1626:
representatives, with the eleventh member being neutral. (Note: Boards could be larger as long as the proportion of representation was maintained.) In 1976, the law's scope was expanded to cover all firms employing more than 2,000 workers; with some changes concerning to the board structure, which has an equal number of management and worker representatives, with no neutral members (except in the Mining-and-steel industries where the old law remained in force). The new board's head would represent the firm's owners and had the right to cast the deciding vote in instances of stalemate. (The original law comprising coal-and-steel industries thus remained unchanged in force)
1283:
1216:
1309:
197:
355:
328:
1242:
893:
1361:
1335:
1506:
811:
776:
750:
1131:
222:
1100:
1073:
1018:
438:
667:
637:
280:
248:
1047:
412:
385:
175:
143:
1532:
1444:
1417:
724:
302:
919:
607:
580:
519:
1391:
867:
841:
494:
465:
1189:
989:
962:
698:
1480:
1162:
1720:
found that "the
European model of codetermination is neither a panacea for all of the problems faced by 21st-century workers, nor a destructive institution that is dramatically inferior to shareholder primacy. Rather, as currently implemented, it is a moderate institution with, on net, nonexistent or
1602:
and permitted in non-state-owned collectives and companies via "Staff and Worker
Representative Congresses" (SWRCs), composed of workers directly elected by all workers in the workplace to represent them. As of the 1980s and 1990s, SWRCs were, in principle, broadly similar to continental European and
2028:
Prominent views of codetermination have thus been "social" in nature, concerned with expanding democratic participation in new spheres as a good in itself, reducing "alienation", and smoothing management-labour relations to prevent strong conflicts. A collection of views of this nature are found in
2050:
A conservative economic approach views codetermination as not benign: a political means for transfer of wealth from shareholders to employees and to increase power of political and perhaps union actors; as evidence it is noted firms rarely adopt codetermination voluntarily: see
Pejovich, Svetozar.
1625:
The first codetermination plans began at companies and through collective agreements. Prior to 1976, German coal and steel producers employing more than 1,000 workers already commonly maintained a board of directors composed of 11 members: five directors came from management, five were workers'
1683:
While most enterprises in the UK do not have worker representation, universities there have done so since the 19th century. Generally the more successful the university, the more staff representation on governing bodies: Cambridge, Oxford, Edinburgh, Glasgow and other
Scottish universities.
1825:
failed in 2003. Almost all modern worker representation laws enable votes without any requirement to invest money. In 2013, France became the largest country to create a modern board representation law to mandate workers with equal rights to all other directors to be on boards.
101:
There are three main views as to why codetermination exists: to reduce management-labour conflict by improving and systematizing communication channels; to increase bargaining power of workers at the expense of owners by means of legislation; and to correct
1721:
small positive effects. Board-level and shop-floor worker representation cause at most small increases in wages, possibly lead to slight increases in job security and satisfaction, and have largely zero or small positive effects on firm performance."
1784:
In most countries around Europe, different forms board representation law spread slowly, especially from the 1970s. In the UK there were repeated experiments from iron and steel to the post office, with worker directors. However, after the
1603:
Japanese workers' workplace councils in terms of rights and powers and consensus building. Research based on interviews in 1997 suggested that in practice, SWRCs did have some real power, including some cases of dismissing managers.
2584:
1579:
pledged to require that federally regulated employers with over 1,000 employees or $ 100 million in annual revenue include worker representation on their boards of directors should he be elected Prime
Minister.
2350:
2701:. See also JS Mill, Principles of Political Economy (1870) discussing, albeit very different, Henry Briggs & Son Co, incorporated 1865, which had an employee share plan and a worker director.
2064:
Another economist argues that codetermination in effect corrects several market failures so lack of voluntary adoption cannot be viewed as evidence that codetermination is inefficient: see
1713:
found that codetermination in
Germany had no impact on wages, the wage structure, the labor share, revenue, employment or profitability of the firm, but it increased capital investment.
2944:
106:
by means of public policy. The evidence on "efficiency" is mixed, with codetermination having either no effect or a positive but generally small effect on enterprise performance.
2406:"MontanMitbestG - Gesetz ĂŒber die Mitbestimmung der Arbeitnehmer in den AufsichtsrĂ€ten und VorstĂ€nden der Unternehmen des Bergbaus und der Eisen und Stahl erzeugenden Industrie"
938:
One director in companies with 30 to 50 employees; one-third of the seats in companies with more than 50, with the possibility of an extra seat in companies with more than 200
3104:
2107:
2939:
2895:
LW Hunter, âCan
Strategic Participation be Institutionalized? Union Representation on American Corporate Boardsâ (1998) 51(4) Industrial and Labor Relations Review 557â578
457:
From 150 employees, there must be an agreement on employee representation. If there is none, employee representation automatically defaults to one-fifth of board members.
