370:
127:. In distillation, a mixture is heated until the more volatile components boil off, the vapors are condensed, and collected in a separate container. In reflux, a reaction involving volatile liquids is carried out at their boiling point, to speed it up; and the vapors that inevitably come off are condensed and returned to the reaction vessel. In Soxhlet extraction, a hot solvent is infused onto some powdered material, such as ground seeds, to leach out some poorly soluble component; the solvent is then automatically distilled out of the resulting solution, condensed, and infused again.
451:
403:
698:
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439:
427:
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78:
25:
463:
342:
753:(1869â1951) who invented it in 1904, consists of a wide glass tube with multiple internal glass "fingers" that point downwards. Each "finger" is created by melting a small section of the wall and pushing the soft glass inwards. The vapor that enters from the lower opening condenses on the fingers and drips down from them. It is usually air-cooled, but may have an outer glass jacket for forced fluid cooling.
570:
Gall, archivist of the
Institute of Science and Technology, Sheffield, England, the 1981 catalog of Adolf Gallenkamp & Co. of London (makers of scientific apparatus) states that the Davies condenser was invented by James Davies, a director of the Gallenkamp company. In 1904, Gallenkamp was offering "Davies' Condensers" for sale:. In 1920, Gallenkamp listed "J. Davies" as a director of the company.
803:
insulating dead air chamber (shaded). Vapor rises from a boiling flask into space (1), proceeds up through the space between tubes #2 and #3, then down the space between tubes #1 and #2, and finally up between tube #1 and the central rod. Arriving at space (3), vapor is then directed via a distillation head (glass branching adapter) to cooling and collection.
686:
672:, who published a design for this type of condenser in 1912. It consists of a large water-cooled finger tightly fitted inside a wide cylindrical housing. The finger has a helical ridge along its length, so as to leave a narrow helical path for the vapor. This arrangement forces the vapor to spend a long time in contact with the finger.
624:, is somewhat similar to the coil condenser; it has an internal double spiral through which coolant flows such that the coolant inlet and outlet are both at the top. The vapors travel through the jacket from bottom to top. Dimroth condensers are more effective than conventional coil condensers. They are often found in
360:
The neck of the retort is a classical example of a straight tube condenser. However, this kind of condenser may also be a separate piece of equipment. Straight tube condensers are no longer widely used in research laboratories, but may be used in special applications and simple school demonstrations.
223:
at that pressure. In most designs, the liquid is only a thin film on the inner surface of the condenser, so its temperature is essentially the same as of that surface. Therefore, the primary consideration in the design or choice of a condenser is to ensure that its inner surface is below the liquid's
802:
in the early 1920s, combining a
Golodetz-type arrangement of concentric tubes and the Dufton-type rod-with-spiral core. It consists of four concentric glass tubes and a central glass rod, with a thinner glass rod coiled around it to increase the surface area. The two outer tubes (#3 and #4) form an
643:
is a cooling device in the form of a vertical tube that is cooled from the inside, that is to be immersed in the vapor while supported at the upper end only. This may be either flow-cooled, with both coolant ports at the top, or open-topped where liquid or solid coolant is simply placed inside. The
569:
condenser, is similar to the Liebig condenser, but with three concentric glass tubes instead of two. The coolant circulates in both the outer jacket and the central tube. This increases the cooling surface, so that the condenser can be shorter than an equivalent Liebig condenser. According to Alan
288:
Moreover, if the gas is not pure vapor, condensation will create a layer of gas with even lower vapor contents right next to the condensing surface, further lowering the boiling point. Therefore, the condenser's design must be such that the gas is well-mixed and/or that all of it is forced to pass
130:
Many different types of condensers have been developed for different applications and processing volumes. The simplest and oldest condenser is just a long tube through which the vapors are directed, with the outside air providing the cooling. More commonly, a condenser has a separate tube or outer
765:
is a wide glass tube divided into sections (usually 3 to 6) by horizontal glass partitions or constrictions. Each partition has a hole, into which seats a hollow glass bead with an inverted "teardrop" shape. Vigreux-like glass "fingers" limit the vertical motion of each bead. These floating glass
385:
is another ancient type of air-cooled condenser. It consists of a roughly globular vessel with an opening at the bottom, through which the vapor is introduced. The vapor condenses on the inner wall of the vessel, and drips along it, collecting at the bottom of the head and then draining through a
505:
and popularized it. It consists of two concentric straight glass tubes, the inner one being longer and protruding at both extremities. The ends of the outer tube are sealed (usually by a blown glass ring seal), forming a water jacket, and is fitted with side ports near the ends for cooling fluid
324:
condensers are intended to return the liquid toward the source of the vapor, as required in reflux and fractional distillation. They are usually mounted vertically, above the source of the vapor, that enters them from the bottom. In both cases, the condensed liquid is allowed to flow back to the
202:
Designing and maintaining systems and processes using condensers requires that the heat of the entering vapor never overwhelm the ability of the chosen condenser and cooling mechanism; as well, the thermal gradients and material flows established are critical aspects, and as processes scale from
586:
has a coolant-jacketed spiral coil running the length of the condenser serving as the vaporâcondensate path. This is not to be confused with the coil condenser. The coiled condenser tubes inside will provide more surface area for cooling and for this reason it is most favorable to use but the
386:
tube to a collecting vessel below. A raised lip around the input opening prevents the liquid from spilling through it. As in the tube condenser, the heat of condensation is carried away by natural convection. Any vapor that does not condense in the head may still condense in the neck.
