival in the field. He spent the following weeks gathering intelligence with senior officers. By the end of October, with the RPF forced back to the Ugandan border, Kagame decided it was futile to continue fighting. He therefore withdrew most of the army from north-eastern Rwanda, moving them to the

1076:. It is likely they also received weaponry from officers in the Ugandan Army; according to Gérard Prunier, Ugandans who had fought with Kagame in the Bush War remained loyal to him and secretly passed weaponry to the RPF. Museveni likely knew of this but was able to claim ignorance when dealing with the international community. Museveni later said that "faced with 1329:, had left the government struggling to pay its soldiers regularly. The armed forces had also expanded rapidly, at one point growing from less than 10,000 troops to almost 30,000 in one-year. The new recruits were often poorly disciplined and not battle ready, with a tendency to get drunk and carry out abuse and rapes of civilians. 1608:

success was due to Kagame's being a "master of psychological warfare"; he exploited the fact that the Rwandan Army were concentrating on the genocide rather than the fight for Kigali and exploited the government's loss of morale as it lost territory. The RPF finally defeated the Rwandan Army in Kigali on 4

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of two monarchies, leaving the Hutu disenfranchised. In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards classifying each individual as Tutsi, Hutu, Twa, or Naturalised. It had previously been possible for wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, but the identity cards prevented further movement between the groups.

947:. Belgium and Zaire also sent troops to Kigali in early October. The Belgian troops were deployed primarily to defend the country's citizens living in Rwanda but after a few days it became clear they were not in danger. Instead, the deployment created a political controversy as news reached Brussels of 1532:

as leader, even though she was legally next in the line of political succession. UN commander General Dallaire labelled this a coup and insisted that Uwilingiyimana be placed in charge, but Bagosora refused. The Presidential Guard killed Uwilingiyimana and her husband during the night, along with ten

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from the areas the RPF were taking, most of them ending up in refugee camps on the outskirts of Kigali. The civilian cost of the offensive is unclear; according to André Guichaoua several thousand were killed, while Prunier labelled the RPF killing as "small-scale". This violence alienated the rebels

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announced that the party would not respect the agreement, contradicting the president and the party's negotiators in Arusha. The MRND hardliners organised demonstrations across the country and mobilised their supporters within the army and populace to begin a much larger killing spree than those that

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The second development was that President Habyarimana announced that he was introducing multi-party politics into the country, following intense pressure from the international community, including his most loyal ally France. Habyarimana had originally promised this in mid-1990, and opposition groups

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September Kagame informed the college that he was leaving the course, and was settling his affairs ready to return to Africa as the invasion began. The college allowed him to leave with several textbooks, which he later used in planning tactics for the war. When Kagame learned of Rwigyema's death on 5

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senior officers but the change in official status, and the possibility that they might lose access to the resources of the Ugandan military, caused them to accelerate their plans to invade Rwanda. In 1990 a dispute in south-western Uganda between Ugandan ranch owners and squatters on their land, many

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during World War I, and from 1926 began a policy of more direct colonial rule. The Belgian administration, in conjunction with Catholic clerics, modernised the local economy. They also increased taxes and imposed forced labour on the population. Tutsi supremacy remained, reinforced by Belgian support

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from 1994 and as president from 2000. The RPF began a programme of rebuilding the infrastructure and economy of the country, bringing genocide perpetrators to trial, and promoting reconciliation between Hutu and Tutsi. In 1996 the RPF-led Rwandan Government launched an offensive against refugee camps

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The victorious RPF assumed control of Rwanda following the genocide, and as of 2021 remain the dominant political force in the country. They formed a government loosely based on the Arusha Accords, but Habyarimana's party was outlawed and the RPF took over the government positions allocated to it in

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at which the leaders of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, had urged Habyarimana to stop delaying the implementation of the Arusha accords. The attackers remain unknown. Prunier, in his book written shortly after the incident, concluded that it was most likely a coup carried out by extreme Hutu members of

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By June President Habyarimana had come to view Hutu Power, rather than the mainstream opposition, as the biggest threat to his leadership. This led him to change tactics and engage fully with the Arusha peace process, giving it the impetus it needed to draw to a completion. According to Prunier this

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such a victory would have ended international goodwill towards the RPF and led to charges that the war had simply been a bid to replace the Hutu state with a Tutsi one. The increased presence of French troops and the fierce loyalty of the Hutu population to the government meant an invasion of Kigali

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the offensive may actually have been intended primarily to increase the rebels' bargaining power at the peace talks. The next subject for the negotiations was the proportion of troops and officers to be allocated to each side in the new unified army. By demonstrating its military power in the field,

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area; 85 were killed, and 500 homes burnt. Historian Gérard Prunier names late 1992 as the time when the idea of a genocidal "final solution" to kill every Tutsi in Rwanda was first mooted. Hardliners were busy setting up parallel institutions within the official organs of state, including the army,

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Progress remained slow in 1991 and 1992. A cabinet set up in October 1991 contained almost no opposition, and the administrative hierarchy across the country recognised the authority of only Habyarimana's National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development party. Another one-party cabinet was

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opponents, fighting for Habyarimana's government, were numerically superior, with 5,200 soldiers, and possessed armoured cars and helicopters supplied by France, but the RPF benefited from the element of surprise. The Ugandan government set up roadblocks across the west of Uganda, to prevent further

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region issued notices requiring refugees to be evicted from their homes and settled in camps. These evictions were violently implemented by Ankole youth militia. Many displaced Rwandans attempted to cross the border to Rwanda, but the Habyarimana regime confined them to isolated camps and closed the

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After 1945, a Hutu counter-elite developed, demanding the transfer of power from Tutsi to Hutu. The Tutsi leadership responded by trying to negotiate a speedy independence on their terms but found that the Belgians no longer supported them. There was a simultaneous shift in the Catholic Church, with

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The war began on 1 October 1990, when the RPF invaded north-eastern Rwanda, advancing 60 km (37 mi) into the country. They suffered a major setback when Rwigyema was killed in action on the second day. The Rwandan Army, assisted by troops from France, gained the upper hand and the RPF were

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The civil war severely disrupted Rwanda's formal economy, bringing coffee and tea cultivation to a halt, decimating tourism, diminishing food production, and diverting government spending towards defence and away from other priorities. Rwanda's infrastructure and economy suffered further during the

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On 7 April, as the genocide started, RPF commander Paul Kagame warned the interim government and the United Nations peacekeepers that he would resume the civil war if the killing did not stop. The next day Rwandan Army forces attacked the national parliament building from several directions but RPF

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by extremist Tutsi army officers in October 1993. The assassination reinforced the notion among Hutus that the Tutsi were their enemy and could not be trusted. The CDR and the Power wings of the other parties realised they could use this situation to their advantage. The idea of a "final solution",

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February, fighting southwards from the territory it already held in Rwanda's northern border regions. In contrast to the October 1990 and 1991–1992 campaigns, the RPF advance in 1993 was met by weak resistance from the Rwandan Army forces. The likely reason was a significant deterioration in morale

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Following the action in Ruhengeri the RPF again began to wage guerrilla war. The Rwandan Army massed troops across the north of the country, occupying key positions and shelling RPF hideouts in the Virunga mountains, but the mountainous terrain prevented them from launching an all-out assault. Paul

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The RPF were in disarray by the time Kagame arrived, with troop morale very low. He later described his arrival as one of the worst experiences of his life; the troops lacked organisation following Rwigyema's death and were demoralised after their losses in the war. Kagame was well known to the RPF

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in the United States, and was also planning overseas deployments for other senior Rwandans in the army. This may have been a tactic to reduce the threat of an RPF invasion of Rwanda. After two days of discussion Rwigyema persuaded Museveni that following years of army duty he needed a break and was

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province, helping them to defeat Zairian security forces. Rwandan forces, the Banyamulenge, and other Zairian Tutsi, then attacked the refugee camps, targeting the Hutu militia. These attacks caused hundreds of thousands of refugees to flee; many returned to Rwanda despite the presence of the RPF,

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was routed to the refugee camps which had formed in Zaire following the exodus of Hutu from Rwanda. Kagame strove to portray the government as inclusive and not Tutsi-dominated. He directed removal of ethnicity from citizens' national identity cards and the government began a policy of downplaying

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Having completed the encirclement of Kigali, the RPF spent the latter half of June fighting for the capital. The Rwandan Army forces had superior manpower and weapons, but the RPF steadily gained territory and conducted raids to rescue civilians from behind enemy lines. According to Dallaire, this

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In April there were numerous attempts by the United Nations forces to establish a cease-fire, but Kagame insisted each time that the RPF would not stop fighting unless the killings stopped. In late April the RPF secured the whole of the Tanzanian border area and began to move west from Kibungo, to

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power-sharing coalition. At the same time other members of the same parties issued a statement, in conjunction with the RPF, in which they condemned French involvement in the country and called for the Arusha process to be respected in full. The hardline factions within the parties became known as

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The situation deteriorated in early 1993 when the teams in Arusha signed a full power-sharing agreement, dividing government positions between the MRND, RPF and other major opposition parties, but excluding the CDR. This government was supposed to rule the country under a transitional constitution

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also began a major propaganda campaign, broadcasting and publishing material designed to persuade the Hutu population that the Tutsi were a separate and alien people, non-Christians seeking to re-establish the old Rwandan feudal monarchy with the final goal of enslaving the Hutu. This included the

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in Kampala. They received donations from Tutsi exiles around the world, as well as from businessmen within Rwanda who had fallen out with the government. The sums involved were not enormous but, with tight financial discipline and a leadership willing to lead frugal lives, the RPF was able to grow

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and massacres by the Habyarimana regime and its failure to deal with the underlying causes of the war. Faced with a growing domestic dispute over the issue, and with no obvious prospect of achieving peace, the Belgian government withdrew its troops by the beginning of November. Belgium provided no

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as RPF president. Kagame and other senior members of Rwigyema's Rwandan entourage within the NRA also joined, Kagame assuming the vice presidency. Bayingana remained as the other vice president but resented the loss of the leadership. Bayingana and his supporters attempted to start the war with an

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in which every citizen had to belong to the MRND. Anti-Tutsi discrimination continued under Habyarimana but the country enjoyed greater economic prosperity and reduced anti-Tutsi violence. A coffee price collapse in the late 1980s caused a loss of income for Rwanda's wealthy elite, precipitating a

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and Zaire. Many of the Tutsi exiles lived as refugees in their host countries, and sought to return to Rwanda. Some supported the new Rwandan Government, but others formed armed groups and launched attacks on Rwanda, the largest of which advanced close to Kigali in 1963. These groups were known in

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The delegates at the negotiations in Arusha made some progress in the latter half of 1992, despite wrangling between Habyarimana and hardline members of his party that compromised the government officials' negotiating power. In August the parties agreed to a "pluralistic transitional government",

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October, gunfire was heard in Kigali in a mysterious attack, which was attributed to RPF commandos. The attack was most likely staged by the Rwandan authorities, seeking to convince the French the regime was in imminent danger. As a result, 600 French soldiers arrived in Rwanda the following day,

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The peace process was complicated by the fact that four distinct groups were involved, each with its own agenda. The Hutu hardliners, centred around the family of Agathe Habyarimana, were represented by the CDR as well as extremists within the president's own MRND party. The second group was the

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with a force of 14,000 soldiers, including 500 Rwandans, and formed a new government. After Museveni was inaugurated as president he appointed Kagame and Rwigyema as senior officers in the new Ugandan army. The experience of the Bush War inspired Rwigyema and Kagame to consider an attack against

914:, Prunier says Rwigyema was killed by his subcommander Peter Bayingana, following an argument over tactics. According to this account, Rwigyema was conscious of the need to move slowly and attempt to win over the Hutu in Rwanda before assaulting Kigali, whereas Bayingana and fellow subcommander 1344:

When it became clear that the Rwandan Army was losing ground to the RPF, Habyarimana requested urgent assistance from France. Fearing that the RPF could soon be in a position to seize Kigali, the French immediately dispatched 150 troops to Rwanda, along with arms and ammunition, to bolster the

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During the night of 22 January, seven hundred RPF fighters descended from the mountains into hidden locations around the city, assisted by RPF sympathisers living in the area. They attacked on the morning of 23 January. The Rwandan forces were taken by surprise and were mostly unable to defend

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situation by our Rwandan brothers", Uganda went "to help the RPF, materially, so that they are not defeated because that would have been detrimental to the Tutsi people of Rwanda and would not have been good for Uganda's stability". Journalist Justus Muhanguzi Kampe reported that the taking of

1025:, where he was given safe passage by a friend in the Ugandan secret service; the police considered arresting him, but with Museveni out of the country and no specific orders, they allowed him to pass. Ugandan associates drove Kagame to the border and he crossed into Rwanda early on 15 October. 1008:

Paul Kagame was still in the United States at the time of the outbreak of war, attending the military training course in Fort Leavenworth. He and Rwigyema had been in frequent contact by telephone throughout his stay in Kansas, planning the final details for the October invasion. At the end of

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rendered it powerless to intervene militarily. Efforts by General Dallaire to broker peace were unsuccessful, and most of UNAMIR's Rwandan staff were killed in the early days of the genocide, severely limiting its ability to operate. Its most significant contribution was to provide refuge for

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Despite the agreement and ongoing negotiations President Habyarimana, supported by the French Government, spent the subsequent months forging a "common front" against the RPF. This included members of his own party and the CDR and also factions from each of the other opposition parties in the

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Belgians and sympathised with the plight of the Hutu. In November 1959, the Hutu began a series of riots and arson attacks on Tutsi homes, following false rumours of the death of a Hutu sub-chief in an assault by Tutsi activists. Violence quickly spread across the whole country, beginning the

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rebellion, killing an estimated 232,000 people. The defeated forces of the former regime continued a cross-border insurgency campaign, supported initially by the predominantly Hutu population of Rwanda's north-western provinces. By 1999 a programme of propaganda and Hutu integration into the

1800:, a traditional village court system reintroduced to handle the large caseloads involved. As women represented a larger share of the post-war population were not as frequently implicated in the genocide, they were entrusted by the regime with more tasks of reconciliation and reconstruction. 1142:

The RPF forces held Ruhengeri through the afternoon of 23 January, before withdrawing into the mountains for the night. The raid undermined the Rwandan Government's claims that the RPF had been ejected from the country and had been reduced to conducting guerrilla operations from Uganda. The

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military equipment by deserted Tutsi members of the Ugandan Army meant the national arsenal "nearly got depleted"; he suspected the war "must have had a tremendous financial impact on the Ugandan government, especially Uganda's military budget", costing the country "trillions of shillings".

751:(RPF) was founded in 1979 in Uganda. It was initially known as the Rwandan Refugees Welfare Association and then from 1980 as the Rwandan Alliance for National Unity (RANU). It formed in response to persecution and discrimination against the Tutsi refugees by the regime of Ugandan President 1887:. The rebels quickly took control of North and South Kivu provinces and then advanced west, gaining territory from the poorly organised and demotivated Zairian army with little fighting. They controlled the whole country by May 1997. Mobutu fled into exile and the country was renamed the 9984: 1837:

Following the RPF victory, approximately two million Hutu fled to refugee camps in neighbouring countries, particularly Zaire, fearing RPF reprisals for the Rwandan genocide. The camps were crowded and squalid and tens of thousands of refugees died in disease epidemics, including

868:

On 1 October 1990 fifty RPF rebels deserted their Ugandan Army posts and crossed the border from Uganda into Rwanda, killing a Rwandan customs guard at the Kagitumba border post and forcing others to flee. They were followed by hundreds more rebels, dressed in the uniforms of the

1345:

Rwandan Army forces. A further 250 French soldiers were sent on 20 February. The arrival of French troops in Kigali significantly changed the military situation on the ground. The RPF now found themselves under attack, French shells bombarding them as they advanced southwards.

