Developmental psychology

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relied on for a majority of their studies. Previous research generalizes the findings done with W.E.I.R.D. samples because many in the Psychological field assume certain aspects of development are exempted from or are not affected by life experiences. However, many of the assumptions have been proven incorrect or are not supported by empirical research. For example, according to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is dependent on cognitive abilities. While both analytical and holistic cognitive systems do have the potential to develop in any adult, the West is still on the extreme end of analytical thinking, and the non-West tend to use holistic processes. Furthermore, moral reasoning in the West only considers aspects that support autonomy and the individual, whereas non-Western adults emphasize moral behaviors supporting the community and maintaining an image of holiness or divinity. Not all aspects of human development are universal and we can learn a lot from observing different regions and subjects.

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functioning. A number of mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children. Positive coparenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviors lead to a destructive pattern leaving children at risk. Additionally, direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors facilitating positive child development after a divorce are maternal warmth, positive father-child relationship, and cooperation between parents.

2314:, where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words. Self-control also begins to develop. At this age, children take initiative to explore, experiment and learn from making mistakes. Caretakers who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident. If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify themselves in 1302:" Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child." This technique is called "scaffolding", because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level. In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment. He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness. 1256: 1273:

exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life).

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self-understanding. Adolescents are confronted with questions regarding their identity, beliefs, and future goals. The major problem is building a strong sense of identity in the face of society standards, peer pressure, and personal preferences. Adolescents participate in identity exploration, commitment, and synthesis, actively seeking out new experiences, embracing ideals and aspirations, and merging their changing sense of self into a coherent identity. Successfully navigating this stage builds the groundwork for good psychological development in adulthood, allowing people to pursue meaningful relationships, make positive contributions to society, and handle life's adversities with perseverance and purpose.

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from substantial engagement with their father. In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls. Furthermore, another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and that single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes. According to this set of research, children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive emotional connection. Having more than one of these figures contributes to a higher likelihood of positive child outcomes.

1832:. The advantage of using this research method is that it permits determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables. On the other hand, the limitation is that data obtained in an artificial environment may lack generalizability. The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention. The advantage of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment; however, the limitation is that it does not permit determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables. The 2292:

development (TD) behavioral, emotional and other mental disorders. When compared to MA children there is a bigger difference between normal developmental behaviors overall. DDs can cause lower MA, so comparing DDs with TDs may not be as accurate. Pairing DDs specifically with TD children at similar MA can be more accurate. There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered as normal at certain ages. When evaluating DDs and MA in children, consider whether those with DDs have a larger amount of behavior that is not typical for their MA group. Developmental delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties than their TD counterparts.

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notion. They studied infants' comprehension of object permanence at a young age using novel experimental approaches such as violation-of-expectation paradigms. These findings imply that children as young as 3 to 4 months old may have an innate awareness of object permanence. Baillargeon's "drawbridge" experiment, for example, showed that infants were surprised when they saw occurrences that contradicted object permanence expectations. This proposition has important consequences for our understanding of infant cognition, implying that infants may be born with core cognitive abilities rather than developing them via experience and learning.

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years) is also when children start education and increase their knowledge of Dharma. It is within early and middle adulthood that we see moral development progress. Early, middle, and late adulthood are all concerned with caring for others and fulfilling Dharma. The main distinction between early adulthood to middle or late adulthood is how far their influence reaches. Early adulthood emphasizes the importance of fulfilling the immediate family needs, until later adulthood when they broaden their responsibilities to the general public. The old-age life stage development reaches renunciation or a complete understanding of Dharma.

2548:. Intimacy suggests a process of becoming part of something larger than oneself by sacrificing in romantic relationships and working for both life and career goals. Other examples include creating bonds of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and starting a family. Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of previous developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others. 2159:

as substituting alveolar sounds with initial velar sounds, especially in languages like English. Furthermore, babytalk often involves morphological simplifications, such as regularizing verb conjugations (for instance, saying "corned" instead of "cornered" or "goed" instead of "went"). This language is typically taught to children and is perceived as their natural way of communication. Interestingly, in mythology and popular culture, certain characters, such as the "Hausa trickster" or the Warner Bros cartoon character "Tweety Pie", are portrayed as speaking in a babytalk-like manner.

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interactions. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content. A foundational concept of constructivism is that the purpose of cognition is to organize one's experiential world, instead of the ontological world around them.

6754: 1269:, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives such as our home and school. Mesosystem is how relationships connect to the microsystem. Exosystem is a larger social system where the child plays no role. Macrosystem refers to the cultural values, customs and laws of society. 1763:, people have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times as well as at a different pace. Children as young as four years old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it is consistent through old age. Furthermore, one's reliance on gist memory traces increases as one ages. 2713:

academic outcomes. The beneficial outcomes of authoritative parenting are not necessarily universal. Among African American adolescents, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement without peer support for achievement. Children who are raised by authoritative parents are "more likely to become independent, self-reliant, socially accepted, academically successful, and well-behaved. They are less likely to report depression and anxiety, and less likely to engage in antisocial behavior like delinquency and drug use."

2265:, deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and are unable to learn in later childhood. In this case, Genie is used to represent the case of a feral child because she was socially neglected and abused while she was just a young girl. She underwent abnormal child psychology which involved problems with her linguistics. This happened because she was neglected while she was very young with no one to care about her and had less human contact. The concept of critical periods is also well-established in 1601:

human brain undergoes rapid changes during prenatal and early postnatal periods. These changes include the formation of neurons, the development of neural networks, and the establishment of synaptic connections. The formation of neurons and the establishment of basic neural circuits in the developing brain are crucial for laying the foundation of the brain's structure and function, and disruptions during this period can have long-term effects on cognitive and emotional development.

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sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. Zone of proximal development is a tool used to explain the learning of children and collaborating problem solving activities with an adult or peer. This adult role is often referred to as the skilled "master", whereas the child is considered the learning apprentice through an educational process often termed "

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development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; fetal stage represents 9 weeks until birth of the baby. The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age). The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks). Most of the brain's billions of neurons also are developed by the second trimester. Babies are hence born with some odor, taste and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment.

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beliefs and desires that are different from our own. This enables people to engage in daily social interactions as we explain the mental state around us. If a child does not fully develop theory of mind within this crucial 5-year period, they can suffer from communication barriers that follow them into adolescence and adulthood. Exposure to more people and the availability of stimuli that encourages social-cognitive growth is a factor that relies heavily on family.

10372: 64: 10397: 8963: 977:, from about a year or a year and a half to three years of age. During the anal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated with its defecation. This period of development often occurs during the time when the child is being toilet trained. The child becomes interested with feces and urine. Children begin to see themselves as independent from their parents. They begin to desire assertiveness and autonomy. 658: 1392:, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A threatened or stressed child will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional, and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later 1512:

development of certain capacities in each arrange, such as particular feelings or ways of considering, have a definite beginning and finishing point. Be that as it may, there's no correct time at which a capacity abruptly shows up or disappears. Although some sorts of considering, feeling or carrying on could seem to seem abruptly, it is more than likely that this has been developing gradually for some time.

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some overlaps and similarities between Erikson's stages of human development and the Indian model but both of them still have major differences. The West prefers Erickson's ideas over the Indian model because they are supported by scientific studies. The life cycles based on Hinduism are not as favored, because it is not supported with research and it focuses on the ideal human development.

1374:(EP), but is also distinct from EP in several domains, including research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptations of ontogeny, as opposed to adaptations of adulthood) and consideration of proximate ontogenetic and environmental factors (i.e., how development happens) in addition to more ultimate factors (i.e., why development happens), which are the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology. 2562:. Scholars of emerging adulthood, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in relationship development. Instead, this concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period, not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation. 1912:, combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format aids in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to an individual or historical environment from those that are truly universal. 2799: 1020:, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through their interactions with their physical and social environments. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials. In his interview techniques with children that formed an empirical basis for his theories, he used something similar to 606: 1647:, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to obtain. 650: 1067:

different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees society's rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.

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caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited. Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent.

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products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favor the emergence of individual differences via "adaptive developmental plasticity". From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.

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stagnation results in a lack of purpose. The adult's identity continues to develop in middle-adulthood. Middle-aged adults often adopt opposite gender characeristics. The adult realizes they are half-way through their life and often reevaluate vocational and social roles. Life circumstances can also cause a reexamination of identity.

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attachment" and whether certain attributes are found to contribute to a certain attachment issue. The Adult Attachment Interview is a tool that is similar to the Strange Situation Test but instead focuses attachment issues found in adults. Both tests have helped many researchers gain more information on the risks and how to identify them.

1280:, has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood. 1970:, appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy. This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different. It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the 1840:, structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores. Each of these methods have its strengths and weaknesses but the experimental method when appropriate is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn about cause-and-effect relationships. 1489:. Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally. But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications. 1241:

order of hierarchical complexity task action; b) defined as the higher order task action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine; c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.

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timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span.

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when they are older. Children are raised in joint families so that in early childhood (ages 6 months to 2 years) the other family members help gradually wean the child from its mother. During ages 2 to 5, the parents do not rush toilet training. Instead of training the child to perform this behavior,

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model for development stages is the Indian model, focusing a large amount of its psychological research on morality and interpersonal progress. The developmental stages in Indian models are founded by Hinduism, which primarily teaches stages of life in the process of someone discovering their fate or

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Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demandingness and firm control. These parents focus on obedience and they monitor their children regularly. In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes. The outcomes

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Erik Erikson labels this stage identity versus role confusion. Erikson emphasizes the importance of developing a sense of identity in adolescence because it affects the individual throughout their life. Identity is a lifelong process and is related with curiosity and active engagement. Role confusion

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In various cultures, a distinct form of speech called "babytalk" is used when communicating with newborns and young children. This register consists of simplified terms for common topics such as family members, food, hygiene, and familiar animals. It also exhibits specific phonological patterns, such

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Researchers may also observe ways that development varies between individuals, and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require large amounts of time and funding, making them unfeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience

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Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts. Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these

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Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study

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Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways that infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as: problem-solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and

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The study of neural development provides crucial insights into the complex interplay between genetics, environment, and experiences in shaping the developing brain. By understanding the neural processes underlying developmental changes, researchers gain a better understanding of cognitive, emotional,

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Not all psychologists, be that as it may, concur that advancement could be a continuous process. A few see advancement as a discontinuous process. They accept advancement includes unmistakable and partitioned stages with diverse sorts of behavior happening in each organization. This proposes that the

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Those psychologists who bolster the continuous view of improvement propose that improvement includes slow and progressing changes all through the life span, with behavior within the prior stages of advancement giving the premise of abilities and capacities required for the other stages. "To many, the

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A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver or locked away under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and

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Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social

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and Piaget's developmental theory and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information, It divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the

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developed a theory that suggested that humans behave as they do because they are constantly seeking pleasure. This process of seeking pleasure changes through stages because people evolve. Each period of seeking pleasure that a person experiences is represented by a stage of psychosexual development.

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Parenting roles in child development have typically focused on the role of the mother. Recent literature, however, has looked toward the father as having an important role in child development. Affirming a role for fathers, studies have shown that children as young as 15 months benefit significantly

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In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative. If not, the child develops guilt. Children who develop "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for

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Autonomy versus shame follows trust in infancy. The child begins to explore their world in this stage and discovers preferences in what they like. If autonomy is allowed, the child grows in independence and their abilities. If freedom of exploration is hindered, it leads to feelings of shame and low

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in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. Notably, infants are able to differentiate between various durations and sound levels and can easily differentiate all the languages they have encountered, hence easy for infants to understand a certain language compared to

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such as depression and anxiety. Motor coordination problems affect fine and gross motor movement as well as perceptual-motor skills. Secondary stressors commonly identified include the tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children

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The eighth stage is "Ego Integrity vs. Despair". When one grows old, they look back on their life and contemplate their successes and failures. If they resolve this positively, the virtue of wisdom is gained. This is also the stage when one can gain a sense of closure and accept death without regret

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At each stage the person must resolve a challenge, or an existential dilemma. Successful resolution of the dilemma results in the person ingraining a positive virtue, but failure to resolve the fundamental challenge of that stage reinforces negative perceptions of the person or the world around them

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Freud believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious because the conscious tries to hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the

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The current mainstream views in the psychological field are against the Indian model for human development. The criticism against such models is that the parenting style is overly protective and encourages too much dependency. It focuses on interpersonal instead of individual goals. Also, there are

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on the other hand, suggests something different than most might expect. Erikson defined it as a delay of commitment in order to maintain freedom. Yet, this decision does not come without consequences. Erikson explained that choosing isolation may affect one's chances of getting married, progressing

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For children ages 9–11 "friendships and peer relationships" increase in strength, complexity, and importance. This results in greater "peer pressure". They grow even less dependent on their families and they are challenged academically. To meet this challenge, they increase their attention span and

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Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to thinks about the future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance become more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family". As students, they develop

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In all cultures, middle childhood is a time for developing "skills that will be needed in their society." School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)". They are "graded for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop

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Socially, the period of toddler-hood is commonly called the "terrible twos". Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop. A person at this stage testing their independence

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According to Jean Piaget's developmental psychology, object permanence, or the awareness that objects exist even when they are no longer visible, was thought to emerge gradually between the ages of 8 and 12 months. However, experts such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon have questioned this

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In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers developed new methods of assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget was able to do in his time. Since then, many studies based on these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than

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is significantly worse in infants than in older children. Infant sight tends to be blurry in early stages but improves over time. Color perception, similar to that seen in adults, has been demonstrated in infants as young as four months using habituation methods. Infants attain adult-like vision at

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Prenatal development is of interest to psychologists investigating the context of early psychological development. The whole prenatal development involves three main stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage. Germinal stage begins at conception until 2 weeks; embryonic stage means the

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A few other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handers being maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996

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or ER refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state.