1004:
Heinz G. O. Becker, Werner Berger, GĂŒnter
Domschke, Egon FanghĂ€nel, JĂŒrgen Faust, Mechthild Fischer, Frithjof Gentz, Karl Gewald, Reiner Gluch, Roland Mayer, Klaus MĂŒller, Dietrich Pavel, Hermann Schmidt, Karl Schollberg, Klaus Schwetlick, Erika Seiler & GĂŒnter Zeppenfeld, 1973,
941:
Condensers with forced-circulation cooling usually employ water as the cooling fluid. The flow may be open, from a tap to a sink, and driven only by the water pressure in the tap. Alternatively, a closed system may be used, in which the water is drawn by a pump from a tank, possibly
644:
vapor is meant to condense on the rod and drip down from the free end, and eventually reach the collecting vessel. A cold finger may be a separate piece of equipment, or may be only a part of a condenser of another type. Cold fingers are also used to condense vapors produced by
252:
The condenser must also be dimensioned so that the condensed liquid can flow out at the maximum rate (mass over time) that the vapor is expected to enter it. Care must also be taken to prevent the boiling liquid to enter the condenser as splattering from
316:
condensers receive the vapor through one port and deliver the liquid through another port, as required in simple distillation. They are usually mounted vertically or tilted, with the vapor input at the top and the liquid output at the bottom.
603:
is essentially a Graham condenser with an inverted coolantâvapor configuration. It has a spiral coil running the length of the condenser through which coolant flows, and this coolant coil is jacketed by the vaporâcondensate path.
301:), one must consider the vapor pressure and the percentage of the gas for each component, which depends on the composition of the liquid as well as its temperature; and all these parameters typically vary along the condenser.
628:
which may use a more elaborate arrangement with several spirals. There also exists a version of
Dimroth condenser with an external jacket, like in a Davies condenser, to further increase the cooling surface.
916:. They are highly efficient for fractionating but they have significant holdup (the amount of liquid in the column during use) and their complexity makes them one of the more expensive types of glass column.
1549:
Johann
Friedrich Göttling (1794), "Beschreibung einer sehr bequemen KĂŒhlanstalt bey Destillationenen aus der Blase" (Description of a very convenient cooling apparatus during distillations from retorts),
946:, and returned to it. Water-cooled condensers are suitable for liquids with boiling points well above 0 °C, and can easily condense vapours with boiling points much higher than that of the water.
194:, all in the late 18th century. Several designs that are still in common use were developed and became popular in the 19th century, when chemistry became a widely practiced scientific discipline.
587:
drawback of this condenser is that as the vapors get condensed, it tends to move them up in the tube to evaporate which will also lead to the flooding of solution mixture. It may also be called
521:
is variant of the Liebig type, with a more slender design, with cone and socket. The fused-on narrower coolant jacket may render more efficient cooling with respect to coolant consumption.
265:
Additional considerations apply if the gas inside the condenser is not pure vapor of the desired liquid, but a mixture with gases that have a much lower boiling point (as may occur in
949:
Other cooling fluids may be used instead of water. Air with forced circulation can be effective enough for situations with high boiling point and low condensation rate. Conversely,
509:
Compared to the simple air-cooled tube, the Liebig condenser is more efficient at removing the heat of condensation and at maintaining the inner surface a stable low temperature.
353:, cooled only by the surrounding air. The tube is held in a vertical or oblique position, and the vapor is fed through the upper end. The heat of condensation is carried away by
89:. The vapor is then cooled as it goes through the inner tube of the condenser. There it becomes liquid again, and drips into the smaller collecting flask at right, immersed in a
830:. The tube can be the inner conduit of some other type, such as Liebig or Allhin. These columns can achieve theoretical plate counts of 1â2 per 5 cm of packed length.
652:, where the liquid or solid condensate is not intended to return to the source of the vapor (often used to protect vacuum pumps and/or prevent venting of harmful gasses).
389:
Still head type condensers are now rarely used in laboratories, and are usually topped by some other type of reflux condenser where most of the condensation takes place.
1048:
Ludwig's
Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants: Volume 2: Distillation, packed towers, petroleum fractionation, gas processing and dehydration
244:
of the condensation surface, by making the wall thinner, and/or by providing a sufficiently effective heat sink (such as circulating water) on the other side of it.
973:â23.6 °C). Open-topped cold fingers can use a wider variety of coolants since they allow solids to be inserted, and can be used with water ice, dry ice, and
240:
quickly enough to keep the temperature low enough, at the maximum rate of condensation that is expected to occur. This concern can be addressed by increasing the
538:
873:
771:
1177:
Stage, F. (1947). "Die
Kolonnen zur Laboratoriumsdestillation. Eine Ăbersicht ĂŒber den Entwicklungsstand der Kolonnen zur Destillation im Laboratorium".
497:
is the simplest design with circulating coolant, easy to build and inexpensive. It is named after Justus von Liebig, who perfected an earlier design by
183:
46:
889:
767:
881:
807:
795:
743:
373:
A glass still head, upside down. The rounded part was meant to be fitted on the top of the boiling flask. Black-and-white photo of object at the
273:
of its vapor must be considered when obtaining its condensation temperature. For example, if the gas entering the condenser is a mixture of 25%
2032:
906:
uses a spinning helical band (spun by a motor) inside a straight tube to increase the mixing of the upgoing vapor and downcoming reflux liquid.
834:
545:. A series of bulbs on the tube increases the surface area upon which the vapor constituents may condense. Ideally suited for laboratory-scale
158:
of an appropriate material is often used instead. The condenser may also be fused to a boiling flask as a single glassware item, as in the old
885:
766:
stoppers act as check valves, closing and opening with vapor flow, and enhancing vapor-condensate mixing. A Snyder column can be used with a
3261:
3240:
3350:
35:
1089:
285:(typical atmospheric pressure), the condensation surface must be kept below 48 °C, the boiling point of ethanol at 25 kPa.
81:
A distillation setup using a Liebig-type condenser (the tilted double-walled tube at the center). A liquid (not visible) in the
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1687:
1999:
1716:
1362:
1240:
1167:
1146:
1125:
1099:
1078:
1056:
1035:
1420:" Proceedings of the Second Conference of State Highway Testing Engineers and Chemists, Washington, D.C., Feb. 23-27, 1920.
