1668:
1659:
958:
1061:
they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned. Consequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still relatively republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break-away
1092:
967:
1425:
Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became more lengthy. Rome was a warlike society and very seldom did not wage war. So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as
1075:
in their early twenties, and possibly younger, without the significant political careers behind them that was normal previously. As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senatorsâthe automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian
53:
1535:, the consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities. Though still officially the highest office of the state, they were merely a symbol of Rome's republican heritage. One of the two consular positions was often occupied by emperors themselves, especially from the 3rd century onwards. However, the imperial consuls maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate. They could also administer matters of justice, and organize games (
1332:
1303:, were subordinate to them, but retained independence of office. The internal machinery of the Republic was under the consuls' supervision. In order to allow the consuls greater authority in executing laws, the consuls had the right of summons and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgement. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates.
1014:
and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome. It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others. Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, as consuls, even without regard to the age requirements.
1461:
see the sentence overturned. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually perform the office's duties every month and could act without direct interference. In the next month, the consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the consular term.
949:(which elected the lower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared, and so for the purposes of the consular elections, there came to be just a single "assembly of the people" which elected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps.
1424:
who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the
Republic, Rome's enemies were located in central
1087:
when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor. All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by the final years of the 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships
1460:
his colleague consul. Therefore, except in the provinces as commanders-in-chief where each consul's power was supreme, the consuls could only act not against each other's determined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague, which, if successful, would
1038:
emperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after a period of four months, and the elections were moved to 12 January of the year in which they were to hold office. Election of the consuls were transferred to the Senate during the
Flavian or Antonine periods, although through to the 3rd century,
1074:
into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions, meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls. This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men
1029:
to remodel the suffect consulate, allowing more than the two elected for the ordinary consulate. During the reigns of the Julio-Claudians, the ordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished their office mid-year, with the election for the suffect consuls occurring at the same time as that
1013:
The imperial consulate during the
Principate (until the 3rd century) was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administrationâonly former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa
1467:
There were also three other restrictions on consular power. Their term in office was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between consulships.
1060:
tended, over time, to devalue the office. However, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. If
789:
Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administrative, legislative, and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by the highest state officials.
1264:
of the state and headed the government of the
Republic. Initially, the consuls held vast executive and judicial power. In the gradual development of the Roman legal system, however, some important functions were detached from the consulship and assigned to new officers. Thus, in 443 BC, the
1502:
in any other province was illegal. Also, a proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years.
777:
The consulship was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the
Republic in 509 BC, but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC, when the consulship was supposedly replaced with a board of
1561:, although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar". The date the consuls took office varied: from 222 BC to 153 BC they took office 15 March, and due to the
1416:
Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally.
1257:, the consuls were given the remaining civil and military responsibilities. To prevent abuse of the kingly power, this authority was shared by two consuls, each of whom could veto the other's actions, with short annual terms.
888:
During times of war, the primary qualification for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the
1322:(Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the
881:), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. It is possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls,
1314:
of the Roman state. Before any foreign ambassadors reached the Senate, they met with the consuls. The consul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and they alone negotiated between the Senate and foreign states.
1436:
The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as
1667:
1658:
1515:
was appointed by the consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate. While the dictator held office, the imperium of the consuls was subordinate to the dictator.
1138:(r. 379â395), the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consulsâalthough on occasion an emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. In the
1318:
The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. The consuls served as president of the Senate, one at a time, alternating every month. They could also summon any of the three
782:, which was elected whenever the military needs of the state were significant enough to warrant the election of more than the usual two consuls. These remained in place until the office was
1553:
in a monarchy. For instance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and
Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were
1150:âhad come to involve considerable expense; part of the expense had to be covered by the state. At times the consulship was given to teenagers or even children, as in the cases of
1039:
the people were still called on to ratify the Senate's selections. The emperor did not assume the consulship of every year of his reign, but did nominate himself multiple times;
885:, came from a plebeian family. Another possible explanation is that during the 5th-century social struggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolized by a patrician elite.
2439:
1464:
Another point which acted as a check against consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office.
1413:. Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provided by Rome's allies.
797:
Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. They were elected by the
1243:
Traditionally, after the expulsion of the kings, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices: the consulship and the office of
2980:
2524:
832:
If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removed from office, another would be elected by the
1222:
In the west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowed upon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to
603:
1281:
in 366 BC. After this time, the consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate.
1065:
had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260â274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins.
921:
It would not be uncommon for the patrician consuls of the early
Republic to intersperse public office with agricultural labor. In Cicero's words:
1860:
1480:. The provinces to which each consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before the end of his consulship. Transferring his consular
1960:
735:, "to take counsel", but this is most likely a later gloss of the term, which probably derivesâin view of the joint nature of the officeâfrom
664:
Having two consuls created a check on the power of any one individual, in accordance with the republican belief that the powers of the former
2867:
903:
by law, the minimum age of election to consul became 43 or 42 years of age. This age requirement was later changed to 32 during the Empire.
3409:
675:(27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the
1306:
As part of their executive functions, the consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the
3451:
3439:
3498:
3414:
2413:
867:, was elected the following year. Nevertheless, the office remained largely in the hands of a few families, as only about fifteen
4786:
3424:
694:
serve as dual leaders of the country. They are however not heads of government, but only heads of state without executive power.
4731:
3419:
3153:
844:("ordinary consul")âheld more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls (see
596:
200:
576:
4701:
3526:
3053:
2833:
2801:
2782:
2552:
2483:
2433:
2342:
2300:
2252:
2225:
2178:
2060:
1998:
1587:
1068:
By the end of the 3rd century, much had changed. The loss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual encroachment of the
190:
1310:. Sometimes, in great emergencies, they might act on their own authority and responsibility. The consuls also served as the
877:
in 63 BC. Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the early
Republic (see
4791:
4666:
3819:
1146:. The consulship, bereft of any real power, continued to be a great honor, but the celebrations attending itâabove all the
906:
Beginning in the late
Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a
3372:
2577:
361:
3043:
2568:
2075:
Jehne, M. (2011) 'The rise of the consular as a social type in the third and second centuries BC' in Becket al. (eds.)
1774:
183:
166:
1189:. In the eastern court, the appointment to consulship became a part of the rite of proclamation of a new emperor from
925:: 'In those days senatorsâthat is, seniorsâwould live on their farms'. This practice was obsolete by the 2nd century.
