585:
481:
2060:
531:. Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain. By October 2007, bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland and the first outbreak in Denmark was reported. In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish provinces of SmĂĄland, Halland, and SkĂĄne, as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls. Norway had its first finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in
49:
70:
287:
557:
also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late. However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.
590:
589:
586:
591:
588:
279:
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arising in populations. Evidence suggests this is due to purifying selection across the genome as the virus is transmitted alternately through its insect and animal hosts. However, individual gene segments undergo different selective pressures and some, particularly segments 4 and 5, are subject to positive selection.
454:
to the dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to cores derived
625:
distribution, which has raised concern in the spread of disease across central Europe as the flies make their way northward. Without a significant improvement in epidemiological control measures, what is currently considered a once-in-20-years outbreak of bluetongue would occur as frequently as once
551:
are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to survive until the next spring. It is believed that the virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed. A few
453:
then triggers BTV's membrane penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal membrane. Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition
467:
The viral genome is replicated via structural protein VP1, an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. The lack of proof-reading abilities results in high levels of transcription errors, resulting in single nucleotide mutations. Despite this, the BTV genome is quite stable, exhibiting a low rate of variants
556:
midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter. Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can
471:
Genetic diversification of BTV occurs primarily through reassortment of the gene segments during co-infection of the host cell. Reassortment can lead to a rapid shift in phenotypes independent of the slow rate of mutation. During this process, gene segments are not randomly reassorted. Rather,
458:
from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected cells. Of these,
695:
showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BT V strain. For many decades, bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside of Africa occurred in
444:
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the target cell. VP2 and VP5 are the primary antigenic targets for antibody targeting by the host immune system. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering
1399:
587:
700:
in 1943. In 2021, a vessel owned by
Khalifeh Livestock Trading and managed by Talia Shipping Line, both based in Lebanon, has been denied right to dock in Spain, as it has about 895 male calves suspected to be infected by bluetongue disease.
459:
NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.
535:
in the south of Norway showed an immune response to bluetongue. Norway was declared free of the disease in 2011. As of
November 2023, cases of bluetongue have been recorded in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Spain, and the UK.
1216:
349:
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives bluetongue the nickname
668:
Protection by live attenuated vaccines (LAVs) are serotype specific. Multiserotype LAV cocktails can induce neutralizing antibodies against unincluded serotypes, and subsequent vaccinations with three different
519:
vector, which is limited to North Africa and the
Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.
341:
of the tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge and
1403:
676:
Immunization with any of the available vaccines, though, precludes later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem that could be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines.
365:
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a week. For affected animals that do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
523:
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the
Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and Luxembourg. In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one bull near
1810:"Evaluation of the immunogenicity of an experimental subunit vaccine that allows differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals against bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle"
679:
In
January 2015, Indian researchers launched a vaccine named Raksha Blu that is designed to protect livestock against five strains of the bluetongue virus prevalent in the country.
1562:
472:
there appears to be a mechanism for selecting for or against certain segments from the parental serotypes present. However, this selective mechanism is still poorly understood.
441:
envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm. The structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure to be solved.
2002:
430:
family. Twenty-seven serotypes are now recognised for this virus. The twenty-seven serotypes are the result of the high variability of a single outer capsid protein, VP2.
1469:
Mehlhorn H, Walldorf V, Klimpel S, Schaub G, Kiel E, Focke R, et al. (August 2009). "Bluetongue disease in
Germany (2007-2008): monitoring of entomological aspects".
1322:
2075:
1220:
507:. Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during milder winters. A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been the ability of
492:
Bluetongue has been observed in
Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article
1276:
2093:
1908:
1739:
Kerr R.B., Hasegawa T., Lasco R., Bhatt I., Deryng D., Farrell A., Gurney-Smith H., Ju H., Lluch-Cota S., Meza F., Nelson G., Neufeldt H., Thornton P., 2022:
1636:
Mellor, P. S., J. Boorman, and M. Baylis. “Culicoides Biting Midges: Their Role as
Arbovirus Vectors.” Annual Review of Entomology 45, no. 1 (2000): 307–40.
527:
at the Czech-German border. In
September 2007, the UK reported its first ever suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near
2129:
2157:
302:
In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats, cattle, and other domestic animals, as well as wild
1976:
1173:
Purse BV, Mellor PS, Rogers DJ, Samuel AR, Mertens PP, Baylis M (February 2005). "Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe".
673:
LAV cocktails induce broad protection. These pentavalent cocktails contain 15 different serotypes in total: serotypes 1 through 14, as well as 19.
2277:
1241:
Baylis M, Caminade C, Turner J, Jones AE (August 2017). "The role of climate change in a developing threat: the case of bluetongue in Europe".
691:
in the early 19th century, a comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th century. In 1906,
2303:
2167:
1538:
2162:
1858:
1124:"In Vitro Reassortment between Endemic Bluetongue Viruses Features Global Shifts in Segment Frequencies and Preferred Segment Combinations"
1512:
539:
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
2174:
982:
Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus replication".