236:, that tends to raise the temperature of the condenser's inner surface. Therefore, a condenser must be able to remove that
502:
191:
2025:
2937:
1014:
1009:(1st English ed., P.A. Ongly, Ed., B.J. Hazzard, Transl., cf. 5th German edn., 1965), Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley,
995:
369:
64:
1835:
Gunther, F.A.; Blinn, R.C.; Kolbezen, M.J.; Barkley, J.H.; Harris, W.D.; Simon, H.G. (1951). "Microestimation of 2-(
2914:
39:
833:
A large variety of packing materials and object shapes has been used, including beads, rings, or helices (such as
45:
Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any
645:
93:. The two hoses connected to the condenser circulate water through the space between the inner and outer walls.
138:
for chemical resistance, for ease of cleaning, and to allow visual monitoring of the operation; specifically,
3369:
3205:
3094:
2435:
2018:
1772:
1417:
203:
laboratory to pilot plant and beyond, the design of condenser systems becomes a precise engineering science.
1802:
1486:
2909:
669:
1588:
498:
179:
1610:
1045:
Coker, A. Kayode; Ludwig, Ernest E. (2010). "Distillation (Chapter 10) and Packed Towers (Chapter 14)".
826:. Its main component is a tube filled with small objects to increase the surface area and the number of
2985:
2954:
2866:
1633:
John
Andraos, Comments received from named scientists, 2005 e-mail from Gall, p. 28 ; posted at:
1063:
pp 1â268 (Ch. 10), 679-686 (Ch. 10 refs.), 483-678 (Ch. 14), 687-690 (Ch. 14 refs.), 691-696 (Biblio.).
902:
506:
inflow and outflow. The ends of the inner tube, that carries the vapor and condensed liquid, are open.
297:
Finally, if the input to the condenser is a mixture of two or more miscible liquids (as is the case in
1708:
Elsevier's
Dictionary of Chemoetymology: The Whys and Whences of Chemical Nomenclature and Terminology
1511:
1465:
131:
chamber through which water (or some other fluid) is circulated, to provide a more effective cooling.
3109:
2440:
1256:
782:
but higher boiling extract components (e.g., after the extraction of organic contaminants in soil).
2511:
806:
A so-called modified Widmer column design was reported as being in wide use, but undocumented, by
2944:
2861:
2325:
2114:
1665:
823:
298:
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in which case the result is a solid that adheres to the finger and must be scraped off, or as a
2295:
2264:
779:
1819:
1646:
1559:
1162:. Techniques and instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
2537:
2415:
2127:
1571:
2041:
1904:(Ph.D.) (in German). ZĂŒrich, der Schweiz: der Eidgenössischen Technischen Hochschule (ETH).
1537:
1523:
2833:
2493:
2335:
1871:
Wauchope, R. Don. (1975). "Solvent recovery and reuse with the
Kuderna-Danish evaporator".
1439:
1396:
1319:
1186:
1159:
Handbook of Laboratory Distillation: With an Introduction into the Pilot Plant Distillation
233:
163:
146:
and uneven heating by the condensing vapor. Some condensers for dedicated operations (like
8:
2521:
2330:
2245:
2182:
112: – that is, turn them into liquids – by cooling them down.
1443:
1323:
1231:
Laboratory Text for Organic Chemistry: A Source Book of Chemical and Physical Techniques
1190:
3048:
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2731:
2726:
2644:
2465:
1280:
1229:
827:
775:
450:
402:
151:
139:
82:
1536:). The condenser's construction is explained on pp. 8â9 and in a footnote on page 11;
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3306:
3114:
3104:
2881:
2685:
2516:
2430:
2425:
2177:
1995:
1931:
Widmer, Gustav (1924). "Ăber die fraktionierte Destillation kleiner Substanzmengen".
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175:
124:
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2670:
1733:
1554:(Pocket book for analysts and apothecaries), 15th ed. (Hoffmannische Buchhandlung,
1351:
Ludwig, Ernest E (1997). "Distillation (Chapter 8), and Packed Towers (Chapter 9)".
328:
The classification is not exclusive, since several types can be used in both modes.
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2619:
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1967:
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1327:
1215:
1194:
748:
488:
270:
266:
2609:
1734:"Lesson Learned from a Fire during Distillation: Choose the Appropriate Condenser"
685:
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1989:
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1115:
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1068:
1046:
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1018:
999:
974:
861:
697:
147:
154:
for airtight connection to the vapor source and the liquid receptacle; however,
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2624:
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2167:
2132:
2094:
2079:
1917:
1634:
1310:
966:
374:
278:
237:
216:
1510:
chemical distillation apparatuses], (Berlin, Germany: Julius Springer, 1911),
709:
150:) may be made of metal. In professional laboratories, condensers usually have
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3271:
3150:
2980:
2649:
2586:
2250:
2084:
1971:
1944:
1909:
1757:
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943:
841:
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220:
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143:
86:
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2851:
2779:
2614:
2400:
2355:
2272:
2240:
2223:
2202:
2192:
2122:
2104:
950:
913:
740:
621:
542:
116:
106:
90:
1529:
49:
cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.
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3053:
3013:
2949:
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2774:
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2754:
2716:
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2555:
2405:
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2162:
877:
639:
1884:
1856:
1788:
1418:
Standard and tentative methods of sampling and testing highway materials
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2420:
2390:
2345:
2340:
2320:
2290:
2187:
2089:
2010:
1291:
962:
926:, which are just a straight tube, can be used as a crude reflux column.
799:
541:(1854â1915). The Allihn-condenser consists of a long glass tube with a
354:
345:
Distillation setup using a retort and tube condenser, from a 1921 book.
282:
1354:
Applied Process Design for Chemical and Petrochemical Plants: Volume 2
3321:
3119:
2769:
2382:
2197:
2157:
2099:
1994:(7th ed.). Oxford, U.K.: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 10â12.