715:, the powers and authority of the king were given to the newly instituted consulship. Originally, consuls were called
4711:
3471:
3038:
3033:
3009:
2860:
2641:
589:
161:
4726:
3399:
3048:
2975:
1549:
Roman dates were customarily kept according to the names of the two consuls who took office that year, much like a
1174:
178:
2992:
2925:
2396:
708:
668:
should be spread out into multiple offices. To that end, each consul could veto the actions of the other consul.
171:
2629:
1720:
in antiquity. Particularly in the imperial era, additional consulships after the first were noted by a trailing
3746:
3671:
3429:
1940:
1907:
1825:
1583:
690:
and is directly derived from the customs of the Roman
Republic. Equivalent to the consuls of ancient Rome, the
1142:, some Eastern consuls were never recognized by the emperor, who became a puppet of powerful generals such as
4817:
4242:
2152:
1757:
719:("leader"), referring to their duties as the chief military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of
691:
1289:
For the most part, power was divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the consuls were in the
4082:
3686:
3138:
2853:
1111:
4781:
4706:
4465:
3521:
3404:
2950:
1151:
2731:. Philological monographs of the American Philological Association. Vol. 36. London: Scholar Press.
1165:
In the 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparsely given, until it was allowed to lapse under
4741:
4405:
4297:
4067:
3839:
3661:
3569:
3434:
3377:
2792:
Derow, Peter Sidney (2012). "consul". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.).
2774:
2738:
2013:
Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A. edd., s.v. Iunius Brutus, Lucius
1035:
783:
374:
17:
1846:
RealencyclopÀdie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band IV, Halbband 7, Claudius mons-Cornificius
4761:
3854:
3809:
3736:
3656:
3604:
3594:
3546:
2893:
1762:
1558:
1253:
inherited the kings' position as royal priest and various religious functions were handed off to the
933:
Although throughout the early years of the Principate the consuls were still formally elected by the
860:
439:
141:
1868:
1420:
Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a
645:
elected two consuls to serve jointly for a one-year term. The consuls alternated each month holding
4362:
4272:
3781:
3761:
3756:
3741:
3694:
3634:
3589:
3391:
2617:
Robert Maxwell Ogilvie, Commentary on Livy, books 1â5, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965, pp. 404, 405.
987:
852:
811:. However, they formally assumed powers only after the ratification of their election in the older
43:
1498:
was limited to only a specified province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular
4771:
4751:
4691:
4681:
4671:
4077:
3766:
3666:
3646:
3561:
3551:
3256:
3196:
3176:
2888:
1095:
477:
1351:, who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguards. Each lictor held a
1054:
The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process, and the allocation of this office to
4812:
4776:
4766:
4716:
4696:
4510:
4485:
4450:
4332:
4057:
3704:
3466:
2997:
2528:
1932:
1899:
1785:
1562:
1261:
878:
825:
2572:
2542:
2332:
2290:
2215:
2168:
1393:
Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far more extensive in their role as
4746:
4676:
4500:
4252:
4052:
4047:
3844:
3751:
3676:
3639:
3624:
3599:
3579:
3481:
2242:
2050:
1988:
1752:
1476:
After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Senate to a province to administer as
1155:
873:("new men" with no consular background) were elected to the consulship until the election of
31:
1924:
1891:
895:, the sequence of offices pursued by the Roman who chose to pursue a political career. When
4756:
4721:
4410:
4277:
4177:
4102:
3967:
3930:
3306:
2970:
1300:
1139:
1099:
1004:
882:
863:
provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul,
119:
4400:
8:
4686:
4535:
4337:
4207:
4157:
3476:
3073:
1565:, from 153 BC onwards the consuls took office on 1 January. The practice of dating years
1377:
915:
799:
712:
642:
254:
637:âan ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspiredâafter that of the
4736:
4460:
4267:
4122:
4062:
3982:
3925:
3789:
3025:
3004:
2755:
2683:
1956:
1394:
1296:
1182:
1076:
979:
512:
151:
4375:
4370:
4222:
3977:
3937:
3915:
3123:
2829:
2819:
2807:
2797:
2778:
2687:
2675:
2637:
2548:
2479:
2429:
2338:
2296:
2248:
2221:
2174:
2056:
1994:
1969:
1936:
1925:
1903:
1892:
1821:
431:
424:
227:
4435:
4395:
4327:
4262:
4187:
4182:
3954:
3877:
3824:
3619:
3614:
3503:
3362:
3311:
3271:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3221:
3143:
3090:
3083:
3068:
3063:
2987:
2915:
2747:
2667:
2421:
1779:
1592:
1438:
1319:
1307:
1227:
1178:
1115:
996:
983:
813:
779:
553:
547:
540:
526:
355:
334:
279:
264:
259:
244:
128:
2446:
1990:
Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome During the Late Republic and Early Principate
1266:
4530:
4342:
4322:
4282:
4217:
4167:
4162:
4037:
3987:
3895:
3729:
3709:
3629:
3078:
2903:
2768:
2726:
2473:
2400:
2211:
2122:
A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius
1703:
1567:
1405:. When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls conducted the
1324:
1170:
1159:
1031:
1000:
658:
631:
to 27 BC). Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the
269:
2736:
Burgess, R. W. (1989). "Consuls and Consular Dating in the Later Roman Empire".
1375:
to show that a citizen could not be executed without a trial. Upon entering the
1091:
4585:
4227:
3962:
3910:
3882:
3829:
3814:
3794:
3609:
3584:
3541:
3531:
3357:
3331:
3261:
3246:
3211:
3171:
2932:
2194:
1512:
1494:
and governor of one (or several) of Rome's many provinces. As a proconsul, his
1477:
1453:
1442:
1410:
1311:
1274:
1223:
1131:
1107:
1022:
consul, which was probably a joke intended to belittle the Senate's authority.
911:
891:
864:
752:
633:
621:
558:
505:
349:
324:
233:
81:
1973:
4806:
4117:
4087:
4002:
3536:
3513:
3326:
3181:
3166:
3113:
2920:
2811:
2679:
2425:
1721:
1575:
1554:
1528:
1430:
1398:
1147:
1123:
1062:
1048:
966:
957:
676:
454:
304:
72:
2671:
2132:
2130:
4595:
4455:
3900:
3849:
3804:
3799:
3651:
3461:
3347:
3291:
3058:
2942:
2876:
2823:
1711:
1406:
1270:
1245:
1198:
1135:
808:
672:
665:
638:
367:
319:
215:
90:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2098:
4390:
4012:
3834:
3724:
3118:
2148:
2127:
1550:
1215:
1194:
1166:
1134:. Therefore, when the Empire was divided into two halves on the death of
410:
2052:
Reconstructing Honor in Roman Philippi: Carmen Christi as Cursus Pudorum
1927:
A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War
1894:
A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War
1193:(r. 565â578) on, and is last attested in the proclamation of the future
4615:
4555:
4520:
4312:
4247:
4237:
4132:
4017:
3905:
3488:
3456:
3201:
3128:
2960:
2955:
2759:
2722:
2475:
The Fasces: A History of Ancient Rome's Most Dangerous Political Symbol
2261:
2095:
1797:
1532:
1230:, then a child aged four or five, was made a Roman consul by the Pope.