534:

groups migrated into the region and began to clear forest land for agriculture. The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their land and moved to the slopes of mountains. Historians have several theories regarding the Bantu migrations. One theory is that the first settlers were

889:. According to RPF estimates, around 2,500 of the Ugandan Army's 4,000 Rwandan soldiers took part in the invasion, accompanied by 800 civilians, including medical staff and messengers. Both President Yoweri Museveni of Uganda and President Habyarimana of Rwanda were in 987:

were dismissed from their posts and jailed, but released soon thereafter. It was the first time in nearly twenty years that massacres against Tutsi were perpetrated, as anti-Tutsi violence under the Habyarimana regime had been only low level up to that point.

1290:

until free and fair elections could be held. The agreement reflected the balance of power at the time; Habyarimana, the mainstream opposition, and the RPF all accepted it, but the CDR and hardline MRND officers were violently opposed. MRND national secretary

10014: 1612:

July and on 18 July took Gisenyi and the rest of the north-west, forcing the interim government into Zaire. This RPF victory ended the genocide as well as the civil war. At the end of July 1994 Kagame's forces held the whole of Rwanda except for the

1147:

was declared, with strict curfews in Ruhengeri and the surrounding area. The RPF raided the city almost every night for several months, fighting with Rwandan army forces, and the country was back at war for the first time since the October invasion.

1758:

During the genocide and in the months following the RPF victory, RPF soldiers killed many people they accused of participating in or supporting the genocide. The scale, scope, and source of ultimate responsibility of these killings is disputed.

1051:

Conditions in the Virungas were very harsh for the RPF. At an altitude of almost 5,000 metres (16,000 ft), there was no ready availability of food or supplies and, lacking warm clothing, several soldiers froze to death or lost limbs in the

1407:. The youth militia began actively carrying out massacres across the country. The army trained the militias, sometimes in conjunction with the French, who were unaware the training they provided was being used to perpetrate the mass killings. 547:. An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society. Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi are a later class, rather than racial, distinction. 6709: 1690:, a Hutu who had been a civil servant under Habyarimana before fleeing to join the RPF, was appointed president. Bizimungu and his cabinet had some control over domestic affairs but Kagame remained commander-in-chief of the army and 7939: 1311:

Paul Kagame responded by pulling out of the Arusha process and resuming the war, ending the six-month cease-fire. The RPF cited the CDR and MRND-hardliner violence as its reason for this, but according to foreign policy scholar

964:. Habyarimana accused the Ugandan Government of supplying the RPF, establishing a "rear command" for the group in Kampala, and "flagging off" the invasion. The Rwandan Government announced on 30 October that the war was over. 942:

and its official purpose was to protect French nationals. In reality the mission was to support Habyarimana's regime and the French parachute companies immediately set up positions blocking the RPF advance to the capital and

621:, who was brought in by the colonial Governor. Logiest re-established law and order and began a programme of overt promotion and protection of the Hutu elite. He replaced many Tutsi chiefs with Hutu and effectively forced 1598:

as a mission to protect the Hutus from the RPF, including some who had participated in the genocide. The French remained hostile to the RPF and their presence held up the RPF's advance in the south-west of the country.

10325: 905:

On 2 October the RPF leader Fred Rwigyema was shot in the head and killed. The exact circumstances of Rwigyema's death are disputed; the official line of Kagame's government, and the version mentioned by historian

1603:

remained in Rwanda until 21 August 1994. French activity in Rwanda during the civil war later became a subject of much study and dispute, and generated an unprecedent debate about French foreign policy in Africa.

1184:

The renewed warfare had two effects in Rwanda. The first was a resurgence of violence against Tutsi still in the country. Hutu activists killed up to 1,000 Tutsi in attacks authorised by local officials, starting

7515: 680:

was made in desperation from Burundi in December 1963 but failed due to bad planning and lack of equipment. The government responded to this attack with the slaughter of an estimated 10,000 Tutsi within Rwanda.

10006: 1853:

By late 1996, Hutu militants from the camps were launching regular cross-border incursions and the RPF-led Rwandan Government launched a counter-offensive. Rwanda provided troops and military training to the

1204:

and then moving south and west to Ruhengeri and Gisenyi. These attacks continued until June 1991, when the government introduced measures to allow potential victims to move to safer areas such as Kigali. The

836:

Rwandan President Habyarimana was aware of the increasing number of Tutsi exiles in the Ugandan Army and made representations to President Museveni on the matter. At the same time many native Ugandans and

4887:: "Had the expert report, which became public in January 2012, been as convincing as the letter wants us to believe, the judges would have dropped the charges against the Rwandan suspects ages ago." 7895: 1332:

The RPF advance continued unchecked in February, its forces moving steadily south and gaining territory without opposition. They took Ruhengeri on the first day of fighting, and later the city of

6928: 6412: 6699: 855:

allowed to remain in Uganda. Museveni then ordered Kagame to attend instead. The RPF leadership allowed him to go, to avoid suspicion, even though it meant his missing the beginning of the war.

10424: 10222: 1850:(UNHCR) but were effectively controlled by the army and government of the former Hutu regime, including many leaders of the genocide, who began to rearm in a bid to return to power in Rwanda. 1281:

which would include the RPF. The CDR and hardline faction of the MRND reacted violently to this. Feeling sidelined by the developing Arusha process, they began killing Tutsi civilians in the

668:(cockroaches). Historians do not know the origin of this term – it is possible the rebels coined it themselves, the name reflecting that they generally attacked at night. The 433:(UNAMIR) was sent to the country. The Hutu Power movement was steadily gaining influence and planned a "final solution" to exterminate the Tutsi. This plan was put into action following the 7931: 9999: 1072:

its operational capability. It obtained its weapons and ammunition from a variety of sources, including the open market, taking advantage of a surplus of weaponry at the end of the

566:

in 1853–1895. Rwabugiri expanded the kingdom west and north, and initiated administrative reforms which caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations. These included

562:, ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan, became dominant from the mid-eighteenth century, expanding through conquest and assimilation. It achieved its greatest extent under the reign of 1879:

based in the camps and was also accused of allowing attacks on Tutsi people within Zaire. The Rwandan and Ugandan governments supported an alliance of four rebel groups headed by

10384: 10352: 9992: 9930: 1060:, a Hutu colonel who had worked with Habyarimana but had fallen out with him and gone into exile, joined the RPF and was appointed chairman of the organisation. Another Hutu, 6172: 1493: 434: 1790:

rose from 46.6 years in 2000 to 64.3 years in 2018. A period of reconciliation began as well as the establishment of courts for trying genocide suspects. These included the

841:

officers in the NRA began criticising Museveni over his appointment of Rwandan refugees to senior positions. He therefore demoted Kagame and Rwigyema in 1989. They remained

7858:

Africa's World War : Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe

7351: 10399: 10063: 655:

in 1961 and it became independent in 1962. More than 336,000 Tutsi left Rwanda by 1964 to escape the Hutu purges, mostly to the neighbouring countries of Burundi, Uganda,

7605: 7677: 445:. The RPF quickly resumed the civil war. They captured territory steadily, encircling cities and cutting off supply routes. By mid-June they had surrounded the capital, 7508: 1447: 693: 7968:

Rwanda – The preventable genocide: The Report of International Panel of Eminent Personalities to Investigate the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and Surrounding Events (IPEP)

918:

wished to strike hard and fast, to achieve power as soon as possible. The argument boiled over, causing Bayingana to shoot Rwigyema dead. Another senior RPF officer,

8873: 5498:

Mzvondiwa, Cecilia Ntombizodwa (2007). "The role of women in the reconstruction and building of peace in Rwanda: peace prospects for the Great Lakes Region: essay".

1864: 1307:

The partition of Rwanda following the RPF offensive in February 1993. For the first time, the Rwandan Government acknowledged that it had lost part of the country.

429:

An uneasy peace followed, during which the terms of the accords were gradually implemented. RPF troops were deployed to a compound in Kigali and the peace-keeping

684:

Kayibanda presided over a Hutu republic for the next decade, imposing an autocratic rule similar to the pre-revolution feudal monarchy. In 1973 Hutu army officer

617:. The King and Tutsi politicians launched a counter-attack in an attempt to seize power and ostracise the Hutu and Belgians, but were thwarted by Belgian Colonel 10275: 7564: 1528:, which began within a few hours. A crisis committee was formed by the military, headed by Colonel Théoneste Bagosora, which refused to recognise Prime Minister 1105:

After three months of regrouping, Kagame decided in January 1991 that the RPF was ready to fight again. The target for the first attack was the northern city of

939: 727:

exploited this to their advantage, and Habyarimana was increasingly unable to rule without them. The economic situation forced Habyarimana to greatly reduce the

8031: 719:, were the principal winners in this fight. The family had a more respected lineage than that of the President, having ruled one of the independent states near 7401: 1136: 10022: 7030: 1295:

had previously occurred. The violence engulfed the whole north-west of Rwanda and lasted for six days; many houses were burned and hundreds of Tutsi killed.

1786:, health care, and education. Annual growth between 2004 and 2010 averaged 8% per year, the poverty rate reduced from 57% to 45% between 2006 and 2011, and 10280: 7426: 1186: 422:, a group of extremists opposed to any deal, and a fresh RPF offensive in early 1993, the negotiations were successfully concluded with the signing of the 406:

largely defeated by the end of October. Kagame, who had been in the United States during the invasion, returned to take command. He withdrew troops to the

7891: 7754: 1715:. The army, led by Paul Kagame, maintained law and order while the government began the work of rebuilding the country's institutions and infrastructure. 7631: 6439: 6402: 1117: 6936: 453:

July they seized it. The war ended later that month when the RPF captured the last territory held by the interim government, forcing the government and

10238: 915: 7588: 7270: 9753: 9440: 8932: 1317:

through a successful offensive against the Rwandan Government forces, the RPF was able to secure an increased percentage of troops in the agreement.

919: 829: 1771:. Australian soldiers serving as part of UNAMIR estimated at least 4,000 people were killed; the Rwandan Government claimed the death toll was 338. 971:

October as the pretext for the arbitrary arrest of more than 8,000 mostly Tutsi political opponents. Tutsi were increasingly viewed with suspicion;

7727: 1863:

while others ventured further west into Zaire. The refugees fleeing further into Zaire were relentlessly pursued by the RPA under the cover of the

604:

prominent conservative figures in the early Rwandan church replaced by younger clergy of working-class origin. Of these, a greater proportion were

10073: 9397: 9392: 10310: 7376: 1541:

the south of Kigali. They encountered little resistance except around Kigali and Ruhengeri. By 16 May they had cut the road between Kigali and

1128: 8159: 8007: 800:

border to prevent further migration. Faced with the threat of statelessness, many more Tutsi refugees in Uganda chose to join Museveni's NRA.

10121: 10058: 9404: 8866: 6483: 1847: 9022: 6766: 1431: 791:. President Obote remained hostile to the Rwandan refugees throughout his presidency and RANU was forced into exile in 1981, relocating to 430: 338: 3678: 9564: 9239: 8964: 7813: 7244: 6980: 929:

When news of the RPF offensive broke, Habyarimana requested assistance from France in fighting the invasion. The French president's son,

576:, under which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service. Rwanda and neighbouring 7286:

Lott, Gaia (July 2018). "On the margins of the Françafrique: Franco-Burundian and Franco-Rwandan bonds from an historical perspective".

1325:

and military experience within the government forces. The impact of the long-running war on the economy, and a heavy devaluation of the

10429: 9244: 8998: 8213: 1899:

of wide-scale human rights violations and crimes against humanity during the two Congo wars, charges denied by the Rwandan Government.

1791: 8312: 6847: 9674: 8926: 4031: 1241: 1197: 1116:

One of the principal RPF targets in Ruhengeri was the prison, which was Rwanda's largest. When he learnt of the invasion the warden,

7966: 6651: 8859: 6800:

Emizet, Kisangani N. F. (July 2000). "The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law".

6162: 1721:

began to move back into the country but the international community did not provide significant assistance to the new regime. Most

1633: 6385: 1774:

Paul Kagame took over the presidency from Pasteur Bizimungu in 2000 and began a large-scale national development drive, launching

1459: 1177:, Byumba province. Many Hutu civilians in areas captured by the RPF fled to government-held areas, creating a large population of 10389: 10217: 9843: 8366: 8209: 7343: 6253: 697: 390:

with a Hutu-led republic, forcing more than 336,000 Tutsi to seek refuge in neighbouring countries. A group of these refugees in

8135: 8082: 6295: 1220:

magazine, mandating Hutu supremacy in all aspects of Rwandan life. In response the RPF opened its own propaganda radio station,

1040:

to carry out small-scale attacks on the Rwandan Army, who remained unaware of the Front's relocation. The reorientation towards

9558: 9063: 8466: 7612: 1463:

which had first been suggested in 1992 but had remained a fringe viewpoint, was now top of their agenda. An informant from the

1376: 7667: 6337: 6316: 6274: 441:

April 1994. Over the course of about a hundred days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu were killed in the

414:, which continued until mid-1992 with neither side able to gain the upper hand. A series of protests forced Rwandan President 9771: 8752: 8280: 8248: 8109: 7956: 7920: 7866: 7834: 7781: 7645: 7497: 7456: 7321: 7184: 7152: 7120: 7088: 7056: 7024: 6906: 6874: 6790: 6734: 6677: 6613: 6556: 6524: 6227: 6140: 6108: 5398: 1467:

told UNAMIR officials a group of Hutu extremists were planning on disrupting the peace process and killing Tutsis in Kigali.

530:

hunter-gatherers who settled in the area between 8000 BC and 3000 BC and remain in Rwanda today. Between 700 BC and 1500 AD,

8286: 8254: 8115: 7787: 7651: 7327: 7190: 7158: 7094: 7062: 6912: 6880: 6683: 6619: 6562: 6530: 6466: 6358: 6233: 6146: 6114: 10414: 10404: 9788: 9492: 8427: 7872: 7840: 7462: 7126: 1902:

In 2015 the Rwandan government paid reparations to Uganda for damage inflicted during the civil war to its border regions.

1446:, Rwanda's Parliament building. These men were protected by 600–1,000 RPF soldiers, who arrived in Kigali through UNAMIR's 8190: 1419:

August 1993 at a formal ceremony attended by President Habyarimana as well as heads of state from neighbouring countries.

10394: 10091: 9794: 9623: 9310: 8605: 672:

label resurfaced in the 1990s as a highly derogatory term for the Tutsi, used by Hutu hardliners to dehumanise them. The

585: 8050:

Siddique, AK (September–October 1994). "Cholera epidemic among Rwandan refugees: experience of ICDDR,B in Goma, Zaire".

6200: 1742: 9435: 9094: 7214: 1224:, which broadcast from Uganda into Rwanda. This was never hugely popular but gained listenership during 1992 and 1993. 7554: 1935:

media company estimated based on news reports that the war had killed 2,000 people in total before the genocide began.

1594:

saved around 15,000 lives, but with the genocide coming to an end and the RPF's ascendancy, many Rwandans interpreted

759:, including occupying the homes and stealing the cattle of Ugandans who had fled from Amin. Meanwhile, Tutsi refugees 9893: 9765: 9458: 9429: 7543: 7238: 6961: 6802: 6760: 6645: 847: 723:

in the nineteenth century. Habyarimana therefore relied on them in controlling the population of the north-west. The

8024: 1891:(DRC). Rwanda fell out with the new Congolese regime in 1998 and Kagame supported a fresh rebellion, leading to the 10186: 10017: 9856: 9628: 9119: 9114: 8969: 8954: 8831: 8379: 7393: 1895:. This lasted until 2003 and caused millions of deaths and severe damage. A 2010 United Nations report accused the 1888: 1704: 1233: 870: 7014: 9635: 9607: 8909: 1875:

As well as dismantling the refugee camps, Kagame began planning a war to remove Mobutu. Mobutu had supported the

1173:. By late 1991 the RPF controlled 5% of Rwanda, setting up its new headquarters in an abandoned tea factory near 7744: 7418: 5768: 10374: 9719: 9708: 9618: 8400: 1229: 1139:, a former close ally of President Habyarimana, who had been arrested following a failed coup attempt in 1980. 948: 780: 495: 6429: 739:

but took no action to bring this about. Student protests followed and by late 1990 the country was in crisis.