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This issue involves the degree to which one becomes older renditions of their early experience or whether they develop into something different from who they were at an earlier point in development. It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the

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was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of their culture. Vygotsky believed that a child's development should be examined during problem-solving activities. Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and

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The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The virtue of being gained is a sense of purpose. This takes place primarily via play. This is the stage where the child will be curious and have many interactions with other kids. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is

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Kohlberg used the Heinz Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. The Heinz Dilemma involves Heinz's wife dying from cancer and Heinz having the dilemma to save his wife by stealing a drug. Preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality applies to Heinz's

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He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. The pre-conventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with

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Rejecting or neglectful parenting is the final category. This is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness. These parents are typically disengaged in their child's lives, lacking structure in their parenting styles and are unsupportive. Children in this category are typically

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Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of responsiveness combined with low levels of demandingness. These parents are lenient and do not necessarily require mature behavior. They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and typically avoid confrontation. Compared to children raised

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Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and

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Erikson labels this stage as integrity versus despair. For integrated persons, there is a sense of fulfillment in life. They have become self-aware and optimistic due to life's commitments and connection to others. While reflecting on life, people in this stage develop feelings of contentment with

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The "peril during this period is that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop. Parents and teachers can "undermine" a child's development by failing to recognize accomplishments or being overly critical of a child's efforts. Children who are "encouraged and praised" develop a belief in

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occurs). Generally, there are various reasons as to why infants dream. Some argue that it is just a psychotherapy, which usually occurs normally in the brain. Dreaming is a form of processing and consolidating information that has been obtained during the day. Freud argues that dreams are a way of

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Stage theories of development rest on the suspicion that development may be a discontinuous process including particular stages which are characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior. They moreover assume that the structure of the stages is not variable concurring to each person, in any case,

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An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarized positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between

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The first stage, "Trust vs. Mistrust", takes place in infancy. The positive virtue for the first stage is hope, in the infant learning whom to trust and having hope for a supportive group of people to be there for him/her. The second stage is "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt" with the positive virtue

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This model of early human development encourages dependency, unlike Western models that value autonomy and independence. By being attentive and not forcing the child to become independent, they are confident and have a sense of belonging by late childhood and adolescence. This stage in life (5–15

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All parents have their own parenting styles. Parenting styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are "based upon two aspects of parenting behavior; control and warmth. Parental control refers to the degree to which parents manage their children's behavior. Parental warmth refers to the degree to which

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The motor skills of preschoolers increase so they can do more things for themselves. They become more independent. No longer completely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age group expands. More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities. Preschoolers explore and

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Studies have been done to look at the differences in children who have developmental delays versus typical development. Normally when being compared to one another, mental age (MA) is not taken into consideration. There still may be differences in developmentally delayed (DD) children vs. typical

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In the MHC, there are three main axioms for an order to meet in order for the higher order task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules that are followed to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower

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Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce. Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes. In fact, the majority of children from divorcing families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive

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Authoritative parenting is characterized as parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demandingness, but rate low in negativity and conflict. These parents are assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive. This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and

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In the earliest years, children are "completely dependent on the care of others". Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their care givers and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3–5), they "enlarge their social horizons" to include people outside the family.

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As stated, the psychosocial crisis for Erikson is Trust versus Mistrust. Needs are the foundation for gaining or losing trust in the infant. If the needs are met, trust in the guardian and the world forms. If the needs are not met, or the infant is neglected, mistrust forms alongside feelings of

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parasite, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child. There are many statistics which prove the effects of the aforementioned substances. A leading example of this would be that at least 100,000 "cocaine babies" were born in the

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One critical aspect of developmental psychology is the study of neural development, which investigates how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Neural development focuses on how the brain changes and develops during different stages of life. Studies have shown that the

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Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states to ourselves and others. It is a complex but vital process in which children begin to understand the emotions, motives, and feelings of not only themselves but also others. Theory of mind allows people to understand that others have unique

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Continuous development is quantifiable and quantitative, whereas discontinuous development is qualitative. Quantitative estimations of development can be measuring the stature of a child, and measuring their memory or consideration span. "Particularly dramatic examples of qualitative changes are

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Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, and disorganized. Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a

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Piaget argued that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages generated through the equilibration process. Each stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each

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A way to improve developmental psychology is a representation of cross-cultural studies. The psychology field in general assumes that "basic" human developments are represented in any population, specifically the Western-Educated-Industrialized-Rich and Democratic (W.E.I.R.D.) subjects that are

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are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g. sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the smell and taste of

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in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts) and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups, education, neighborhoods, and chance encounters) rather than

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to get children to reveal their thinking. He argued that a principal source of development was through the child's inevitable generation of contradictions through their interactions with their physical and social worlds. The child's resolution of these contradictions led to more integrated and

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is well-developed prior to birth. Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, mother's voice to other voices, and the native language to other languages. Scientist believe these features are probably learned in the womb. Infants are fairly good at detecting the

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Research finds that the adolescent brain undergoes significant changes in neural connectivity and plasticity. During this period, there is a pruning process where certain neural connections are strengthened while others are eliminated, resulting in more efficient neural networks and increased

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protocol and the concept of the secure base. This tool has been found to help understand attachment, such as the Strange Situation Test and the Adult Attachment Interview. Both of which help determine factors to certain attachment styles. The Strange Situation Test helps find "disturbances in

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The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The

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Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 to 64. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. Generativity is the sense of contributing to society, the next generation, or their immediate community. On the other hand,

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have shown that infants are capable of a range of movements in the womb, many of which appear to be more than simple reflexes. By the time they are born, infants can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice suggesting some prenatal development of auditory perception. Prenatal

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Dynamic systems models illustrate how many different features of a complex system may interact to yield emergent behaviors and abilities. Nonlinear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address issues that require attention to temporality such as life transitions, human

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Indian psychologists study the relevance of attentive families during the early stages of life. The early life stages conceptualize a different parenting style from the West because it does not try to rush children out of dependency. The family is meant to help the child grow into the next

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During Erik Erikson's identity versus role uncertainty stage, which occurs in adolescence, people struggle to form a cohesive sense of self while exploring many social roles and prospective life routes. This time is characterized by deep introspection, self-examination, and the pursuit of

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United States annually in the late 1980s. "Cocaine babies" are proven to have quite severe and lasting difficulties which persist throughout infancy and right throughout childhood. The drug also encourages behavioural problems in the affected children and defects of various vital organs.

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or participant observation. These methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study. Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the

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capacity. These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of

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The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The virtue for this stage is competency and is the result of the child's early experiences in school. This stage is when the child will try to win the approval of others and understand the value of their accomplishments.

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Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using

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Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be whole by helping students understand that meaning is constructed.

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Genetic factors play a huge roll in neural development. Genetic factors can influence the timing and pattern of neural development, as well as the susceptibility to certain developmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

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Hirshkowitz, Max; Whiton, Kaitlyn; Albert, Steven M.; Alessi, Cathy; Bruni, Oliviero; DonCarlos, Lydia; Hazen, Nancy; Herman, John; Katz, Eliot S.; Kheirandish-Gozal, Leila; Neubauer, David N.; O’Donnell, Anne E.; Ohayon, Maurice; Peever, John; Rawding, Robert (2015-03-01).

2046:. In human or rodent infants, there is always the observation of a diurnal cortisol rhythm, which is sometimes entrained with a maternal substance. Nevertheless, the circadian rhythm starts to take shape, and a 24-hour rhythm is observed in just some few months after birth. 1412:

According to the theory, attachment is established in early childhood and attachment continues into adulthood. As such, proponents posit that the attachment style that individuals form in childhood impacts the way they manage stressors in intimate relationships as an adult.

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amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around three days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference. Older infants also prefer the smell of their mother to that of others.

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Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they employ the experimental, correlational, or case study method, can also be constructed using research designs. Research designs are logical frameworks used to make key comparisons within research studies such as:

1897:, a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a 1101:

being will. This takes place in early childhood when the child learns to become more independent by discovering what they are capable of whereas if the child is overly controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt.

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Mathematical modeling is useful in developmental psychology for implementing theory in a precise and easy-to-study manner, allowing generation, explanation, integration, and prediction of diverse phenomena. Several modeling techniques are applied to development:

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Experiences and environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping neural development. Early sensory experiences, such as exposure to language and visual stimuli, can influence the development of neural pathways related to perception and language processing.

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Infants shift between ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood. In this stage, an infant's transition into toddlerhood is highlighted through self-awareness, developing maturity in language use, and presence of memory and imagination.

986:, which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person's personality forms by this age). During the phallic stage, the child becomes aware of its sexual organs. Pleasure comes from finding acceptance and love from the opposite sex. The fourth is the 8358: 891:

Developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time in the course of a human life. Many theorists have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology. One of them,

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The sixth stage is "Intimacy vs. Isolation", which happens in young adults and the virtue gained is love. This is when the person starts to share his/her life with someone else intimately and emotionally. Not doing so can reinforce feelings of isolation.

999:, which takes place from puberty until adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty begins to occur. Children have now matured, and begin to think about other people instead of just themselves. Pleasure comes from feelings of affection from other people. 1640:

motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal.

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Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. According to this theory, infants develop

2203:". Some researchers have suggested that before the age of 8–9 months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone ("Out of sight, out of mind"). 2198:

Piaget concluded that infants lacked object permanence before 18 months when infants' before this age failed to look for an object where it had last been seen. Instead, infants continued to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the

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vs. dynamic systems of development. Research in developmental psychology has some limitations but at the moment researchers are working to understand how transitioning through stages of life and biological factors may impact our behaviors and

7947:""Children with active, involved fathers have better social skills, are healthier, and do better in school", according to Duane Wilson, the Proud Fathers, Proud Parents program coordinator for the Michigan Department of Human Services (2:57)" 2277:

among others. Neurophysiology in infants generally provides correlating details that exists between neurophysiological details and clinical features and also focuses on vital information on rare and common neurological disorders that affect

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Stage performance on those tasks. A stage is the order hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant's successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget's original eight stage (counting the half stages) to seventeen stages. The stages are:

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using the authoritative style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive. Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised under authoritative parenting styles.

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Lefmann, T. & Combs-Orme, T. 2013, "Early Brain Development for Social Work Practice: Integrating Neuroscience with Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development", Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, vol. 23, no. 5, pp.

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development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Nonlinear dynamic systems is currently being explored as a way to explain discrete phenomena of human development such as affect, second language acquisition, and locomotion.

1462:. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of 1703:

Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the child's emotions.

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The fifth stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion". The virtue gained is fidelity and it takes place in adolescence. This is when the child ideally starts to identify their place in society, particularly in terms of their gender role.

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Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see

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A child's social and emotional development can be disrupted by motor coordination problems, evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and

3621: 1901:. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to 2592:

in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in

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The seventh stage is "Generativity vs. Stagnation". This happens in adulthood and the virtue gained is care. A person becomes stable and starts to give back by raising a family and becoming involved in the community.

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lifespan developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are unwise. Therefore, the key to a comprehensive understanding of development at any stage requires the interaction of different factors and not only one.

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nurture on the process of human development, as well as processes of change in context across time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions among personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and

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pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain. The superego plays the critical and moralizing role, while the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego.

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their experiences. If a person falls into despair, they are often disappointed about failures or missed chances in life. They may feel that the time left in life is an insufficient amount to turn things around.

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Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on one study or even one method to reach conclusions by finding consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible.

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Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are considered as the "five senses". Because of these different senses, infants respond to stimuli differently.

1978:) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development. Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions like 2128:: Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children, but pain relief in infants has not received so much attention as an area of research. Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns. 2039:. As they grow, children respond to their environment in unique ways. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it. 8248: 1409:

temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behavior, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult.\

2008:—can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the 1427:

A significant debate in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as "

4618: 1886:) and occur in most members of a cohort. As an example a longitudinal study of early literacy development examined in detail the early literacy experiences of one child in each of 30 families. 973:, which begins at birth and ends around a year and a half of age. During the oral stage, the child finds pleasure in behaviors like sucking or other behaviors with the mouth. The second is the 2155:, whereby they start making vowel consonant sound as they try to understand the true meaning of language and copy whatever they are hearing in their surrounding producing their own phonemes. 2042:

The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent sleeping. At first, their sleep cycles are evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become

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has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities.

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Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity.