1056:
1003:(a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for his consulate of the
869:
794:, an essential religious ritual, before leading armies into the field.
687:
491:
221:
101:
2845:
2393:
1706:
pronunciation of the word as /kĂ”Ësul/ or since an /n/ sound before a
1590:(being) the consuls", with 'being' implied, as it appears in Caesar's
1571:(from the supposed foundation date of Rome) was less frequently used.
4645:
4640:
4600:
4525:
4495:
4475:
4352:
4292:
4202:
4152:
4147:
4072:
4032:
3920:
3890:
3699:
3574:
3367:
3251:
3226:
3105:
2767:
Beck, Hans; DuplĂĄ, Antonio; Jehne, Martin; et al., eds. (2011).
1707:
1511:
In times of crisis, when Rome's territory was in immediate danger, a
1491:
1426:
1331:
1190:
1186:
1019:
907:
856:
763:
563:
533:
399:
381:
344:
2751:
2655:
2634:Ăpigraphie latine. Ostie : cent inscriptions dans leur contexte
52:
4605:
4590:
4580:
4565:
4480:
4470:
4440:
4430:
4425:
4415:
4317:
4232:
4112:
4097:
4027:
4007:
3997:
3992:
3972:
3771:
3352:
3316:
3206:
3133:
2965:
1524:
1482:
1421:
1363:
1291:
1203:
1143:
1088:
were hardly ever recorded by the first decades of the 4th century.
1044:
1040:
1026:
1015:
938:
819:
804:
791:
653:
498:
388:
299:
210:
108:
2770:
Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic
851:
According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for
4625:
4620:
4610:
4575:
4570:
4560:
4505:
4490:
4307:
4302:
4287:
4257:
4212:
4192:
4172:
4127:
3859:
3714:
3493:
3301:
3296:
3186:
2796:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 368â7.
1683:
1608:: 1 Septemberâ29 August (August had only 29 days in Ancient Rome)
1401:. It was in this function that the consuls were vested with full
1347:
Each consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve
1278:
1254:
1209:
1070:
1025:
The need for a pool of men to fill the consular positions forced
766:
716:
683:
484:
463:
314:
294:
2394:
e. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History
1219:", had been transformed to relatively lowly honorary dignities.
1197:(r. 641â668) as consul in 632. In the late 9th century, Emperor
840:("suffect consul"). A consul elected to start the yearâcalled a
4635:
4515:
4445:
4385:
4380:
4347:
4107:
4092:
4042:
4022:
3444:
3321:
3216:
1678:
1385:
to show that the powers of the consuls derive from the people.
1353:
1348:
874:
723:
became commonly used. Ancient writers usually derive the title
647:
519:
309:
1578:
construction is frequently used to express the date, such as "
1083:
upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves
4420:
4142:
3869:
3161:
1682:
commemorating the third consulate ("COS III") of the emperor
1456:
by consuls was prevented with each consul given the power to
1340:
1336:
1201:(r. 886â912) finally abolished the office in Novel 94 of his
1181:
had already been abolished in 537, when Justinian introduced
1173:
the last holder, and the consulship of the East in 541, with
1126:(r. 306â337) was to assign one of the consuls to the city of
896:
756:
728:
2199:
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1
1207:. By that time, the Greek titles for consul and ex-consul, "
4630:
4197:
4137:
3719:
3095:
1714:
the previous vowel instead. The word was sometimes spelled
1537:
1457:
1299:, and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the
1127:
2720:
2375:
2351:
2276:
2136:
2108:
1273:. The second function taken from the consulship was their
651:(taking turns leading) when both were in Rome. A consul's
3191:
2314:
2312:
1962:
A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions
1169:(r. 527â565): the western consulship lapsed in 534, with
859:
win the right to stand for this supreme office, when the
470:
417:
1277:. Their position as chief judges was transferred to the
1102:
for AD 517) in consular garb, holding a sceptre and the
641:, which was reserved for former consuls. Each year, the
30:
This article is about political office. For a list, see
2527:, discusses the appointment of a dictator in regard to
941:. As the years progressed, the distinction between the
2363:
2309:
2721:
Bagnall, Roger S.; Cameron, Alan; Schwartz, Seth R.;
2656:"The Phonetics of Nasal-Fricative Sequences in Latin"
2334:
Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367â455
2295:. University of California Press. pp. 166, 249.
770:("the supreme general"), and later simply as áœÏαÏÎżÏ (
2608:(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), p. 64
2453:
1986:
786:
in 367 BC and the consulship was reintroduced.
2244:
Latin Historiography and Poetry in the Early Empire
1541:) and all public solemnities at their own expense.
2039:. United Kingdom: Pen & Sword Military, p. 216
2705:ĂlĂ©ments de phonĂ©tique et de morphologie du latin
1429:by his troops, and could request to be granted a
4804:
2292:Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius
1702:. The disappearance of the âšNâ© was based on the
1626:: 1 Octoberâ29 September (September had 29 days)
657:(military power) extended over Rome and all its
1106:, a piece of cloth used to signal the start of
1030:for the ordinary consuls. During reigns of the
620:was the highest elected public official of the
1782: â Government of France from 1799 to 1804
1506:
1357:, a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The
1233:
2861:
2240:
597:
1269:was taken from the consuls and given to the
751:, "sit down together with" or "next to". In
2523:(Routledge, 1982, 2nd ed. 2005), pp. 162ff
2478:. Oxford University Press. pp. 2, 12.
2288:
2170:Republicanism during the Early Roman Empire
1748:For a complete list of Roman consuls, see:
1715:
1693:
2868:
2854:
2766:
2055:. Cambridge University Press. p. 52.
1993:. Cambridge University Press. p. 53.
1987:Wirszubski, CH; Wirszubski, Chaim (1968).
1931:. University of California Press. p.
1898:. University of California Press. p.
1018:once said that he would appoint his horse
923:in agris erant tum senatores, id est senes
604:
590:
2166:
2048:
1743:
1580:M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus
2660:Transactions of the Philological Society
2567:
2289:Cameron, Alan; Long, Jacqueline (2018).