1451:
1331:
845:
649:
546:
438:
98:
1030:(7th ed.). Oxford, U.K.: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 8â14.
3266:
3145:
3135:
2891:
2800:
2764:
2445:
2395:
1286:. McGraw-Hill series in advanced chemistry. New York: McGraw Hill.
865:
849:
426:
414:
212:
77:
986:
Heinz G. O. Becker, Werner Berger, GĂŒnter Domschke, et al., 2009,
3286:
3281:
3079:
2736:
2711:
2701:
2629:
2450:
2410:
1430:
Jensen, William B. (2006). "The Origin of the Liebig Condenser".
1357:(3rd ed.). New York: Elsevier-Gulf Professional Publishing.
1051:(4th ed.). New York: Elsevier-Gulf Professional Publishing.
958:
954:
869:
341:
274:
965:
additives, can be used for liquids with low boiling point (like
932:
consist of multiple bulbous segments shaped like inverted pears.
675:
2639:
1805:("Excelsior condenser and Excelsior distillation attachment").
1555:
857:
853:
462:
159:
120:
115:
Condensers are routinely used in laboratory operations such as
219:
of the adjacent liquid; that is, the liquid must be below its
3256:
3235:
1533:
1508:
Zur Geschichte der Pharmazeutisch-Chemischen Destilliergerate
990:(23rd German edn., compl. rev. updated), Weinheim:Wiley-VCH,
135:
109:
211:
In order for a substance to condense from a pure vapor, the
2810:
2109:
1834:
1397:"Design methods for [industrial] reflux condensers"
1117:
Reactions and Syntheses in the Organic Chemistry Laboratory
241:
155:
1901:Ăber die fraktionierte Destillation kleiner Substanzmengen
1591:(Reflux condenser for analytical extraction apparatuses),
1574:(Reflux condenser for analytical extraction apparatuses),
1489:(The history of the invention of the "Liebig" condenser),
1843:-Butylphenoxy)isopropyl-2-chloroethyl Sulfite Residues".
1820:"Excelsior condenser and Excelsior distillation column,"
1487:"Geschichte der Erfindung des "Liebig'schen KĂŒhlapparat"
794:
was developed as a doctoral research project by student
1572:"RĂŒckflusskĂŒhler fĂŒr analytische Extractions-Apparate"
232:
As the vapor condenses, it releases the corresponding
1864:
1589:"RĂŒckflusskĂŒhler fĂŒr analytische Extractionsapparate"
309:
Most condensers can be divided in two broad classes.
174:
The water-cooled condenser, which was popularized by
1803:"Excelsior-KĂŒhler und Excelsior-Destillationaufsatz"
1394:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1067:Leonard, John; Lygo, Barry; Procter, Garry (1994).
770:concentrator to efficiently separate a low boiling
591:due to the application for which it was developed.
1279:
1228:
1066:
1007:Organicum: Practical Handbook of Organic Chemistry
1770:
3361:
1828:
1337:
912:have the same theory of operation as industrial
1134:
1091:Vogel's textbook of practical organic chemistry
1983:
1981:
1470:Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft
1416:United States Bureau of Public Roads (1921): "
1308:(2006), "The Origin of the Liebig Condenser",
988:Organikum: organisch-chemisches Grundpraktikum
2026:
1608:
1552:Taschenbuch fĂŒr ScheidekĂŒnstler und Apotheker
1087:
676:Refluxing and fractional distillation columns
1987:
1226:
1113:
1023:
85:at left is heated by the blue mantle to the
16:Laboratory apparatus used to condense vapors
2986:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
1978:
1958:Kyrides, L. P. (1940). "Fumaryl Chloride".
1206:Kyrides, L. P. (1940). "Fumaryl Chloride".
1138:The Manipulation of Air-Sensitive Compounds
1073:(2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
1044:
880:), etc. Specific combinations are known as
721:Some common fractional distillation columns
2033:
2019:
1988:Armarego, W.L.F.; Chai, Christina (2012).
1120:(1st ed.). University Science Books.
1094:(5th ed.). Longman or Prentice Hall.
134:Laboratory condensers are usually made of
1732:Ding, Yilun; Feng, Hongyan (2023-03-27).
1647:"Messrs. A. Gallenkamp and Co., Limited,"
1282:Laboratory Technique in Organic Chemistry
1235:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
1227:Pasto, Daniel J; Johnson, Carl R (1979).
1114:Tietze, Lutz F; Eicher, Theophil (1986).
1024:Armarego, W.L.F; Chai, Christina (2012).
304:
65:Learn how and when to remove this message
3351:Instruments used in medical laboratories
2832:
2040:
1891:
1870:
1812:
1795:
1777:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1773:"Some new forms of laboratory apparatus"
1731:
1578:(Chemist's Newspaper), 10 (4) : 52.
1525:Observationes chemicae et mineralogicale
1466:"Der sogenannte Liebig'sche KĂŒhlapparat"
1273:
1271:
1135:Shriver, D. F.; Drezdzon, M. A. (1986).
368:
340:
331:
289:very close to the condensation surface.
76:
2867:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
1957:
1704:
1540:is Fig. 2 on the last page of the book.
1205:
936:
3362:
2915:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
1930:
1897:
1429:
1369:pp 1-229 (Ch. 8) and 230-415 (Ch. 9),
1350:
1304:
1277:
476:The blue areas are circulating coolant
257:, or droplets created as bubbles pop.
215:of the latter must be higher than the
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3011:
2831:
2491:
2052:
2014:
1410:
1298:
1268:
1176:
1155:
970:
197:
1991:Purification of Laboratory Chemicals
1685:
1522:Christian Ehrenfried Weigel (1771),
1088:Vogel, A.I.; Tatchell, A.R. (1996).
1070:Advanced Practical Organic Chemistry
1027:Purification of Laboratory Chemicals
553:often means this type specifically.