2072:. In a normal set up, infants have different reasons as to why they cry. Mostly, infants cry due to physical discomfort, hunger, or to receive attention or stimulation from their caregiver. 2612:

The important influence of biological and social changes experienced by women and men in middle adulthood is reflected in the fact that depression is highest at age 48.5 around the world.

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key determinants of a person's development. Stability is defined as the consistent ordering of individual differences with respect to some attribute. Change is altering someone/something.

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developed a model of eight stages of psychological development. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and that this would affect their behaviors.

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must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.

2770:. This cross-cultural model can add another perspective to psychological development in which the West behavioral sciences have not emphasized kinship, ethnicity, or religion. 1780:

used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development.

870:

are typically cited as providing the foundation for modern developmental psychology. In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development:

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Early adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 18 to 39, and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on

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the time of each arrangement may shift separately. Stage theories can be differentiated with ceaseless hypotheses, which set that development is an incremental process.

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Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including:

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For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competency in the child.

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Stage 3: Play age (3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt. (This stage is also called the "pre-school age", "exploratory age" and "toy age".)

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Whiteside MF, Becker BJ (March 2000). "Parental factors and the young child's postdivorce adjustment: a meta-analysis with implications for parenting arrangements".

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Social and emotional development focuses on five keys areas: Self-Awareness, Self Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills and Responsible Decision Making.

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thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998)

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Iwata, Osuke; Okamura, Hisayoshi; Saitsu, Hiroki; Saikusa, Mamoru; Kanda, Hiroshi; Eshima, Nobuoki; Iwata, Sachiko; Maeno, Yasuki; Matsuishi, Toyojiro (Jan 2013).

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in infancy and childhood during which development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation.

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Developmental psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, including

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the mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others".

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industry outside of school in sports, games, and doing volunteer work. Children who achieve "success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence."

1882:) and carries out new observations as members of the cohort age. This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or 2223:) have proposed that an understanding of object permanence is not learned at all, but rather comprises part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species. 8289: 4326:

Collins WA, Maccoby EE, Steinberg L, Hetherington EM, Bornstein MH (February 2000). "Contemporary research on parenting. The case for nature and nurture".

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developmental stage at a particular age. This way, when children finally integrate into society, they are interconnected with those around them and reach

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information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms.

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is often considered the current state of identity of the individual. Identity exploration is the process of changing from role confusion to resolution.

1955:

too arise before birth and are still present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life.

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Arnett JJ, Žukauskienė R, Sugimura K (December 2014). "The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18-29 years: implications for mental health".

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The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become

2310:

During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the

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The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist

7433:"Losing one's grip: a bivariate growth curve model of grip strength and nonverbal reasoning from age 79 to 87 years in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1921" 2143:

Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages. Infants of around six months can differentiate between

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determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime.

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Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience

1045:. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place. 8712: 8660: 7747: 2639: 1634: 1080: 7244:"Socioeconomic position, lifestyle factors and age at natural menopause: a systematic review and meta-analyses of studies across six continents" 4603: 6960: 8537: 3950: 2952: 1458:. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through 6516:

How Children Develop, Exploring Child Development Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop

2717:

are more harmful for middle-class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys.

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innate and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of

1093:, posits eight stages of individual human development influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan. 8640: 2680:

show that perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, and spatial orientation decline. An article on adult cognitive development reports that

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historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may, in fact, be universal only to their cohort.

1439:. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's 1012: 6541:"Developmental level and psychopathology: comparing children with developmental delays to chronological and mental age matched controls" 5018: 5001: 3097: 1466:. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as 8507: 2957: 7123: 6730: 3890: 2114:

is one of the better-developed senses at birth as it is one of the first senses to develop inside the womb. This is evidenced by the

9751: 8449: 8328:"Common territories in comparative and developmental psychology: The quest for shared means and meaning in behavioral investigations" 1686: 8487: 7184:

Helson R, Soto CJ (August 2005). "Up and down in middle age: monotonic and nonmonotonic changes in roles, status, and personality".

2176: 9056: 8530: 346: 2477:). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning. A return to 1816:

involves "actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed; the

1559:. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the 2917: 5689: 9660: 9151: 3341: 2438:(CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives "developmental milestones for each stage". 573: 8478: 1668:

showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and

8718: 7632: 7566: 7369: 7133: 7103: 6674: 6649: 6624: 6597: 6523: 6353: 6316: 6278: 6114: 6089: 6064: 5797: 5761: 5717: 5671: 5633: 5597: 5572: 5366: 4579: 4506: 4232: 4207: 3933: 3874: 3837: 3753: 3536: 3453: 3408: 3379: 3274: 3135: 3076: 2992: 1448: 1330: 1311: 4400: 1836:

approach allows investigations to obtain an in-depth understanding of an individual participant by collecting data based on

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The order of hierarchical complexity of tasks predicts how difficult the performance is with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.

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Play is a major activity for ages 3–5. For Piaget, through play "a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development."

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decreases with age. Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the measure and study.

1747:

Researchers interested in memory development look at the way our memory develops from childhood and onward. According to

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EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations), as well as

7220: 6708: 5932:"Diurnal cortisol changes in newborn infants suggesting entrainment of peripheral circadian clock in utero and at birth" 2638:

inability to make "active contribution" to society, not chronological age, marks the beginning of old age. According to

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through touching and handling objects. Infants start to understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight.

1443:. What makes a person who they are? Is it their environment or their genetics? This is the debate of nature vs nurture. 9214: 7783:"Academic Socialization: Understanding Parental Influences on Children's School-Related Development in the Early Years" 4907: 2972: 2922: 31: 17: 1824:. This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more 1500:

One of the major discussions in developmental psychology includes whether development is discontinuous or continuous.

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Cairney J, Veldhuizen S, Szatmari P (July 2010). "Motor coordination and emotional-behavioral problems in children".

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exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way".

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that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive

804: 7889:"The authoritative parenting style: Warmth, rationality, and high standards." A guide for the science-minded parent" 6881: 5838: 4401:"The long good-bye: why B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior is alive and well on the 50th anniversary of its publication" 10388: 9640: 6179:

Dilen B, Elseviers M (June 2010). "Oral glucose solution as pain relief in newborns: results of a clinical trial".

2977: 1231: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1134: 629: 553: 6797: 6030: 2390: 990:, which occurs from age five until puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interests are repressed. 10324: 8419: 2967: 2912: 1630: 10412: 9713: 1255: 10281: 9935: 9776: 9635: 9086: 8650: 8499: 7392:

Hearn, Simon; Saulnier, Gary; Strayer, Janet; Glenham, Margarete; Koopman, Ray; Marcia, James E. (2012-03-01).

3951:"On the universality of human nature and the uniqueness of the individual: the role of genetics and adaptation" 2987: 2238:, that is, an ability to represent number and even compute the outcomes of addition and subtraction operations; 2195:. From eight months the infant is able to uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved. 1777: 548: 376: 9693: 2431:

their competence. Lack of encouragement or ability to excel lead to "feelings of inadequacy and inferiority".

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Baumrind D (1 February 1991). "The Influence of Parenting Style on Adolescent Competence and Substance Use".

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Twenge JM (2008). "Review of emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties".

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Sameroff A (January 2010). "A unified theory of development: a dialectic integration of nature and nurture".

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and the neuroscience of prenatal development is of increasing interest to developmental psychology research.

1959:

suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example, the

1714:

are exposed to several psychosocial consequences which act as secondary stressors, leading to an increase in

1529: 578: 147: 8460: 6914: 1335:

Evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian

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present, the child may have a slower and harder time interacting with their world and other children in it.

10229: 10139: 9675: 9297: 8617: 8574: 3153:"Adapting to the changing needs of adolescents: parenting practices and challenges to sensitive attunement" 2947: 2833: 2692:

Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in child outcomes.

2668:. The average age of onset for dementia in males is 78.8 and 81.9 for women. It is generally believed that 2030: 1356: 1289: 785: 721: 588: 501: 5306: 3924:

Bjorklund DF, Blasi CH, Ellis BJ (2015-10-26). "Evolutionary Developmental Psychology". In Buss DM (ed.).

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direction a sound comes from, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to an adult's.

1989:

development and birth complications may also be connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, for example in

9781: 9703: 5981:"Freud's Dream Interpretation: A Different Perspective Based on the Self-Organization Theory of Dreaming" 4619:"Aging, Personality, and Social Change: The Stability of Individual Differences Over the Adult Life Span" 2937: 2907: 2848: 2823: 2435: 2026: 1486: 622: 9698: 1706:

Music also has an influence on stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression.

1059:

Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work,

9498: 8796: 8599: 8584: 8506:. Includes several hundred works on human development, child raising, and family studies itemized in a 5687:

A Longitudinal Study of Early Literacy Development and the Changing Perceptions of Parents and Teachers

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is another reason behind the stage's infamous label. Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common.

94: 7962:"Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy?" 6990: 10043: 9771: 9630: 9622: 9252: 8986: 8862: 8680: 7888: 4821:"Theory of Mind in Children With Specific Language Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis" 2669: 2650:

mobility have been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly.

2627: 2511: 1699: 1250: 662: 543: 534: 456: 276: 159: 8513: 8268: 8026: 6753: 899: 10376: 10224: 10214: 9737: 8840: 8776: 8744: 8630: 8604: 6968: 2531: 2352:

Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3) in which the psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt

1925: 1784: 1580: 1343:, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of both the 1299: 957: 137: 6345: 5839:"National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary" 10407: 10186: 10074: 9969: 9655: 9262: 9184: 8942: 8907: 8892: 8887: 8877: 8826: 7554: 3981: 1397: 1371: 1363: 884: 568: 466: 237: 202: 187: 182: 172: 123: 83: 41: 8495:

An e-book collection of over 1,000 books spanning 1850 to 1950, created by Cornell University's

7946: 6991:"Identity exploration, identity confusion, and openness as predictors of multicultural ideology" 1477:

asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a

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found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers.

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change throughout life. This field examines change across three major dimensions, which are

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thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes.

2358:

Stage 4: School age (5 to 12) in which the psychosocial crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority

8: 10346: 10340: 10266: 10181: 10126: 10001: 9866: 9812: 9101: 9091: 9076: 9041: 9036: 9021: 9001: 8996: 8867: 8806: 8737: 8676: 6270: 4115:"Securing attachment: The shifting medicalisation of attachment and attachment disorders" 2262: 2235: 1879: 1868: 1858: 1813: 1467: 1266: 908: 824: 820: 729: 391: 381: 366: 331: 326: 311: 291: 286: 164: 103: 6390: 5122: 5105: 2657: 1025:

advanced forms of interaction, a developmental process that he called, "equilibration."

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One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on

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for more detail). In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by

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concept of continuous, quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science".

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of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior.

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grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with

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Scientific study of psychological changes in humans over the course of their lives

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Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory,

943:, whose concepts were developmental, significantly affected public perceptions. 10401: 10249: 10161: 10156: 9913: 9834: 9829: 9760: 9613: 9533: 9528: 9493: 9468: 9438: 9433: 9418: 9413: 9393: 9388: 9368: 9159: 8035: 7922: 7665: 7512:

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7482: 7197: 6556: 6215: 5896: 5854: 4703:"The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health" 4565: 4339: 4265: 3575: 3309: 3250: 3030: 2642:, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives. 2274: 2270: 2043: 1975: 1967: 1787:

or structured observation; self-reports, which could be clinical interviews or

1669: 1563:

that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development.

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Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments

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Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding Complex Learning Environments

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Brown C (2008). "Developmental Psychology and Related Disciplines/Theories".

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finds "no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old." Most

1878:, a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a 776:. Ongoing debates in regards to developmental psychology include biological 10151: 10091: 9839: 9797: 9563: 9558: 9553: 9523: 9513: 9453: 9423: 9403: 9302: 9199: 8902: 8786: 8704: 8656: 8646: 8285: 8127: 8077: 7995: 7732: 7683: 7619: 7600: 7539: 7468: 7319: 7277: 7205: 7080: 7021: 6574: 6200: 6165: 6147: 6016: 5965: 5908: 5870: 5490: 5406: 5343: 5253: 5204: 5139: 5082: 5050: 5019:

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These stages symbolize the process of arriving to become a maturing adult.

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divides childhood into four stages, each with its distinct social crisis:

1963:

may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view.

700:, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how 10303: 10191: 10116: 10033: 9952: 9945: 9802: 9608: 9398: 9383: 9348: 9204: 9131: 8831: 8666: 8636: 8589: 8012:

Silverstein L, Auerbach C (1999). "Deconstructing the Essential Father".

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metamorphoses, such as the emergence of a caterpillar into a butterfly."