689: 641: 10439: 10315: 9936: 9357: 9070: 9057: 7975: 1718: 1708: 1501: 1022: 957: 473:

in Zaire, home to exiled leaders of the former regime and millions of Hutu refugees. This action started the

418:

to begin peace negotiations with the RPF and domestic opposition parties. Despite disruption and killings by

8302: 7260: 10161: 9469: 8671: 8610: 8593: 8500: 7584: 1683: 1443: 1178: 944: 772: 833:

invasion in late 1989 without the support of Rwigyema, but this was quickly repelled by the Rwandan Army.

9668: 9463: 9081: 8886: 8737: 8556: 8515: 8395: 8359: 7717: 7713: 4787: 6727:

Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence: The ICC and the Practice of the ICTY and the ICTR

1056:. Kagame spent the next two months reorganising the army, without carrying out any military operations. 10434: 10409: 10305: 10043: 9915: 9898: 9747: 9703: 9656: 9574: 9552: 9251: 8695: 8600: 7887: 7580: 1880: 1809: 1590:

triangle, an area occupying approximately a fifth of Rwanda. Radio France International estimates that

930: 7932:"Rwanda's Untold Story. A reply to '38 scholars, scientists, researchers, journalists and historians'" 10379: 9735: 9651: 9579: 9177: 9087: 8800: 8722: 8573: 1626: 1170: 897:. In the first few days of fighting, the RPF advanced 60 km (37 mi) south to Gabiro. Their 894: 570:, a system of forced labour which Hutu had to perform to regain access to land seized from them, and 7587:(in French). Section 4: L'Attentat du 6 Avril 1994 Contre L'Avion du Président Juvénal Habyarimana. 7368: 1450:

in December 1993. Meanwhile, the Hutu Power wings of the various parties were beginning plans for a

9838: 9713: 9203: 9172: 8915: 8620: 8615: 8510: 8495: 8152: 7999: 1679: 1191: 784: 581: 469: 6494: 1481: 910:

in his 1995 book on the subject, was that Rwigyema was killed by a stray bullet. In his 2009 book

779:

to defeat Amin in 1979 but withdrew from the government following Obote's disputed victory in the

10419: 10263: 10156: 9833: 9569: 9370: 9221: 9198: 9124: 8987: 8959: 8717: 8646: 8505: 8410: 6188: 1783: 1438:. Another stipulation of the agreement was that the RPF would station diplomats in Kigali at the 1412: 1366: 1270: 776: 748: 423: 367: 122: 90: 6748: 1514: 926:

to investigate, and Saleh ordered Bayingana's and Bunyenyezi's arrests and eventual executions.

10268: 10068: 9546: 9364: 9153: 8742: 8707: 8561: 8546: 8352: 6972: 5530: 1896: 1869: 1675: 1237: 7810: 7228: 1558: 732: 685: 676:

attacks of the 1960s were poorly equipped and organised and the government defeated them. The

637: 415: 229: 50: 9498: 9075: 8666: 8566: 7672: 6167: 1779: 1712: 1529: 1211: 961: 53:(right), leaders of the RPF and Rwandan Government forces, respectively, for most of the war. 8221: 7694: 1274: 1244:(CDR), which was more hardline Hutu than Habyarimana's own party and had close links to the 649: 247: 10330: 9887: 9827: 9540: 8732: 8583: 8578: 7606:"The third Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (EICV 3) – Main indicators Report" 6839: 6581: 6548:

Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era

1922:

also finds that the most convincing explanation, but writes that it remains open to debate.

1775: 1434:(UNAMIR), and was in place in Rwanda by October 1993 under the command of Canadian General 1122: 898: 363: 19:

This article is about the 1990–1994 civil war. For the social revolution of 1959–1962, see

7000: 3691: 481:

from power. As of 2024, Kagame and the RPF remain the dominant political force in Rwanda.

8: 9851: 9227: 9027: 8949: 8780: 8712: 8681: 8551: 8483: 7979: 7805: 4781: 4041: 1291: 1067:

The RPF carried out a major fundraising programme, spearheaded by Financial Commissioner

933:, was head of the government's Africa Cell and promised to send troops. On the night of 4 563: 7773:

Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century

10290: 10285: 10053: 9233: 9016: 8993: 8785: 8747: 8534: 8520: 8439: 8417: 7265: 6996: 6827: 6819: 6752: 6586: 6407: 6375: 5712: 5511: 1872:

succeeded in bringing the Hutu to the government side and the insurgency was defeated.

1760: 1505: 1144: 1057: 787:(NRA). The NRA's goal was to overthrow Obote's government, in what became known as the 736: 710: 622: 614: 598: 524: 383: 20: 6513:

Byman, Daniel; Chalk, Peter; Hoffman, Bruce; Rosenau, William; Brannan, David (2001).

6249: 1919: 1348:

By 20 February the RPF had advanced to within 30 km (19 mi) of the capital,

374:

October 1990 to 18 July 1994. The war arose from the long-running dispute between the

10191: 10171: 10151: 9973: 9487: 9346: 9281: 8824: 8762: 8676: 8634: 8451: 8432: 8405: 8387: 8307: 8276: 8244: 8131: 8105: 8072: 8059: 7952: 7916: 7862: 7830: 7777: 7641: 7539: 7507:

Ministry of Public Service and Labour, Republic of Rwanda (MINFOTRA) (30 June 2015).

7493: 7482: 7452: 7317: 7234: 7210: 7180: 7148: 7116: 7084: 7052: 7020: 6957: 6902: 6870: 6831: 6786: 6756: 6744: 6730: 6673: 6641: 6609: 6552: 6520: 6291: 6223: 6136: 6104: 5515: 1822: 1687: 1166: 1098: 1041: 1030: 1001: 922:, witnessed this shooting and informed President Museveni; Museveni sent his brother 824: 677: 559: 407: 387: 9662: 8851: 5541: 1435: 1013:

October, he departed immediately to take command of the RPF troops. He flew through

907: 10300: 10258: 10128: 9921: 9821: 9613: 9316: 8920: 8727: 8661: 8473: 8461: 8444: 7295: 6811: 6333: 6312: 6270: 5503: 1892: 1817: 1666: 1563: 1525: 1476: 1455: 1383:

The RPF cease-fire was followed by two days of negotiations in the Ugandan capital

1127:, telephoned the government in Kigali to request instructions. He spoke to Colonel 1061: 980: 953: 851: 788: 652: 478: 442: 332: 195: 97: 24: 10326:

International Criminal Court investigation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

7892:"Twenty years after genocide France and Rwanda give different versions of history" 7002:

Rwanda: Talking peace and waging war, human rights since the October 1990 invasion

6456: 5507: 632: 10335: 10295: 10253: 10116: 10106: 10096: 10048: 9872: 9680: 9304: 9148: 8840: 8805: 8795: 8790: 8770: 8588: 8270: 8238: 8099: 7856: 7824: 7817: 7771: 7749: 7635: 7559: 7446: 7311: 7307: 7224: 7174: 7142: 7110: 7078: 7046: 6896: 6864: 6704: 6667: 6635: 6603: 6546: 6514: 6354: 6217: 6130: 6098: 1884: 1813: 1787: 1768: 1764: 1638: 1518: 1068: 882: 808: 768: 728: 701: 551: 543:

migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly originating from the

520: 474: 1782:

by 2020. The country began developing strongly on key indicators, including the

1548: 996: 10248: 10133: 9800: 9533: 9528: 9340: 9334: 9322: 9266: 8775: 8179: 7801: 1622: 1497: 1353: 1313: 1282: 1221: 1053: 795:

in Kenya. In 1982, with the authority of Obote, local district councils in the

605: 544: 509: 505: 7313:

When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda

6866:

Securing Human Rights?: Achievements and Challenges of the UN Security Council

6815: 5769:"Strengthening Governance: The Role of Women in Rwanda's Transition A Summary" 1767:, in which soldiers opened fire on a camp for internally displaced persons in 1632:

The UN peacekeeping force, UNAMIR, was in Rwanda during the genocide, but its

1303: 489: 10368: 10181: 10143: 9958: 9759: 9741: 9697: 9589: 9352: 9328: 8651: 8422: 8338: 7477: 7442: 6192: 1932: 1509: 1403: 1326: 890: 812: 760: 531: 527: 500: 411: 395: 191: 8240:

Silent Accomplice: The Untold Story of France's Role in the Rwandan Genocide

1037: 979:

was organised by local authorities on 11 October in the Kibilira commune of

10243: 8894: 8063: 7299: 6461: 6434: 6380: 1855: 1826: 1642: 1513:

Habyarimana's government. This theory was disputed in 2006 by French judge

1458:, who had been elected in June as the country's first ever Hutu president, 1427: 972: 752: 233: 7603: 6403:"Rwanda's Leaders Vow to Build a Multiparty State for Both Hutu and Tutsi" 5718: 1678:(RPA) and became the national army. Paul Kagame assumed the dual roles of 1341:

from their potential allies in the democratic Rwandan opposition parties.

952:

further military support to the Habyarimana government. Zairian President

9968: 9963: 9513: 9287: 9042: 7637:

The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860–1960

7489: 1662: 1397: 1018: 923: 874: 816: 764: 706: 661: 618: 399: 211: 46: 4794: 938:

twice as many as initially pledged. The French operation was code-named

9584: 8208: 6898:

We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families

5987: 5547: 1859: 1426:

April of the following year. The agreement called for a United Nations

1392: 1169:, forcing all trade to go through Tanzania via the longer and costlier 886: 878: 464:

The victorious RPF assumed control of the country, with Paul Kagame as

419: 41: 6823: 1843: 1587: 1422:

An uneasy peace was once again entered into, which would last until 7

1106: 1094: 696:(MRND) party in 1975, and promulgated a new constitution following a 355: 8030:. National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Rwanda. 4666: 4664: 4662: 3802: 3453: 1277:

remained in influential posts, providing them with a link to power.

1161:. This was significant as it blocked Rwanda's access to the port of 755:. Obote accused the Rwandans of collaboration with his predecessor, 592: 9410: 9131: 8883: 8077: 3643: 3619: 1583: 1542: 1451: 1360: 1073: 1044:

began with a raid on a Rwandan customs post across the border from

756: 656: 609: 8344: 3909: 3907: 10320: 7451:(8, illustrated, reprint ed.). London; New York: Zed Books. 6430:"Rwanda genocide: the fight to bring the perpetrators to justice" 5399:"Use fewer resources to achieve better results – RPF cadres told" 4659: 4282: 3477: 1839: 1653: 1567: 1384: 1216: 1174: 1162: 838: 803: 792: 720: 577: 572: 6700:"Many Rwandan Refugees Moving North in Uganda to Escape Attacks" 5652: 4353: 4351: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4343: 3199: 2782: 956:'s contribution was to send several hundred troops of the elite 10223:

Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda tensions (2022–present)

10027: 8375: 7019:(Map) (4th Revised ed.). Richmond, B.C.: ITMB Publishing. 6074: 5927: 4093: 3904: 3631: 3417: 1796: 1750: 1575: 1570:, and civilians in danger. From bases in the Zairian cities of 1470: 1349: 1333: 1253: 1201: 1158: 1045: 1014: 976: 796: 742: 731:, which led to civil unrest. On the advice of French president 516: 446: 391: 359: 294: 277: 242: 224: 166: 139: 74: 8178:

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (2000).

7668:"WHO FOUGHT: Kagame helped Museveni crush internal NRA revolt" 6100:

The Path of a Genocide: The Rwanda Crisis from Uganda to Zaire

5881: 5879: 5133: 5131: 5129: 4581: 4579: 3994: 3992: 2981: 2979: 2850: 2848: 1578:, the French entered south-western Rwanda and established the 1562:, a UN-mandated mission to create safe humanitarian areas for 1524:

The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the

1371: 7112:

A Thousand Hills: Rwanda's Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamed it

6669:

Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda

5915: 4340: 2966: 2964: 2962: 1830: 1803: 1711:

and unwanted pregnancies and babies, some women resorting to

1674:

the accords. The military wing of the RPF was renamed as the

902:

desertions and to block the rebels from returning to Uganda.

715: 540: 458: 379: 152: 8272:

History for the IB Diploma Paper 1 Conflict and Intervention

8025:"The Rwandan Conflict: Origin, Development, Exit Strategies" 7604:

National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (February 2012).

7448:

A people betrayed: the role of the West in Rwanda's genocide

7115:(Hardcover ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. 6954:

From War to Genocide: Criminal Politics in Rwanda, 1990–1994

5246: 5090: 5024: 4105: 3361: 3228: 3226: 1745:

A Thousand Hills: Rwanda's Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamt It

1637:

thousands of Tutsi and moderate Hutu at its headquarters in

1089: 10111: 7579: 7176:

The limits of humanitarian intervention: Genocide in Rwanda

6355:"Rwanda genocide: Habyarimana plane shooting probe dropped" 6050: 6011: 5999: 5903: 5876: 5833: 5821: 5676: 5592: 5416: 5282: 5234: 5212: 5210: 5208: 5206: 5126: 5068: 5066: 5053: 5051: 5014: 5012: 4987: 4985: 4907: 4905: 4830: 4800: 4732: 4730: 4576: 4463: 4461: 4064: 3989: 3590: 3429: 3349: 3286: 3284: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3018: 2991: 2976: 2860: 2845: 2833: 2620: 2618: 2327: 2243: 1970: 1968: 1571: 1143:

government sent troops to the city the following day and a

783:. With Rwigyema and Kagame he formed a new rebel army, the 536: 490:

Pre-independence Rwanda and origins of Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa

410:

for several months before attacking again. The RPF began a

375: 10425:

Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda military relations

7718:"100 days of Slaughter: A Chronology of U.S./U.N. Actions" 5975: 5688: 4972: 4970: 4968: 4929: 4890: 4866: 4751: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4681: 4679: 4649: 4647: 4645: 4620: 4618: 4554: 4552: 4550: 4525: 4523: 4510: 4508: 4478: 4476: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4297: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4266: 4241: 4239: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4173: 4171: 4083: 4081: 4079: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3871: 3869: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3755: 3753: 3683: 3681: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3378: 3376: 3327: 3325: 3323: 2959: 2935: 2925: 2923: 2642: 2630: 2522: 2450: 2195: 2137: 2135: 694:

National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development

7722: 7209:. Vol. XXIV. New York: Africana Publishing Company. 6577: 6135:(illustrated ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6040: 6038: 5553: 5481: 5479: 5366: 5179: 5155: 4806: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4427: 4425: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4330: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4134: 4132: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3223: 2440: 2438: 2411: 2108: 1985: 1983: 1722: 1617:

zone in the south-west. The date of the fall of Kigali, 4

1508:. The pair were returning home from a regional summit in 6605:

The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History

6512: 6313:"Rwanda genocide: Kagame 'cleared of Habyarimana crash'" 6103:(illustrated ed.). Oxford: Transaction Publishers. 5993: 5294: 5222: 5203: 5191: 5102: 5078: 5063: 5048: 5036: 5009: 4982: 4941: 4902: 4727: 4603: 4458: 4398: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4019: 4009: 4007: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3844: 3829: 3819: 3817: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3561: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3530: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3281: 3250: 3211: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3090: 2947: 2823: 2821: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2695: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2615: 2566: 2564: 2551: 2549: 2534: 2486: 2387: 2351: 2315: 2291: 2255: 2183: 1965: 1401:, which was attached to the ruling party, and the CDR's 10276:

Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

7344:""Race" relations in Rwanda: An historical perspective" 6193:"United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)" 6023: 5891: 5864: 5854: 5852: 5850: 5848: 5785: 5616: 5464: 5452: 5440: 5354: 5342: 5318: 5306: 5270: 5114: 4965: 4953: 4854: 4818: 4761: 4742: 4715: 4703: 4691: 4676: 4642: 4615: 4591: 4564: 4547: 4520: 4505: 4473: 4437: 4410: 4363: 4294: 4263: 4251: 4236: 4224: 4207: 4195: 4183: 4168: 4156: 4144: 4117: 4076: 3977: 3919: 3866: 3790: 3765: 3750: 3738: 3697: 3655: 3465: 3373: 3337: 3320: 3269: 3117: 3107: 3105: 3042: 3008: 3006: 2920: 2908: 2896: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2593: 2591: 2279: 2132: 2120: 2096: 2014: 2012: 2010: 1955: 1953: 1951: 366:, representing the country's government, and the rebel 7829:(2nd ed.). Kampala: Fountain Publishers Limited. 7806:"A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide 6035: 5951: 5939: 5664: 5628: 5604: 5580: 5570: 5568: 5531:"Plane crash that set off massacres remains a mystery" 5476: 4878: 4842: 4630: 4535: 4488: 4422: 4375: 4321: 4129: 3441: 3400: 3308: 3238: 3066: 3054: 3030: 2510: 2435: 2399: 2339: 2084: 1980: 863: 10385:

Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Africa

8881: 6250:"Hutus 'killed Rwanda President Juvenal Habyarimana'" 5963: 5809: 5428: 5258: 4047: 4004: 3965: 3948: 3936: 3881: 3841: 3814: 3726: 3709: 3602: 3573: 3542: 3518: 3506: 3489: 3388: 3296: 3182: 3141: 2872: 2818: 2806: 2753: 2724: 2707: 2678: 2666: 2654: 2603: 2576: 2561: 2546: 2498: 2462: 2423: 2375: 2363: 2303: 2267: 2219: 2171: 2159: 2072: 2024: 1995: 991: 967:

The Rwandan Government used the attack on Kigali on 4

10281:

Mercenaries and the Democratic Republic of the Congo

8328: 8151:

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2013).