392:
349:The simplest type of condenser is a
18:
1141:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
13:
2910:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1593:Zeitschrift fĂŒr analytische Chemie
1468:(The so-called Liebig condenser),
980:
292:
14:
3381:
1705:Senning, Alexander (2006-10-30).
1688:"Application of Graham Condenser"
1676: : ccciv (5 February 1920).
2955:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
2765:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
1809:, volume 28, issue 58, page 686.
1738:ACS Chemical Health & Safety
708:
696:
684:
461:
449:
437:
425:
413:
401:
336:
260:
247:
105:is laboratory apparatus used to
23:
3012:
1951:
1924:
1823:Journal of the Chemical Society
1764:
1725:
1698:
1692:All Stuff of Physical Chemistry
1686:Shah, Mehwish (2 August 2016).
1679:
1659:
1640:
1627:
1602:
1581:
1564:
1543:
1516:
664:(sometimes incorrectly spelled
1500:
1479:
1458:
1423:
1399:. Chemical Processing (online)
1388:
632:
206:
1:
2492:
1666:(Advertisement by Gallenkamp)
1464:Kahlbaum, Georg W. A. (1896)
1432:Journal of Chemical Education
1395:Zhi Hua (Frank) Yang (2005).
1262:
655:
364:
40:secondary or tertiary sources
1020:, accessed 25 February 2015.
1001:, accessed 25 February 2015.
670:Fritz Walter Paul Friedrichs
227:
7:
2053:
1656: : 691 (21 May 1904).
1278:Wiberg, Kenneth B. (1960).
1250:
10:
3386:
3193:
1771:Friedrichs, Fritz (1912).
903:Spinning band distillation
876:), stainless steel gauze (
727:
607:
486:
325:source by its own weight.
169:
3348:
3299:
3249:
3216:
3203:
3199:
3188:
3159:
3128:
3110:Time-domain reflectometer
3072:
3024:
3020:
3007:
2963:
2923:
2900:
2877:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
2844:
2840:
2827:
2788:
2745:
2694:
2663:
2600:
2569:
2546:
2530:
2504:
2500:
2487:
2370:
2304:
2216:
2141:
2063:
2059:
2048:
1711:. Elsevier. p. 115.
1257:Condenser (heat transfer)
813:
785:
756:
573:
556:
524:
482:
269:, for example). Then the
47:primary research articles
1972:10.15227/orgsyn.020.0051
1945:10.1002/hlca.19240070107
1910:10.3929/ethz-a-000090805
1750:10.1021/acs.chas.2c00053
1220:10.15227/orgsyn.020.0051
1199:10.1002/ange.19470190701
951:low-temperature coolants
895:
589:Inland Revenue condenser
32:This scientific article
2945:Melting-point apparatus
2326:Cryogenic storage dewar
1898:Widmer, Gustav (1923).
824:fractional distillation
822:is a condenser used in
594:
512:
474:Some common condensers.
299:fractional distillation
164:microscale distillation
2882:Mass spectrometer (MS)
2872:Gas chromatograph (GC)
1933:Helvetica Chimica Acta
1825:, volume 86, page 611.
1801:Vigreux, Henri (1904)
1650:Pharmaceutical Journal
1609:Sella, Andrea (2010).
961:or chilled water with
378:
346:
305:Coolant flow direction
94:
3257:Acid-resistant gloves
2938:differential scanning
1156:Krell, Erich (1982).
372:
344:
332:Historical condensers
80:
3370:Laboratory glassware
2834:Analytical chemistry
2336:Laminar flow cabinet
2042:Laboratory equipment
1873:Analytical Chemistry
1845:Analytical Chemistry
1611:"Allihn's Condenser"
937:Alternative coolants
662:Friedrichs condenser
539:Felix Richard Allihn
234:heat of vaporization
3206:Personal protective
2115:MekerâFisher burner
1918:20.500.11850/132964
1885:10.1021/ac60361a033
1857:10.1021/ac60060a033
1789:10.1021/ja02212a012
1506:Schelenz, Hermann,
1485:Speter, Max (1908)
1444:2006JChEd..83...23J
1324:2006JChEd..83...23J
1191:1947AngCh..19..175S
874:Podbielniak columns
549:; indeed, the term
190:, and perfected by
162:and in devices for
152:ground glass joints
3049:Function generator
3032:Bench power supply
2971:Analytical balance
2732:Ostwald viscometer
2727:Graduated cylinder
2466:Inoculation needle
1587:Allihn, F. (1886)
1570:Allihn, F. (1886)
1306:Jensen, William B.
828:theoretical plates
776:methylene chloride
772:extraction solvent
736:, named after the
668:) was invented by
626:rotary evaporators
616:, also known as a
565:, also known as a
379:
347:
281:(by moles) at 100
198:General principles
178:, was invented by
148:water distillation
140:borosilicate glass
95:
3357:
3356:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3317:Fire extinguisher
3307:Biosafety cabinet
3295:
3294:
3184:
3183:
3180:
3179:
3115:Transistor tester
3105:Spectrum analyzer
3003:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2823:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2695:Measuring devices
2517:Soxhlet extractor
2483:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2431:Spectrophotometer
2426:Pipeclay triangle
2178:Mortar and pestle
2001:978-0-12-382162-1
1960:Organic Syntheses
1851:(12): 1835â1842.
1783:(11): 1509â1514.