1389: 1347:

and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and

1017: 840: 745: 689: 421: 128: 7292: 7170: 4852: 4820: 4687: 4663: 3783: 3098:"Developmental Psychology Studies Human Development Across the Lifespan" 939:, was significantly involved in the theory of developmental psychology. 888:. Rousseau's ideas were adopted and supported by educators at the time. 823:. Influential developmental psychologists from the 20th century include 40:"Child psychology" redirects here. For the Black Box Recorder song, see 10357: 10196: 10038: 9996: 9940: 9543: 9378: 9174: 9031: 8922: 8760: 8179: 8155: 7643: 7641: 7561:(6th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. pp. 89–90. 6374: 4836: 4451:

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count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in

2589: 2571: 2540:. Erikson shows the importance of relationships by labeling this stage 2519: 2507: 2478: 2005: 1998: 1985: 1837: 1833: 1792: 1576: 1492:

Maybe there could be "strong interactions of both nature and nurture".

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Larochelle, Marie; Bednarz, Nadine; Garrison, Jim, eds. (1998-08-13).

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A related framework for studying this part of the lifespan is that of

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parents are accepting and responsive to their children's behavior."

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The British Psychological Society, Developmental Psychology Section

7650:"What Can We Learn From Longitudinal Studies of Adult Development?" 6729:

Miller, Sonja Ann; OpenStax College; Lang, Diana (August 1, 2022).

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into the interpretation and modeling of development. Specifically,

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Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes

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Schoenaker DA, Jackson CA, Rowlands JV, Mishra GD (October 2014).

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Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes

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The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design

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Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of

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cognitive abilities, such as decision-making and impulse control.

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described above, and the relatively advanced development of the

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show that "some abilities remained stable into early old age".

2069: 2036: 1568: 1359:) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions. 653:

Special methods are used in the psychological study of infants.

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Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History (HEARTH)

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an ability to infer the goals of people in their environment;

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From birth until the first year, children are referred to as

1440: 1097:

and the person's personal development is unable to progress.

795:

Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, such as

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the child learns to do it as they mature at their own pace.

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Infants can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs:

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Henrich, Joseph; Heine, Steven J.; Norenzayan, Ara (2010).

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Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature

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Nilsson, Kristine Kahr; de López, Kristine Jensen (2016).

4490: 4488: 4250:"Influence of attachment styles on romantic relationships" 2584:

at an average age of 48.8 and a sharp drop in the hormone

2175:

Piaget's sensorimotor stage comprised six sub-stages (see

907:

In the late 19th century, psychologists familiar with the

9920: 8472: 7552: 7058: 6936:"Child Development: Middle Childhood (9-11 years of age)" 6735:

Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being

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Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology

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Developmental Psychology: Critical Thinking in Psychology

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have been described in the child development literature:

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Theories of development : concepts and applications

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Development Through Life : A Psychosocial Approach

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Infants and children: Prenatal through middle childhood

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Dynamic-maturational model of attachment and adaptation

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Sleep Health: Journal of the National Sleep Foundation

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EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of

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evolutionary description of psychological development

8479:

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The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as

1265:

Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by

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Stages based on the model of hierarchical complexity

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Developmental psychology: from infancy to adulthood

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Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology

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the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development