2210:
1922:
1889:
1858:
1820:. Oxford University Press. p. 104.
1371:, the lictors removed the axes from the
1330:
1090:
707:According to Roman tradition, after the
2875:
2818:
2735:
2632:, Maria Letizia Caldelli, Fausto Zevi,
2471:
2418:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
2411:
2381:
2369:
2357:
2318:
2241:Miller, John; Woodman, Anthony (2010).
1815:
1531:in 27 BC with the establishment of the
755:, the title was originally rendered as
14:
4805:
2653:
2540:
2330:
2173:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 168.
1955:
1843:
1818:The Constitution of the Roman Republic
937:, they were de facto nominated by the
836:to serve the remainder of the term as
2849:
2791:
2531:, in which case exceptions were made.
2459:
2414:"Alfred [Ălfred] (848/9â899)"
1803:
1295:(the city of Rome), they were at the
1226:, although he refused it. About 853,
1185:by the emperor's regnal year and the
702:
2547:. Infobase Publishing. p. 150.
1839:
1837:
1343:, depicting a consul and two lictors
1238:
845:
2593:Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar
2578:Dictionary of Classical Antiquities
1448:
1260:The consuls were invested with the
1162:, and the children of the emperor.
928:
24:
2508:War and society in the Roman World
1775:Constitution of the Roman Republic
1544:
1518:
1388:
1361:symbolized the military power, or
817:, which granted the consuls their
25:
4829:
2728:Consuls of the later Roman Empire
1852:
1834:
1644:: 1 Januaryâ29 December (29 days)
1582:", translated literally as "With
679:acting as the supreme authority.
2544:Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire
2442:from the original on 7 May 2019.
1692:In Roman inscriptions, the word
1666:
1657:
1175:Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius
965:
956:
51:
27:Political office in ancient Rome
2794:The Oxford classical dictionary
2713:
2694:
2647:
2620:
2611:
2606:Chronology of the Ancient World
2598:
2585:
2561:
2534:
2513:
2501:
2492:
2465:
2405:
2387:
2324:
2282:
2234:
2220:. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 137.
2204:
2187:
2160:
2142:
2114:
2082:
2069:
2042:
2029:
2016:
1724:: twice consul was abbreviated
1471:
1284:
671:After the establishment of the
2825:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
2037:Sulla: A Dictator Reconsidered
2007:
1980:
1949:
1916:
1883:
1867:. Brill Online. Archived from
1809:
1381:, the lictors would lower the
1265:responsibility to conduct the
682:The practice of dual leaders (
13:
1:
2217:Catalogue of Late Roman Coins
2049:Hellerman, Joseph H. (2005).
1844:KĂŒbler, B. (1900). "Consul".
1791:
1758:List of undated Roman consuls
625:
3440:Frontiers and fortifications
2630:Mireille CĂ©beillac-Gervasoni
2498:Polybius â Histories book VI
2447:UK public library membership
1859:Gizewski, Christian (2013).
1648:
1490:, the consul would become a
855:and only in 367 BC did
7:
3499:Decorations and punishments
2707:, Nathan, 1970, p. 75.
2420:. Oxford University Press.
1768:
1507:Appointment of the dictator
1234:Powers and responsibilities
686:) continues to this day in
10:
4834:
4406:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
2981:historiography of the fall
2775:Cambridge University Press
2521:Sulla, the Last Republican
2472:Brennan, T. Corey (2022).
1632:: 1 Julyâ29 June (29 days)
757:
697:
29:
4787:External wars and battles
4654:
4548:
4361:
3953:
3946:
3868:
3780:
3685:
3560:
3512:
3390:
3340:
3279:
3270:
3152:
3104:
3024:
2941:
2911:
2902:
2884:
2412:Wormald, Patrick (2006).
2337:. OUP. pp. 326â327.
1763:List of consuls designate
1620:: 13 Decemberâ12 December
1559:Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus
861:Licinio-Sextian rogations
743:, "get together" or from
440:Senatus consultum ultimum
335:Extraordinary magistrates
2654:DeLisi, Jessica (2021).
2541:Bunson, Matthew (2014).
2510:, ed. Rich & Shipley
2331:McEvoy, Meaghan (2013).
1816:Lintott, Andrew (2004).
1806:, p. 296, "Censor".
44:Politics of ancient Rome
4782:RomanâIranian relations
3257:Optimates and populares
2672:10.1111/1467-968X.12206
2167:Wilkinson, Sam (2012).
2077:Consuls and Res Publica
1923:Forsythe, Gary (2005).
1890:Forsythe, Gary (2005).
823:by enacting a law, the
4792:Civil wars and revolts
4058:Sextus Pompeius Festus
3705:Conflict of the Orders
3064:Legislative assemblies
2636:, Armand Colin, 2006,
2024:The Beginnings of Rome
1786:Consul (Gallic Empire)
1744:Lists of Roman consuls
1716:
1710:was omitted or solely
1694:
1563:Second Celtiberian War
1344:
1122:One of the reforms of
1119:
947:comitia populi tributa
897:Lucius Cornelius Sulla
879:Conflict of the Orders
826:lex curiata de imperio
201:Political institutions
4501:Simplicius of Cilicia
4253:Quintus Curtius Rufus
3482:Siege in Ancient Rome
3091:Executive magistrates
2247:. Brill. p. 90.
1848:. pp. 1112â1138.
1753:List of Roman consuls
1334:
1156:Valentinianus Galates
1094:
1043:was consul 13 times,
803:, which also elected
32:List of Roman consuls
4818:Ancient Roman titles
4511:Stephanus Byzantinus
4416:Eusebius of Caesaria
4278:Sidonius Apollinaris
3968:Ammianus Marcellinus
3307:Tribune of the plebs
2519:Arthur Keaveney, in
2426:10.1093/ref:odnb/183
2035:Telford, L. (2014).
1732:, four times consul
1301:tribune of the plebs
1100:Eastern Roman Empire
1081:ornamenta consularia
1079:(who were given the
1005:Western Roman Empire
916:senatorial provinces
883:Lucius Junius Brutus
280:Ordinary magistrates
4687:Distinguished women
4338:Velleius Paterculus
4178:Nicolaus Damascenus
4158:Marcellus Empiricus
3547:Republican currency
2723:Worp, Klaas Anthony
2581:. pp. 161â162.
2384:, pp. 963â964.
2360:, pp. 526â527.