1718:978-0-08-048881-3
1371:esp. pp. 255, 277
1364:978-0-08-052737-6
1242:978-0-13-521302-5
1208:Organic Syntheses
1179:Angewandte Chemie
1169:978-0-444-99723-4
1148:978-0-471-86773-9
1127:978-0-935702-50-7
1101:978-0-582-46236-6
1080:978-0-7487-4071-0
1058:978-0-08-094209-4
1037:978-0-12-382162-1
910:Oldershaw columns
844:rings) of glass,
614:Dimroth condenser
584:Grahams condenser
393:Modern condensers
255:explosive boiling
176:Justus von Liebig
75:
74:
67:
34:needs additional
3377:
3214:
3213:
3201:
3200:
3190:
3189:
3095:Network analyzer
3022:
3021:
3009:
3008:
2842:
2841:
2829:
2828:
2502:
2501:
2489:
2488:
2471:Inoculation loop
2341:Microtiter plate
2281:Test tube holder
2173:Magnetic stirrer
2061:
2060:
2050:
2049:
2035:
2028:
2021:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2005:
1985:
1976:
1975:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1832:
1826:
1816:
1810:
1807:Chemiker-Zeitung
1799:
1793:
1792:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1683:
1677:
1663:
1657:
1644:
1638:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1606:
1600:
1585:
1579:
1576:Chemiker Zeitung
1568:
1562:
1547:
1541:
1538:the illustration
1520:
1514:
1504:
1498:
1491:Chemiker Zeitung
1483:
1477:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1452:10.1021/ed083p23
1427:
1421:
1414:
1408:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1392:
1386:
1368:
1348:
1335:
1334:
1332:10.1021/ed083p23
1302:
1296:
1295:
1285:
1275:
1246:
1234:
1223:
1202:
1173:
1152:
1131:
1105:
1084:
1062:
1041:
972:
752:
712:
700:
688:
618:spiral condenser
563:Davies condenser
551:reflux condenser
531:Allihn-condenser
495:Liebig condenser
489:Liebig condenser
465:
453:
441:
429:
417:
405:
271:partial pressure
267:dry distillation
70:
63:
59:
56:
50:
27:
26:
19:
3385:
3384:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3360:
3359:
3358:
3353:
3336:
3332:Solvent cabinet
3291:
3262:Eyewash station
3245:
3210:
3208:equipment (PPE)
3207:
3195:
3176:
3155:
3124:
3068:
3059:Pulse generator
3025:Control devices
3016:
2995:
2959:
2925:Thermochemistry
2919:
2896:
2836:
2815:
2784:
2741:
2707:Conical measure
2690:
2659:
2596:
2565:
2542:
2526:
2496:
2475:
2456:Test tube brush
2366:
2351:Picotiter plate
2314:
2300:
2296:Lab drying rack
2255:Extension clamp
2231:
2212:
2151:
2137:
2073:
2055:
2044:
2039:
2009:
2002:
1986:
1979:
1956:
1952:
1929:
1925:
1896:
1892:
1869:
1865:
1833:
1829:
1818:A. McK. (1904)
1817:
1813:
1800:
1796:
1769:
1765:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1703:
1699:
1684:
1680:
1664:
1660:
1645:
1641:
1632:
1628:
1616:Chemistry World
1607:
1603:
1586:
1582:
1569:
1565:
1548:
1544:
1521:
1517:
1505:
1501:
1497:(1) : 3â5.
1484:
1480:
1463:
1459:
1428:
1424:
1415:
1411:
1402:
1400:
1393:
1389:
1365:
1349:
1338:
1303:
1299:
1276:
1269:
1265:
1253:
1243:
1170:
1149:
1128:
1102:
1081:
1059:
1038:
983:
981:Further reading
975:liquid nitrogen
939:
898:
872:wires (akin to
862:stainless steel
816:
788:
759:
746:
730:
725:
724:
723:
722:
718:
717:
716:
713:
705:
704:
701:
693:
692:
689:
678:
658:
635:
610:
597:
576:
559:
537:is named after
527:
515:
491:
485:
480:
479:
478:
477:
475:
471:
470:
469:
466:
458:
457:
454:
446:
445:
442:
434:
433:
430:
422:
421:
418:
410:
409:
406:
395:
367:
339:
334:
307:
295:
293:Liquid mixtures
263:
250:
230:
224:boiling point.
209:
200:
172:
156:flexible tubing
71:
60:
54:
51:
44:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3383:
3373:
3372:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3346:
3345:
3342:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3327:Safety cabinet
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3289:
3287:Safety goggles
3284:
3282:Safety glasses
3279:
3277:Nitrile gloves
3274:
3272:Medical gloves
3269:
3264:
3259:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3246:
3244:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3211:
3204:
3197:
3196:
3186:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3167:Alligator clip
3163:
3161:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3141:Soldering iron
3138:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3085:Logic analyzer
3082:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3045:
3044:
3042:Voltage source
3039:
3037:Current source
3028:
3026:
3018:
3017:
3005:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2976:Colony counter
2973:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2929:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2918:
2917:
2912:
2906:
2904:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2848:
2846:
2838:
2837:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2751:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2615:Vacuum (Dewar)
2612:
2606:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2552:
2550:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2508:
2506:
2498:
2497:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2286:Test tube rack
2283:
2278:
2275:
2270:
2267:
2262:
2261:Funnel support
2259:
2256:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2168:Liquid whistle
2165:
2160:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2133:Vacuum dry box
2130:
2125:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2095:Heating mantle
2092:
2087:
2082:
2080:Alcohol burner
2076:
2074:
2072:
2071:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2056:
2046:
2045:
2038:
2037:
2030:
2023:
2015:
2008:
2007:
2000:
1977:
1950:
1923:
1890:
1863:
1827:
1811:
1794:
1763:
1724:
1717:
1697:
1678:
1658:
1639:
1626:
1601:
1580:
1563:
1542:
1515:
1499:
1478:
1476: : 69â71.
1457:
1422:
1409:
1387:
1363:
1336:
1311:J. Chem. Educ.
1297:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1259:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1241:
1224:
1203:
1185:(7): 175â183.