2731:
2892:
TH Hammer, SC Currall and RN Stern, âWorker
Representation on Boards of Directors: A Study of Competing Rolesâ (1991) 44(4) Industrial and Labor Relations Review 661â680
1634:
The
Companies Empowering Act 1924 allowed companies to issue shares for labour and have them represented by directors, but it was little used, even its chief promoter,
2742:
2274:
3080:
Uday Dokras, doctoral thesis, published as a book, The Act on
Codetermination at Work- An Efficacy Study, Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm Sweden, 1990
2722:, the first law enabling worker councils, but only on a voluntary basis. The Hilfsdienstgesetz 1916 was a war time requirement for worker councils in some industries.
1773:
article 165, and resulted in a work council law in 1920, and a board representation law in 1922. The fascist government abolished codetermination in 1934, but after
2719:
2375:
110:
43:
2331:
2938:
J Waddington (ed.), 'European board-level employee representation: national variations in influence and power' (2018), Kluwer Law international editions
1701:
has the world's oldest codetermination law that has been continually in force since 1919, although it is voluntary and only for manufacturing companies.
1181:
Some state-owned companies retain two board members though it has not been compulsory since 1980 to have employee representation in private companies.
3122:
3117:
2316:
2847:
were created by Labour councils as this happened, as a way to protect workers, though shares were quickly bought up by ordinary business owners.
3090:
2095:
2718:
HJ Teuteberg, âZur Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten betrieblichen Arbeitervertretungen in Deutschlandâ (1960) 11 Soziale Welt 69. See the
2451:
2943:
J Waddington, A Conchon, 'Board-level employee representation in Europe: priorities, power and articulation' (2016), Routledge edition
1821:
to negotiate board representation, although usually this was forcibly linked to employee share schemes. Notably, the share scheme at
1589:
1769:
with representatives of German business for full partnership in economic management throughout the country. This was put into the
2598:"An Act To Enable Manufacturing Corporations To Provide For The Representation Of Their Employees On The Board Of Directors",
2976:
P Brannen, âWorker directors: an approach to analysis. The case of the British Steel Corporationâ in C Crouch and FA Heller,
2919:
RB McKersie, âLabor's voice at the strategic level of the firmâ (2001) 7 Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 480
1793:
won the 1979 election, almost all worker participation was ended. Germany recast and extended its laws in 1972 and 1976. The
1035:
No co-determination, but, in state owned companies, workers have a right to be consulted. In private companies work councils
3132:
50:, had some form of law guaranteeing the right of workers to vote for board representation. Together with a right to elect
2860:
required one half in large companies, but with the upper hand for shareholders. Now, the Drittelbeteiligungsgesetz 2004,
2856:
The Betriebsverfassungsgesetz 1972, standardised law for one third employees on company boards with over 500 staff. The
3169:
2509:
2358:
2120:
2035:
1798:
3010:, âZur Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten betrieblichen Arbeitervertretungen in Deutschlandâ (1960) 11 Soziale Welt 69
2925:, âZur Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten betrieblichen Arbeitervertretungen in Deutschlandâ (1960) 11 Soziale Welt 69
1598:, during the late twentieth century, worker representation on corporate boards of directors was mandated by law for
1383:
manufacturing firms may voluntarily have employees on boards. Any collective agreement can achieve the same result.
1599:
1256:
2332:"Conservatives pledge worker representation on boards, but union leaders remain skeptical about shift in approach"
1010:
In state-owned companies employees have one-third of supervisory board seats, and a seat on the management board.
1742:
17:
1638:, being unable to get his company board to agree to it. It was consolidated into the Companies Act in 1933. The
2844:
1568:
486:
Private companies over 1000 employees in France or 5000 worldwide must have at least one or two board members.
2916:
RB McKersie, âUnion-Nominated Directors: A New Voice in Corporate Governanceâ (1 April 1999) MIT Working Paper
272:
if the company has over 300 employees (limited companies); no employee threshold for public limited companies
2959:
2562:
1738:
1665:
1252:
1154:
plus management board member if more than 500 employees; around a third in companies with single tier board
2065:
1572:
1273:
3184:
1269:
3001:
E McGaughey, 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019)
2898:
E McGaughey, 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019)
2615:
E McGaughey, 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019)
347:
No general law. Before 2014, private companies over 50 employees had one-third employee representation.
2573:
2405:
2081:
For example see Felix R. Fitzroy and Kornelius Kraft, "Co-determination, efficiency and productivity",
1835:
1734:
1661:
1639:
1616:
62:
3013:
S Vitols, 'Prospects for trade unions in the evolving European system of corporate governance' (2005)
1757:
over the late 19th century, after the first attempts to introduce worker voice by an ex-member of the
1234:
Representation in postal services. No general law, but there was employee representation in railways.