6926: 6838: 6160: 6062: 5845: 5748: 5700: 5167: 4917: 3483: 3205: 3158: 3129: 3102: 3078: 3003: 2884: 2788: 2765: 2588: 2207: 2147: 2060: 2048: 2007: 1948: 1084: 10400:

Wars involving the Democratic Republic of the Congo

6334:"Rwanda election: RPF wins parliamentary landslide" 6187: 5658: 5565: 4997: 2231: 7481: 7419:"Delayed UN report links Rwanda to Congo genocide" 6995: 5797: 5724: 5640: 3459: 2794: 10023:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations 6516:Trends in Outside Support for Insurgent Movements 5378: 3170: 2474: 2036: 1645:who risked his life repeatedly to save Rwandans. 593:Revolution, exile of Tutsi, and the Hutu republic 586:Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi 10366: 8180:"Ch. 10: The Rwandan genocide and its aftermath" 6749:Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda 5736: 5143: 2741: 1918:Many sources report that the attack was staged: 1361:Arusha Accords and rise of Hutu Power, 1993–1994 873:and carrying stolen Ugandan weaponry, including 402:, became a battle-ready army by the late 1980s. 10170: 10074:Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries 7533: 7509:"Official Gazette no Special bis of 30/06/2015" 7394:"Rwanda's Himmler: the man behind the genocide" 7316:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 6901:(Reprint ed.). London; New York: Picador. 6080: 5719:National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2012 3913: 3808: 3649: 3637: 3625: 3423: 1726:the distinctions between Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa. 1298: 394:founded the RPF which, under the leadership of 8129: 7048:Peacemaking in Rwanda: The Dynamics of Failure 6289: 5682: 5137: 1492:April 1994 when President Habyarimana's plane 1228:had formed in the months since, including the 558:) and into around eight kingdoms by 1700. The 10000: 8867: 8360: 7585:"Report of the Information Mission on Rwanda" 6352: 6310: 6096: 4896: 4872: 4670: 4357: 4288: 4111: 4099: 3367: 3024: 2997: 2985: 2866: 2854: 2839: 1848:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 983:, killing 383 Tutsi. The burgomaster and the 477:, which removed long-time dictator President 10142: 8268: 7913:Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda 6933:Official Website of the Government of Rwanda 6929:"Chronology of Events Leading to Liberation" 6331: 6247: 6215: 6129:Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010). 5548:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2011 5372: 5330: 4812: 2970: 2941: 1471:Military operations during the 1994 genocide 1432:United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda 743:Formation of the RPF and preparation for war 640:(pictured) became President of Rwanda after 431:United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda 8097: 8070: 7179:. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. 7012: 6128: 3835: 2914: 2648: 2636: 2201: 1259: 1151: 1036:Meanwhile, some RPF soldiers remained as a 653:declared the country an autonomous republic 10007: 9993: 8874: 8860: 8367: 8353: 7666:Nganda, Ssemujju Ibrahim (6 August 2009). 7484:Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide 7230:Memory and Justice in Post-Genocide Rwanda 7144:The role of France in the Rwandan genocide 6894: 6862: 6743: 6724: 6633: 6482:Bruguière, Jean-Louis (17 November 2006). 5559: 5161: 4935: 4037: 3687: 2333: 1974: 1804:Refugee crisis, insurgency, and Congo wars 1792:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 40: 8300: 8275:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7946: 7929: 7915:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7910: 7776:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6951: 6481: 6268: 6044: 5921: 5497: 5185: 4884: 4860: 4848: 4467: 4404: 3435: 3290: 1242:Coalition for the Defence of the Republic 9023:Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present) 8049: 7826:The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide 7506: 7348:University of Wollongong Research Online 7341: 7172: 6665: 6601: 6454: 5969: 5815: 5300: 5264: 5252: 5228: 5216: 5108: 5096: 5084: 5072: 5057: 5042: 5030: 5018: 4991: 4947: 4911: 4736: 4721: 4709: 4609: 4369: 2516: 2285: 2249: 2141: 2126: 2114: 2090: 2030: 2001: 1989: 1821: 1665:with United States Secretary of Defense 1652: 1547: 1480: 1370: 1302: 1088: 995: 975:aired incitement to ethnic hatred and a 802: 705:political fight for power and access to 631: 515:The earliest inhabitants of what is now 499: 382:groups within the Rwandan population. A 331:500,000–800,000 civilians killed in the 9565:Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present) 9240:2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis 8210:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 8153:"Human Development Report 2013: Rwanda" 8073:"Kagame: Quiet soldier who runs Rwanda" 8071:Simpson (I), Chris (14 November 2000). 7854: 7822: 7809:(2002) pp. 329–90; Pulitzer Prize. 7769: 7742: 7640:. New York: Columbia University Press. 7630: 7552: 7476: 7441: 7416: 7391: 7366: 7306: 7223: 7140: 6427: 6222:. Leicester: Troubador Publishing Ltd. 6097:Adelman, Howard; Suhrke, Astri (1999). 6068: 6056: 6029: 6017: 6005: 5909: 5897: 5885: 5870: 5858: 5839: 5827: 5791: 5754: 5706: 5670: 5622: 5598: 5458: 5446: 5422: 5396: 5360: 5348: 5324: 5312: 5288: 5276: 5240: 5173: 5120: 4976: 4959: 4923: 4836: 4824: 4780:Greg Barker (Director) (1 April 2004). 4767: 4755: 4697: 4685: 4653: 4636: 4624: 4597: 4585: 4570: 4558: 4529: 4514: 4482: 4452: 4431: 4416: 4315: 4276: 4257: 4245: 4230: 4218: 4201: 4189: 4177: 4162: 4150: 4123: 4087: 4070: 3998: 3983: 3930: 3875: 3796: 3784: 3759: 3744: 3703: 3672: 3596: 3471: 3447: 3411: 3382: 3355: 3343: 3331: 3314: 3275: 3244: 3232: 3217: 3193: 3152: 3096: 3072: 3060: 3036: 2953: 2878: 2827: 2812: 2759: 2735: 2718: 2701: 2689: 2672: 2660: 2624: 2609: 2582: 2570: 2555: 2540: 2528: 2504: 2492: 2456: 2444: 2405: 2393: 2381: 2369: 2357: 2345: 2321: 2309: 2297: 2273: 2261: 2225: 2189: 2177: 2165: 2078: 2066: 2054: 2018: 1500:, killing both Habyarimana and the new 735:, Habyarimana declared a commitment to 10367: 8236: 8196:from the original on 25 September 2007 8022: 7665: 7108: 6970: 6799: 6780: 6544: 6457:"Rwanda makes its way to regeneration" 6400: 6271:"Democratic Republic of Congo profile" 5981: 5957: 5945: 5933: 5694: 5634: 5610: 5586: 5574: 5485: 5434: 5003: 4541: 4499: 4392: 4334: 4138: 4058: 4025: 4013: 3971: 3959: 3942: 3898: 3860: 3823: 3732: 3720: 3613: 3584: 3567: 3555: 3536: 3524: 3512: 3500: 3394: 3302: 3263: 3164: 3135: 3123: 3111: 3084: 3048: 3012: 2929: 2902: 2890: 2800: 2776: 2597: 2468: 2429: 2417: 2213: 2153: 2102: 1552:French soldiers in Kigali, August 1994 1379:, venue for peace talks to end the war 1377:Arusha International Conference Centre 435:assassination of President Habyarimana 86:Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) victory 9988: 9754:South Kordofan and Blue Nile conflict 9675:2012–2013 Tana River District clashes 8855: 8348: 8315:from the original on 28 December 2013 8177: 7997: 7567:from the original on 11 February 2017 7354:from the original on 27 November 2018 7258: 7204: 7044: 6983:from the original on 1 September 2013 6725:de Brouwer, Anne-Marie L. M. (2005). 6578:Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (I) 6442:from the original on 20 February 2020 6376:"Rwanda calls for aid to halt rebels" 6373: 6161:Associated Press (I) (7 April 1981). 5803: 5646: 5528: 5470: 3176: 2480: 2237: 1697: 550:The population coalesced, first into 8301:Wilkinson, Tracy (7 February 2008). 8165:from the original on 18 October 2018 8150: 8138:from the original on 23 October 2018 7965: 7930:Reyntjens, Filip (21 October 2014). 7757:from the original on 30 October 2015 7692: 7285: 7207:Africa Contemporary Record 1992–1994 7076: 6850:from the original on 19 January 2019 6697: 6401:Bonner, Raymond (7 September 1994). 6340:from the original on 7 November 2018 6319:from the original on 8 November 2018 6277:from the original on 10 October 2018 6163:"Guerrillas Ambush Troops In Uganda" 5730: 5384: 5197: 2747: 2042: 1959: 1214:, a set of "rules" published in the 858: 10218:2012 Congolese–Rwandan border clash 10092:East African campaign (World War I) 9844:Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict 9795:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency 9311:Allied Democratic Forces insurgency 8374: 8303:"Spain indicts 40 Rwandan officers" 8269:Wells, Mike; Fellows, Nick (2016). 8104:. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. 8085:from the original on 21 August 2017 7951:. Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson. 7886: 7861:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 7553:Murdock, Deroy (13 December 2010). 7429:from the original on 30 August 2018 7404:from the original on 4 October 2018 7392:McGreal, Chris (18 December 2008). 7379:from the original on 4 October 2018 7273:from the original on 10 August 2012 6869:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6785:. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. 6729:. Antwerp and Oxford: Intersentia. 6712:from the original on 1 October 2018 6576: 6551:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6455:Brittain, Victoria (5 April 1999). 6388:from the original on 1 October 2018 5742: 5149: 864:1990 invasion and death of Rwigyema 709:receipts. The family of first lady 13: 9559:Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict 9095:Insurgency in Southeastern Nigeria 8187:State of the World's Refugees 2000 7942:from the original on 25 July 2018. 7730:from the original on 5 August 2007 7367:McGreal, Chris (11 January 2007). 7259:Lorch, Donatella (25 April 1995). 6415:from the original on 30 March 2014 6353:BBC News (VI) (26 December 2018). 6332:BBC News (V) (17 September 2013). 6298:from the original on 1 August 2020 5766: 1743:Presentation by Stephen Kinzer on 1625:by the RPF and is commemorated as 1556:In late June 1994 France launched 1488:The cease-fire ended abruptly on 6 992:Kagame's reorganisation of the RPF 747:The organisation which became the 16:1990–1994 armed struggle in Rwanda 14: 10451: 10430:Wartime sexual violence in Africa 9789:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 9493:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 8130:United Nations (September 1996). 8010:from the original on 18 July 2018 7898:from the original on 4 March 2016 7714:Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) 7695:"Revisiting the Rwandan Genocide" 7693:Park, Chang-Hwan (6 April 2020). 7538:. Kampala: World of Inspiration. 7521:from the original on 12 July 2018 7417:McGreal, Chris (1 October 2010). 6956:. University of Wisconsin Press. 6803:Journal of Modern African Studies 6311:BBC News (IV) (10 January 2012). 6175:from the original on 18 June 2020 1440:Conseil national de développement 1085:Attack on Ruhengeri, January 1991 848:Command and General Staff College 10348: 10347: 10026: 10016: 9619:2006–2009 Ethiopian intervention 8331: 8023:Shyaka, Anastase (1 July 2004). 7888:Radio France International (RFI) 7591:from the original on 5 June 2011 7534:Muhanguzi Kampe, Justus (2016). 6361:from the original on 17 May 2020 6290:BBC News (III) (22 April 2000). 6256:from the original on 1 June 2013 6248:BBC News (I) (12 January 2010). 6132:Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 5760: 5529:Lorch, Donatella (14 May 1994). 5522: 5491: 5390: 4801:National Assembly of France 1998 4773: 1925: 1912: 1889:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1737: 1320:The RPF began its offensive on 8 1004:, the RPF base from 1990 to 1991 580:were assigned to Germany by the 293: 276: 263: 241: 223: 205: 185: 159: 145: 132: 116: 9636:Piracy off the coast of Somalia 8289:from the original on 2020-08-30 8257:from the original on 2020-05-31 8118:from the original on 2020-08-30 8101:Historical Dictionary of Rwanda 8037:from the original on 3 May 2019 7875:from the original on 2013-11-04 7843:from the original on 2014-04-16 7790:from the original on 2020-08-11 7712: 7680:from the original on 2014-03-20 7654:from the original on 2017-02-22 7465:from the original on 2014-06-29 7330:from the original on 2016-06-24 7247:from the original on 2020-08-30 7193:from the original on 2020-08-30 7161:from the original on 2020-08-30 7129:from the original on 2014-06-10 7097:from the original on 2016-06-17 7065:from the original on 2016-12-24 7033:from the original on 2016-12-20 6971:Henley, Jon (31 October 2007). 6915:from the original on 2017-04-14 6883:from the original on 2020-04-22 6783:Historical Dictionary of Rwanda 6769:from the original on 2019-02-18 6686:from the original on 2016-05-05 6654:from the original on 2020-08-30 6622:from the original on 2016-05-08 6608:. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 6565:from the original on 2017-02-22 6533:from the original on 2020-06-04 6469:from the original on 6 May 2016 6374:Biles, Peter (4 October 1990). 6236:from the original on 2017-02-22 6216:Bamurangirwa, Patricia (2013). 6203:from the original on 2013-07-01 6149:from the original on 2017-03-23 6117:from the original on 2020-08-30 5336: 1858:, a Tutsi group in the Zairian 887:BM-21 multiple rocket launchers 10390:Civil wars of the 20th century 8401:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa 7998:Sabar, Ariel (27 March 2013). 7745:"Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo" 7233:. Cambridge University Press. 7080:Rwanda (Cultures of the World) 6698:Dash, Leon (2 December 1983). 6640:. Cambridge University Press. 6637:Barriers to Peace in Civil War 6602:Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). 6428:Bowcott, Owen (2 April 2014). 1719:Non-governmental organisations 1230:Republican Democratic Movement 496:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa 1: 9937:2014 Lesotho political crisis 9894:RENAMO insurgency (2013–2021) 9058:Communal conflicts in Nigeria 8098:Twagilimana, Aimable (2007). 7976:Organisation of African Unity 7743:Pomfret, John (9 July 1997). 