2277:Bagnall et al. 1987
2201:(2010), pp. 296â297
2137:Bagnall et al. 1987
2109:Bagnall et al. 1987
1957:Abbott, Frank Frost
1871:on 10 November 2013
1638:: 15 Marchâ14 March
1600:Consular Dating Key
1555:Gaius Julius Caesar
1395:commanders-in-chief
1130:, and the other to
1077:praetorian prefects
643:Centuriate Assembly
4461:Phlegon of Tralles
4268:Seneca the Younger
3742:Naming conventions
3472:Personal equipment
3005:Later Roman Empire
2820:Kazhdan, Alexander
2399:2009-03-06 at the
1614:: 1 Augustâ31 July
1588:Marcus Pupius Piso
1378:comitia centuriata
1367:. When inside the
1345:
1297:head of government
1120:
943:comitia centuriata
935:comitia centuriata
834:comitia centuriata
800:comitia centuriata
790:Consuls also read
711:of the last king,
703:Under the Republic
513:Triumvir monetalis
447:Titles and honours
4800:
4799:
4762:Pontifices maximi
4544:
4543:
4401:Diogenes Laërtius
4223:Pliny the Younger
3978:Asconius Pedianus
3938:Romance languages
3810:Civil engineering
3552:Imperial currency
3425:Political control
3386:
3385:
3020:
3019:
2835:978-0-19-504652-6
2803:978-0-19-954556-8
2784:978-1-139-49719-0
2554:978-1-4381-1027-1
2485:978-0-19-764488-1
2445:(subscription or
2435:978-0-19-861412-8
2344:978-0-19-966481-8
2302:978-0-520-30208-2
2254:978-90-474-3099-5
2227:978-0-88402-193-3
2193:Michael Gagarin,
2180:978-1-4411-4341-9
2062:978-1-139-44641-9
2000:978-0-521-06848-2
1865:Brill's New Pauly
1576:ablative absolute
1527:became the first
1239:Republican duties
842:consul ordinarius
780:consular tribunes
614:
613:
432:Quaestio perpetua
425:Senatus consultum
228:Roman citizenship
16:(Redirected from
4825:
4752:Magistri equitum
4667:Cities and towns
4660:
4586:Constantinopolis
4396:Diodorus Siculus
4328:Valerius Maximus
4263:Seneca the Elder
4183:Nonius Marcellus
3951:
3950:
3504:Hippika gymnasia
3467:Infantry tactics
3373:Consular tribune
3363:Magister equitum
3312:Military tribune
3277:
3276:
3237:Pontifex maximus
3232:Princeps senatus
3222:Magister militum
2988:Byzantine Empire
2909:
2908:
2870:
2863:
2856:
2847:
2846:
2838:
2815:
2788:
2763:
2732:
2708:
2703:Pierre Monteil,
2702:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2651:
2645:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2609:
2604:E.J. Bickerman,
2602:
2596:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2538:
2532:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2490:
2489:
2469:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2443:
2409:
2403:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2307:
2306:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2259:
2258:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2212:Grierson, Philip
2208:
2202:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2164:
2158:
2146:
2140:
2134:
2125:
2118:
2112:
2106:
2093:
2086:
2080:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2046:
2040:
2033:
2027:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1968:. Boston: Ginn.
1967:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1930:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1897:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1841:
1832:
1831:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1780:French Consulate
1739:
1735:
1731:
1728:, thrice consul
1727:
1719:
1701:
1698:was abbreviated
1697:
1670:
1661:
1593:De Bello Gallico
1449:Abuse prevention
1439:Scipio Africanus
1320:Roman assemblies
1228:Alfred the Great
997:Consular diptych
984:consular diptych
980:Emperor Honorius
969:
960:
929:Under the Empire
838:consul suffectus
760:
759:
758:ÏÏÏαÏÎ·ÎłáœžÏ áœÏαÏÎżÏ
713:Tarquin Superbus
630:
627:
606:
599:
592:
548:Pontifex maximus
541:Princeps senatus
527:Magister militum
362:Consular tribune
356:Magister equitum
184:Augustan reforms
55:
39:
38:
21:
4833:
4832:
4828:
4827:
4826:
4824:
4823:
4822:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4796:
4658:
4656:
4650:
4540:
4376:AĂ«tius of Amida
4357:
4343:Verrius Flaccus
4323:Valerius Antias
4283:Silius Italicus
4218:Pliny the Elder
4163:Marcus Aurelius
4038:Cornelius Nepos
3988:Aurelius Victor
3942:
3864:
3776:
3710:Secessio plebis
3681:
3556:
3508:
3382:
3336:
3266:
3148:
3100:
3016:
2937:
2898:
2880:
2874:
2843:
2841:
2836:
2804:
2785:
2752:10.2307/1088213
2716:
2711:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2652:
2648:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2603:
2599:
2590:
2586:
2569:Seyffert, Oskar
2566:
2562:
2555:
2539:
2535:
2518:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2486:
2470:
2466:
2458:
2454:
2444:
2436:
2410:
2406:
2401:Wayback Machine
2392:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2368:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2310:
2303:
2287:
2283:
2275:
2262:
2255:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2209:
2205:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2165:
2161:
2147:
2143:
2139:, pp. 1â2.
2135:
2128:
2119:
2115:
2107:
2096:
2087:
2083:
2079:(Cambridge) 212
2074:
2070:
2063:
2047:
2043:
2034:
2030:
2026:, chapter 10.4.
2022:T. J. Cornell,
2021:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1985:
1981:
1965:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1888:
1884:
1874:
1872:
1857:
1853:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1814:
1810:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1771:
1746:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1704:classical Latin
1699:
1690:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1663:
1662:
1651:
1584:Marcus Messalla
1568:ab urbe condita
1547:
1545:Consular dating
1521:
1519:Imperial duties
1509:
1486:to proconsular
1474:
1451:
1441:was accused by
1391:
1389:Military sphere
1335:Gold coin from
1325:praetor urbanus
1312:chief diplomats
1287:
1262:executive power
1241:
1236:
1179:Consular dating
1171:Decius Paulinus
1160:Olybrius Junior
1098:(consul of the
1011:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1001:Constantius III
991:
972:
971:
970:
962:
961:
931:
846:consular dating
814:comitia curiata
705:
700:
692:Captains Regent
628:
610:
581:
577:Other countries
568:
437:
394:
329:
274:
239:
195:
172:Sullan republic
137:
133:
124:
115:
111:
104:
94:
85:
76:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4831:
4821:
4820:
4815:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4663:
4661:
4652:
4651:
4649:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4367:
4365:
4359:
4358:
4356:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4228:Pomponius Mela
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
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4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3963:Aelius Donatus
3959:
3957:
3948:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3931:Ecclesiastical
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3885:
3880:
3874:
3872:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3786:
3784:
3778:
3777:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3733:
3732:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3691:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3672:Toys and games
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3643:
3642:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3572:
3566:
3564:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3518:
3516:
3510:
3509:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3454:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3396:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3283:
3281:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3265:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3212:Vigintisexviri
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3172:Cursus honorum
3169:
3164:
3158:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3110:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3030:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2995:
2985:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2971:Western Empire
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2947:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2873:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2850:
2840:
2839:
2834:
2822:, ed. (1991),
2816:
2802:
2789:
2783:
2764:
2746:(2): 143â157.