2264:
1375:
570:
566:
1326:
2085:
909:
884:
833:
515:
to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original
716:
species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the infected horses during an epidemic.
1747:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 1457–1579 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.012
1073:"The Genetic Diversification of a Single Bluetongue Virus Strain Using an In Vitro Model of Alternating-Host Transmission"
720:
493:
1652:"Modeling the current distribution suitability and future dynamics of Culicoides imicola under climate change scenarios"
2109:
1888:
2101:
1701:
Bett, B.; Kiunga, P.; Gachohi, J.; Sindato, C.; Mbotha, D.; Robinson, T.; Lindahl, J.; Grace, D. (23 January 2017).
2308:
1740:
433:
The virus particle consists of 10 strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells. Unlike other
2341:
2331:
380:
of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep may have no mortality, but in imported breeds, it may be up to 90%.
577:
480:
446:
1702:
2290:
2080:
2336:
2229:
1808:
Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren
Bengtsson K, Pringle J, et al. (August 2013).
17:
2139:
194:
69:
2059:
627:
1650:
Gao, Hongyan; Wang, Long; Ma, Jun; Gao, Xiang; Xiao, Jianhua; Wang, Hongbing (29 October 2021).
488:
in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different serotypes and individual virus strains
2282:
2191:
709:
547:
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults of
262:
1524:
2027:"A possible overwintering mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect vector"
1940:
Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global epidemiology, and pathogenesis".
652:
504:
198:
2251:
2025:
Takamatsu H, Mellor PS, Mertens PP, Kirkham PA, Burroughs JN, Parkhouse RM (January 2003).
928:
RodrĂguez-MartĂn D, Louloudes-Lázaro A, Avia M, MartĂn V, Rojas JM, Sevilla N (July 2021).
64:
8:
1280:
670:
56:
31:
1909:"Cattle stranded at sea 'face immediate slaughter' if ship docks in Spain, says manager"
1301:
1834:
1809:
1785:
1758:
1678:
1651:
1614:
1587:
1494:
1198:
1150:
1123:
1099:
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1007:
956:
929:
792:
767:
319:
256:
1043:
1026:
2238:
2048:
1957:
1916:
1884:
1839:
1790:
1722:
1683:
1619:
1486:
1258:
1190:
1155:
1104:
1048:
999:
961:
905:
880:
829:
797:
369:
311:
1953:
1718:
1703:"Effects of climate change on the occurrence and distribution of livestock diseases"
1498:
1202:
2179:
2038:
1949:
1829:
1821:
1780:
1770:
1714:
1673:
1663:
1609:
1599:
1478:
1250:
1182:
1145:
1135:
1094:
1084:
1038:
991:
951:
941:
787:
779:
528:
412:
242:
118:
2243:
1140:
1011:
1604:
1379:
1352:
503:
countries, subsiding when temperatures drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge
407:
326:
1637:
1424:
692:
373:
210:
154:
130:
1563:"29 November 2023: updated outbreak assessment for Bluetongue virus in Europe"
1482:
995:
766:
Mauroy A, Guyot H, De Clercq K, Cassart D, Thiry E, Saegerman C (April 2008).
2325:
2214:
1920:
1775:
500:
106:
1347:
850:
745:
286:
2295:
2052:
1961:
1843:
1794:
1726:
1687:
1623:
1490:
1402:. International Society for Infectious Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from
1262:
1254:
1219:. International Society for Infectious Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from
1194:
1159:
1108:
1052:
1003:
965:
801:
783:
688:
388:
355:
2043:
2026:
927:
2223:
2124:
1825:
1448:
1444:
930:"The Interplay between Bluetongue Virus Infections and Adaptive Immunity"
644:
434:
359:
2269:
1668:
1186:
640:
626:
in five or seven years by midcentury under all but the most optimistic
532:
427:
395:
are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.
343:
267:
142:
1744:
1089:
946:
422:
384:
303:
234:
166:
94:
2185:
1733:
2208:
855:
821:
450:
404:
392:
338:
307:
238:
206:
48:
2154:
Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease Information
613:. However, due to climate change, they have spread all the way to
1429:
1027:"Courageous science: structural studies of bluetongue virus core"
648:
298:. The tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.
226:
372:
is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The
2256:
697:
618:
614:
610:
330:
214:
2110:"Chapter 3.1.3: Bluetongue (Infection with Bluetongue Virus )"
2098:
WAHID Interface – OIE World Animal Health Information Database
1977:"Cattle stranded on ship in Spain must be destroyed, say vets"
879:(3rd ed.). London: British Veterinary Association. 1976.
2024:
1468:
438:
377:
334:
278:
252:
202:
81:
2100:. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Archived from
1807:
1071:
Kopanke JH, Lee JS, Stenglein MD, Mayo CE (September 2020).