7261:"Mood Grim at Camp in Rwanda" 7083:. New York: Benchmark Books. 6927:Government of Rwanda (2009). 6634:Cunningham, David E. (2011). 6491:Paris Court of Serious Claims 5508:10.1080/10246029.2007.9627637 5397:Kimenyi, Felly (2 May 2021). 1942: 1709:sexually transmitted diseases 1517:and in 2008 by Spanish judge 958:Special Presidential Division 893:attending the United Nations 484: 362:which was fought between the 65:1 October 1990 − 18 July 1994 23:. For the 1994 genocide, see 10162:2009 Eastern Congo offensive 9931:SADC intervention in Lesotho 9534:OLA insurgency, 2018–present 9488:Anglophone Crisis (Cameroon) 9245:ECOWAS military intervention 8965:2011–2014 factional violence 7051:. Lynne Rienner Publishers. 1648: 1454:. The President of Burundi, 1336:. Local Hutu civilians fled 1299:RPF offensive, February 1993 1179:internally displaced persons 945:Kigali International Airport 773:Front for National Salvation 7: 10415:Political history of Rwanda 10405:Revolution-based civil wars 9608:Puntland–Somaliland dispute 9464:Insurgency in Northern Chad 8753:Water supply and sanitation 7581:National Assembly of France 7555:"Rwanda's Economic Miracle" 7488:. London and New York, NY: 6895:Gourevitch, Philip (2000). 6493:(in French). Archived from 4788:Public Broadcasting Service 3692:The Rwandan Patriotic Front 1707:included social isolation, 1621:July, was later designated 1430:force; this was titled the 10: 10456: 10395:Ethnicity-based civil wars 10306:Great Lakes refugee crisis 10044:Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement 9899:Insurgency in Cabo Delgado 9720:Abyei conflict (2022–2023) 9575:Benishangul-Gumuz conflict 9441:Djotodia period, 2013–2014 9252:Western Togoland Rebellion 8132:"Rwanda-UNAMIR Background" 7342:Mayersen, Deborah (2010). 7205:Legum, Colin, ed. (1994). 7173:Kuperman, Alan J. (2001). 7147:. London: Hurst & Co. 6863:Fassbender, Bardo (2011). 6292:"Rwanda's Kagame sworn in" 6089: 1846:. They were set up by the 1810:Great Lakes refugee crisis 1807: 1627:a public holiday in Rwanda 1474: 1364: 1054:high-altitude cold climate 931:Jean-Christophe Mitterrand 596: 493: 18: 10344: 10231: 10210: 10084: 10036: 9951: 9908: 9880: 9871: 9810: 9781: 9736:Second Sudanese Civil War 9728: 9690: 9644: 9600: 9521: 9512: 9480: 9451: 9420: 9380: 9297: 9274: 9265: 9214: 9188: 9162: 9141: 9104: 9050: 9041: 9009: 8980: 8942: 8902: 8893: 8818: 8761: 8703: 8694: 8642: 8633: 8542: 8533: 8491: 8482: 8386: 7911:Reyntjens, Filip (2013). 7141:Kroslak, Daniela (2007). 6952:Guichaoua, André (2015). 6816:10.1017/S0022278X0000330X 6781:Dorsey, Learthen (1994). 4786:(Television production). 4671:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 4358:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 4289:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 4112:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 4100:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 3368:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 3206:Government of Rwanda 2009 3025:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 2998:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 2986:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 2867:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 2855:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 2840:Adelman & Suhrke 1999 2789:Associated Press (I) 1981 1883:, which began waging the 1736: 1731: 895:World Summit for Children 582:Berlin Conference of 1884 468:leader. Kagame served as 324: 319: 256: 175: 109: 57: 39: 34: 9839:2008 invasion of Anjouan 9436:Civil War (2012–present) 9405:Pool Department conflict 8000:"A King With No Country" 7947:Rucyahana, John (2007). 7855:Prunier, Gérard (2009). 7823:Prunier, Gérard (1999). 7109:Kinzer, Stephen (2008). 7045:Jones, Bruce D. (2001). 6844:Encyclopaedia Britannica 6751:(Report). New York, NY: 6666:Dallaire, Roméo (2003). 5936:, pp. 163, 178–179. 3484:Encyclopaedia Britannica 2942:Wells & Fellows 2016 1905: 1680:Vice President of Rwanda 1448:Operation Clean Corridor 1442:(CND), now known as the 1415:were finally signed on 4 1260:Peace process, 1992–1993 1200:Tutsi pastoralists near 1152:Guerrilla war, 1991–1992 785:National Resistance Army 648:Logiest and Hutu leader 504:A reconstruction of the 10264:Belgian colonial empire 10157:2008 Nord-Kivu campaign 9834:Hanish Islands conflict 9371:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion 9222:Guinea-Bissau Civil War 9064:Herder–farmer conflicts 8988:Western Sahara conflict 8237:Wallis, Andrew (2006). 7770:Pottier, Johan (2002). 7077:King, David C. (2007). 7008:. Vol. IV, Issue No. 3. 6189:Australian War Memorial 5659:Australian War Memorial 5500:African Security Review 4042:Propaganda and Practice 3460:Human Rights Watch 1992 2202:Appiah & Gates 2010 1784:human development index 1778:to develop Rwanda as a 1367:Arusha Accords (Rwanda) 1271:Augustin Ndindiliyimana 1234:Social Democratic Party 749:Rwandan Patriotic Front 700:, making the country a 678:last significant attack 368:Rwandan Patriotic Front 328:7,500 combatants killed 123:Rwandan Patriotic Front 10269:Kivu frontier incident 10069:East African Community 9657:Somali–Kenyan conflict 9553:Eritrean–Ethiopian War 9547:Second Afar insurgency 9154:Sierra Leone Civil War 8311:. Los Angeles, Calif. 8243:. London: I.B.Tauris. 8218:Holocaust Encyclopedia 7978:. 2000. Archived from 1897:Rwandan Patriotic Army 1834: 1713:self-induced abortions 1694:ruler of the country. 1676:Rwandan Patriotic Army 1670: 1553: 1485: 1380: 1308: 1102: 1005: 820: 777:fought alongside Obote 645: 512: 282:Rwandan Armed Forces: 176:Commanders and leaders 10375:Wars involving Rwanda 9916:Bophuthatswana crisis 9580:Oromia–Somali clashes 9499:Boko Haram insurgency 9459:Civil War (2005–2010) 9076:Boko Haram insurgency 8999:Clashes, 2020–present 7811:online free to borrow 6840:"Juvénal Habyarimana" 6545:Carney, J.J. (2013). 1881:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 1825: 1780:middle income country 1656: 1551: 1530:Agathe Uwilingiyimana 1484: 1374: 1306: 1212:Hutu Ten Commandments 1092: 999: 962:Akagera National Park 871:Ugandan national army 806: 781:1980 general election 688:toppled Kayibanda in 635: 503: 320:Casualties and losses 299:French Armed Forces: 10440:War crimes in Rwanda 10331:2014 Mutarule attack 9888:Mozambican Civil War 9848:Burundian conflicts 9828:Djiboutian Civil War 9541:Insurgency in Ogaden 9169:Liberian Civil Wars 9082:Niger Delta conflict 7949:The Bishop of Rwanda 7583:(15 December 1998). 7536:Eyes of a Journalist 7300:10.1093/afraf/ady013 7016:Rwanda & Burundi 6999:(27 February 1992). 6519:. Rand Corporation. 6171:. Washington, Penn. 6081:Muhanguzi Kampe 2016 3914:Muhanguzi Kampe 2016 3811:, pp. 117, 121. 3809:Muhanguzi Kampe 2016 3650:Muhanguzi Kampe 2016 3638:Muhanguzi Kampe 2016 3626:Muhanguzi Kampe 2016 3424:Muhanguzi Kampe 2016 1515:Jean-Louis Bruguière 1502:President of Burundi 899:Rwandan Armed Forces 775:(FRONASA). Museveni 737:multi-party politics 384:1959–1962 revolution 364:Rwandan Armed Forces 9927:Lesothan conflicts 9852:1993–2005 Civil War 9570:Afar–Somali clashes 9358:2022–2024 offensive 9353:2012–2013 rebellion 9195:Ivorian Civil Wars 9028:Tunisian revolution 8970:2014–2020 civil war 8950:2008 Kufra conflict 8887:conflicts in Africa 8594:Chamber of Deputies 8006:. Washington, D.C. 7985:on 8 September 2015 7618:on 20 November 2015 6500:on 16 December 2006 6059:, pp. 182–183. 6020:, pp. 128–133. 6008:, pp. 113–116. 5984:, pp. 215–218. 5924:, pp. 110–115. 5912:, pp. 122–123. 5888:, pp. 384–385. 5842:, pp. 381–382. 5830:, pp. 313–314. 5767:Powley, Elizabeth. 5697:, pp. 226–227. 5683:BBC News (III) 2000 5601:, pp. 327–328. 5425:, pp. 299–300. 5291:, pp. 236–237. 5255:, pp. 474–475. 5243:, pp. 298–299. 5200:, pp. 364–365. 5138:United Nations 1996 5099:, pp. 326–327. 5033:, pp. 264–265. 4839:, pp. 222–223. 4673:, pp. 142–143. 4588:, pp. 181–182. 4291:, pp. 140−141. 4073:, pp. 123–124. 4001:, pp. 136–137. 3652:, pp. 115–116. 3628:, pp. 112–113. 3599:, pp. 114–115. 3358:, pp. 107–108. 2531:, pp. 160–161. 2459:, pp. 195–196. 2420:, pp. 124–125. 2252:, pp. 217–218. 1684:Minister of Defence 1657:Vice president and 1601:Opération Turquoise 1559:Opération Turquoise 1444:Chamber of Deputies 1292:Mathieu Ngirumpatse 733:François Mitterrand 686:Juvénal Habyarimana 638:Juvénal Habyarimana 416:Juvénal Habyarimana 341:peacekeepers killed 230:Juvénal Habyarimana 51:Juvénal Habyarimana 10291:Katanga insurgency 10286:Rwandan Revolution 10122:Massacres of Hutus 10085:Military relations 10054:Sun City Agreement 9974:Colour revolutions 9772:Sudanese civil war 9624:2009–present phase 9365:Batwa–Luba clashes 9234:Casamance conflict 9111:Tuareg rebellions 9071:Religious violence 9017:Algerian Civil War 8933:Terrorism in Egypt 8672:Telecommunications 8440:Rwandan Revolution 8428:Colonial residents 8418:German East Africa 8212:(6 January 2011). 7816:2019-04-21 at the 7632:Newbury, Catharine 7266:The New York Times 6997:Human Rights Watch 6753:Human Rights Watch 6745:Des Forges, Alison 6587:The World Factbook 6408:The New York Times 5535:The Ottawa Citizen 4897:BBC News (VI) 2018 4873:BBC News (IV) 2012 1835: 1761:Human Rights Watch 1698:Domestic situation 1671: 1634:Chapter VI mandate 1554: 1506:Cyprien Ntaryamira 1486: 1381: 1309: 1275:Théoneste Bagosora 1187:with the slaughter 1145:state of emergency 1103: 1058:Alexis Kanyarengwe 1006: 912:Africa's World War 821: 807:Ugandan president 711:Agathe Habyarimana 650:Grégoire Kayibanda 646: 636:Hutu army officer 615:Rwandan Revolution 599:Rwandan Revolution 513: 354:was a large-scale 248:Théoneste Bagosora 21:Rwandan Revolution 10435:Looting in Africa 10410:Conflicts in 1990 10360: 10359: 10206: 10205: 10202: 10201: 10192:Kishishe massacre 10152:Makobola massacre 10102:Rwandan Civil War 10064:Gorilla Agreement 9982: 9981: 9947: 9946: 9867: 9866: 9818:Rwandan Civil War 9766:Blue Nile clashes 9748:Nomadic conflicts 9704:Nomadic conflicts 9508: 9507: 9347:March 23 Movement 9282:Angolan Civil War 9261: 9260: 9037: 9036: 8849: 8848: 8814: 8813: 8738:Human trafficking 8690: 8689: 8629: 8628: 8606:Political parties 8557:Foreign relations 8529: 8528: 8457:Rwandan Civil War 8452:Bugesera invasion 8433:Ruzagayura famine 8406:Kingdom of Rwanda 8308:Los Angeles Times 8282:978-1-1075-6096-3 8250:978-1-84511-247-9 8111:978-0-8108-6426-9 7958:978-0-84-990052-5 7936:African Arguments 7922:978-1-107-67879-8 7890:(10 April 2014). 7868:978-0-19-970583-2 7836:978-9970-02-089-8 7783:978-0-5215-2873-3 7647:978-0-231-06257-2 7499:978-1-85984-588-2 7458:978-1-85649-831-9 7369:"France's shame?" 7323:978-0-691-10280-1 7186:978-0-8157-0086-9 7154:978-1-85065-882-5 7122:978-0-470-12015-6 7090:978-0-7614-2333-1 7058:978-1-5558-7994-5 7026:978-1-55341-382-0 7013:ITMB Publishing. 6908:978-0-330-37120-9 6876:978-0-19-964149-9 6792:978-0-8108-2820-9 6736:978-90-5095-533-1 6679:978-0-09-947893-5 6672:. London: Arrow. 6615:978-1-890951-34-4 6558:978-0-19-998227-1 6526:978-0-8330-3232-4 6229:978-1-78306-041-2 6168:Observer–Reporter 6142:978-0-19-533770-9 6110:978-1-41-283820-7 5994:Byman et al. 2001 5373:BBC News (V) 2013 4813:BBC News (I) 2010 4102:, pp. 66−67. 4028:, pp. 92–94. 3570:, pp. 78–79. 3539:, pp. 75–76. 3462:, pp. 13–14. 3438:, pp. 34–36. 3266:, pp. 24–25. 3235:, pp. 13–14. 3220:, pp. 95–96. 3126:, pp. 61–62. 3099:, pp. 97–98. 3051:, pp. 53–54. 2971:Bamurangirwa 2013 2956:, pp. 72–73. 2932:, pp. 51–52. 2905:, pp. 50–51. 2704:, pp. 87–89. 2627:, pp. 74–76. 2543:, pp. 63–64. 2495:, pp. 53–54. 2396:, pp. 43–44. 2360:, pp. 45–46. 2336:, pp. 56–57. 2324:, pp. 38–39. 2300:, pp. 32–35. 2264:, pp. 25–26. 2192:, pp. 13–14. 2117:, pp. 88–89. 2105:, pp. 10–11. 1962:, pp. 49–50. 1756: 1755: 1723:international aid 1688:Pasteur Bizimungu 1582:zone, within the 1564:displaced persons 1167:Northern Corridor 1137:Théoneste Lizinde 1118:Charles Uwihoreye 1101:in the background 1099:Virunga Mountains 1042:guerrilla warfare 1031:Virunga mountains 1002:Virunga Mountains 949:arbitrary arrests 859:Course of the war 823:In 1986, the NRA 692:. He founded the 560:Kingdom of Rwanda 408:Virunga Mountains 386:had replaced the 352:Rwandan Civil War 348: 347: 105: 104: 35:Rwandan Civil War 10447: 10380:Rwandan genocide 10351: 10350: 10301:Rwandan genocide 10259:Ngweshe Chiefdom 10168: 10167: 10140: 10139: 10129:Second Congo War 10031: 10030: 10021: 10020: 10009: 10002: 9995: 9986: 9985: 9922:Caprivi conflict 9878: 9877: 9857:2015–2018 unrest 9663:Likoni massacres 9652:Ethnic conflicts 9614:Somali Civil War 9519: 9518: 9317:Second Congo War 9272: 9271: 9048: 9047: 8927:Post-coup unrest 8921:Sinai insurgency 8900: 8899: 8876: 8869: 8862: 8853: 8852: 8834: 8827: 8701: 8700: 8655: 8640: 8639: 8601:Decentralization 8540: 8539: 8489: 8488: 8474:Second Congo War 8462:Rwandan genocide 8445:Coup of Gitarama 8369: 8362: 8355: 8346: 8345: 8341: 8336: 8335: 8334: 8324: 8322: 8320: 8297: 8295: 8294: 8265: 8263: 8262: 8233: 8231: 8229: 8224:on 5 August 2011 8220:. Archived from 8205: 8203: 8201: 8195: 8184: 8174: 8172: 8170: 8164: 8157: 8147: 8145: 8143: 8126: 8124: 8123: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8067: 8046: 8044: 8042: 8036: 8029: 8019: 8017: 8015: 7994: 7992: 7990: 7984: 7973: 7962: 7943: 7926: 7907: 7905: 7903: 7883: 7881: 7880: 7851: 7849: 7848: 7802:Power, Samantha. 7798: 7796: 7795: 7766: 7764: 7762: 7739: 7737: 7735: 7709: 7707: 7705: 7689: 7687: 7685: 7662: 7660: 7659: 7627: 7625: 7623: 7617: 7611:. Archived from 7610: 7600: 7598: 7596: 7576: 7574: 7572: 7549: 7530: 7528: 7526: 7520: 7513: 7503: 7487: 7473: 7471: 7470: 7438: 7436: 7434: 7413: 7411: 7409: 7388: 7386: 7384: 7363: 7361: 7359: 7338: 7336: 7335: 7308:Mamdani, Mahmood 7303: 7294:(468): 347–369. 