2780:
2745:. E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016)
1655:
532:(Codetermination Act 1976), Montanmitbestimmungsgesetz 1951 (Coal and Steel Codetermination Act 1951)
529:
2995:
E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the âSingle Channelâ' (2018)
2910:
E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the âSingle Channelâ' (2017)
2697:
E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the âSingle Channelâ' (2017)
2157:
2989:
E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016)
2973:
E Batstone, A Ferner and M Terry, Unions on the board: an experiment in industrial democracy (1983)
2904:
E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016)
2857:
2757:
E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016)
2702:
2549:
E McGaughey, 'Votes at work in Britain: shareholder monopolisation and the âsingle channelâ (2018)
2391:
E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016)
2016:
E McGaughey, 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016)
1857:
3042:
3007:
2928:
2922:
2181:
2776:
2205:
1921:
1750:
1693:
1669:
66:
2426:
2253:
3179:
3023:, âCompanies and employees: common law or social dimensionâ (1993) 109 Law Quarterly Review 261
2824:
2599:
2229:
1730:
1453:
1109:
998:
820:
676:
616:
502:
364:
81:(although the act's provisions were completely voluntary), and the Supervisory Board Act 1922 (
3149:
3144:
3002:
2899:
2616:
3127:
167:
from 300 employees in private companies; no employee threshold for public limited companies.
2983:
E Chell, âWorker Directors on the Board: Four Case Studiesâ (1980) 2(6) Employee Relations 1
2526:
3033:
2950:
2876:
2807:
2799:
2784:
2121:"Federal Act on the Labour Constitution and freedom of association (BGBl. 1974/22). Text 9"
1871:
1766:
1758:
1620:
90:
8:
3174:
3014:
1951:
1946:
1867:
1810:
1794:
1770:
1660:
In the UK, the earliest examples of codetermination in management were codified into the
1562:
672:
114:
2492:
2468:
795:
A third of the board in companies with 1,000 or more employees, up to a third in others
3164:
2840:
2820:
2680:
1999:
1931:
1845:
1643:
572:. In coal and steel companies shareholder representatives do not have a deciding vote.
35:
2684:
2603:
2587:
2317:"Conservative Leader Erin O'Toole to ensure Canadian workers have their voices heard"
2295:
2003:
1991:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1790:
1673:
1612:
1151:
656:
565:
557:
542:
523:
498:
469:
269:
164:
240:
No general law, but employees have rights to speak at shareholder general meetings.
2986:
PL Davies and KW Wedderburn, âThe Land of Industrial Democracyâ (1977) 6(1) ILJ 197
2831:
appointed a worker director overseeing some aspects of the now privatised industry.
2670:
2641:
2371:
2367:
1983:
1936:
1916:
1904:
1746:
1781:
and board representation. These agreements were codified in law in 1951 and 1952.
3020:
2182:"DrittelbG - Gesetz ĂŒber die Drittelbeteiligung der Arbeitnehmer im Aufsichtsrat"
2039:
1818:
1576:
2861:
1880:
1786:
1677:
1247:
360:
333:
103:
70:
47:
2783:
to introduce workers, put into effect from 1968. For its implementation, see:
2767:
1951, the BetriesbrÀtegesetz 1952 and the MitbestimmungsergÀnzungsgesetz 1956.
404:
At least two members of the board, up to one-third of the board's membership.
3158:
2828:
1995:
1987:
1941:
1876:
1802:
1778:
1754:
1698:
1380:
1366:
78:
74:
51:
39:
2864:
codified again, one third worker directors in companies with over 500 staff.
1972:"Introduction: Board-level employee representation in Europe: State of play"
556:
Enterprises with over 2000 employees must have one-half representation on a
541:
Enterprises with over 500 employees must have one-third representation on a
2887:
Firms as Political Entities: Saving Democracy through Economic Bicameralism
2706:
2145:
Firms as Political Entities: Saving Democracy through Economic Bicameralism
1971:
1926:
1900:
1806:
1774:
1635:
569:
2646:
2629:
2550:
2392:
2030:
1268:
No general law, except in universities, and in NHS foundation trusts. The
2803:
2053:
The economics of property rights: towards a theory of comparative systems
1911:
1852:
1840:
1762:
1511:
1340:
1221:
898:
561:
214:
No general law, but some public companies have employee representatives.
3036:
Worker Directors Speak: The British Steel Corporation Employee Directors
2879:
Worker Directors Speak: The British Steel Corporation Employee Directors
2787:
Worker Directors Speak: The British Steel Corporation Employee Directors
1753:. In Germany, there were experiments with worker representation through
34:(BLER), refers to the right of workers to vote for representatives on a
2662:
1862:
816:
781:
89:, which codified collective agreement from 1918 and expanded it in the
1590:
Workplace democracy § Staff and Worker Representative Congresses
1288:
1039:
elect representatives, but the number is determined by the employer.