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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1388:Attachment theory, originally developed by 951: 931:, who wrote essays on topics that included 9752: 9738: 8752: 8738: 8545: 8531: 8378:Concepts and theories of human development 8192: 8042: 7912: 7776: 7774: 7772: 7424: 7334:"Definition of an older or elderly person" 7183: 7093: 6865:Bornstein MH, Vandell DL, Rook KS (2010). 5781: 5779: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5657: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5649: 5647: 5645: 5558: 5556: 5375: 5224:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 4602:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3477:(18). The Journal of Philosophy: 630–646. 2958:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2725:the least competent of all the categories. 2473:) and the discovery of moral purpose (see 2183:. Discovery of new behaviors results from 1260:Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory 637: 623: 8267: 8210: 8025: 7985: 7826: 7809: 7722: 7690: 7673: 7609: 7599: 7582:Brinks R, Landwehr S, Waldeyer R (2013). 7529: 7505: 7458: 7448: 7291:Blanchflower DG, Oswald AJ (April 2008). 7267: 7225:Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology 6829:O'Connor B, Wells C, Applegate T (2015). 6564: 6346:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199692972.003.0002 6302: 6300: 6155: 6006: 5996: 5947: 5587: 5581: 5567:. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 82–96. 5563:Moshman D, Glover JA, Bruning RH (1987). 5356: 5333: 5289: 5283: 5235: 5194: 5121: 5017: 4897: 4795: 4777: 4759: 4736: 4718: 4398: 4389: 4081:Goldberg S, Muir R, Kerr J (2013-04-15). 4005:Pinker S (2002). "Chapter 19: Children". 3748:. Springer Science & Business Media. 3564: 3523: 3432: 3369: 3363: 3176: 3061:The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible 1687:Social-emotional development in childhood 858: 8199:Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine 7851: 7755:Cornell University Cooperative Extension 7125:Emerging Adulthood in a European Context 6766: 6749:from the original on September 12, 2024. 6692: 6644:. Exeter: Learning Matters. p. 84. 6592:. Exeter: Learning Matters. p. 62. 6507: 6427: 5978: 5592:. New York : Free Pr. pp. 74–104. 5540: 5538: 5536: 5479:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 5457: 5455: 5453: 5051:"Functional brain development in humans" 4707:The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health 4661: 4448: 4360: 4112: 3771: 3503: 3468: 3388: 3307: 2492:It is divided into three parts, namely: 1957:Piaget's theory of cognitive development 1920:Life stages of psychological development 1771: 1620: 1254: 1013:Piaget's theory of cognitive development 898: 656: 648: 8149: 8147: 8145: 8089: 8087: 7906: 7769: 7697:Flaherty SC, Sadler LS (1 March 2011). 7142: 6737:. Iowa State University Digital Press. 6658: 6513: 6334:"Learning about the mind from evidence" 6213: 6054: 5785: 5770: 5661: 5642: 5553: 5534: 5532: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5524: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5516: 5048: 4533:Psychology for South Australia. Stage 1 4278: 4247: 3926:The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology 3394: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3229: 3128:Deconstructing Developmental Psychology 2286: 1930: 1729: 14: 10427: 8375: 7745: 7647: 7357: 7148: 6846: 6633: 6581: 6545:Research in Developmental Disabilities 6306: 6297: 6098: 5752:Principles of Developmental Psychology 5274: 4922: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4022:Developmental plasticity and evolution 4004: 3891:"Overview of Cognitive Constructivism" 3742:Yamagata-Lynch, Lisa C. (2010-07-15). 3605: 3551: 3508:(Ph.D. thesis). University of Chicago. 3125: 2555:in a career, and overall development. 1549: 1519: 9733: 8733: 8719:Evolutionary developmental psychology 8526: 8153: 7248:International Journal of Epidemiology 7218: 7019: 6782:Lightfoot C, Cole M, Cole SR (2008). 6697:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 189. 6639: 6612: 6587: 6220:. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995. 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However, in 1742: 1595: 1449:evolutionary developmental psychology 1331:Evolutionary developmental psychology 1325:Evolutionary developmental psychology 1312:Constructivism (psychological school) 10383: 8247:Bjorklund DF, Pellegrini AD (2000). 8142: 8084: 6988: 6879: 6373: 6271:10.1111/b.9780631203124.1996.00014.x 6130:Mathew PJ, Mathew JL (August 2003). 5705: 5544: 5513: 5314:Social Development (Oxford, England) 5006:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 4925:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 4875:"Theory of Mind | Simply Psychology" 4222: 3692:Understanding Children's Development 3689:Smith PK, Cowie H, Blades M (2003). 3288: 3286: 3226: 3050: 3048: 2943:Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2420:Middle and Late childhood ages 6–12. 2151:At this stage infants also start to 2076: 1416: 1377: 688:, the field has expanded to include 9759: 8403:Reid V, Striano T, Koops W (2007). 8307:Bornstein MH, Lamb ME, ed. (2005). 8096:"The weirdest people in the world?" 7518:The New England Journal of Medicine 5277:Handbook of the psychology of aging 5123:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015104 4241: 4225:A Level Psychology Through Diagrams 4101: 4028: 3644: 3054: 2859:List of developmental psychologists 2699: 2565: 2499:Mid Adolescence: 13 to 15 years and 2454:learn to see other points of view. 2207:Recent findings in infant cognition 2163:Infant cognition: the Piagetian era 1843: 1712:developmental coordination disorder 24: 8239: 7748:"Parenting Styles and Adolescents" 7493:from the original on June 19, 2013 7361:Encyclopedia of Human Ecology: I-Z 6107:Introduction to Infant Development 5920: 5885: 5664:Social and personality development 5590:Research in development psychology 5294:. London: Wiley. pp. 179–269. 5292:Life-span developmental psychology 4623:Life-Span Development and Behavior 4013: 3970:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00907.x 3949:Tooby J, Cosmides L (March 1990). 3826:Yamagata-Lynch LC (15 July 2010). 3339: 3102:American Psychological Association 2973:Journal of Research on Adolescence 2525: 1617:and social development in humans. 1075:Stages of psychosocial development 25: 10451: 8413: 7886: 7096:Encyclopedia of Adult Development 6814:Halpenny AM, Pettersen J (2013). 5461: 4281:"Nature and Nurture in Cognition" 3895:Cognitive Constructivist Theories 3651:Explorable Psychology Experiments 3426:Mastering the world of psychology 3424:Wood SE, Wood CE, Boyd D (2006). 3283: 3045: 3013:Graber JA, Brooks-Gunn J (1996). 2757:Indian model of human development 2747: 2518:. Different roles, behaviors and 2062:representing unconscious desires. 1719:and more likely to feel socially 1590: 1540: 1305: 1007:Theories of cognitive development 805:forensic developmental psychology 10406: 10395: 10382: 10371: 10370: 8961: 8575:Cognitive development of infants 8443: 8186: 7939: 7880: 7854:The Journal of Early Adolescence 7739: 7703:Journal of Pediatric Health Care 7626: 7575: 7546: 7475: 7385: 7326: 7284: 7235: 7212: 7177: 7122:Žukauskienė, Rita (2015-12-07). 7087: 7052: 7013: 6982: 6953: 6873: 6869:. Cengage Learning. p. 299. 6822: 6790: 6775: 6760: 6752: 6701: 6532: 6214:Deuchar, Margaret (March 1998). 6193:10.1111/j.1523-536X.2010.00389.x 5817:. Associated Press. 1989-01-20. 5748:Butterworth G, Harris M (1994). 5709:Development Through the Lifespan 5549:(7 ed.). Allyn & Bacon. 5326:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x 5237:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x 4574:(4th ed.). Melbourne, Vic. 4375:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01378.x 3428:(2 ed.). Allyn & Bacon. 2978:Journal of Youth and Adolescence 2797: 2502:Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 years 2496:Early Adolescence: 9 to 13 years 1681:Social and emotional development 1643:Other accounts, such as that of 1278:The Ecology of Human Development 1135:Model of hierarchical complexity 604: 62: 10325:List of social science journals 8641:Theory of cognitive development 8554:Human psychological development 8405:Social Cognition During infancy 7312:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.030 6709:"Vardhaman I.Q. Toys, "Vision"" 6619:. Creative Pub. international. 6464: 6421: 6367: 6325: 6287: 6250: 6207: 6080:Feldman RD, Papalia DE (2010). 6073: 6048: 6023: 5979:Zhang, Wei; Guo, Benyu (2018). 5972: 5829: 5806: 5756:. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 5699: 5680: 5421: 5350: 5268: 5211: 5154: 5097: 5042: 4993: 4951: 4916: 4900:Computational social psychology 4891: 4867: 4812: 4766:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 4753: 4694: 4655: 4610: 4558: 4523: 4442: 4354: 4319: 4272: 4216: 4191: 4074: 4035:Blasi CH, Bjorklund DF (2003). 3998: 3942: 3883: 3846: 3717: 3657: 3638: 3614: 3599: 3545: 3333: 3069:10.1007/978-3-319-98390-5_252-1 3057:"Possible in Human Development" 2968:Journal of Pediatric Psychology 2913:Development and Psychopathology 2672:increases up to old age, while 2249:Critical periods of development 2065:quiet waking, and active waking 1631:Theory of cognitive development 1089:and his collaborator and wife, 10282:Science and technology studies 8759: 8651:Cultural-historical psychology 7151:American Journal of Psychology 7007:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.04.005 6786:. Macmillan. pp. 275–277. 6731:"Psychosocial Theory: Erikson" 6518:. New York: Worth Publishers. 6263:The Handbook of Child Language 6218:The Handbook of Child Language 5049:Johnson, Mark H. (July 2001). 4617:Alwin, Duane F. (2019-05-24). 3855:"Constructivism and Education" 3574:Orenstein GA, Lewis L (2022), 3301: 3293:Erikson E, Erikson JM (1998). 3193: 3144: 3119: 3090: 3006: 2457: 2295: 2053:quiet sleep and active sleep ( 1822:cause-and-effect relationships 13: 1: 9057:Industrial and organizational 8711: (b. 1950), and others ( 8100:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7654:Research in Human Development 7300:Social Science & Medicine 7073:10.1016/s2215-0366(14)00080-7 7020:Kemph, John P. (March 1969). 6665:Newman BM, Newman PR (2011). 6485:10.1016/S0010-0277(87)80006-9 6442:10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00058-4 5387:Current Opinion in Psychiatry 5357:Oaklander V (November 2006). 4720:10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30186-3 3370:Cloninger SC (29 June 2012). 3157:Current Opinion in Psychology 2999: 2918:Developmental Neuropsychology 2879:Pre- and perinatal psychology 2829:Developmental psychopathology 2383:Play (or preschool) ages 3–5. 2004:Several environmental agents— 1357:gene-environment interactions 1351:competencies, as well as the 1085:German-American psychologist 347:Industrial and organizational 9298:Human factors and ergonomics 8058:Journal of Family Psychology 7790:Review of General Psychology 7398:Journal of Adult Development 6888:. Milestones. Archived from 6136:Postgraduate Medical Journal 6055:Bee D, Boyd H (2011-12-12). 5399:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32833aa0aa 5179:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.045 3310:"Freud Developmental Theory" 3169:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.018 2948:Journal of Adolescent Health 2834:Developmental systems theory 2687: 2325: 2031:Infant cognitive development 1966:Other reflexes, such as the 1767:Research methods and designs 1290:Zone of proximal development 1284:Zone of proximal development 722:social emotional development 502:Human factors and ergonomics 7: 8691:Stages of moral development 7715:10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005 7559:Adult development and aging 7364:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 242–. 6940:Centers for Disease Control 6919:Centers for Disease Control 6818:. Routledge. pp. 7, 9. 6784:The Development of Children 5110:Annual Review of Psychology 5055:Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4979:10.1016/j.humov.2014.04.006 4536:. Milton, Qld.: Jacaranda. 4530:Carter L, Grivas J (2004). 4495:Crain WC (2 October 2015). 4227:. Oxford University Press. 3647:"Ecological Systems Theory" 3130:. New York, NY: Routledge. 2938:Human Development (journal) 2895: 2849:Ethnic identity development 2824:Developmental psychobiology 2790: 2660:may also occur, leading to 2436:Centers for Disease Control 2132: 2027:Infant and child psychology 1496:Continuity vs discontinuity 1487:language acquisition device 1049:Stages of moral development 946: 10: 10456: 8600:Positive adult development 8585:Positive youth development 8036:10.1037/0003-066x.54.6.397 7666:10.1207/s15427617rhd0203_4 7198:10.1037/0022-3514.89.2.194 7098:. Oryx Press. p. 14. 6831:Health: You and Your World 6557:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.10.045 6259:"Phonological Development" 6105:Slater A, Lewis M (2006). 5897:"Physiology, Sleep Stages" 5855:10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 4340:10.1037/0003-066x.55.2.218 4266:10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971 4119:Health, Risk & Society 4113:Kanieski MA (2010-08-01). 4024:. Oxford University Press. 4009:. New York: Penguin Books. 3859:Cambridge University Press 3255:Encyclopedia of Psychology 3031:10.1037/0012-1649.32.4.768 2738: 2619: 2615: 2569: 2529: 2461: 2401:question their world. For 2329: 2299: 2136: 2024: 2020: 1940: 1934: 1923: 1908:A third study design, the 1684: 1624: 1420: 1381: 1328: 1309: 1287: 1248: 1132: 1078: 1052: 1010: 955: 39: 29: 10366: 10333: 10317: 10064: 9790: 9767: 9684: 9621: 9328: 9238: 9150: 8987:Applied behavior analysis 8970: 8959: 8795: 8767: 8681:Ecological systems theory 8613: 8560: 8434:Resources in your library 8112:10.1017/S0140525X0999152X 7802:10.1037/1089-2680.8.3.163 7588:Population Health Metrics 7410:10.1007/s10804-011-9126-y 7338:World Health Organization 6338:Understanding Other Minds 6311:. New York: Basic Books. 6236:10.1017/s0022226797256896 5792:(2 ed.). Blackwell. 4937:10.1017/S1366728906002732 4662:Emmerich, Walter (1966). 4328:The American Psychologist 4131:10.1080/13698571003789682 4020:West-Eberhard MJ (2003). 3664:Bronfenbrenner U (1979). 2730:Mother and father factors 2670:crystallized intelligence 2628:World Health Organization 2538:maintaining relationships 1251:Ecological systems theory 1245:Ecological systems theory 925:previous ages of humanity 748:, emotional development, 277:Applied behavior analysis 10435:Developmental psychology 8661:Psychosocial development 8631:Psychosexual development 8562:Developmental psychology 8514:Developmental psychology 8473:Developmental Psychology 8450:Developmental psychology 8425:developmental psychology 8212:10.1177/0975156419920112 8160:Philosophy East and West 8070:10.1037/0893-3200.14.1.5 7866:10.1177/0272431691111004 7635:Retrieved on 2012-03-16. 6989:Syed, Moin (July 2013). 6886:Your Child's Development 6031:"Soothing a crying baby" 5998:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01553 5696:, John Worthington, 2001 5626:Developmental psychology 4879:www.simplypsychology.org 4779:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00413 4405:The Psychological Record 4268:– via APA PsycNet. 