7282: 7280: 7278: 7255: 7253: 7252: 7225:Longman, Timothy 7220: 7201: 7199: 7198: 7169: 7167: 7166: 7137: 7135: 7134: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7073: 7071: 7070: 7041: 7039: 7038: 7009: 7007: 6992: 6990: 6988: 6967: 6948: 6946: 6944: 6935:. Archived from 6923: 6921: 6920: 6891: 6889: 6888: 6859: 6857: 6855: 6835: 6796: 6777: 6775: 6774: 6740: 6721: 6719: 6717: 6694: 6692: 6691: 6662: 6660: 6659: 6630: 6628: 6627: 6598: 6596: 6594: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6541: 6539: 6538: 6509: 6507: 6505: 6499: 6488: 6478: 6476: 6474: 6451: 6449: 6447: 6424: 6422: 6420: 6397: 6395: 6393: 6370: 6368: 6366: 6349: 6347: 6345: 6328: 6326: 6324: 6307: 6305: 6303: 6286: 6284: 6282: 6265: 6263: 6261: 6244: 6242: 6241: 6219:Rwanda Yesterday 6212: 6210: 6208: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6157: 6155: 6154: 6125: 6123: 6122: 6084: 6078: 6072: 6066: 6060: 6054: 6048: 6042: 6033: 6027: 6021: 6015: 6009: 6003: 5997: 5991: 5985: 5979: 5973: 5967: 5961: 5955: 5949: 5943: 5937: 5931: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5874: 5868: 5862: 5856: 5843: 5837: 5831: 5825: 5819: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5795: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5773: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5746: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5722: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5698: 5692: 5686: 5680: 5674: 5668: 5662: 5656: 5650: 5644: 5638: 5632: 5626: 5620: 5614: 5608: 5602: 5596: 5590: 5584: 5578: 5572: 5563: 5557: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5526: 5520: 5519: 5495: 5489: 5483: 5474: 5473:, p. B-379. 5468: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5394: 5388: 5382: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5340: 5334: 5328: 5322: 5316: 5310: 5304: 5298: 5292: 5286: 5280: 5274: 5268: 5262: 5256: 5250: 5244: 5238: 5232: 5226: 5220: 5214: 5201: 5195: 5189: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5165: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5135: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5061: 5055: 5046: 5040: 5034: 5028: 5022: 5016: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4980: 4974: 4963: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4927: 4921: 4915: 4909: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4882: 4876: 4870: 4864: 4858: 4852: 4846: 4840: 4834: 4828: 4822: 4816: 4810: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4791: 4783:Ghosts of Rwanda 4777: 4771: 4765: 4759: 4753: 4740: 4734: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4683: 4674: 4668: 4657: 4651: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4613: 4607: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4518: 4512: 4503: 4497: 4486: 4480: 4471: 4465: 4456: 4450: 4435: 4429: 4420: 4414: 4408: 4402: 4396: 4390: 4373: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4338: 4332: 4319: 4313: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4274: 4261: 4255: 4249: 4243: 4234: 4228: 4222: 4216: 4205: 4199: 4193: 4187: 4181: 4175: 4166: 4160: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4091: 4085: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4056: 4045: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4002: 3996: 3987: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3946: 3940: 3934: 3928: 3917: 3911: 3902: 3896: 3879: 3873: 3864: 3858: 3839: 3833: 3827: 3821: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3794: 3788: 3782: 3763: 3757: 3748: 3742: 3736: 3730: 3724: 3718: 3707: 3701: 3695: 3685: 3676: 3670: 3653: 3647: 3641: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3611: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3571: 3565: 3559: 3553: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3516: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3487: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3398: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3371: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3347: 3341: 3335: 3329: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3279: 3273: 3267: 3261: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3203: 3197: 3191: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3139: 3133: 3127: 3121: 3115: 3109: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3082: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3034: 3028: 3022: 3016: 3010: 3001: 2995: 2989: 2983: 2974: 2968: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2918: 2915:Simpson (I) 2000 2912: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2870: 2864: 2858: 2852: 2843: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2816: 2810: 2804: 2798: 2792: 2786: 2780: 2774: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2722: 2716: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2649:Twagilimana 2007 2646: 2640: 2637:Twagilimana 2007 2634: 2628: 2622: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2586: 2580: 2574: 2568: 2559: 2553: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2433: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2265: 2259: 2253: 2247: 2241: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2211: 2205: 2199: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2130: 2124: 2118: 2112: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2076: 2070: 2064: 2058: 2052: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2028: 2022: 2016: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1987: 1978: 1972: 1963: 1957: 1936: 1929: 1923: 1916: 1893:Second Congo War 1818:Second Congo War 1741: 1740: 1729: 1728: 1620: 1611: 1526:Rwandan genocide 1491: 1477:Rwandan genocide 1460:was assassinated 1456:Melchior Ndadaye 1425: 1418: 1323: 1195: 1181:in the country. 1171:Central Corridor 1126: 1062:Seth Sendashonga 1012: 981:Gisenyi Province 970: 954:Mobutu Sese Seko 936: 916:Chris Bunyenyezi 852:Fort Leavenworth 825:captured Kampala 789:Ugandan Bush War 626: 564:Kigeli Rwabugiri 479:Mobutu Sese Seko 452: 443:Rwandan genocide 440: 426:in August 1993. 373: 333:Rwandan genocide 298: 297: 281: 280: 268: 267: 266: 246: 245: 228: 227: 210: 209: 208: 200: 190: 189: 188: 165: 163: 162: 151: 149: 148: 138: 136: 135: 121: 120: 119: 98:Rwandan genocide 59: 58: 44: 32: 31: 25:Rwandan genocide 10455: 10454: 10450: 10449: 10448: 10446: 10445: 10444: 10365: 10364: 10361: 10356: 10340: 10336:Kipupu massacre 10296:Kanyarwanda War 10254:Kaziba Chiefdom 10227: 10198: 10173: 10166: 10138: 10117:Lemera massacre 10107:First Congo War 10097:Simba rebellion 10080: 10049:Pretoria Accord 10032: 10025: 10015: 10013: 9983: 9978: 9943: 9904: 9873:Southern Africa 9863: 9806: 9777: 9724: 9709:Ethnic violence 9686: 9681:Baragoi clashes 9640: 9596: 9504: 9476: 9466:(2016–present) 9447: 9422: 9421:Central African 9416: 9382: 9376: 9305:First Congo War 9293: 9257: 9210: 9184: 9158: 9149:Ndogboyosoi War 9137: 9100: 9084:(2003–present) 9060:(1998–present) 9033: 9005: 8990:(1970–present) 8976: 8938: 8916:2011 revolution 8910:Egyptian Crisis 8889: 8880: 8850: 8845: 8837: 8830: 8823: 8810: 8801:Public holidays 8757: 8723:Gender equality 8686: 8653: 8625: 8574:Law enforcement 8525: 8478: 8382: 8373: 8337: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8318: 8316: 8292: 8290: 8283: 8260: 8258: 8251: 8227: 8225: 8199: 8197: 8193: 8182: 8168: 8166: 8162: 8155: 8141: 8139: 8121: 8119: 8112: 8088: 8086: 8040: 8038: 8034: 8027: 8013: 8011: 7988: 7986: 7982: 7974:. Addis Ababa: 7971: 7959: 7923: 7901: 7899: 7878: 7876: 7869: 7846: 7844: 7837: 7818:Wayback Machine 7793: 7791: 7784: 7760: 7758: 7750:Washington Post 7733: 7731: 7703: 7701: 7683: 7681: 7657: 7655: 7648: 7621: 7619: 7615: 7608: 7594: 7592: 7570: 7568: 7560:National Review 7546: 7524: 7522: 7518: 7511: 7500: 7468: 7466: 7459: 7432: 7430: 7407: 7405: 7382: 7380: 7357: 7355: 7333: 7331: 7324: 7288:African Affairs 7276: 7274: 7250: 7248: 7241: 7217: 7196: 7194: 7187: 7164: 7162: 7155: 7132: 7130: 7123: 7100: 7098: 7091: 7068: 7066: 7059: 7036: 7034: 7027: 7005: 6986: 6984: 6964: 6942: 6940: 6939:on 7 March 2012 6918: 6916: 6909: 6886: 6884: 6877: 6853: 6851: 6793: 6772: 6770: 6763: 6737: 6715: 6713: 6705:Washington Post 6689: 6687: 6680: 6657: 6655: 6648: 6625: 6623: 6616: 6592: 6590: 6568: 6566: 6559: 6536: 6534: 6527: 6503: 6501: 6497: 6486: 6472: 6470: 6445: 6443: 6418: 6416: 6391: 6389: 6364: 6362: 6343: 6341: 6322: 6320: 6301: 6299: 6280: 6278: 6269:BBC News (II). 6259: 6257: 6239: 6237: 6230: 6206: 6204: 6178: 6176: 6152: 6150: 6143: 6120: 6118: 6111: 6092: 6087: 6079: 6075: 6067: 6063: 6055: 6051: 6043: 6036: 6028: 6024: 6016: 6012: 6004: 6000: 5992: 5988: 5980: 5976: 5968: 5964: 5956: 5952: 5944: 5940: 5932: 5928: 5920: 5916: 5908: 5904: 5896: 5892: 5884: 5877: 5869: 5865: 5857: 5846: 5838: 5834: 5826: 5822: 5814: 5810: 5802: 5798: 5790: 5786: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5765: 5761: 5753: 5749: 5741: 5737: 5729: 5725: 5717: 5713: 5705: 5701: 5693: 5689: 5681: 5677: 5669: 5665: 5657: 5653: 5645: 5641: 5633: 5629: 5621: 5617: 5609: 5605: 5597: 5593: 5585: 5581: 5573: 5566: 5560:de Brouwer 2005 5558: 5554: 5546: 5542: 5527: 5523: 5496: 5492: 5484: 5477: 5469: 5465: 5457: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5433: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5407: 5405: 5395: 5391: 5383: 5379: 5371: 5367: 5359: 5355: 5347: 5343: 5335: 5331: 5323: 5319: 5311: 5307: 5299: 5295: 5287: 5283: 5275: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5251: 5247: 5239: 5235: 5227: 5223: 5215: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5184: 5180: 5172: 5168: 5162:Fassbender 2011 5160: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5136: 5127: 5119: 5115: 5107: 5103: 5095: 5091: 5083: 5079: 5071: 5064: 5056: 5049: 5041: 5037: 5029: 5025: 5017: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4983: 4975: 4966: 4958: 4954: 4946: 4942: 4936:Gourevitch 2000 4934: 4930: 4922: 4918: 4910: 4903: 4895: 4891: 4883: 4879: 4871: 4867: 4859: 4855: 4847: 4843: 4835: 4831: 4823: 4819: 4811: 4807: 4799: 4795: 4779: 4778: 4774: 4766: 4762: 4754: 4743: 4735: 4728: 4720: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4692: 4684: 4677: 4669: 4660: 4652: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4623: 4616: 4608: 4604: 4596: 4592: 4584: 4577: 4569: 4565: 4557: 4548: 4540: 4536: 4528: 4521: 4513: 4506: 4498: 4489: 4481: 4474: 4466: 4459: 4451: 4438: 4430: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4403: 4399: 4391: 4376: 4368: 4364: 4356: 4341: 4333: 4322: 4314: 4295: 4287: 4283: 4275: 4264: 4256: 4252: 4244: 4237: 4229: 4225: 4217: 4208: 4200: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4176: 4169: 4161: 4157: 4149: 4145: 4137: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4086: 4077: 4069: 4065: 4057: 4048: 4038:Des Forges 1999 4036: 4032: 4024: 4020: 4012: 4005: 3997: 3990: 3982: 3978: 3970: 3966: 3958: 3949: 3941: 3937: 3929: 3920: 3912: 3905: 3897: 3882: 3874: 3867: 3859: 3842: 3836:ITMB Publishing 3834: 3830: 3822: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3783: 3766: 3758: 3751: 3743: 3739: 3731: 3727: 3719: 3710: 3702: 3698: 3688:Des Forges 1999 3686: 3679: 3671: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3636: 3632: 3624: 3620: 3612: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3574: 3566: 3562: 3554: 3543: 3535: 3531: 3523: 3519: 3511: 3507: 3499: 3490: 3482: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3458: 3454: 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3410: 3401: 3393: 3389: 3381: 3374: 3366: 3362: 3354: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3330: 3321: 3313: 3309: 3301: 3297: 3289: 3282: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3251: 3243: 3239: 3231: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3204: 3200: 3192: 3183: 3175: 3171: 3163: 3159: 3151: 3142: 3134: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3110: 3103: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3071: 3067: 3059: 3055: 3047: 3043: 3035: 3031: 3023: 3019: 3011: 3004: 2996: 2992: 2984: 2977: 2969: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2928: 2921: 2913: 2909: 2901: 2897: 2889: 2885: 2877: 2873: 2865: 2861: 2853: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2819: 2811: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2783: 2775: 2766: 2758: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2734: 2725: 2717: 2708: 2700: 2696: 2688: 2679: 2671: 2667: 2659: 2655: 2647: 2643: 2635: 2631: 2623: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2596: 2589: 2581: 2577: 2569: 2562: 2554: 2547: 2539: 2535: 2527: 2523: 2515: 2511: 2503: 2499: 2491: 2487: 2479: 2475: 2467: 2463: 2455: 2451: 2443: 2436: 2428: 2424: 2416: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2392: 2388: 2380: 2376: 2368: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2344: 2340: 2334:Gourevitch 2000 2332: 2328: 2320: 2316: 2308: 2304: 2296: 2292: 2284: 2280: 2272: 2268: 2260: 2256: 2248: 2244: 2236: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2208: 2200: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2176: 2172: 2164: 2160: 2152: 2148: 2140: 2133: 2125: 2121: 2113: 2109: 2101: 2097: 2089: 2085: 2077: 2073: 2065: 2061: 2053: 2049: 2041: 2037: 2029: 2025: 2017: 2008: 2000: 1996: 1988: 1981: 1975:Cunningham 2011 1973: 1966: 1958: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1939: 1930: 1926: 1920:André Guichaoua 1917: 1913: 1908: 1885:First Congo War 1820: 1814:First Congo War 1808:Main articles: 1806: 1788:life expectancy 1769:Butare Province 1765:Kibeho massacre 1747:, June 18, 2008 1738: 1732:External videos 1700: 1661:Rwandan leader 1651: 1639:Amahoro Stadium 1618: 1609: 1519:Fernando Andreu 1489: 1479: 1473: 1423: 1416: 1369: 1363: 1321: 1301: 1262: 1189: 1154: 1120: 1087: 1069:Aloisia Inyumba 1023:Entebbe Airport 1010: 994: 968: 934: 920:Stephen Nduguta 866: 861: 830:Peter Bayingana 819:in October 1987 809:Yoweri Museveni 769:Yoweri Museveni 745: 729:national budget 713:, known as the 702:one-party state 698:1978 referendum 624: 601: 595: 498: 492: 487: 475:First Congo War 450: 438: 371: 344: 315: 312: 292: 289: 275: 264: 262: 252: 240: 222: 216: 206: 204: 196: 186: 184: 171: 160: 158: 146: 144: 133: 131: 117: 115: 77: 45: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10453: 10443: 10442: 10437: 10432: 