2733:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2693:
2646:
2619:
2610:
2597:
2584:
2560:
2553:
2533:
2512:
2500:
2491:
2484:
2464:
2462:, p. 368.
2452:
2434:
2404:
2386:
2374:
2372:, p. 526.
2362:
2350:
2343:
2323:
2321:, p. 527.
2308:
2301:
2281:
2260:
2253:
2233:
2226:
2203:
2195:Elaine Fantham
2186:
2179:
2159:
2141:
2126:
2120:Bury, John B,
2113:
2094:
2081:
2068:
2061:
2041:
2028:
2015:
2006:
1999:
1979:
1948:
1941:
1915:
1908:
1882:
1851:
1833:
1826:
1808:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1745:
1742:
1675:
1674:
1665:
1664:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1615:
1609:
1574:In Latin, the
1546:
1543:
1520:
1517:
1508:
1505:
1473:
1470:
1454:Abuse of power
1450:
1447:
1411:Campus Martius
1390:
1387:
1286:
1283:
1275:judicial power
1240:
1237:
1235:
1232:
1224:Charles Martel
1140:Western Empire
1132:Constantinople
1114:. Ivory panel
974:
973:
964:
963:
955:
954:
953:
952:
951:
930:
927:
914:of one of the
912:Roman governor
899:regulated the
892:cursus honorum
865:Lucius Sextius
704:
701:
699:
696:
634:cursus honorum
622:Roman Republic
612:
611:
609:
608:
601:
594:
586:
583:
582:
580:
579:
573:
570:
569:
567:
566:
561:
556:
551:
544:
537:
530:
523:
516:
509:
506:Vigintisexviri
502:
495:
488:
481:
474:
467:
459:
458:
457:
449:
448:
444:
443:
436:
435:
428:
421:
414:
406:
403:
402:
396:
395:
393:
392:
385:
378:
371:
364:
359:
352:
347:
341:
338:
337:
331:
330:
328:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
286:
283:
282:
276:
275:
273:
272:
267:
262:
257:
251:
248:
247:
241:
240:
238:
237:
234:Cursus honorum
230:
225:
218:
213:
207:
204:
203:
197:
196:
194:
193:
188:
187:
186:
176:
175:
174:
164:
158:
155:
154:
148:
147:
146:
145:
136:
135:
126:
116:
114:
113:
106:
105:27 BC â AD 284
98:
97:
96:
95:27 BC â AD 395
87:
82:Roman Republic
78:
66:
65:
61:
60:
57:
56:
48:
47:
42:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4830:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4813:Roman consuls
4811:
4810:
4808:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4653:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4547:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4360:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4118:Julius Paulus
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4053:Fabius Pictor
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3952:
3949:
3945:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3867:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3790:Amphitheatres
3788:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3688:
3684:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3527:Deforestation
3525:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3517:
3515:
3511:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3477:Siege engines
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3410:Establishment
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3341:Extraordinary
3339:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3327:Promagistrate
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3114:Twelve Tables
3112:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2986:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2931:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2878:
2871:
2866:
2864:
2859:
2857:
2852:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2799:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2718:
2706:
2697:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2650:
2644:, p. 34.
2643:
2642:2-200-21774-9
2639:
2635:
2631:
2623:
2614:
2607:
2601:
2594:
2588:
2580:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2564:
2556:
2550:
2546:
2545:
2537:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2509:
2504:
2495:
2487:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2468:
2461:
2456:
2448:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2390:
2383:
2378:
2371:
2366:
2359:
2354:
2346:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2327:
2320:
2315:
2313:
2304:
2298:
2294:
2293:
2285:
2278:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2256:
2250:
2246:
2245:
2237:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2207:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2182:
2176:
2172:
2171:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2154:Roman History
2150:
2145:
2138:
2133:
2131:
2124:(1893), p. 29
2123:
2117:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2091:
2085:
2078:
2072:
2064:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2045:
2038:
2032:
2025:
2019:
2010:
2002:
1996:
1992:
1991:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1952:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1928:
1919:
1911:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1886:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1855:
1847:
1840:
1838:
1829:
1823:
1819:
1812:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1741:
1723:
1722:Roman numeral
1718:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1696:
1685:
1681:
1680:
1669:
1660:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1529:Roman emperor
1526:
1516:
1514:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1469:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:Roman legions
1396:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1355:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1247:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1148:chariot races
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1124:Constantine I
1117:
1113:
1109:
1108:chariot races
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1072:
1066:
1064:
1063:Gallic Empire
1059:
1058:
1052:
1050:
1049:Theodosius II
1046:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1007:in 413 or 417
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
989:
985:
981:
977:
968:
959:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
926:
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917:
913:
909:
904:
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886:
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849:
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839:
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828:
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806:
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801:
795:
793:
787:
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773:
769:
768:
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746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
695:
693:
689:
685:
680:
678:
674:
669:
667:
666:kings of Rome
662:
660:
656:
655:
650:
649:
644:
640:
636:
635:
629: 509 BC
623:
619:
607:
602:
600:
595:
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588:
587:
585:
584:
578:
575:
574:
572:
571:
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560:
557:
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531:
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460:
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450:
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445:
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441:
434:
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429:
427:
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420:
419:
415:
413:
412:
408:
407:
405:
404:
401:
398:
397:
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386:
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379:
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365:
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360:
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348:
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343:
342:
340:
339:
336:
333:
332:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
305:Promagistrate
303:
301:
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288:
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268:
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144:
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139:
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132:
131:
127:
123:
122:
118:
117:
110:
107:
103:
100:
99:
93:
92:
88:
84:
83:
79:
75:
74:
73:Roman Kingdom
70:
69:
68:
67:
63:
62:
59:
58:
54:
50:
49:
45:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
4732:Institutions
4596:Leptis Magna
4549:Major cities
4456:Philostratus
4243:Quadrigarius
4063:Rufus Festus
3926:Contemporary
3647:Romanization
3570:Architecture
3286:
3177:Collegiality
3026:Constitution
2877:Ancient Rome
2842:
2824:
2793:
2769:
2743:
2737:
2727:
2714:Bibliography
2704:
2696:
2666:(1): 40â54.