755:
3075:
The Report of the Industrial Partnership Committee: Partners at Work
2996:
2990:
2911:
2905:
2758:
2746:
2698:
2017:
3096:
2675:
2099:
1814:
1136:
1105:
1078:
1023:
528:
Drittelbeteiligungsgesetz 2003 (One-third Participation Act 2004),
227:
2779:
Sch 4, Part V, created a negotiation process with trade unions in
2467:
Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu.
1272:
has a comply or explain rules for employee representation in the
1052:
642:
518:
443:
417:
390:
285:
253:
202:
180:
148:
86:
1199:
Board Representation (Private Sector Employees) Act (1987:1245)
1537:
1449:
1422:
1314:
1194:
994:
967:
924:
729:
612:
585:
493:
464:
307:
1777:, German unions again made collective agreements to resurrect
1208:
Over 25 employees, around one-third representation on boards.
2703:
South Metropolitan Gas Act 1896 extract in the London Gazette
1822:
1595:
1485:
1396:
1167:
872:
846:
703:
3068:
Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employersâ Associations
3128:
German Law in English - 40. Works council. Co-determination
3017:, summarising different economic results of codetermination
2206:"MitbestG - Gesetz ĂŒber die Mitbestimmung der Arbeitnehmer"
113:
and their practices of worker representation on corporate
61:
The first laws requiring worker voting rights include the
3047:
Geschichte der Industriellen Mitbestimmung in Deutschland
2933:
Geschichte der Industriellen Mitbestimmung in Deutschland
2823:
allowed the secretary of state to appoint members of the
2628:
JÀger, Simon; Schoefer, Benjamin; Heining, Jörg (2020).
2510:"Preliminary Paper No. 5 COMPANY LAW A discussion paper"
2661:
JĂ€ger, Simon; Noy, shakked; Schoefer, Benjamin (2021).
2068:, "On the economic rationale for codetermination law",
1642:
recommended its abolition in 1988 for lack of use. The
3101:
CBR Labour Regulation Index (Dataset of 117 Countries)
2104:
CBR Labour Regulation Index (Dataset of 117 Countries)
1150:
Between a third and a half of seats in companies with
111:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
44:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
28:
Worker representation on corporate boards of directors
2427:"Companies Empowering Act 1924 (15 GEO V 1924 No 52)"
2275:"Board Representation (Private Sector Employees) Act"
1123:
Half the supervisory board in state-owned companies.
1065:
No general law, but unions can be heard at meetings.
2627:
2254:"Worker Participation (State Enterprises) Act, 1977"
2230:"MontanMitbestG - nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis"
1805:, growing interest in worker "involvement" through
885:For companies owned by unions or the Labour Party.
682:
Workers Participation (State Enterprises) Act, 1977
3133:Co-Determination and Cooperative Culture in Israel
2055:. Chapter 8. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic, 1990.
1729:Some of the first codetermination laws emerged in
3156:
2978:Organizational Democracy and Political Processes
2660:
1970:Gold, Michael; Waddington, Jeremy (2019-09-01).
1028:1976 Constitution, Arts. 30 and 33 and Law 46/79
132:Minimum number of employees at which law applies
73:, the Act on Manufacturing Companies of 1919 in
2585:Higher Education Governance (Scotland) Act 2016
2453:Parliamentary Debates. House of Representatives
109:The following is a list of 35 countries in the
1969:
1472:Worker representation in government companies
1087:33.3% (may be increased up to 50% voluntarily)
372:33.3% (may be increased up to 50% voluntarily)
2070:Journal of Economic Behavior and Organisation
2762:
2351:"Staff and Workers' Representative Congress"
2348:
903:Works Constitution Act 1971, amended in 2004
1765:, the German trade unions made an historic
2991:23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135
2906:23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135
2759:23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135
2747:23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135
2449:
2393:23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135
2085:, Vol. 43, No. 2 (June 2005), pp. 233-247.
2018:23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135
1801:, but it did not complete passage. In the
568:is a shareholder representative and has a
3103:(Cambridge: Centre for Business Research
2674:
2645:
2106:(Cambridge: Centre for Business Research
1459:1977 Law and a 1985 High Court decision,
2802:s 1(2) created worker directors for the
1976:European Journal of Industrial Relations
1084:Labour Code (Law 311/2001), Art. 233-236
2329:
2083:British Journal of Industrial Relations
2072:, Vol. 16 (December 1991), pp. 261-281.
1141:1991 Constitution art 75, and 1993 law.