3867:10.1017/cbo9780511752865 3308:Lantz SE, Ray S (2022), 3295:The Life-Cycle Completed 3257:. Vol. 3. pp. 3210:10.4135/9781446214633.n3 3202:Developmental Psychology 3019:Developmental Psychology 2923:Developmental Psychology 2532:Young adult (psychology) 1926:Child development stages 1785:naturalistic observation 1300:cognitive apprenticeship 1142:enhanced and simplified 958:Psychosexual development 952:Psychosexual development 670:Developmental psychology 33:Developmental Psychology 9970:international relations 9263:Behavioral neuroscience 8827:Behavioral neuroscience 8278:10.1111/1467-8624.00258 8193:Rangaswami, K. (1992). 7978:10.1111/1467-8624.00569 7934:Privately owned website 6743:10.31274/isudp.2022.122 5985:Frontiers in Psychology 4631:10.4324/9781315789255-4 2682:cross-sectional studies 2442:Middle Childhood (6–8). 2312:development of language 2191:, and the formation of 1755:originally proposed by 1372:evolutionary psychology 1232:Meta-Cross-paradigmatic 885:Emile: Or, On Education 467:Behavioral neuroscience 124:Behavioral neuroscience 42:Child Psychology (song) 10297:Quantum social science 9313:Psychology of religion 9253:Behavioral engineering 9190:Human subject research 8846:Cognitive neuroscience 8812:Affective neuroscience 8154:Kakar, Sudhir (1968). 7601:10.1186/1478-7954-11-6 7219:Sokol, Justin (2009). 7061:The Lancet. Psychiatry 6961:"Developmental Theory" 6309:The essential Piaget \ 6224:Journal of Linguistics 6148:10.1136/pmj.79.934.438 5491:10.1006/jecp.1998.2464 4967:Human Movement Science 3958:Journal of Personality 3446:Edpsych : modules 2844:Educational psychology 2601:and longer periods of 2450:Late Childhood (9–12). 1995:cognitive neuroscience 1982:or traumatic lesions. 1854:cross-sectional design 1716:internalizing symptoms 1662:individual differences 1660:and the psychology of 1364:individual differences 1262: 1167:Circular sensory-motor 904: 859:Historical antecedents 797:educational psychology 666: 654: 517:Psychology of religion 457:Behavioral engineering 143:Cognitive neuroscience 109:Affective neuroscience 10334:Other categorizations 10187:International studies 10172:History of technology 10107:Communication studies 9990:public administration 9689:Wiktionary definition 9225:Self-report inventory 9220:Quantitative research 8516:Subject Area page at 8508:specific bibliography 8490:19 March 2022 at the 8014:American Psychologist 7450:10.1093/geronb/gbr059 7094:Kastenbaum R (1993). 7038:10.1002/bs.3830140209 7009:– via ELSEVIER. 5588:Achenbach TM (1978). 4898:Vallacher RR (2017). 4399:Schlinger HD (2008). 4297:10.1093/bjps/53.2.251 3626:www.sciencedirect.com 3471:Journal of Philosophy 3342:"Psychosexual Stages" 2933:Developmental Science 2869:Outline of psychology 2632:"developed countries" 2464:Adolescent psychology 1993:. With the advent of 1895:cross-sectional study 1826:independent variables 1789:structured interviews 1772:Main research methods 1627:Cognitive development 1621:Cognitive development 1423:Nature versus nurture 1258: 902: 864:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 817:ecological psychology 801:child psychopathology 786:stages of development 766:environmental factors 718:cognitive development 676:study of how and why 660: 652: 611:Psychology portal 30:For the journal, see 10440:Behavioural sciences 10167:Historical sociology 9215:Qualitative research 9170:Behavior epigenetics 8502:2 March 2022 at the 8452:at Wikimedia Commons 7531:10.1056/NEJMoa020423 7128:. Psychology Press. 6849:Personality Theories 6693:Carducci BJ (2009). 6057:The developing child 5949:10.1210/jc.2012-2750 4463:10.1002/ajmg.b.20044 4202:. Worth Publishers. 4200:Exploring Psychology 3772:Vygotsky LS (1978). 3403:. pp. 105–107. 3397:Teach Yourself Freud 3055:Tau, Ramiro (2022), 2988:Psychology and Aging 2928:Developmental Review 2874:Perceptual narrowing 2678:Longitudinal studies 2664:or ailments such as 2636:developing countries 2605:required to achieve 2287:Developmental delays 2189:operant conditioning 2139:Language development 2120:somatosensory cortex 1937:Prenatal development 1931:Prenatal development 1730:Physical development 1700:Emotional regulation 1658:cognitive psychology 1464:statistical learning 1456:language acquisition 1039:concrete operational 1022:Socratic questioning 813:cognitive psychology 768:. This includes the 738:language acquisition 714:physical development 10347:Geisteswissenschaft 10341:Behavioral sciences 10267:Political sociology 10182:Information science 10127:Development studies 9694:Wiktionary category 9258:Behavioral genetics 9230:Statistical surveys 9087:Occupational health 8822:Behavioral genetics 8703: (1943–2020), 8689: (1927–1987) ( 8679: (1917–2005) ( 8669: (1907–1990) ( 8659: (1902–1994) ( 8649: (1896–1934) ( 8639: (1896–1980) ( 8629: (1856–1939) ( 8407:. Psychology Press. 7919:www.ericdigests.org 6892:on 15 November 2015 6767:Thornton A (2001). 6391:1992Natur.358..749W 5786:Bremner JG (1994). 5662:Shaffer DR (2009). 5464:Physical Maturation 4279:Khalidi MA (2002). 4248:Simpson JA (1990). 3784:10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4 3504:Kohlberg L (1958). 2666:Alzheimer's disease 2510:, and commit to an 2416:the 3–5 age group. 2370:anxiety and fear. 2269:, from the work of 2236:numerical cognition 2177:sensorimotor stages 1905:historical events. 1869:microgenetic design 1859:longitudinal design 1818:experimental design 1814:experimental method 1550:Mathematical models 1520:Stability vs change 1468:perceptual learning 1267:Urie Bronfenbrenner 1162:Sensory & Motor 909:evolutionary theory 825:Urie Bronfenbrenner 821:cultural psychology 734:moral understanding 730:executive functions 462:Behavioral genetics 377:Occupational health 119:Behavioral genetics 50:Part of a series on 10402:Society portal 9889:auxiliary sciences 9666:Schools of thought 9569:Richard E. Nisbett 9449:Donald T. Campbell 9127:Sport and exercise 8466:2021-11-08 at the 8376:Lerner RM (1997). 7648:Schaie KW (2005). 7555:Blanchard-Fields F 7358:Miller JR (2003). 7260:10.1093/ije/dyu094 7026:Behavioral Science 6921:. 4 February 2021. 6514:Siegler R (2006). 5692:2011-04-29 at the 5429:"SEL Competencies" 4837:10.1111/cdev.12462 4417:10.1007/BF03395622 4173:. Worth. pp. 3395:Snowden R (2006). 2889:Sociometric status 2864:Ontogenetic parade 2674:fluid intelligence 2603:penile stimulation 2560:emerging adulthood 2407:a little scientist 2181:primitive reflexes 2116:primitive reflexes 1953:primitive reflexes 1899:confounding factor 1876:longitudinal study 1830:dependent variable 1749:fuzzy-trace theory 1743:Memory development 1596:Neural Development 1429:nature and nurture 1263: 1227:Cross-paradigmatic 1043:formal operational 993:Stage five is the 929:James Mark Baldwin 905: 754:identity formation 667: 661:Piaget's test for 655: 579:Schools of thought 417:Sport and exercise 263:Applied psychology 18:Child psychologist 10422: 10421: 10262:Political economy 10257:Political ecology 10112:Community studies 10102:Cognitive science 10065:Interdisciplinary 9965:Political science 9727: 9726: 9704:Wikimedia Commons 9631:Counseling topics 9594:Ronald C. Kessler 9584:Shelley E. Taylor 9509:Lawrence Kohlberg 9484:Stanley Schachter 9283:Consumer behavior 9165:Archival research 8933:Psycholinguistics 8817:Affective science 8727: 8726: 8707: (b. 1946), 8699: (b. 1939), 8671:Attachment theory 8595:Adult development 8580:Child development 8448:Media related to 8420:Library resources 8256:Child Development 7966:Child Development 7893:Parenting Science 7746:Kopoko K (2007). 7568:978-0-495-60174-6 7524:(14): 1068–1074. 7371:978-1-57607-852-5 7135:978-1-317-61271-1 7105:978-0-89774-669-4 6965:pages.uoregon.edu 6847:Engler B (2013). 6715:on March 4, 2016. 6676:978-1-111-34468-9 6651:978-0-85725-276-0 6626:978-0-86573-435-7 6613:Massi WS (2001). 6599:978-0-85725-276-0 6525:978-0-7167-6113-6 6385:(6389): 749–750. 6355:978-0-19-969297-2 6318:978-0-7100-8778-2 6280:978-0-631-20312-4 6116:978-0-19-928305-7 6091:978-0-07-353204-2 6066:978-0-205-25602-0 5799:978-0-631-18466-9 5763:978-0-86377-280-1 5719:978-0-13-441969-5 5673:978-0-495-60038-1 5635:978-0-13-208231-0 5599:978-0-02-900180-6 5574:978-0-316-58561-3 5368:978-1-85575-490-4 4825:Child Development 4581:978-1-4860-1827-7 4508:978-1-317-34322-6 4363:Child Development 4234:978-0-19-918094-3 4209:978-1-57259-096-0 4053:10.1159/000071935 4041:Human Development 3935:978-1-118-75580-8 3876:978-0-521-62135-9 3839:978-1-4419-6321-5 3755:978-1-4419-6321-5 3606:Mcleod S (2013). 3552:McLeod S (2013). 3538:978-0-07-340548-3 3455:978-0-07-809786-7 3410:978-0-07-147274-6 3381:978-0-205-25624-2 3276:978-1-55798-652-8 3267:10.1037/10518-003 3137:978-1-138-84695-1 3126:Burman E (2017). 3078:978-3-319-98390-5 2908:Child Development 2854:Group development 2805:Psychology portal 2221:Renee Baillargeon 2170:object permanence 2090:about six months. 2077:Infant perception 1961:tonic neck reflex 1910:sequential design 1864:sequential design 1691:Social psychology 1581:dynamical systems 1532:human development 1479:universal grammar 1417:Nature vs nurture 1398:Strange Situation 1384:Attachment theory 1378:Attachment theory 1341:natural selection 1061:Lawrence Kohlberg 980:The third is the 969:The first is the 915:began seeking an 809:child development 774:built environment 694:adult development 647: 646: 544:Counseling topics 487:Consumer behavior 228:Psycholinguistics 114:Affective science 16:(Redirected from 10447: 10410: 10400: 10399: 10386: 10385: 10374: 10373: 10277:Regional science 10122:Cultural studies 10097:Business studies 9754: 9747: 9740: 9731: 9730: 9661:Research methods 9604:Richard Davidson 9599:Joseph E. LeDoux 9474:George A. Miller 9464:David McClelland 9459:Herbert A. Simon 9359:Edward Thorndike 9180:Content analysis 8965: 8938:Psychophysiology 8754: 8747: 8740: 8731: 8730: 8547: 8540: 8533: 8524: 8523: 8447: 8408: 8399: 8372: 8370: 8369: 8363: 8357:. Archived from 8332: 8322: 8303: 8301: 8300: 8294: 8288:. Archived from 8271: 8262:(6): 1687–1708. 8253: 8233: 8232: 8214: 8190: 8184: 8183: 8151: 8140: 8139: 8091: 8082: 8081: 8053: 8040: 8039: 8029: 8009: 8000: 7999: 7989: 7957: 7951: 7950: 7943: 7937: 7936: 7931: 7930: 7921:. Archived from 7910: 7904: 7903: 7901: 7899: 7884: 7878: 7877: 7849: 7824: 7823: 7813: 7787: 7778: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7762: 7752: 7743: 7737: 7736: 7726: 7694: 7688: 7687: 7677: 7645: 7636: 7630: 7624: 7623: 7613: 7603: 7579: 7573: 7572: 7550: 7544: 7543: 7533: 7509: 7503: 7502: 7500: 7498: 7479: 7473: 7472: 7462: 7452: 7428: 7422: 7421: 7389: 7383: 7382: 7380: 7378: 7355: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7344: 7330: 7324: 7323: 7306:(8): 1733–1749. 7297: 7288: 7282: 7281: 7271: 7254:(5): 1542–1562. 7239: 7233: 7232: 7216: 7210: 7209: 7181: 7175: 7174: 7163:10.2307/20445494 7146: 7140: 7139: 7119: 7110: 7109: 7091: 7085: 7084: 7056: 7050: 7049: 7017: 7011: 7010: 6986: 6980: 6979: 6977: 6976: 6967:. Archived from 6957: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6946: 6932: 6923: 6922: 6911: 6902: 6901: 6899: 6897: 6877: 6871: 6870: 6862: 6853: 6852: 6844: 6835: 6834: 6826: 6820: 6819: 6811: 6802: 6801: 6794: 6788: 6787: 6779: 6773: 6772: 6764: 6758: 6757: 6756: 6750: 6726: 6717: 6716: 6711:. Archived from 6705: 6699: 6698: 6690: 6681: 6680: 6662: 6656: 6655: 6640:Upton P (2011). 6637: 6631: 6630: 6610: 6604: 6603: 6588:Upton P (2011). 6585: 6579: 6578: 6568: 6536: 6530: 6529: 6511: 6505: 6504: 6468: 6462: 6461: 6425: 6419: 6418: 6399:10.1038/358749a0 6371: 6365: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6329: 6323: 6322: 6304: 6295: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6254: 6248: 6247: 6211: 6205: 6204: 6176: 6170: 6169: 6159: 6142:(934): 438–443. 6127: 6121: 6120: 6102: 6096: 6095: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6052: 6046: 6045: 6043: 6042: 6027: 6021: 6020: 6010: 6000: 5976: 5970: 5969: 5951: 5927: 5918: 5917: 5916: 5915: 5892: 5883: 5882: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5783: 5768: 5767: 5755: 5745: 5732: 5731: 5706:Berk LE (2018). 5703: 5697: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5659: 5640: 5639: 5621: 5604: 5603: 5585: 5579: 5578: 5560: 5551: 5550: 5545:Berk LE (2012). 5542: 5511: 5510: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5459: 5448: 5447: 5445: 5444: 5435:. Archived from 5425: 5419: 5418: 5382: 5373: 5372: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5337: 5311: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5287: 5281: 5280: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5239: 5230:(3–4): 296–312. 5215: 5209: 5208: 5198: 5158: 5152: 5151: 5125: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5067:10.1038/35081509 5046: 5040: 5039: 5021: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4964: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4895: 4889: 4888: 4886: 4885: 4871: 4865: 4864: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4799: 4781: 4757: 4751: 4750: 4740: 4722: 4698: 4692: 4691: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4614: 4608: 4607: 4601: 4593: 4562: 4556: 4555: 4527: 4521: 4520: 4492: 4483: 4482: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4436: 4427:. Archived from 4396: 4387: 4386: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4323: 4317: 4316: 4276: 4270: 4269: 4245: 4239: 4238: 4220: 4214: 4213: 4198:Myers D (2008). 4195: 4189: 4188: 4172: 4162: 4151: 4150: 4110: 4099: 4098: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4017: 4011: 4010: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3992: 3986: 3980:. Archived from 3955: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3921: 3910: 3909: 3907: 3906: 3897:. Archived from 3887: 3881: 3880: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3823: 3814: 3813: 3769: 3760: 3759: 3739: 3730: 3729: 3721: 3715: 3714: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3633: 3632: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3595: 3594: 3571: 3562: 3561: 3558:SimplyPsychology 3549: 3543: 3542: 3521: 3510: 3509: 3501: 3495: 3494: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3441: 3430: 3429: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3357: 3348:. Archived from 3346:SimplyPsychology 3337: 3331: 3330: 3329: 3328: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3290: 3281: 3280: 3239: 3224: 3223: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3180: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3114: 3113: 3104:. Archived from 3094: 3088: 3087: 3086: 3085: 3052: 3043: 3042: 3010: 2807: 2802: 2801: 2800: 2761:An example of a 2706:parenting styles 2700:Parenting styles 2566:Middle adulthood 2405:, the child is " 2255:critical periods 2217:Elizabeth Spelke 1976:walking reflexes 1943:Fetal psychology 1844:Research designs 1778:research methods 1761:Charles Brainerd 1757:Valerie F. Reyna 1651:K. Warner Schaie 878:(childhood) and 639: 632: 625: 609: 608: 607: 574:Research methods 233:Psychophysiology 95:Basic psychology 66: 47: 46: 21: 10455: 10454: 10450: 10449: 10448: 10446: 10445: 10444: 10425: 10424: 10423: 10418: 10394: 10362: 10329: 10313: 10287:Science studies 10071:Administration 10060: 9786: 9763: 9761:Social sciences 9758: 9728: 9723: 9680: 9656:Psychotherapies 9617: 9574:Martin Seligman 9539:Daniel Kahneman 9479:Richard Lazarus 9429:Raymond Cattell 9333: 9324: 9323: 9322: 9234: 9146: 8973: 8966: 8957: 8918:Neuropsychology 8798: 8791: 8763: 8758: 8728: 8723: 8620: 8616: 8609: 8556: 8551: 8504:Wayback Machine 8494: 8492:Wayback Machine 8468:Wayback Machine 8440: 8439: 8438: 8428: 8427: 8423: 8416: 8411: 8388: 8367: 8365: 8361: 8347:10.46867/C4D308 8330: 8319: 8298: 8296: 8292: 8269:10.1.1.132.1981 8251: 8242: 8240:Further reading 8237: 8236: 8191: 8187: 8172:10.2307/1398255 8152: 8143: 8092: 8085: 8054: 8043: 8027:10.1.1.619.1091 8010: 8003: 7958: 7954: 7945: 7944: 7940: 7928: 7926: 7911: 7907: 7897: 7895: 7885: 7881: 7850: 7827: 7785: 7779: 7770: 7760: 7758: 7750: 7744: 7740: 7695: 7691: 7646: 7639: 7631: 7627: 7580: 7576: 7569: 7551: 7547: 7510: 7506: 7496: 7494: 7481: 7480: 7476: 7429: 7425: 7390: 7386: 7376: 7374: 7372: 7356: 7352: 7342: 7340: 7332: 7331: 7327: 7295: 7289: 7285: 7240: 7236: 7217: 7213: 7182: 7178: 7147: 7143: 7136: 7120: 7113: 7106: 7092: 7088: 7057: 7053: 7018: 7014: 6987: 6983: 6974: 6972: 6959: 6958: 6954: 6944: 6942: 6934: 6933: 6926: 6913: 6912: 6905: 6895: 6893: 6878: 6874: 6863: 6856: 6845: 6838: 6827: 6823: 6812: 6805: 6796: 6795: 6791: 6780: 6776: 6765: 6761: 6751: 6727: 6720: 6707: 6706: 6702: 6691: 6684: 6677: 6663: 6659: 6652: 6638: 6634: 6627: 6611: 6607: 6600: 6586: 6582: 6537: 6533: 6526: 6512: 6508: 6469: 6465: 6426: 6422: 6372: 6368: 6360: 6358: 6356: 6330: 6326: 6319: 6305: 6298: 6292: 6288: 6281: 6255: 6251: 6212: 6208: 6177: 6173: 6128: 6124: 6117: 6109:. Oxford: OUP. 6103: 6099: 6092: 6078: 6074: 6067: 6053: 6049: 6040: 6038: 6029: 6028: 6024: 5977: 5973: 5928: 5921: 5913: 5911: 5893: 5886: 5834: 5830: 5812: 5811: 5807: 5800: 5784: 5771: 5764: 5746: 5735: 5720: 5704: 5700: 5694:Wayback Machine 5685: 5681: 5674: 5660: 5643: 5636: 5622: 5607: 5600: 5586: 5582: 5575: 5561: 5554: 5543: 5514: 5475: 5471: 5460: 5451: 5442: 5440: 5427: 5426: 5422: 5383: 5376: 5369: 5355: 5351: 5309: 5303: 5299: 5288: 5284: 5273: 5269: 5216: 5212: 5159: 5155: 5102: 5098: 5047: 5043: 4998: 4994: 4962: 4956: 4952: 4921: 4917: 4910: 4896: 4892: 4883: 4881: 4873: 4872: 4868: 4817: 4813: 4758: 4754: 4699: 4695: 4660: 4656: 4641: 4615: 4611: 4595: 4594: 4582: 4563: 4559: 4544: 4528: 4524: 4509: 4493: 4486: 4447: 4443: 4434: 4432: 4397: 4390: 4359: 4355: 4324: 4320: 4277: 4273: 4246: 4242: 4235: 4223:Hill G (2001). 