2663:
2659:
2649:
2633:
2622:
2613:
2605:
2600:
2592:
2587:
2576:
2563:
2543:
2536:
2520:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2494:
2474:
2467:
2455:
2417:
2407:
2389:
2382:Kazhdan 1991
2377:
2370:Kazhdan 1991
2365:
2358:Kazhdan 1991
2353:
2333:
2326:
2319:Kazhdan 1991
2291:
2284:
2279:, p. 2.
2243:
2236:
2216:
2206:
2198:
2189:
2169:
2162:
2153:
2144:
2121:
2116:
2111:, p. 1.
2089:
2084:
2076:
2071:
2051:
2044:
2036:
2031:
2023:
2018:
2009:
1989:
1982:
1961:
1951:
1926:
1918:
1893:
1885:
1873:. Retrieved
1869:the original
1864:
1861:"Consul(es)"
1854:
1845:
1817:
1811:
1799:
1747:
1691:
1677:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1598:
1591:
1579:
1573:
1566:
1548:
1536:
1522:
1510:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1472:Governorship
1466:
1463:
1452:
1445:in 205 BC).
1435:
1419:
1415:
1402:
1392:
1382:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1339:, minted by
1323:
1317:
1305:
1290:
1288:
1285:Civil sphere
1259:
1251:rex sacrorum
1250:
1249:. While the
1246:rex sacrorum
1244:
1242:
1221:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1199:Leo the Wise
1164:
1136:Theodosius I
1121:
1103:
1084:
1080:
1069:
1067:
1057:homines novi
1055:
1053:
1024:
1012:
993:On the right
992:
975:
946:
942:
934:
932:
922:
920:
905:
900:
890:
887:
870:novi homines
868:
850:
841:
837:
833:
831:
824:
818:
812:
798:
796:
788:
776:
771:
762:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
724:
720:
706:
681:
670:
663:
652:
646:
632:
617:
615:
546:
539:
532:
525:
518:
511:
504:
497:
490:
483:
476:
469:
462:
438:
430:
423:
416:
409:
387:
380:
373:
366:
354:
289:
232:
220:
216:Collegiality
152:Constitution
140:
129:
120:
91:Roman Empire
89:
80:
71:
36:
4727:Geographers
4411:Dioscorides
4391:Cassius Dio
4013:Cassiodorus
3916:Renaissance
3522:Agriculture
3494:Auxiliaries
3435:Engineering
3272:Magistrates
3124:Citizenship
3119:Mos maiorum
3054:Late Empire
2701:(in French)
2627:(in French)
2595:Chapter XX.
2591:Suetonius'
2149:Cassius Dio
1551:regnal year
1216:apo hypaton
1195:Constans II
1167:Justinian I
1152:Varronianus
976:On the left
749:sell-/sedl-
411:Mos maiorum
191:Late Empire
134:AD 395â1453
4807:Categories
4616:Mediolanum
4556:Alexandria
4521:Themistius
4486:Porphyrius
4313:Tertullian
4248:Quintilian
4238:Propertius
4133:Lactantius
4083:Fulgentius
4018:Censorinus
3840:Sanitation
3825:Metallurgy
3782:Technology
3747:Demography
3695:Patricians
3662:Spectacles
3620:Literature
3615:Hairstyles
3452:Technology
3202:Praefectus
3154:Government
3144:Litigation
3129:Auctoritas
3074:Centuriate
2961:Principate
2956:Pax Romana
2916:Foundation
2742:(Review).
2573:"Consules"
2460:Derow 2012
1974:1069567291
1942:0520226518
1909:0520226518
1827:0198150687
1804:Derow 2012
1792:References
1636:222â154 BC
1630:392â329 BC
1624:402â393 BC
1618:449â403 BC
1612:478â451 BC
1606:509â479 BC
1533:Principate
1308:assemblies
1112:Hippodrome
1096:Anastasius
853:patricians
688:San Marino
492:Praefectus
400:Public law
255:Centuriate
245:Assemblies
222:Auctoritas
125:AD 395â476
112:AD 284â641
102:Principate
77:753â509 BC
18:Consulship
4772:Quaestors
4702:Empresses
4692:Dynasties
4682:Dictators
4657:and other
4646:Volubilis
4641:Vindobona
4601:Londinium
4526:Theodoret
4496:Procopius
4476:Polyaenus
4451:Pausanias
4353:Vitruvius
4298:Symmachus
4293:Suetonius
4203:Petronius
4188:Obsequens
4153:Macrobius
4148:Lucretius
4073:Frontinus
4048:Eutropius
4033:Columella
3983:Augustine
3973:Appuleius
3921:Neo-Latin
3896:Classical
3887:Versions
3795:Aqueducts
3737:Patronage
3657:Sexuality
3630:Mythology
3605:Education
3595:Cosmetics
3420:Campaigns
3415:Structure
3368:Decemviri
3227:Imperator
2926:overthrow
2812:959667246
2688:235546635
2680:0079-1636
2449:required)
1712:nasalized
1708:fricative
1649:Epigraphy
1642:153â46 BC
1492:proconsul
1427:imperator
1191:Justin II
1187:indiction
1020:Incitatus
908:proconsul
857:plebeians
784:abolished
764:strategos
733:consulere
727:from the
709:expulsion
659:provinces
534:Imperator
382:Decemviri
375:Triumviri
345:Corrector
86:509â27 BC
4777:Tribunes
4767:Praetors
4717:Generals
4697:Emperors
4606:Lugdunum
4591:Eboracum
4581:Carthage
4566:Aquileia
4481:Polybius
4471:Plutarch
4441:Libanius
4431:Josephus
4426:Herodian
4318:Tibullus
4233:Priscian
4208:Phaedrus
4168:Manilius
4113:Jordanes
4098:Hydatius
4028:Claudian
4008:Catullus
3998:Boëthius
3993:Ausonius
3911:Medieval
3883:Alphabet
3855:Theatres
3830:Numerals
3815:Concrete
3805:Circuses
3772:Bagaudae
3762:Adoption
3757:Marriage
3730:Assembly
3635:Religion
3610:Folklore
3590:Clothing
3585:Calendar
3542:Currency
3532:Commerce
3430:Strategy
3392:Military
3378:Triumvir
3358:Dictator
3353:Interrex
3332:Governor
3317:Quaestor
3280:Ordinary
3262:Province
3252:Tetrarch
3242:Augustus
3207:Vicarius
3197:Officium
3134:Imperium
3084:Plebeian
3044:Republic
2966:Dominate
2933:Republic
2894:Timeline
2725:(1987).