973:Law on Workersâ Self Management of 1981
14:
3157:
2256:. electronic Irish Statute Book (eISB)
1733:during the 19th century, such as the
46:, and a majority of countries in the
3139:EU Draft Fifth Company Law Directive
3003:42 Seattle University Law Review 697
2900:42 Seattle University Law Review 697
2617:42 Seattle University Law Review 697
1761:named Carl Degenkolb. At the end of
929:Limited Liability Companies Act 1973
3111:
2349:Xiaoyang, Zhu; Chan, Anita (2005).
32:board-level employee representation
24:
2634:The Quarterly Journal of Economics
2527:"Companies Act 1993 (1993 No 105)"
2466:
2359:Chinese Sociology and Anthropology
2298:. Government of the United Kingdom
119:
25:
3196:
3123:Emire: Austria - Co-Determination
3118:Emire: Germany - Co-Determination
3084:
2606:, page 45, approved 3 April 1919.
1799:Draft Fifth Company Law Directive
1649:
1646:did not allow for labour shares.
655:From 200 employees, one-third of
3038:(Gower Press, Farnborough, 1977)
2912:46(4) Industrial Law Journal 444
2881:(Gower Press, Farnborough, 1977)
2789:(Gower Press, Farnborough, 1977)
2699:46(4) Industrial Law Journal 444
2450:Parliament, New Zealand (1986).
2330:Rendell, Mark (23 August 2021).
2126:. Rechtsinformationssystem (RIS)
1687:
1530:
1504:
1478:
1442:
1415:
1389:
1359:
1333:
1307:
1281:
1257:National Health Service Act 2006
1240:
1214:
1187:
1160:
1129:
1098:
1071:
1045:
1016:
987:
960:
917:
891:
865:
839:
809:
774:
748:
722:
696:
665:
635:
605:
578:
517:
492:
463:
436:
410:
383:
353:
326:
300:
278:
246:
220:
195:
173:
141:
2997:47(1) Industrial Law Journal 76
2850:
2843:, privatised the bus networks.
2834:
2813:
2793:
2770:
2751:
2736:
2725:
2712:
2691:
2663:"What Does Codetermination do?"
2654:
2621:
2609:
2592:
2578:
2567:
2556:
2551:47(1) Industrial Law Journal 76
2543:
2519:
2502:
2485:
2460:
2443:
2419:
2398:
2385:
2342:
2323:
2309:
2296:"Cambridge University Act 1856"
2288:
2267:
2246:
2222:
2198:
2174:
2150:
1743:South Metropolitan Gas Act 1896
268:Employee representative on the
2845:Employee share ownership plans
2372:10.1080/21620555.2005.11038349
2158:"Co-operation Act (1333/2021)"
2137:
2113:
2088:
2075:
2058:
2044:
2022:
2010:
1963:
1711:Quarterly Journal of Economics
1629:
475:Commercial Code Art. L. 225-79
13:
1:
3054:The History of Trade Unionism
2960:The History of Trade Unionism
2870:
2563:Cambridge University Act 1856
1739:Cambridge University Act 1856
1668:. In private enterprise, the
1666:Cambridge University Act 1856
1253:Cambridge University Act 1856
129:Minimum worker representation
3034:Bank, John, and Jones, Ken,
2877:Bank, John, and Jones, Ken,
2785:Bank, John, and Jones, Ken,
1741:. Further acts included the
1379:No general law, although in
1274:UK Corporate Governance Code
398:â€33.3% (two members minimum)
154:Labour Constitution Act 1975
7:
2764:Montan-mitbestimmungsgesetz
1829:
1789:of 1977 failed to pass and
1718:Bureau of Economic Research
1270:Financial Reporting Council
96:
10:
3201:
2574:Oxford University Act 1854
2234:www.gesetze-im-internet.de
2210:www.gesetze-im-internet.de
2186:www.gesetze-im-internet.de
2098:and Z Adams, L Bishop and
1836:Codetermination in Germany
1809:led to unions such as the
1735:Oxford University Act 1854
1724:
1691:
1662:Oxford University Act 1854
1653:
1617:Codetermination in Germany
1610:
1606:
1587:
1560:
1172:Law 41/1962, repealed 1980
448:Co-operation Act 2021 s 31
288:(public limited companies)
183:(public limited companies)
63:Oxford University Act 1854
3170:Human resource management
2862:BGBl. I S. 974, in German
2781:British Steel Corporation
2667:NBER Working Paper Series
1704:
1656:United Kingdom labour law
1556:
972:
937:
928:
915:
794:
786:
772:
530:Mitbestimmungsgesetz 1976
527:
515:
485:
474:
267:
258:
162:
153:
91:1976 Mitbestimmungsgesetz
42:. In 2018, a majority of
2858:Codetermination Act 1976
2743:Aufsichtsratsgesetz 1922
2630:"Labor in the Boardroom"
1988:10.1177/0959680119830556
1957:
1858:Employee stock ownership
1583:
395:Companies Act 2010 s 140
3091:worker-participation.eu
2777:Iron and Steel Act 1967
2732:BetriebsrÀtegesetz 1920
2163:. Government of Finland
2096:worker-participation.eu
1922:Paritarian Institutions
1751:Port of London Act 1908
1694:United States labor law
1670:Port of London Act 1908
1600:state-owned enterprises
659:members are employees.