10427: 10422: 10420:Rape in Rwanda 10417: 10412: 10407: 10402: 10397: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10358: 10357: 10345: 10342: 10341: 10339: 10338: 10333: 10328: 10323: 10318: 10313: 10308: 10303: 10298: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10272: 10271: 10261: 10256: 10251: 10249:Bwito Chiefdom 10246: 10241: 10235: 10233: 10229: 10228: 10226: 10225: 10220: 10214: 10212: 10208: 10207: 10204: 10203: 10200: 10199: 10197: 10196: 10195: 10194: 10184: 10178: 10176: 10165: 10164: 10159: 10154: 10148: 10146: 10137: 10136: 10134:Dongo conflict 10131: 10126: 10125: 10124: 10119: 10114: 10104: 10099: 10094: 10088: 10086: 10082: 10081: 10079: 10078: 10077: 10076: 10066: 10061: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10040: 10038: 10034: 10033: 10012: 10011: 10004: 9997: 9989: 9980: 9979: 9977: 9976: 9971: 9966: 9961: 9955: 9953: 9952:Related topics 9949: 9948: 9945: 9944: 9942: 9941: 9940: 9939: 9934: 9925: 9919: 9912: 9910: 9906: 9905: 9903: 9902: 9901:(2017–present) 9896: 9891: 9884: 9882: 9875: 9869: 9868: 9865: 9864: 9862: 9861: 9860: 9859: 9854: 9846: 9841: 9836: 9831: 9825: 9814: 9812: 9808: 9807: 9805: 9804: 9801:Kasese clashes 9798: 9797:(1996–present) 9792: 9791:(1987–present) 9785: 9783: 9779: 9778: 9776: 9775: 9774:(2023–present) 9769: 9763: 9757: 9751: 9750:(2009–present) 9745: 9739: 9732: 9730: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9722: 9717: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9694: 9692: 9688: 9687: 9685: 9684: 9678: 9672: 9666: 9660: 9659:(1963–present) 9654: 9648: 9646: 9642: 9641: 9639: 9638: 9633: 9632: 9631: 9626: 9621: 9611: 9610:(1998–present) 9604: 9602: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9594: 9593: 9592: 9587: 9582: 9577: 9572: 9562: 9556: 9550: 9544: 9538: 9537: 9536: 9529:Oromo conflict 9525: 9523: 9516: 9510: 9509: 9506: 9505: 9503: 9502: 9501:(2009–present) 9496: 9495:(1987–present) 9490: 9484: 9482: 9478: 9477: 9475: 9474: 9473: 9472: 9470:2021 offensive 9461: 9455: 9453: 9449: 9448: 9446: 9445: 9444: 9443: 9433: 9426: 9424: 9418: 9417: 9415: 9414: 9408: 9402: 9401: 9400: 9395: 9386: 9384: 9378: 9377: 9375: 9374: 9368: 9362: 9361: 9360: 9355: 9344: 9343:(2009–present) 9341:Ituri conflict 9338: 9335:Dongo conflict 9332: 9331:(2004–present) 9326: 9323:Ituri conflict 9320: 9314: 9313:(1996–present) 9308: 9301: 9299: 9295: 9294: 9292: 9291: 9290:(1975–present) 9285: 9278: 9276: 9269: 9267:Central Africa 9263: 9262: 9259: 9258: 9256: 9255: 9254:(2020–present) 9249: 9248: 9247: 9237: 9236:(1982–present) 9231: 9228:Guinea clashes 9225: 9218: 9216: 9212: 9211: 9209: 9208: 9207: 9206: 9201: 9192: 9190: 9186: 9185: 9183: 9182: 9181: 9180: 9175: 9166: 9164: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9156: 9151: 9145: 9143: 9139: 9138: 9136: 9135: 9134:(2012–present) 9129: 9128: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9108: 9106: 9102: 9101: 9099: 9098: 9097:(2021–present) 9092: 9091: 9090: 9079: 9078:(2009–present) 9073: 9068: 9067: 9066: 9054: 9052: 9045: 9039: 9038: 9035: 9034: 9032: 9031: 9025: 9020: 9013: 9011: 9007: 9006: 9004: 9003: 9002: 9001: 8996: 8994:War, 1975–1991 8984: 8982: 8981:Western Sahara 8978: 8977: 8975: 8974: 8973: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8960:2011 civil war 8952: 8946: 8944: 8940: 8939: 8937: 8936: 8935:(2013–present) 8930: 8924: 8923:(2011–present) 8918: 8913: 8906: 8904: 8897: 8891: 8890: 8879: 8878: 8871: 8864: 8856: 8847: 8846: 8844: 8843: 8836: 8835: 8828: 8820: 8819: 8816: 8815: 8812: 8811: 8809: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8778: 8773: 8767: 8765: 8759: 8758: 8756: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8704: 8698: 8692: 8691: 8688: 8687: 8685: 8684: 8679: 8674: 8669: 8667:Stock Exchange 8664: 8659: 8658: 8657: 8643: 8637: 8631: 8630: 8627: 8626: 8624: 8623: 8621:Prime Minister 8618: 8616:Vice President 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8597: 8596: 8591: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8570: 8569: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8543: 8537: 8531: 8530: 8527: 8526: 8524: 8523: 8518: 8513: 8511:National parks 8508: 8503: 8498: 8492: 8486: 8480: 8479: 8477: 8476: 8471: 8470: 8469: 8467:Initial events 8459: 8454: 8449: 8448: 8447: 8437: 8436: 8435: 8430: 8420: 8415: 8414: 8413: 8403: 8398: 8392: 8390: 8384: 8383: 8372: 8371: 8364: 8357: 8349: 8343: 8342: 8326: 8325: 8298: 8281: 8266: 8249: 8234: 8206: 8175: 8148: 8127: 8110: 8095: 8068: 8047: 8020: 7995: 7963: 7957: 7944: 7927: 7921: 7908: 7884: 7867: 7852: 7835: 7820: 7799: 7782: 7767: 7740: 7710: 7690: 7663: 7646: 7628: 7601: 7577: 7550: 7544: 7531: 7504: 7498: 7478:Melvern, Linda 7474: 7457: 7443:Melvern, Linda 7439: 7414: 7389: 7364: 7339: 7322: 7304: 7283: 7256: 7239: 7221: 7216:978-0841905627 7215: 7202: 7185: 7170: 7153: 7138: 7121: 7106: 7089: 7074: 7057: 7042: 7025: 7010: 6993: 6968: 6962: 6949: 6924: 6907: 6892: 6875: 6860: 6836: 6810:(2): 163–202. 6797: 6791: 6778: 6761: 6741: 6735: 6722: 6695: 6678: 6663: 6646: 6631: 6614: 6599: 6574: 6557: 6542: 6525: 6510: 6479: 6452: 6425: 6398: 6371: 6350: 6329: 6308: 6287: 6266: 6245: 6228: 6213: 6185: 6158: 6141: 6126: 6109: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6085: 6083:, p. 120. 6073: 6061: 6049: 6034: 6032:, p. 136. 6022: 6010: 5998: 5986: 5974: 5962: 5960:, p. 216. 5950: 5948:, p. 209. 5938: 5926: 5922:Reyntjens 2013 5914: 5902: 5900:, p. 118. 5890: 5875: 5873:, p. 382. 5863: 5844: 5832: 5820: 5808: 5796: 5794:, p. 312. 5784: 5759: 5747: 5735: 5723: 5711: 5699: 5687: 5675: 5663: 5651: 5639: 5637:, p. 191. 5627: 5625:, p. 360. 5615: 5613:, p. 189. 5603: 5591: 5589:, p. 187. 5579: 5564: 5552: 5540: 5521: 5490: 5488:, p. 181. 5475: 5463: 5461:, p. 369. 5451: 5449:, p. 300. 5439: 5427: 5415: 5389: 5377: 5365: 5363:, p. 411. 5353: 5351:, p. 229. 5341: 5329: 5327:, p. 197. 5317: 5315:, p. 204. 5305: 5303:, p. 270. 5293: 5281: 5279:, p. 261. 5269: 5257: 5245: 5233: 5231:, p. 459. 5221: 5219:, p. 421. 5202: 5190: 5188:, p. 137. 5186:Rucyahana 2007 5178: 5166: 5154: 5142: 5125: 5123:, p. 270. 5113: 5111:, p. 410. 5101: 5089: 5087:, p. 300. 5077: 5075:, p. 299. 5062: 5060:, p. 288. 5047: 5045:, p. 269. 5035: 5023: 5021:, p. 247. 5008: 4996: 4994:, p. 386. 4981: 4979:, p. 268. 4964: 4962:, p. 230. 4952: 4950:, p. 231. 4940: 4938:, p. 114. 4928: 4916: 4914:, p. 224. 4901: 4889: 4885:Reyntjens 2014 4877: 4865: 4861:Bruguière 2006 4853: 4849:Wilkinson 2008 4841: 4829: 4827:, p. 211. 4817: 4805: 4793: 4772: 4770:, p. 199. 4760: 4758:, p. 200. 4741: 4739:, p. 130. 4726: 4714: 4702: 4700:, p. 191. 4690: 4688:, p. 193. 4675: 4658: 4656:, p. 186. 4641: 4629: 4627:, p. 165. 4614: 4612:, p. 129. 4602: 4600:, p. 182. 4590: 4575: 4573:, p. 188. 4563: 4561:, p. 179. 4546: 4544:, p. 107. 4534: 4532:, p. 178. 4519: 4517:, p. 177. 4504: 4502:, p. 105. 4487: 4485:, p. 176. 4472: 4468:Guichaoua 2015 4457: 4455:, p. 175. 4436: 4421: 4419:, p. 159. 4409: 4405:Guichaoua 2015 4397: 4395:, p. 106. 4374: 4362: 4360:, p. 141. 4339: 4337:, p. 104. 4320: 4318:, p. 174. 4293: 4281: 4279:, p. 173. 4262: 4260:, p. 170. 4250: 4248:, p. 169. 4235: 4233:, p. 163. 4223: 4221:, p. 162. 4206: 4204:, p. 167. 4194: 4192:, p. 151. 4182: 4180:, p. 161. 4167: 4165:, p. 150. 4155: 4153:, p. 145. 4143: 4141:, p. 103. 4128: 4126:, p. 134. 4116: 4104: 4092: 4090:, p. 127. 4075: 4063: 4046: 4030: 4018: 4003: 3988: 3986:, p. 136. 3976: 3964: 3947: 3935: 3933:, p. 135. 3918: 3916:, p. 127. 3903: 3880: 3878:, p. 120. 3865: 3840: 3828: 3813: 3801: 3799:, p. 183. 3789: 3787:, p. 119. 3764: 3762:, p. 118. 3749: 3747:, p. 117. 3737: 3725: 3708: 3706:, p. 116. 3696: 3677: 3675:, p. 115. 3654: 3642: 3640:, p. 114. 3630: 3618: 3601: 3589: 3572: 3560: 3541: 3529: 3517: 3505: 3488: 3476: 3474:, p. 126. 3464: 3452: 3440: 3436:Guichaoua 2015 3428: 3426:, p. 116. 3416: 3399: 3387: 3385:, p. 109. 3372: 3360: 3348: 3346:, p. 107. 3336: 3334:, p. 101. 3319: 3307: 3295: 3291:Guichaoua 2015 3280: 3278:, p. 102. 3268: 3249: 3237: 3222: 3210: 3198: 3181: 3169: 3157: 3140: 3128: 3116: 3101: 3089: 3077: 3075:, p. 182. 3065: 3063:, p. 176. 3053: 3041: 3039:, p. 175. 3029: 3017: 3002: 2990: 2975: 2958: 2946: 2934: 2919: 2907: 2895: 2883: 2871: 2859: 2844: 2832: 2817: 2805: 2793: 2781: 2764: 2752: 2740: 2723: 2706: 2694: 2677: 2665: 2653: 2651:, p. 116. 2641: 2639:, p. 117. 2629: 2614: 2602: 2587: 2575: 2560: 2545: 2533: 2521: 2509: 2497: 2485: 2473: 2471:, p. 127. 2461: 2449: 2447:, p. 196. 2434: 2432:, p. 125. 2422: 2410: 2408:, p. 113. 2398: 2386: 2374: 2362: 2350: 2348:, p. 108. 2338: 2326: 2314: 2302: 2290: 2288:, p. 260. 2278: 2266: 2254: 2242: 2230: 2218: 2206: 2204:, p. 218. 2194: 2182: 2170: 2158: 2146: 2144:, p. 160. 2131: 2129:, p. 482. 2119: 2107: 2095: 2083: 2071: 2059: 2047: 2035: 2023: 2006: 1994: 1992:, p. 400. 1979: 1977:, p. 137. 1964: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1938: 1937: 1924: 1910: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1805: 1802: 1754: 1753: 1734: 1733: 1699: 1696: 1650: 1647: 1623:Liberation Day 1498:Kigali Airport 1475:Main article: 1472: 1469: 1436:Roméo Dallaire 1413:Arusha Accords 1365:Main article: 1362: 1359: 1354:Stephen Kinzer 1314:Bruce D. Jones 1300: 1297: 1261: 1258: 1236:(PSD) and the 1222:Radio Muhabura 1153: 1150: 1086: 1083: 993: 990: 908:Gérard Prunier 865: 862: 860: 857: 744: 741: 597:Main article: 594: 591: 545:Horn of Africa 506:King of Rwanda 494:Main article: 491: 488: 486: 483: 470:vice president 424:Arusha Accords 388:Tutsi monarchy 346: 345: 343: 342: 335: 329: 325: 322: 321: 317: 316: 314: 313: 311: 310: 307: 304: 300: 290: 288: 287: 283: 272: 270: 259: 258: 254: 253: 251: 250: 238: 219: 217: 215: 214: 202: 181: 178: 177: 173: 172: 170: 169: 156: 142: 128: 126: 112: 111: 107: 106: 103: 102: 101: 100: 94: 91:Arusha Accords 83: 79: 78: 73: 71: 67: 66: 63: 55: 54: 37: 36: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10452: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10372: 10370: 10363: 10355: 10354: 10343: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10324: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10314: 10312: 10309: 10307: 10304: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10270: 10267: 10266: 10265: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10236: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10215: 10213: 10209: 10193: 10190: 10189: 10188: 10187:M23 offensive 10185: 10183: 10182:M23 rebellion 10180: 10179: 10177: 10175: 10169: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10153: 10150: 10149: 10147: 10145: 10144:Kivu conflict 10141: 10135: 10132: 10130: 10127: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10109: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10098: 10095: 10093: 10090: 10089: 10087: 10083: 10075: 10072: 10071: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10060: 10057: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10041: 10039: 10035: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10010: 10005: 10003: 9998: 9996: 9991: 9990: 9987: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9959:War on terror 9957: 9956: 9954: 9950: 9938: 9935: 9932: 9929: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9920: 9917: 9914: 9913: 9911: 9907: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9892: 9889: 9886: 9885: 9883: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9870: 9858: 9855: 9853: 9850: 9849: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9835: 9832: 9829: 9826: 9823: 9819: 9816: 9815: 9813: 9809: 9802: 9799: 9796: 9793: 9790: 9787: 9786: 9784: 9780: 9773: 9770: 9767: 9764: 9761: 9760:Heglig Crisis 9758: 9755: 9752: 9749: 9746: 9743: 9742:War in Darfur 9740: 9737: 9734: 9733: 9731: 9727: 9721: 9718: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9699: 9698:Heglig Crisis 9696: 9695: 9693: 9689: 9682: 9679: 9676: 9673: 9670: 9669:Kenyan crisis 9667: 9664: 9661: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9649: 9647: 9643: 9637: 9634: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9620: 9617: 9616: 9615: 9612: 9609: 9606: 9605: 9603: 9599: 9591: 9590:War in Amhara 9588: 9586: 9583: 9581: 9578: 9576: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9567: 9566: 9563: 9560: 9557: 9554: 9551: 9548: 9545: 9542: 9539: 9535: 9532: 9531: 9530: 9527: 9526: 9524: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9511: 9500: 9497: 9494: 9491: 9489: 9486: 9485: 9483: 9479: 9471: 9468: 9467: 9465: 9462: 9460: 9457: 9456: 9454: 9450: 9442: 9439: 9438: 9437: 9434: 9431: 9428: 9427: 9425: 9419: 9412: 9409: 9406: 9403: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9391: 9390: 9388: 9387: 9385: 9379: 9372: 9369: 9366: 9363: 9359: 9356: 9354: 9351: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9342: 9339: 9336: 9333: 9330: 9329:Kivu conflict 9327: 9324: 9321: 9318: 9315: 9312: 9309: 9306: 9303: 9302: 9300: 9296: 9289: 9286: 9283: 9280: 9279: 9277: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9264: 9253: 9250: 9246: 9243: 9242: 9241: 9238: 9235: 9232: 9229: 9226: 9223: 9220: 9219: 9217: 9213: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9197: 9196: 9194: 9193: 9191: 9189:Côte d'Ivoire 9187: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9170: 9168: 9167: 9165: 9161: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9146: 9144: 9140: 9133: 9130: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9112: 9110: 9109: 9107: 9103: 9096: 9093: 9089: 9088:2016 conflict 9086: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9065: 9062: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9055: 9053: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9040: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9018: 9015: 9014: 9012: 9008: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8985: 8983: 8979: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8957: 8956: 8955:Libyan Crisis 8953: 8951: 8948: 8947: 8945: 8941: 8934: 8931: 8928: 8925: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8911: 8908: 8907: 