4221: 4217: 4210: 4196: 4192: 4185: 4163: 4154: 4111: 4102: 4095: 4079: 4075: 4065: 4063: 4033: 4029: 4018: 4014: 4007:The blank slate 4003: 3999: 3990: 3988: 3984: 3953: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3922: 3913: 3904: 3902: 3889: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3824: 3817: 3794: 3770: 3763: 3756: 3740: 3733: 3722: 3718: 3703: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3662: 3658: 3643: 3639: 3630: 3628: 3620: 3619: 3615: 3604: 3600: 3592: 3590: 3572: 3565: 3550: 3546: 3539: 3522: 3513: 3502: 3498: 3483:10.2307/2025030 3467: 3463: 3456: 3442: 3433: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3368: 3364: 3355: 3353: 3338: 3334: 3326: 3324: 3306: 3302: 3291: 3284: 3277: 3240: 3227: 3220: 3198: 3194: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3124: 3120: 3111: 3109: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3053: 3046: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2903:Autism Research 2898: 2893: 2819:Behavioral cusp 2814:Attitude change 2803: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2759: 2750: 2741: 2732: 2702: 2690: 2624: 2618: 2574: 2568: 2534: 2528: 2526:Early adulthood 2466: 2460: 2452: 2444: 2422: 2385: 2374:Early Childhood 2334: 2332:Early childhood 2328: 2304: 2298: 2289: 2267:neurophysiology 2251: 2212:first thought. 2209: 2165: 2141: 2135: 2079: 2033: 2025:Main articles: 2023: 1945: 1939: 1933: 1928: 1922: 1846: 1774: 1769: 1745: 1732: 1693: 1685:Main articles: 1683: 1675:domain-specific 1637: 1625:Main articles: 1623: 1598: 1593: 1552: 1543: 1522: 1498: 1425: 1419: 1386: 1380: 1339:, particularly 1333: 1327: 1314: 1308: 1292: 1286: 1261: 1253: 1247: 1144:Bärbel Inhelder 1140:Michael Commons 1137: 1131: 1083: 1077: 1057: 1051: 1035:pre-operational 1015: 1009: 960: 954: 949: 921:G. Stanley Hall 861: 782:neuroplasticity 643: 605: 603: 596: 595: 594: 593: 569:Psychotherapies 537: 527: 526: 447: 439: 438: 437: 436: 265: 255: 254: 253: 252: 213:Neuropsychology 97: 45: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10453: 10443: 10442: 10437: 10420: 10419: 10417: 10416: 10404: 10392: 10380: 10367: 10364: 10363: 10361: 10360: 10355: 10350: 10343: 10337: 10335: 10331: 10330: 10328: 10327: 10321: 10319: 10315: 10314: 10312: 10311: 10306: 10301: 10300: 10299: 10294: 10284: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10253: 10252: 10247: 10242: 10234: 10233: 10232: 10230:social science 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10204: 10199: 10194: 10189: 10184: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10162:Global studies 10159: 10157:Gender studies 10154: 10149: 10148: 10147: 10142: 10140:social science 10136:Environmental 10134: 10129: 10124: 10119: 10114: 10109: 10104: 10099: 10094: 10089: 10084: 10083: 10082: 10077: 10068: 10066: 10062: 10061: 10059: 10058: 10057: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10026: 10025: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9994: 9993: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9962: 9961: 9960: 9950: 9949: 9948: 9943: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9918: 9917: 9916: 9911: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9886: 9876: 9875: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9849: 9848: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9835:macroeconomics 9832: 9830:microeconomics 9822: 9821: 9820: 9815: 9810: 9805: 9794: 9792: 9788: 9787: 9785: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9768: 9765: 9764: 9757: 9756: 9749: 9742: 9734: 9725: 9724: 9722: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9696: 9691: 9685: 9682: 9681: 9679: 9678: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9658: 9653: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9627: 9625: 9619: 9618: 9616: 9614:Roy Baumeister 9611: 9606: 9601: 9596: 9591: 9586: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9549:Michael Posner 9546: 9541: 9536: 9534:Elliot Aronson 9531: 9529:Walter Mischel 9526: 9521: 9516: 9511: 9506: 9501: 9496: 9494:Albert Bandura 9491: 9486: 9481: 9476: 9471: 9469:Leon Festinger 9466: 9461: 9456: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9439:Neal E. Miller 9436: 9434:Abraham Maslow 9431: 9426: 9421: 9419:Ernest Hilgard 9416: 9414:Donald O. Hebb 9411: 9406: 9401: 9396: 9394:J. P. Guilford 9391: 9389:Gordon Allport 9386: 9381: 9376: 9371: 9369:John B. Watson 9366: 9361: 9356: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9334: 9329: 9326: 9325: 9321: 9320: 9315: 9310: 9305: 9300: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9280: 9275: 9270: 9265: 9260: 9255: 9250: 9244: 9243: 9242: 9240: 9236: 9235: 9233: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9212: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9160:Animal testing 9156: 9154: 9148: 9147: 9145: 9144: 9139: 9134: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8989: 8984: 8978: 8976: 8968: 8967: 8960: 8958: 8956: 8955: 8950: 8945: 8940: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8920: 8915: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8863:Cross-cultural 8860: 8855: 8854: 8853: 8843: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8803: 8801: 8793: 8792: 8790: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8768: 8765: 8764: 8757: 8756: 8749: 8742: 8734: 8725: 8724: 8722: 8721: 8716: 8694: 8684: 8677:Bronfenbrenner 8674: 8664: 8654: 8644: 8634: 8623: 8621: 8614: 8611: 8610: 8608: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8566: 8564: 8558: 8557: 8550: 8549: 8542: 8535: 8527: 8521: 8520: 8511: 8482: 8476: 8470: 8458: 8453: 8437: 8436: 8430: 8429: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8414:External links 8412: 8410: 8409: 8400: 8386: 8373: 8323: 8317: 8304: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8235: 8234: 8185: 8166:(3): 127–136. 8141: 8106:(2–3): 61–83. 8083: 8041: 8020:(6): 397–407. 8001: 7952: 7938: 7905: 7879: 7825: 7811:2027.42/108158 7796:(3): 163–178. 7768: 7738: 7709:(2): 114–121. 7689: 7660:(3): 133–158. 7637: 7625: 7574: 7567: 7553:Cavanaugh JC, 7545: 7504: 7474: 7443:(6): 699–707. 7423: 7384: 7370: 7350: 7325: 7283: 7234: 7211: 7192:(2): 194–204. 7176: 7157:(4): 682–687. 7141: 7134: 7111: 7104: 7086: 7067:(7): 569–576. 7051: 7032:(2): 154–159. 7012: 7001:(4): 491–496. 6981: 6952: 6924: 6903: 6872: 6854: 6836: 6821: 6803: 6789: 6774: 6759: 6718: 6700: 6682: 6675: 6657: 6650: 6632: 6625: 6605: 6598: 6580: 6531: 6524: 6506: 6479:(3): 265–288. 6463: 6420: 6366: 6354: 6324: 6317: 6296: 6286: 6279: 6249: 6230:(1): 227–297. 6206: 6171: 6122: 6115: 6097: 6090: 6072: 6065: 6047: 6022: 5971: 5919: 5884: 5828: 5805: 5798: 5769: 5762: 5733: 5718: 5698: 5679: 5672: 5641: 5634: 5605: 5598: 5580: 5573: 5552: 5512: 5469: 5449: 5420: 5393:(4): 324–329. 5374: 5367: 5349: 5320:(2): 361–388. 5297: 5282: 5267: 5210: 5173:(3): 633–647. 5153: 5116:(1): 173–196. 5096: 5061:(7): 475–483. 5041: 5012:(2): 167–178. 4992: 4950: 4915: 4909:978-1138951655 4908: 4890: 4866: 4831:(1): 143–153. 4811: 4752: 4713:(8): 634–640. 4693: 4674:(4): 233–243. 4668:Young Children 4654: 4639: 4609: 4580: 4557: 4542: 4522: 4507: 4484: 4457:(1): 124–130. 4441: 4411:(3): 329–337. 4388: 4353: 4334:(2): 218–232. 4318: 4291:(2): 251–272. 4271: 4260:(5): 971–980. 4240: 4233: 4215: 4208: 4190: 4183: 4152: 4125:(4): 335–344. 4100: 4093: 4073: 4047:(5): 259–281. 4027: 4012: 3997: 3941: 3934: 3911: 3882: 3875: 3845: 3838: 3815: 3792: 3761: 3754: 3731: 3716: 3701: 3681: 3674: 3656: 3637: 3613: 3598: 3563: 3544: 3537: 3511: 3496: 3461: 3454: 3431: 3416: 3409: 3387: 3380: 3362: 3332: 3300: 3282: 3275: 3225: 3218: 3192: 3143: 3136: 3118: 3089: 3077: 3044: 3025:(4): 768–776. 3004: 3003: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2905: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2891: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2810: 2809: 2808: 2792: 2789: 2758: 2755: 2749: 2748:Cross-cultural 2746: 2740: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2727: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2704:The following 2701: 2698: 2689: 2686: 2658:disintegration 2620:Main article: 2617: 2614: 2570:Main article: 2567: 2564: 2530:Main article: 2527: 2524: 2504: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2462:Main article: 2459: 2456: 2391:Preoperational 2362: 2361: 2360: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2350: 2327: 2324: 2300:Main article: 2297: 2294: 2288: 2285: 2259:Feral children 2250: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2208: 2205: 2164: 2161: 2137:Main article: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2129: 2123: 2112:Touch and feel 2109: 2098: 2091: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2073: 2066: 2063: 2022: 2019: 2012:virus and the 1968:walking reflex 1935:Main article: 1932: 1929: 1921: 1918: 1872: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1845: 1842: 1812:approach. The 1791:; clinical or 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1751:, a theory of 1744: 1741: 1731: 1728: 1682: 1679: 1670:working memory 1622: 1619: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1591:Research areas 1589: 1577:neural network 1551: 1548: 1542: 1541:Theory of mind 1539: 1521: 1518: 1497: 1494: 1421:Main article: 1418: 1415: 1396:developed the 1394:Mary Ainsworth 1382:Main article: 1379: 1376: 1329:Main article: 1326: 1323: 1310:Main article: 1307: 1306:Constructivism 1304: 1288:Main article: 1285: 1282: 1259: 1249:Main article: 1246: 1243: 1235: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1217:Metasystematic 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1187:Preoperational 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1133:Main article: 1130: 1127: 1079:Main article: 1076: 1073: 1053:Main article: 1050: 1047: 1011:Main article: 1008: 1005: 956:Main article: 953: 950: 948: 945: 903:Charles Darwin 868:John B. Watson 860: 857: 845:Barbara Rogoff 770:social context 645: 644: 642: 641: 634: 627: 619: 616: 615: 614: 613: 598: 597: 592: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 546: 540: 539: 538: 533: 532: 529: 528: 525: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 448: 445: 444: 441: 440: 435: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 268: 267: 266: 261: 260: 257: 256: 251: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 167: 162: 160:Cross-cultural 157: 152: 151: 150: 140: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 100: 99: 98: 93: 92: 89: 88: 87: 86: 81: 76: 68: 67: 59: 58: 52: 51: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10452: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10432: 10430: 10415: 10414: 10409: 10405: 10403: 10398: 10393: 10391: 10390: 10381: 10379: 10378: 10369: 10368: 10365: 10359: 10356: 10354: 10353:Human science 10351: 10349: 10348: 10344: 10342: 10339: 10338: 10336: 10332: 10326: 10323: 10322: 10320: 10316: 10310: 10309:Vegan studies 10307: 10305: 10302: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10289: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10278: 10275: 10273: 10272:Public health 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10237: 10235: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10207: 10206:Philosophies 10205: 10203: 10202:Media studies 10200: 10198: 10195: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10177:Human ecology 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10153: 10150: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10137: 10135: 10133: 10130: 10128: 10125: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10100: 10098: 10095: 10093: 10090: 10088: 10087:Anthrozoology 10085: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10072: 10070: 10069: 10067: 10063: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10031: 10030: 10027: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10012:developmental 10010: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9999: 9998: 9995: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9985:public policy 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9967: 9966: 9963: 9959: 9956: 9955: 9954: 9951: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9936:legal systems 9934: 9932: 9931:legal history 9929: 9927: 9926:jurisprudence 9924: 9923: 9922: 9919: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9892: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9881: 9880: 9877: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9858: 9855: 9854: 9853: 9850: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9828: 9827: 9826: 9823: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9800: 9799: 9796: 9795: 9793: 9789: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9769: 9766: 9762: 9755: 9750: 9748: 9743: 9741: 9736: 9735: 9732: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9686: 9683: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9654: 9652: 9651:Psychologists 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9641:Organizations 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9628: 9626: 9624: 9620: 9615: 9612: 9610: 9607: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9595: 9592: 9590: 9589:John Anderson 9587: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9519:Ulric Neisser 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9504:Endel Tulving 9502: 9500: 9497: 9495: 9492: 9490: 9489:Robert Zajonc 9487: 9485: 9482: 9480: 9477: 9475: 9472: 9470: 9467: 9465: 9462: 9460: 9457: 9455: 9452: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9444:Jerome Bruner 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9409:B. F. Skinner 9407: 9405: 9402: 9400: 9397: 9395: 9392: 9390: 9387: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9374:Clark L. Hull 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9354:Sigmund Freud 9352: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9344:William James 9342: 9340: 9339:Wilhelm Wundt 9337: 9335: 9332: 9331:Psychologists 9327: 9319: 9318:Psychometrics 