83:Aufsichtsratgesetz 1922
67:Port of London Act 1908
54:, this is often called
3095:Z Adams, L Bishop and
2825:British Railways Board
2763:
2720:Arbeitsverordnung 1890
2687:. working paper 28921.
2277:. Government of Sweden
1731:universities in the UK
1672:was introduced under
1569:2021 federal election
1454:state-owned companies
1110:state-owned companies
999:state-owned companies
821:state-owned companies
677:state-owned companies
617:state-owned companies
503:state-owned companies
365:state-owned companies
3056:(1920) Appendix VIII
2963:(1920) Appendix VIII
2951:Industrial Democracy
2808:Post Office Act 1969
2800:Post Office Act 1977
2600:General Acts of 1919
2493:"Companies Act 1933"
2032:Magazin Mitbestimmun
1872:European company law
1767:collective agreement
1759:Frankfurt Parliament
1716:A 2021 study by the
1709:A 2020 study in the
1621:Mitbestimmungsgesetz
3052:S Webb and B Webb,
2957:S Webb and B Webb,
2948:S Webb and B Webb,
2705:, abolished by the
2647:10.1093/qje/qjaa038
1952:Workplace democracy
1868:European labour law
1811:United Steelworkers
1795:European Commission
1771:Weimar Constitution
1749:c. ccxxvi) and the
1563:Canadian labour law
1425:(private companies)
1081:(private companies)
970:(private companies)
784:(private companies)
588:(private companies)
483:(or 5000 worldwide)
472:(private companies)
336:(private companies)
256:(limited companies)
151:(private companies)
115:boards of directors
3185:Board of directors
2841:Transport Act 1985
2821:Transport Act 1968
2336:The Globe and Mail
2038:2009-08-03 at the
1932:Social Partnership
1846:Worker cooperative
1644:Companies Act 1993
1573:Conservative Party
36:board of directors
2319:. 23 August 2021.
1896:Indian labour law
1891:French labour law
1886:German labour law
1791:Margaret Thatcher
1747:59 & 60 Vict.
1674:Winston Churchill
1613:German labour law
1554:
1553:
1152:supervisory board
657:supervisory board
566:supervisory board
558:supervisory board
543:supervisory board
270:supervisory board
165:supervisory board
163:One-third of the
16:(Redirected from
3192:
3070:(1968) Cmnd 3623
2865:
2854:
2848:
2838:
2832:
2817:
2811:
2806:by amending the
2797:
2791:
2774:
2768:
2766:
2755:
2749:
2740:
2734:
2729:
2723:
2716:
2710:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2678:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2596:
2590:
2582:
2576:
2571:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2402:
2396:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2374:. Archived from
2355:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2303:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2216:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2168:
2162:
2154:
2148:
2143:See I Ferreras,
2141:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2125:
2117:
2111:
2092:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2066:Stephen C. Smith
2062:
2056:
2048:
2042:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2008:
2007:
1967:
1947:Workers' council
1937:Social ownership
1917:Market socialism
1905:US corporate law
1536:
1534:
1533:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1484:
1482:
1481:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1365:
1363:
1362:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1313:
1311:
1310:
1287:
1285:
1284:
1246:
1244:
1243:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1166:
1164:
1163:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1104:
1102:
1101:
1077:
1075:
1074:
1051:
1049:
1048:
1022:
1020:
1019:
993:
991:
990:
966:
964:
963:
923:
921:
920:
897:
895:
894:
871:
869:
868:
845:
843:
842:
815:
813:
812:
780:
778:
777:
754:
752:
751:
728:
726:
725:
702:
700:
699:
671:
669:
668:
641:
639:
638:
611:
609:
608:
584:
582:
581:
522:
521:
497:
496:
468:
467:
442:
440:
439:
416:
414:
413:
389:
387:
386:
359:
357:
356:
332:
330:
329:
306:
304:
303:
284:
282:
281:
252:
250:
249:
226:
224:
223:
201:
199:
198:
179:
177:
176:
147:
145:
144:
120:
30:, also known as
21:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3189:
3155:
3154:
3114:
3087:
3073:Liberal Party,
3021:Lord Wedderburn
2873:
2868:
2855:
2851:
2839:
2835:
2818:
2814:
2798:
2794:
2775:
2771:
2756:
2752:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2726:
2717:
2713:
2696:
2692:
2659:
2655:
2626:
2622:
2614:
2610:
2597:
2593:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2557:
2548:
2544:
2535:
2533:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2495:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2477:
2475:
2469:"Valder, Henry"
2465:
2461:
2448:
2444:
2435:
2433:
2425:
2424:
2420:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2390:
2386:
2378:
2353:
2347:
2343:
2328:
2324:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2301:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2280:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2268:
2259:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2238:
2236:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2214:
2212:
2204:
2203:
2199:
2190:
2188:
2180:
2179:
2175:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2142:
2138:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2093:
2089:
2080:
2076:
2063:
2059:
2049:
2045:
2040:Wayback Machine
2027:
2023:
2015:
2011:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1832:
1819:United Airlines
1727:
1707:
1696:
1690:
1658:
1652:
1632:
1623:
1609:
1592:
1586:
1565:
1559:
1550:No general law
1531:
1529:
1524:No general law
1505:
1503:
1498:No general law
1479:
1477:
1463:(Tel-Aviv 1985)
1443:
1441:
1436:No general law
1416:
1414:
1409:No general law
1390:
1388:
1360:
1358:
1353:No general law
1334:
1332:
1327:No general law
1308:
1306:
1301:No general law
1282:
1280:
1241:
1239:
1215:
1213:
1188:
1186:
1161:
1159:
1130:
1128:
1099:
1097:
1072:
1070:
1046:
1044:
1017:
1015:
988:
986:
981:No general law
961:
959:
918:
916:
892:
890:
866:
864:
859:No general law
840:
838:
810:
808:
775:
773:
768:No general law
749:
747:
742:No general law
723:
721:
716:No general law
697:
695:
666:
664:
636:
634:
606:
604:
599:No general law
579:
577:
516:
491:
482:
462:
437:
435:
430:No general law
411:
409:
384:
382:
354:
352:
327:
325:
320:No general law
301:
299:
279:
277:
259:LL 2009 art 166
247:
245:
221:
219:
196:
194:
174:
172:
142:
140:
104:market failures
99:
56:codetermination
23:
22:
18:Codetermination
15:
12:
11:
5:
3198:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3153:
3152:
3150:1991 Amendment
3147:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3113:
3112:External links
3110:
3109:
3108:
3093:
3086:
3085:External links
3083:
3082:
3081:
3078:
3071:
3066:Lord Donovan,
3063:
3062:
3058:
3057:
3050:
3040:
3030:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3018:
3011:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2987:
2984:
2981:
2974:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2955:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2926:
2920:
2917:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2893:
2890:
2883:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2866:
2849:
2833:
2812:
2792:
2769:
2750:
2735:
2724:
2711:
2690:
2676:10.3386/w28921
2653:
2640:(2): 669â725.
2620:
2608:
2591:
2577:
2566:
2555:
2542:
2518:
2501:
2484:
2459:
2442:
2418:
2397:
2384:
2381:on 2020-06-13.
2341:
2322:
2308:
2287:
2266:
2245:
2221:
2197:
2173:
2149:
2136:
2112:
2087:
2074:
2057:
2043:
2021:
2009:
1982:(3): 205â218.