1174:
1168:
1153:
1147:
1132:
1126:
1111:
1100:
1085:
1079:
1064:
1057:
1042:
1036:
1021:
1002:
982:
979:
967:dimethyl ether
938:
935:
934:
933:
927:
924:air condensers
917:
907:
897:
894:
815:
812:
787:
784:
768:Kuderna-Danish
758:
755:
734:Vigreux column
729:
726:
720:
719:
714:
707:
706:
702:
695:
694:
690:
683:
682:
681:
680:
679:
677:
674:
657:
654:
634:
631:
620:, named after
609:
606:
601:coil condenser
596:
593:
575:
572:
567:double surface
558:
555:
535:bulb condenser
526:
523:
519:West condenser
514:
511:
487:Main article:
484:
481:
473:
472:
467:
460:
459:
455:
448:
447:
443:
436:
435:
431:
424:
423:
419:
412:
411:
407:
400:
399:
398:
397:
396:
394:
391:
375:Wellcome Trust
366:
363:
338:
335:
333:
330:
322:countercurrent
306:
303:
294:
291:
279:carbon dioxide
277:vapor and 75%
262:
259:
249:
246:
229:
226:
217:vapor pressure
208:
205:
199:
196:
171:
168:
73:
72:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3382:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3352:
3347:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3298:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3248:
3242:
3241:Safety shower
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3187:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3151:Wire stripper
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3006:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2981:Spiral plater
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2899:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2845:Compositional
2843:
2839:
2835:
2830:
2826:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:Balance brush
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2363:Weighing dish
2362:
2360:Weighing boat
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2251:Burette clamp
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2140:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2085:Bunsen burner
2083:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2024:
2022:
2017:
2016:
2013:
2003:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1984:
1982:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1815:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1728:
1720:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1682:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1655:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1636:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1617:
1612:
1605:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1419:
1413:
1398:
1391:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1356:
1355:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1301:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1283:
1274:
1272:
1267:
1258:
1255:
1254:
1244:
1238:
1233:
1232:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1165:
1161:
1160:
1154:
1150:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1133:
1129:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1086:
1082:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1050:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1015:0-201-05504-X
1012:
1008:
1003:
1000:
997:
996:3-527-32292-2
993:
989:
985:
984:
978:
976:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
947:
945:
931:
928:
925:
921:
920:Straight tube
918:
915:
914:plate columns
911:
908:
905:
904:
900:
899:
893:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
836:
831:
829:
825:
821:
820:packed column
811:
809:
808:L. P. Kyrides
804:
801:
797:
796:Gustav Widmer
793:
792:Widmer column
783:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
763:Snyder column
754:
750:
745:
744:Henri Vigreux
742:
739:
735:
711:
699:
687:
673:
671:
667:
663:
653:
651:
647:
642:
641:
630:
627:
623:
619:
615:
605:
602:
592:
590:
585:
581:
571:
568:
564:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
522:
520:
510:
507:
504:
500:
496:
490:
464:
452:
440:
428:
416:
404:
390:
387:
384:
376:
371:
362:
358:
356:
352:
351:straight tube
343:
337:Straight tube
329:
326:
323:
318:
315:
310:
302:
300:
290:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
261:Carrier gases
258:
256:
248:Material flow
245:
243:
239:
235:
225:
222:
221:boiling point
218:
214:
204:
195:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
144:thermal shock
141:
137:
132:
128:
126:
122:
118:
113:
111:
108:
104:
100:
92:
88:
87:boiling point
84:
79:
69:
66:
58:
55:February 2015
48:
42:
41:
37:
30:
21:
20:
3312:Fire blanket
3250:Eye and hand
3236:Rubber apron
3100:Oscilloscope
3064:Potentiostat
2991:Plate reader
2887:pH indicator
2857:CHN analyzer
2852:AutoAnalyzer
2645:Round-bottom
2547:
2538:Boston round
2401:Filter paper
2356:Refrigerator
2273:Retort stand
2241:Clamp holder
2237:Beaker clamp
2203:Vortex mixer
2198:Stirring rod
2193:Static mixer
2123:Teclu burner
1990:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1939:(1): 59â61.
1936:
1932:
1926:
1900:
1893:
1879:(11): 1879.
1876:
1872:
1866:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1822:
1814:
1806:
1797:
1780:
1776:
1766:
1744:(2): 49â53.
1741:
1737:
1727:
1707:
1700:
1691:
1681:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1629:
1620:
1614:
1604:
1599: : 36.
1596:
1592:
1583:
1575:
1566:
1560:pp. 129â135.
1551:
1545:
1524:
1518:
1507:
1502:
1494:
1490:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1460:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1412:
1401:. Retrieved
1390:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1353:
1315:
1309:
1300:
1281:
1230:
1211:
1207:
1182:
1178:
1158:
1137:
1116:
1090:
1069:
1047:
1026:
1006:
987:
948:
944:refrigerated
940:
930:Pear columns
929:
923:
919:
909:
901:
835:Fenske rings
832:
819:
817:
805:
791:
789:
762:
760:
741:glass blower
733:
731:
665:
661:
659:
638:
636:
622:Otto Dimroth
617:
613:
611:
600:
598:
588:
583:
579:
577:
566:
562:
560:
550:
543:water jacket
534:
530:
528:
518:
516:
508:
494:
492:
388:
382:
380:
359:
350:
348:
327:
321:
319:
313:
311:
308:
296:
287:
264:
251:
231:
210:
201:
173:
133:
129:
117:distillation
114:
102:
96:
91:cooling bath
61:
52:
33:
3300:Other items
3226:Face shield
3073:Measurement
3054:Galvanostat
3014:Electronics
2964:Other items
2950:Thermometer
2933:Calorimeter
2862:Colorimeter
2806:Gas syringe
2789:Other items
2717:Eye dropper
2592:Watch glass
2577:Evaporating
2556:Cold finger
2371:Other items
2277:Screw clamp
2269:Pinch clamp
2258:Flask clamp
2208:Wash bottle
2163:Homogenizer
1108:4th edition
878:Dixon rings
747: [
666:Friedrich's
646:sublimation
640:cold finger
633:Cold finger
468:Cold finger
238:heat energy
207:Temperature
3231:Respirator
3172:Test probe
3090:Multimeter
2902:Microscopy
2722:Eudiometer
2686:Separatory
2655:Volumetric
2620:Erlenmeyer
2548:Condensers
2512:DeanâStark
2461:Wire brush
2421:Microscope
2416:Centrifuge
2391:Cork borer
2346:Petri dish
2321:Agar plate
2308:Containers
2291:Wire gauze
2128:Water bath
2090:Desiccator
1635:CareerChem
1512:pp. 84-88.