8905: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8892: 8888: 8885: 8877: 8872: 8870: 8865: 8863: 8858: 8857: 8854: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8833: 8829: 8826: 8822: 8821: 8817: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8768: 8766: 8764: 8760: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8718:Ethnic groups 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8705: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8693: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8660: 8656: 8650: 8649: 8648: 8647:National Bank 8645: 8644: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8632: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8586: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8568: 8565: 8564: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8532: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8493: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8481: 8475: 8472: 8468: 8465: 8464: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8441: 8438: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8425: 8424: 8423:Ruanda-Urundi 8421: 8419: 8416: 8412: 8409: 8408: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8393: 8391: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8370: 8365: 8363: 8358: 8356: 8351: 8350: 8347: 8340: 8339:Africa portal 8329: 8314: 8310: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8288: 8284: 8278: 8274: 8273: 8267: 8256: 8252: 8246: 8242: 8241: 8235: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8192: 8188: 8181: 8176: 8161: 8154: 8149: 8137: 8133: 8128: 8117: 8113: 8107: 8103: 8102: 8096: 8084: 8080: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8048: 8033: 8026: 8021: 8009: 8005: 8004:Washingtonian 8001: 7996: 7981: 7977: 7970: 7969: 7964: 7960: 7954: 7950: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7928: 7924: 7918: 7914: 7909: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7874: 7870: 7864: 7860: 7859: 7853: 7842: 7838: 7832: 7828: 7827: 7821: 7819: 7815: 7812: 7808: 7807: 7803: 7800: 7789: 7785: 7779: 7775: 7774: 7768: 7756: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7729: 7725: 7724: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7700: 7696: 7691: 7679: 7675: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7653: 7649: 7643: 7639: 7638: 7633: 7629: 7614: 7607: 7602: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7566: 7562: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7547: 7545:9789970050185 7541: 7537: 7532: 7517: 7510: 7505: 7501: 7495: 7491: 7486: 7485: 7479: 7475: 7464: 7460: 7454: 7450: 7449: 7444: 7440: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7415: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7390: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7365: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7340: 7329: 7325: 7319: 7315: 7314: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7284: 7272: 7268: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7246: 7242: 7240:9781107678095 7236: 7232: 7231: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7212: 7208: 7203: 7192: 7188: 7182: 7178: 7177: 7171: 7160: 7156: 7150: 7146: 7145: 7139: 7128: 7124: 7118: 7114: 7113: 7107: 7096: 7092: 7086: 7082: 7081: 7075: 7064: 7060: 7054: 7050: 7049: 7043: 7032: 7028: 7022: 7018: 7017: 7011: 7004: 7003: 6998: 6994: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6973:"Scar tissue" 6969: 6965: 6963:9780299298203 6959: 6955: 6950: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6925: 6914: 6910: 6904: 6900: 6899: 6893: 6882: 6878: 6872: 6868: 6867: 6861: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6804: 6798: 6794: 6788: 6784: 6779: 6768: 6764: 6762:1-56432-171-1 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6732: 6728: 6723: 6711: 6707: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6685: 6681: 6675: 6671: 6670: 6664: 6653: 6649: 6647:9781139499408 6643: 6639: 6638: 6632: 6621: 6617: 6611: 6607: 6606: 6600: 6589: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6564: 6560: 6554: 6550: 6549: 6543: 6532: 6528: 6522: 6518: 6517: 6511: 6496: 6492: 6485: 6480: 6468: 6464: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6441: 6437: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6414: 6410: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6387: 6383: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6360: 6356: 6351: 6339: 6335: 6330: 6318: 6314: 6309: 6297: 6293: 6288: 6276: 6272: 6267: 6255: 6251: 6246: 6235: 6231: 6225: 6221: 6220: 6214: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6174: 6170: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6134: 6133: 6127: 6116: 6112: 6106: 6102: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6082: 6077: 6070: 6065: 6058: 6053: 6046: 6045:BBC News (II) 6041: 6039: 6031: 6026: 6019: 6014: 6007: 6002: 5996:, p. 18. 5995: 5990: 5983: 5978: 5971: 5970:Brittain 1999 5966: 5959: 5954: 5947: 5942: 5935: 5930: 5923: 5918: 5911: 5906: 5899: 5894: 5887: 5882: 5880: 5872: 5867: 5860: 5855: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5841: 5836: 5829: 5824: 5817: 5816:Siddique 1994 5812: 5805: 5800: 5793: 5788: 5770: 5763: 5756: 5751: 5744: 5739: 5732: 5727: 5720: 5715: 5708: 5703: 5696: 5691: 5684: 5679: 5673:, p. 42. 5672: 5667: 5660: 5655: 5648: 5643: 5636: 5631: 5624: 5619: 5612: 5607: 5600: 5595: 5588: 5583: 5576: 5571: 5569: 5562:, p. 14. 5561: 5556: 5549: 5544: 5537:. p. 49. 5536: 5532: 5525: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5494: 5487: 5482: 5480: 5472: 5467: 5460: 5455: 5448: 5443: 5437:, p. ix. 5436: 5431: 5424: 5419: 5404: 5403:The New Times 5400: 5393: 5386: 5381: 5374: 5369: 5362: 5357: 5350: 5345: 5338: 5333: 5326: 5321: 5314: 5309: 5302: 5301:Dallaire 2003 5297: 5290: 5285: 5278: 5273: 5266: 5265:MINFOTRA 2015 5261: 5254: 5253:Dallaire 2003 5249: 5242: 5237: 5230: 5229:Dallaire 2003 5225: 5218: 5217:Dallaire 2003 5213: 5211: 5209: 5207: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5182: 5175: 5170: 5164:, p. 27. 5163: 5158: 5151: 5146: 5139: 5134: 5132: 5130: 5122: 5117: 5110: 5109:Dallaire 2003 5105: 5098: 5097:Dallaire 2003 5093: 5086: 5085:Dallaire 2003 5081: 5074: 5073:Dallaire 2003 5069: 5067: 5059: 5058:Dallaire 2003 5054: 5052: 5044: 5043:Dallaire 2003 5039: 5032: 5031:Dallaire 2003 5027: 5020: 5019:Dallaire 2003 5015: 5013: 5005: 5000: 4993: 4992:Dallaire 2003 4988: 4986: 4978: 4973: 4971: 4969: 4961: 4956: 4949: 4948:Dallaire 2003 4944: 4937: 4932: 4925: 4920: 4913: 4912:Dallaire 2003 4908: 4906: 4898: 4893: 4886: 4881: 4874: 4869: 4862: 4857: 4850: 4845: 4838: 4833: 4826: 4821: 4814: 4809: 4802: 4797: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4776: 4769: 4764: 4757: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4738: 4737:Dallaire 2003 4733: 4731: 4724:, p. 42. 4723: 4722:Dallaire 2003 4718: 4712:, p. 98. 4711: 4710:Dallaire 2003 4706: 4699: 4694: 4687: 4682: 4680: 4672: 4667: 4665: 4663: 4655: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4639:, p. 25. 4638: 4633: 4626: 4621: 4619: 4611: 4610:Dallaire 2003 4606: 4599: 4594: 4587: 4582: 4580: 4572: 4567: 4560: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4543: 4538: 4531: 4526: 4524: 4516: 4511: 4509: 4501: 4496: 4494: 4492: 4484: 4479: 4477: 4470:, p. 81. 4469: 4464: 4462: 4454: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4434:, p. 20. 4433: 4428: 4426: 4418: 4413: 4407:, p. 80. 4406: 4401: 4394: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4372:, p. xx. 4371: 4370:Dallaire 2003 4366: 4359: 4354: 4352: 4350: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4336: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4317: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4298: 4290: 4285: 4278: 4273: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4259: 4254: 4247: 4242: 4240: 4232: 4227: 4220: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4203: 4198: 4191: 4186: 4179: 4174: 4172: 4164: 4159: 4152: 4147: 4140: 4135: 4133: 4125: 4120: 4114:, p. 69. 4113: 4108: 4101: 4096: 4089: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4072: 4067: 4061:, p. 97. 4060: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4043: 4039: 4034: 4027: 4022: 4016:, p. 98. 4015: 4010: 4008: 4000: 3995: 3993: 3985: 3980: 3974:, p. 96. 3973: 3968: 3962:, p. 91. 3961: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3945:, p. 90. 3944: 3939: 3932: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3915: 3910: 3908: 3901:, p. 89. 3900: 3895: 3893: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3877: 3872: 3870: 3863:, p. 88. 3862: 3857: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3837: 3832: 3826:, p. 87. 3825: 3820: 3818: 3810: 3805: 3798: 3793: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3761: 3756: 3754: 3746: 3741: 3735:, p. 82. 3734: 3729: 3723:, p. 83. 3722: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3705: 3700: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3682: 3674: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3651: 3646: 3639: 3634: 3627: 3622: 3616:, p. 80. 3615: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3598: 3593: 3587:, p. 79. 3586: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3569: 3564: 3558:, p. 76. 3557: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3538: 3533: 3527:, p. 67. 3526: 3521: 3515:, p. 63. 3514: 3509: 3503:, p. 64. 3502: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3485: 3480: 3473: 3468: 3461: 3456: 3450:, p. 16. 3449: 3444: 3437: 3432: 3425: 3420: 3414:, p. 96. 3413: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3397:, p. 78. 3396: 3391: 3384: 3379: 3377: 3370:, p. 88. 3369: 3364: 3357: 3352: 3345: 3340: 3333: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3317:, p. 14. 3316: 3311: 3305:, p. 27. 3304: 3299: 3293:, p. 34. 3292: 3287: 3285: 3277: 3272: 3265: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3247:, p. 14. 3246: 3241: 3234: 3229: 3227: 3219: 3214: 3207: 3202: 3196:, p. 94. 3195: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3178: 3173: 3167:, p. 65. 3166: 3161: 3155:, p. 93. 3154: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3138:, p. 62. 3137: 3132: 3125: 3120: 3114:, p. 61. 3113: 3108: 3106: 3098: 3093: 3087:, p. 57. 3086: 3081: 3074: 3069: 3062: 3057: 3050: 3045: 3038: 3033: 3027:, p. 33. 3026: 3021: 3015:, p. 53. 3014: 3009: 3007: 3000:, p. 31. 2999: 2994: 2988:, p. 34. 2987: 2982: 2980: 2973:, p. 80. 2972: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2955: 2950: 2944:, p. 29. 2943: 2938: 2931: 2926: 2924: 2916: 2911: 2904: 2899: 2893:, p. 47. 2892: 2887: 2881:, p. 70. 2880: 2875: 2869:, p. 24. 2868: 2863: 2857:, p. 22. 2856: 2851: 2849: 2842:, p. 19. 2841: 2836: 2830:, p. 69. 2829: 2824: 2822: 2815:, p. 63. 2814: 2809: 2802: 2797: 2790: 2785: 2779:, p. 39. 2778: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2762:, p. 68. 2761: 2756: 2749: 2744: 2738:, p. 67. 2737: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2721:, p. 90. 2720: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2703: 2698: 2692:, p. 86. 2691: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2675:, p. 85. 2674: 2669: 2663:, p. 84. 2662: 2657: 2650: 2645: 2638: 2633: 2626: 2621: 2619: 2612:, p. 57. 2611: 2606: 2600:, p. 34. 2599: 2594: 2592: 2585:, p. 54. 2584: 2579: 2573:, p. 56. 2572: 2567: 2565: 2558:, p. 55. 2557: 2552: 2550: 2542: 2537: 2530: 2525: 2519:, p. 21. 2518: 2517:Mayersen 2010 2513: 2507:, p. 62. 2506: 2501: 2494: 2489: 2482: 2477: 2470: 2465: 2458: 2453: 2446: 2441: 2439: 2431: 2426: 2419: 2414: 2407: 2402: 2395: 2390: 2384:, p. 24. 2383: 2378: 2372:, p. 43. 2371: 2366: 2359: 2354: 2347: 2342: 2335: 2330: 2323: 2318: 2312:, p. 35. 2311: 2306: 2299: 2294: 2287: 2286:Chrétien 2003 2282: 2276:, p. 26. 2275: 2270: 2263: 2258: 2251: 2250:Chrétien 2003 2246: 2240:, p. 17. 2239: 2234: 2228:, p. 25. 2227: 2222: 2216:, p. 24. 2215: 2210: 2203: 2198: 2191: 2186: 2180:, p. 13. 2179: 2174: 2168:, p. 69. 2167: 2162: 2156:, p. 38. 2155: 2150: 2143: 2142:Chrétien 2003 2138: 2136: 2128: 2127:Chrétien 2003 2123: 2116: 2115:Chrétien 2003 2111: 2104: 2099: 2093:, p. 69. 2092: 2091:Chrétien 2003 2087: 2081:, p. 58. 2080: 2075: 2069:, p. 16. 2068: 2063: 2057:, p. 12. 2056: 2051: 2045:, p. 75. 2044: 2039: 2033:, p. 58. 2032: 2031:Chrétien 2003 2027: 2021:, p. 61. 2020: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2004:, p. 44. 2003: 2002:Chrétien 2003 1998: 1991: 1990:Dallaire 2003 1986: 1984: 1976: 1971: 1969: 1961: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1947: 1934: 1933:Knight Ridder 1928: 1921: 1915: 1911: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1871: 1870:national army 1866: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1801: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1752: 1748: 1746: 1735: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1668: 1667:William Perry 1664: 1660: 1655: 1646: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1616: 1605: 1602: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1560: 1550: 1546: 1544: 1538: 1534: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1510:Dar es Salaam 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1494:was shot down 1483: 1478: 1468: 1466: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1420: 1414: 1408: 1406: 1405: 1404:Impuzamugambi 1400: 1399: 1394: 1388: 1386: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1328: 1327:Rwandan franc 1318: 1315: 1305: 1296: 1293: 1287: 1284: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1257: 1255: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1238:Liberal Party 1235: 1231: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1199: 1193: 1188: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1149: 1146: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1131:, one of the 1130: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1082: 1079: 1078:fait accompli 1075: 1070: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1032: 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