2571:(1895).
2440:Archived
2397:Archived
2214:(1992).
2156:, 59.14.
1959:(1901).
1769:See also
1734:cos iiii
1686:(AD 119)
1525:Augustus
1513:dictator
1500:imperium
1496:imperium
1488:imperium
1483:imperium
1478:governor
1422:quaestor
1403:imperium
1369:pomerium
1364:imperium
1292:pomerium
1279:praetors
1255:pontiffs
1204:Basilika
1144:Stilicho
1047:17, and
1045:Domitian
1041:Augustus
1036:Antonine
1027:Augustus
1016:Caligula
945:and the
939:princeps
820:imperium
805:praetors
792:auguries
717:praetors
654:imperium
564:Tetrarch
554:Augustus
499:Vicarius
478:Officium
389:Interrex
350:Dictator
325:Governor
300:Quaestor
265:Plebeian
211:Imperium
167:Republic
142:Timeline
109:Dominate
4747:Legions
4707:Fiction
4677:Consuls
4672:Climate
4626:Ravenna
4621:Pompeii
4611:Lutetia
4576:Bononia
4571:Berytus
4561:Antioch
4536:Zosimus
4531:Zonaras
4506:Sozomen
4491:Priscus
4466:Photius
4308:Terence
4303:Tacitus
4288:Statius
4273:Servius
4258:Sallust
4213:Plautus
4193:Orosius
4173:Martial
4128:Juvenal
4103:Hyginus
4088:Gellius
3947:Writers
3878:History
3860:Thermae
3850:Temples
3800:Bridges
3767:Slavery
3715:Equites
3687:Society
3667:Theatre
3640:Deities
3600:Cuisine
3580:Bathing
3562:Culture
3537:Finance
3514:Economy
3405:Borders
3400:History
3302:Tribune
3297:Praetor
3187:Legatus
3182:Emperor
3069:Curiate
3039:Kingdom
3034:History
3010:History
2993:decline
2951:History
2921:Kingdom
2904:History
2889:Outline
2760:1088213
2739:Phoenix
2197:, ed.,
1740:, etc.
1730:cos iii
1684:Hadrian
1431:triumph
1409:in the
1397:of all
1349:lictors
1271:censors
1213:" and "
1210:hypatos
1116:diptych
1110:at the
1085:cos. II
1071:equites
1032:Flavian
982:on the
809:censors
772:hypatos
767:hypatos
698:History
684:diarchy
677:Emperor
485:Praeses
464:Legatus
455:Emperor
315:Tribune
295:Praetor
260:Curiate
162:Kingdom
130:Eastern
121:Western
64:Periods
4757:Nomina
4742:Legacy
4722:Gentes
4659:topics
4655:Lists
4636:Smyrna
4516:Strabo
4446:Lucian
4436:Julian
4386:Arrian
4381:Appian
4371:Aelian
4348:Vergil
4123:Justin
4108:Jerome
4093:Horace
4078:Fronto
4068:Florus
4043:Ennius
4023:Cicero
4003:Caesar
3901:Vulgar
3725:Tribes
3652:Romans
3462:Legion
3445:castra
3322:Aedile
3292:Censor
3287:Consul
3247:Caesar
3217:Lictor
3139:Status
3079:Tribal
3059:Senate
3049:Empire
2943:Empire
2879:topics
2832:
2810:
2800:
2781:
2758:
2686:
2678:
2640:
2551:
2525:online
2482:
2432:
2341:
2299:
2251:
2224:
2177:
2059:
1997:
1972:
1939:
1906:
1875:2 July
1824:
1726:cos ii
1695:consul
1679:aureus
1523:After
1383:fasces
1373:fasces
1359:fasces
1354:fasces
1267:Census
1183:dating
990:(406)
988:Probus
910:, the
901:cursus
875:Cicero
725:consul
721:consul
673:Empire
648:fasces
639:censor
618:consul
559:Caesar
520:Lictor
320:Censor
310:Aedile
290:Consul
270:Tribal
179:Empire
4421:Galen
4363:Greek
4333:Varro
4143:Lucan
3955:Latin
3870:Latin
3845:Ships
3835:Roads
3820:Domes
3752:Women
3700:Plebs
3625:Music
3167:Forum
3162:Curia
2756:JSTOR
2684:S2CID
2529:Sulla
2088:Cic.
1966:(PDF)
1717:cosol
1341:Coson
1337:Dacia
1104:mappa
1051:18.
753:Greek
731:verb
729:Latin
4737:Laws
4712:Film
4631:Roma
4198:Ovid
4138:Livy
3906:Late
3720:Gens
3677:Wine
3489:Navy
3457:Army
3096:SPQR
2998:fall
2976:fall
2830:ISBN
2808:OCLC
2798:ISBN
2779:ISBN
2676:ISSN
2638:ISBN
2549:ISBN
2480:ISBN
2430:ISBN
2339:ISBN
2297:ISBN
2249:ISBN
2222:ISBN
2175:ISBN
2092:. 56
2057:ISBN
1995:ISBN
1970:OCLC
1937:ISBN
1904:ISBN
1877:2013
1822:ISBN
1586:and
1557:and
1538:ludi
1458:veto
1443:Cato
1407:levy
1128:Rome
1034:and
807:and
747:and
745:con-
741:sal-
739:and
737:con-
3891:Old
3575:Art
3348:Rex
3192:Dux
3106:Law
2748:doi
2668:doi
2664:119
2422:doi
2090:Sen
1933:237
1900:236
1736:or
1700:cos
1676:An
999:of
986:of
848:).
774:).
471:Dux
418:Ius
368:Rex
4809::
2828:,
2806:.
2777:.
2773:.
2754:.
2744:43
2682:.
2674:.
2662:.
2658:.
2575:.
2438:.
2428:.
2416:.
2311:^
2263:^
2151:,
2129:^
2097:^
1935:.
1902:.
1863:.
1836:^
1738:iv
1596:.
1433:.
1328:.
1177:.
1158:,
1154:,
995::
978::
918:.
829:.
761:,
661:.
626:c.
616:A
2869:e
2862:t
2855:v
2814:.
2787:.
2762:.
2750::
2690:.
2670::
2557:.
2488:.
2424::
2347:.
2305:.
2257:.
2230:.
2183:.
2065:.
2003:.
1976:.
1945:.
1912:.
1879:.
1830:.
1118:.
624:(
605:e
598:t
591:v
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