1961:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1908:
1907:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1881:UK company law
1874:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1838:
1831:
1828:
1797:did propose a
1787:Bullock Report
1726:
1723:
1706:
1703:
1689:
1686:
1678:Board of Trade
1651:
1650:United Kingdom
1648:
1640:Law Commission
1631:
1628:
1608:
1605:
1588:Main article:
1585:
1582:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1457:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1411:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1385:
1384:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1355:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1277:
1276:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1250:
1248:United Kingdom
1236:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1156:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1125:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1067:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1041:
1040:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1012:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1002:
983:
982:
979:
977:
974:
971:
956:
955:
952:
948:
947:
944:
940:
939:
936:
933:
930:
927:
913:
912:
910:
907:
904:
901:
887:
886:
883:
880:
877:
875:
861:
860:
857:
854:
851:
849:
835:
834:
832:
829:
826:
824:
805:
804:
801:
797:
796:
793:
790:
787:
785:
770:
769:
766:
763:
760:
758:
744:
743:
740:
737:
734:
732:
718:
717:
714:
711:
708:
706:
692:
691:
689:
686:
683:
680:
661:
660:
653:
650:
647:
645:
631:
630:
628:
625:
622:
620:
601:
600:
597:
594:
591:
589:
574:
573:
554:
551:
547:
546:
539:
536:
533:
526:
513:
512:
509:
506:
488:
487:
484:
479:
478:"One" or "Two"
476:
473:
459:
458:
455:
452:
449:
446:
432:
431:
428:
425:
422:
420:
406:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
379:
378:
376:
373:
370:
368:
361:Czech Republic
349:
348:
345:
342:
339:
337:
334:Czech Republic
322:
321:
318:
315:
312:
310:
296:
295:
292:
289:
274:
273:
266:
263:
260:
257:
242:
241:
238:
235:
232:
230:
216:
215:
212:
209:
207:
205:
191:
190:
187:
184:
169:
168:
161:
158:
155:
152:
137:
136:
133:
130:
127:
124:
98:
95:
71:United Kingdom
48:European Union
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3197:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3180:Corporate law
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3145:1983 Revision
3143:
3142:
3138:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3079:
3076:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3064:
3060:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3048:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2907:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2875:
2874:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2830:
2829:John Prescott
2826:
2822:
2816:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2796:
2790:
2788:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2765:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2728:
2721:
2715:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2694:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2648:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2605:
2601:
2595:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2575:
2570:
2564:
2559:
2552:
2546:
2532:
2531:www.nzlii.org
2528:
2522:
2511:
2505:
2494:
2488:
2474:
2473:teara.govt.nz
2470:
2463:
2455:
2454:
2446:
2432:
2431:www.nzlii.org
2428:
2422:
2407:
2401:
2394:
2388:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2352:
2345:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2318:
2312:
2297:
2291:
2276:
2270:
2255:
2249:
2235:
2231:
2225:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2187:
2183:
2177:
2159:
2153:
2146:
2140:
2122:
2116:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2084:
2078:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2054:
2047:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1962:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1942:Works council
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1877:UK labour law
1875:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1827:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1807:Scanlon plans
1804:
1803:United States
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1779:work councils
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1755:work councils
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1722:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1702:
1700:
1699:Massachusetts
1695:
1688:United States
1685:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1564:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1476:
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1471:
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1462:
1461:Dapey Shituf
1458:
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1413:
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40:corporate law
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1728:
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1659:
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1853:Corporatism
1841:Cooperative
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1630:New Zealand
1567:During the
1512:South Korea
1341:New Zealand
1222:Switzerland
1144:50% - 33.3%
899:Netherlands
3175:Labour law
3159:Categories
2871:References
2761:. See the
2604:chapter 70
2536:2018-03-22
2478:2018-03-22
2436:2018-03-22
2411:3 December
2302:2021-03-30
2281:2024-01-14
2260:2021-03-10
2239:2021-03-25
2215:2021-03-25
2191:2021-03-25
2167:2024-01-14
2130:2021-03-10
1863:Labour law
1692:See also:
1654:See also:
1611:See also:
1561:See also:
817:Luxembourg
782:Luxembourg
560:, but the
3165:Democracy
2685:235706486
2553:, page 9.
2395:, page 22
2004:159358979
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1289:Australia
756:Lithuania
3097:S Deakin
2968:Articles
2588:ss 10-11
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2100:S Deakin
2036:Archived
1830:See also
1817:, or at
1815:Chrysler
1737:and the
1664:and the
1137:Slovenia
1106:Slovakia
1079:Slovakia
1024:Portugal
228:Bulgaria
97:Overview
65:and the
3061:Reports
2515:. 1988.
1725:History
1607:Germany
1575:leader
1053:Romania
951:33.3%+1
946:51-200
673:Ireland
643:Hungary
564:of the
524:Germany
444:Finland
418:Estonia
391:Denmark
286:Croatia
254:Croatia
203:Belgium
181:Austria
149:Austria
123:Country
87:Germany
77:in the
69:in the
3077:(1968)
3049:(1961)
2954:(1920)
2935:(1961)
2889:(2017)
2683:
2147:(2017)
2002:
1994:
1705:Impact
1619:, and
1557:Canada
1538:Turkey
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1423:Israel
1420:
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922:
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586:Greece
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499:France
470:France
441:
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388:
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308:Cyprus
305:
283:
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135:Notes
3028:Books
2681:S2CID
2513:(PDF)
2496:(PDF)
2379:(PDF)
2354:(PDF)
2161:(PDF)
2124:(PDF)
2000:S2CID
1958:Notes
1823:Enron
1596:China
1584:China
1486:Japan
1397:Chile
1202:33.3%
1168:Spain
1004:33.3%
943:33.3%
935:30-50
932:"One"
873:Malta
847:Malta
828:33.3%
803:1000
800:33.3%
792:â€1000
704:Italy
685:33.3%
649:33.3%
624:"One"
562:chair
535:33.3%
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262:"One"
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3105:2016
3015:ETUI
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2094:See
1992:ISSN
1903:and
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1870:and
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