9316: 9314: 9311: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9278:Consciousness 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9246: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9216: 9213: 9211: 9210:Psychophysics 9208: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9157: 9155: 9153: 9152:Methodologies 9149: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9135: 9133: 9130: 9128: 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9112:Psychotherapy 9110: 9108: 9107:Psychometrics 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8979: 8977: 8975: 8969: 8964: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8873:Developmental 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8852: 8849: 8848: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8802: 8800: 8794: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8769: 8766: 8762: 8755: 8750: 8748: 8743: 8741: 8736: 8735: 8732: 8720: 8717: 8714: 8710: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8695: 8692: 8688: 8685: 8682: 8678: 8675: 8672: 8668: 8665: 8662: 8658: 8655: 8652: 8648: 8645: 8642: 8638: 8635: 8632: 8628: 8625: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8615:Theorists and 8612: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8567: 8565: 8563: 8559: 8555: 8548: 8543: 8541: 8536: 8534: 8529: 8528: 8525: 8519: 8515: 8512: 8509: 8505: 8501: 8498: 8493: 8489: 8486: 8483: 8480: 8477: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8465: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8451: 8446: 8442: 8441: 8435: 8432: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8406: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8387:0-8058-2682-3 8383: 8379: 8374: 8364:on 2013-05-24 8360: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8329: 8324: 8320: 8318:0-8058-5163-1 8314: 8310: 8305: 8295:on 2011-08-12 8291: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8261: 8257: 8250: 8245: 8244: 8230: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8189: 8181: 8177: 8173: 8169: 8165: 8161: 8157: 8150: 8148: 8146: 8137: 8133: 8129: 8125: 8121: 8117: 8113: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8097: 8090: 8088: 8079: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8052: 8050: 8048: 8046: 8037: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8008: 8006: 7997: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7972:(3): 801–21. 7971: 7967: 7963: 7956: 7948: 7942: 7935: 7925:on 2021-05-07 7924: 7920: 7916: 7909: 7894: 7890: 7883: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7848: 7846: 7844: 7842: 7840: 7838: 7836: 7834: 7832: 7830: 7821: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7784: 7777: 7775: 7773: 7756: 7749: 7742: 7734: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7693: 7685: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7644: 7642: 7634: 7629: 7621: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7578: 7570: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7549: 7541: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7508: 7492: 7488: 7484: 7478: 7470: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7427: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7388: 7373: 7367: 7363: 7362: 7354: 7339: 7335: 7329: 7321: 7317: 7313: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7294: 7287: 7279: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7238: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7215: 7207: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7180: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7156: 7152: 7145: 7137: 7131: 7127: 7126: 7118: 7116: 7107: 7101: 7097: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7055: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7016: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 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6087: 6083: 6076: 6068: 6062: 6058: 6051: 6036: 6032: 6026: 6018: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5975: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5942:(1): E25–32. 5941: 5937: 5933: 5926: 5924: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5891: 5889: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5832: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5809: 5801: 5795: 5791: 5790: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5776: 5774: 5765: 5759: 5754: 5753: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5715: 5711: 5710: 5702: 5695: 5691: 5688: 5683: 5675: 5669: 5665: 5658: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5646: 5637: 5631: 5627: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5610: 5601: 5595: 5591: 5584: 5576: 5570: 5566: 5559: 5557: 5548: 5541: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5527: 5525: 5523: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5485:(2): 81–129. 5484: 5480: 5473: 5465: 5458: 5456: 5454: 5439:on 2015-09-19 5438: 5434: 5430: 5424: 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5381: 5379: 5370: 5364: 5361:. 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3252: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3221: 3219:9781412934664 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3196: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3139: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3108:on 2014-07-09 3107: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3080: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3051: 3049: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3009: 3005: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2811: 2806: 2795: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2771: 2769: 2764: 2754: 2745: 2736: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2710: 2709: 2707: 2697: 2693: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2623: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2563: 2561: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2533: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2516:sense of self 2513: 2509: 2501: 2498: 2495: 2494: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2480: 2476: 2475:William Damon 2472: 2465: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2379:self-esteem. 2376: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2366: 2357: 2354: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2343: 2342: 2341: 2340: 2338: 2333: 2323: 2319: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2293: 2284: 2283: 2282: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2233: 2232: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2222: 2218: 2213: 2204: 2202: 2201:A-not-B error 2196: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2171: 2160: 2156: 2154: 2149: 2146: 2140: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2099: 2095: 2092: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2051: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2032: 2028: 2018: 2015: 2014:toxoplasmosis 2011: 2007: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1991:schizophrenia 1987: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1938: 1927: 1917: 1913: 1911: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1806:correlational 1803: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1740: 1736: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1688: 1678: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1646: 1641: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1588: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1573:connectionist 1570: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1547: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1526: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1452: 1450: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1424: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1385: 1375: 1373: 1368: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1332: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1303: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1281: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1257: 1252: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1172:Sensory-motor 1170: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1145: 1141: 1136: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1088: 1082: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1062: 1056: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1026: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1004: 1000: 998: 997: 996:genital stage 991: 989: 988:latency stage 985: 984: 983:phallic stage 978: 976: 972: 967: 964: 963:Sigmund Freud 959: 944: 942: 941:Sigmund Freud 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 901: 897: 895: 889: 887: 886: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 856: 854: 850: 849:Esther Thelen 846: 842: 838: 834: 833:Sigmund Freud 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 793: 792: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 762: 757: 755: 751: 747: 743: 742:social change 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 664: 659: 651: 640: 635: 633: 628: 626: 621: 620: 618: 617: 612: 602: 601: 600: 599: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 564:Psychologists 562: 560: 557: 555: 554:Organizations 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 541: 536: 531: 530: 523: 522:Psychometrics 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 482:Consciousness 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 449: 443: 442: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 402:Psychotherapy 400: 398: 397:Psychometrics 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 269: 264: 259: 258: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169:Developmental 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 149: 146: 145: 144: 141: 139: 135: 132: 130: 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 101: 96: 91: 90: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 71: 70: 69: 65: 61: 60: 57: 54: 53: 49: 48: 43: 36: 34: 19: 10411: 10387: 10375: 10345: 10152:Food studies 10092:Area studies 10011: 9845:mathematical 9840:econometrics 9798:Anthropology 9564:Larry Squire 9559:Bruce McEwen 9554:Amos Tversky 9524:Jerome Kagan 9514:Noam Chomsky 9454:Hans Eysenck 9424:Harry Harlow 9404:Erik Erikson 9303:Intelligence 9200:Neuroimaging 8943:Quantitative 8908:Mathematical 8903:Intelligence 8893:Experimental 8888:Evolutionary 8878:Differential 8872: 8787:Psychologist 8561: 8553: 8497:Mann Library 8424: 8404: 8377: 8366:. Retrieved 8359:the original 8338: 8334: 8308: 8297:. Retrieved 8290:the original 8259: 8255: 8205:(1): 77–82. 8202: 8198: 8188: 8163: 8159: 8103: 8099: 8061: 8057: 8017: 8013: 7969: 7965: 7955: 7941: 7933: 7927:. Retrieved 7923:the original 7918: 7908: 7896:. Retrieved 7892: 7882: 7860:(1): 56–95. 7857: 7853: 7793: 7789: 7759:. Retrieved 7754: 7741: 7706: 7702: 7692: 7657: 7653: 7628: 7591: 7587: 7577: 7558: 7548: 7521: 7517: 7507: 7495:. Retrieved 7486: 7477: 7440: 7436: 7426: 7401: 7397: 7387: 7375:. Retrieved 7360: 7353: 7341:. Retrieved 7337: 7328: 7303: 7299: 7286: 7251: 7247: 7237: 7228: 7224: 7214: 7189: 7185: 7179: 7154: 7150: 7144: 7124: 7095: 7089: 7064: 7060: 7054: 7029: 7025: 7015: 6998: 6994: 6984: 6973:. Retrieved 6969:the original 6964: 6955: 6943:. Retrieved 6939: 6918: 6894:. 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Retrieved 3106:the original 3101: 3092: 3082:, retrieved 3060: 3022: 3018: 3008: 2785: 2781: 2776:renunciation 2772: 2760: 2751: 2742: 2733: 2703: 2694: 2691: 2655: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2625: 2611: 2579: 2575: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2535: 2505: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2471:Erik Erikson 2467: 2449: 2448: 2441: 2440: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2406: 2399: 2389: 2382: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2363: 2337:Erik Erikson 2335: 2320: 2316:gender roles 2309: 2305: 2290: 2280: 2279: 2252: 2229: 2225: 2214: 2210: 2197: 2174: 2166: 2157: 2150: 2142: 2080: 2068:fussing and 2048: 2041: 2034: 2003: 1984: 1965: 1950: 1946: 1914: 1907: 1902: 1892: 1888: 1873: 1847: 1817: 1809: 1805: 1802:experimental 1801: 1795:method; and 1782: 1775: 1746: 1737: 1733: 1725: 1708: 1705: 1698: 1694: 1655: 1649: 1645:Lev Vygotsky 1642: 1638: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1585: 1565: 1553: 1544: 1531: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1499: 1491: 1475:Noam Chomsky 1472: 1453: 1445: 1426: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1387: 1369: 1361: 1334: 1319: 1315: 1295:Lev Vygotsky 1293: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1264: 1239: 1236: 1222:Paradigmatic 1138: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1094: 1091:Joan Erikson 1087:Erik Erikson 1084: 1069: 1065: 1058: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1031:sensorimotor 1030: 1027: 1016: 1001: 994: 992: 987: 981: 979: 974: 970: 968: 961: 936: 932: 906: 894:Erik Erikson 890: 883: 879: 875: 871: 862: 853:Lev Vygotsky 829:Erik Erikson 794: 790: 778:essentialism 760: 758: 750:self-concept 726:motor skills 669: 668: 663:Conservation 507:Intelligence 238:Quantitative 203:Mathematical 198:Intelligence 188:Experimental 183:Evolutionary 173:Differential 32: 10413:Wikiversity 10304:Social work 10192:Linguistics 10117:Criminology 10034:criminology 10017:personality 9975:comparative 9953:Linguistics 9946:private law 9803:archaeology 9636:Disciplines 9609:Susan Fiske 9499:Roger Brown 9399:Carl Rogers 9384:Jean Piaget 9349:Ivan Pavlov 9205:Observation 9185:Experiments 9132:Suicidology 9027:Educational 8982:Anomalistic 8953:Theoretical 8928:Personality 8858:Comparative 8841:Cognitivism 8832:Behaviorism 8590:Young adult 8064:(1): 5–26. 7898:20 November 7761:20 November 7497:November 8, 7404:(1): 1–20. 6551:: 143–151. 6436:(1): 1–34. 6265:: 335–360. 4625:: 135–186. 4369:(1): 6–22. 3802:j.ctvjf9vz4 3529:Adolescence 3525:Steinberg L 3401:McGraw-Hill 3163:: 137–142. 2884:Scale error 2763:non-Western 2607:ejaculation 2458:Adolescence 2403:Jean Piaget 2395:operational 2296:Toddlerhood 1986:Ultrasounds 1797:ethnography 1390:John Bowlby 1152:Calculatory 1071:situation. 1018:Jean Piaget 880:adolescence 874:(infancy), 841:Jean Piaget 789:development 746:personality 690:adolescence 549:Disciplines 422:Suicidology 317:Educational 272:Anomalistic 248:Theoretical 223:Personality 155:Comparative 138:Cognitivism 129:Behaviorism 10429:Categories 10358:Humanities 10292:historical 10225:psychology 10197:Management 10039:demography 9997:Psychology 9980:philosophy 9941:public law 9872:integrated 9699:Wikisource 9544:Paul Ekman 9379:Kurt Lewin 9273:Competence 9195:Interviews 9175:Case study 9052:Humanistic 9032:Ergonomics 9017:Counseling 8992:Assessment 8974:psychology 8923:Perception 8883:Ecological 8799:psychology 8777:Philosophy 8761:Psychology 8368:2012-06-29 8299:2005-12-01 7929:2021-05-07 7377:4 December 7343:11 October 6975:2021-05-07 6945:15 October 6896:13 October 6361:2024-04-02 6041:2023-12-28 5914:2023-12-28 5901:StatPearls 5462:Eaton WO. 5443:2015-10-22 4884:2022-07-29 4435:2019-08-20 4169:Psychology 3991:2017-10-24 3905:2014-11-13 3726:Psychology 3631:2022-07-27 3593:2022-06-23 3580:StatPearls 3554:"Kohlberg" 3356:2014-11-10 3340:McLeod S. 3327:2022-02-12 3314:StatPearls 3112:2017-08-28 3084:2022-08-28 3000:References 2590:Andropause 2572:Middle age 2552:Isolation, 2520:ideologies 2508:autonomous 2479:egocentric 2330:See also: 2253:There are 2148:an adult. 2006:teratogens 1999:embryology 1941:See also: 1924:See also: 1838:interviews 1834:case study 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