1403:2015-02-02
1318:(83): 23,
1292:B0007ENAMY
1263:References
963:antifreeze
957:cooled by
953:, such as
800:ETH Zurich
656:Friedrichs
456:Friedrichs
383:still head
365:Still head
355:convection
314:concurrent
184:Poisonnier
142:to resist
125:extraction
3322:Fume hood
3267:Glove box
3120:Voltmeter
2505:Apparatus
2494:Glassware
2383:Autoclave
2378:Aspirator
2331:Incubator
2265:Iron ring
2188:Sonicator
2158:Chemostat
2100:Hot plate
1758:1871-5532
1530:Göttingen
1438:(1): 23.
892:columns.
846:porcelain
810:in 1940.
650:cold-trap
547:refluxing
228:Heat flow
103:condenser
99:chemistry
36:citations
3364:Category
3221:Lab coat
3146:Tweezers
3136:Heat gun
2892:pH meter
2801:Bell jar
2681:Dropping
2635:Florence
2625:Fernbach
2587:Syracuse
2446:Scoopula
2396:Crucible
2105:Lab oven
1623:(5): 66.
1251:See also
866:nichrome
850:aluminum
780:volatile
774:such as
503:Göttling
213:pressure
192:Göttling
107:condense
3160:General
3080:Ammeter
2780:Thistle
2737:Pipette
2712:Cuvette
2702:Burette
2671:BĂŒchner
2664:Funnels
2650:Schlenk
2630:Fleaker
2610:BĂŒchner
2531:Bottles
2451:Spatula
2441:Stopper
2411:Forceps
2311:Storage
2228:Holders
2148:Shakers
2119:Striker
2067:Heaters
2054:General
1694:(Blog).
1440:Bibcode
1320:Bibcode
1187:Bibcode
959:dry ice
955:acetone
890:Stedman
870:inconel
842:Lessing
838:Raschig
728:Vigreux
691:Vigreux
608:Dimroth
444:Dimroth
377:museum.
275:ethanol
188:Gadolin
170:History
3194:Safety
2796:Beaker
2775:Thiele
2760:Cragie
2755:Drying
2676:Hirsch
2640:Retort
2602:Flasks
2570:Dishes
2561:Liebig
2522:Kipp's
2436:Splint
2246:Tripod
2224:Clamps
2220:Stands
2183:Shaker
2145:Mixers
2070:Dryers
1998:
1966:: 51.
1756:
1715:
1670:Nature
1556:Weimar
1383:, 1-14
1361:
1290:
1239:
1214:: 51.
1166:
1145:
1124:
1098:
1077:
1055:
1034:
1017:, see
1013:
998:, see
994:
888:, and
882:Hempel
858:nickel
854:copper
814:Packed
786:Widmer
757:Snyder
738:French
715:Widmer
703:Snyder
580:Graham
574:Graham
557:Davies
525:Allihn
499:Weigel
483:Liebig
432:Graham
420:Allihn
408:Liebig
186:, and
180:Weigel
160:retort
123:, and
121:reflux
110:vapors
3129:Tools
2747:Tubes
2582:Petri
1534:Latin
1532:; in
1379:, 230
1375:, 247
922:, or
896:Other
860:, or
778:from
751:]
136:glass
83:flask
2811:Vial
2770:Test
2406:File
2110:Kiln
1996:ISBN
1841:tert
1754:ISSN
1713:ISBN
1621:2010
1359:ISBN
1316:2006
1288:ASIN
1237:ISBN
1164:ISBN
1143:ISBN
1122:ISBN
1096:ISBN
1075:ISBN
1053:ISBN
1032:ISBN
1011:ISBN
992:ISBN
971:b.p.
886:Todd
868:and
790:The
761:The
732:The
660:The
595:Coil
529:The
517:The
513:West
501:and
493:The
381:The
320:The
312:The
242:area
101:, a
1968:doi
1941:doi
1914:hdl
1906:doi
1881:doi
1853:doi
1785:doi
1746:doi
1674:104
1558:),
1448:doi
1328:doi
1216:doi
1195:doi
1106:or
840:or
798:at
582:or
533:or
283:kPa
97:In
38:to
3366::
1980:^
1964:20
1962:.
1935:.
1912:.
1877:47
1875:.
1849:23
1847:.
1781:34
1779:.
1775:.
1752:.
1742:30
1740:.
1736:.
1690:.
1672:,
1668:,
1654:72
1652:,
1619:.
1613:.
1597:25
1595:,
1495:32
1493:,
1474:29
1472:,
1446:.
1436:83
1434:.
1381:ff
1373:ff
1339:^
1326:,
1314:,
1270:^
1212:20
1210:.
1193:.
1183:19
1181:.
977:.
969:,
884:,
864:;
856:,
852:,
848:,
818:A
749:fr
637:A
612:A
599:A
578:A
561:A
357:.
182:,
166:.
119:,
2034:e
2027:t
2020:v
2004:.
1974:.
1970::
1947:.
1943::
1937:7
1920:.
1916::
1908::
1887:.
1883::
1861:.
1859:.
1855::
1839:-
1837:p
1791:.
1787::
1760:.
1748::
1721:.
1637:.
1528:(
1454:.
1450::
1442::
1406:.
1385:.
1377:f
1367:,
1330::
1322::
1294:.
1245:.
1222:.
1218::
1201:.
1197::
1189::
1172:.
1151:.
1130:.
1110:.
1104:,
1083:.
1061:,
1040:.
68:)
62:(
57:)
53:(
43:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