2175:
News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the UK
2147:
1694:
765:
712:
is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges (
606:
524:
230:
222:
1745:
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
658:
1240:
315:
291:
218:
2003:"African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions"
1700:
1630:
1172:
1122:
Kopanke J, Lee J, Stenglein M, Mayo C (February 2021).
1121:
1070:
1759:"Prospects of Next-Generation Vaccines for Bluetongue"
1523:] (in Norwegian). 24 February 2009. Archived from
687:
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in
621:. The increase in temperature has positively impacted
1874:
1872:
1741:
Chapter 5: Food, Fibre and Other Ecosystem Products
2130:Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
1869:
1588:"Where does bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?"
1585:
30:"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see
2323:
1302:"Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door"
376:is normally low, but it is high in susceptible
1933:
1856:
1425:"Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU"
1277:"Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany"
2119:. World Organisation for Animal Health. 2021.
1883:(1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21.
1801:
1638:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.307
1586:Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008).
1974:
1649:
1304:(Press release). Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28
362:) is observed in severely affected animals.
59:of Bluetongue virus, scale bar = 50 nm
1024:
1018:
899:
828:. Caister Academic Press. pp. 305–54.
634:
578:Culicoides imicola § Role of climate change
499:Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected
1939:
1579:
1539:"Bluetongue serotype 8 outbreak in Norway"
877:Handbook on Animal Eiseases in the Tropics
822:"Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue Virus"
47:
2042:
1902:
1900:
1881:Bluetongue (Biology of Animal Infections)
1859:"Vaccine for bluetongue disease launched"
1833:
1784:
1774:
1677:
1667:
1613:
1603:
1515:[Bluetongue detected in Norway].
1376:"Bluetongue spreads from cattle to sheep"
1149:
1139:
1098:
1088:
1042:
977:
975:
955:
945:
791:
2094:"Current status of Bluetongue worldwide"
1756:
724:is closely related and crossreacts with
583:
479:
285:
277:
1975:Kevany S, Kassam A (27 February 2021).
1878:
848:
659:Livestock management and insect control
14:
2324:
1906:
1897:
1294:
972:
571:Effects of climate change on livestock
567:Climate change and infectious diseases
383:In cattle, goats, and wild ruminants,
2190:
2189:
2000:
1994:
1325:. Agroweb. 2008-02-19. Archived from
1066:
1064:
1062:
815:
813:
811:
449:of the virus. The low pH within the
1521:Norway National Veterinary Institute
1445:"Blue tongue outbreak spreads south"
1373:
923:
921:
851:"'Dancing' disease set for long run"
655:, including inspection of aircraft.
391:despite high virus levels in blood.
251:). The virus is transmitted by the
2134:. UK government. 20 September 2023.
1348:"Bluetongue disease detected in UK"
981:
819:
721:Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus
704:
494:Parasitic flies of domestic animals
24:
2017:
1323:"Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii"
1059:
808:
25:
2353:
2068:
1025:Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999).
918:
904:. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
826:Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology
560:
2168:Farm-level biosecurity practices
2058:
984:Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics
576:This section is an excerpt from
542:
68:
2031:The Journal of General Virology
1968:
1954:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005
1850:
1814:Clinical and Vaccine Immunology
1763:Frontiers in Veterinary Science
1750:
1719:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.11.019
1643:
1555:
1531:
1505:
1462:
1437:
1417:
1392:
1367:
1340:
1315:
1269:
1243:Revue Scientifique et Technique
1234:
1209:
1166:
1115:
849:McGrath M (29 September 2007).
475:
398:
1942:Preventive Veterinary Medicine
1707:Preventive Veterinary Medicine
893:
869:
842:
759:
738:
605:has been found in subtropical
484:The molecular epidemiology of
13:
1:
2158:Bluetongue disease fact sheet
1857:Staff Reporter (2015-01-08).
1141:10.3390/microorganisms9020405
1044:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8
746:"Q&A: Bluetongue disease"
731:
447:receptor-mediated endocytosis
1656:PeerJ Life & Environment
1605:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210
1175:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
772:Emerging Infectious Diseases
768:"Bluetongue in captive yaks"
462:
403:Bluetongue is caused by the
337:of the face and tongue, and
7:
2117:OIE Terrestrial Manual 2021
2081:The Merck Veterinary Manual
2007:The Merck Veterinary Manual
900:Jensen R, Swift BL (1982).
663:
651:, and control of the midge
639:Prevention is effected via
10:
2358:
2163:Biosecurity training video
1757:van Rijn PA (2019-11-21).
1400:"Bluetongue – Europe (50)"
1217:"Bluetongue – Europe (51)"
682:
575:
564:
329:are high fever, excessive
29:
2198:
1513:"BlĂĄtunge pĂĄvist i Norge"
1483:10.1007/s00436-009-1416-y
996:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4
647:with live modified virus
63:
55:
46:
39:
2076:"Overview of Bluetongue"
2001:Weyer C (October 2021).
1907:Kevany SM (2021-02-25).
1776:10.3389/fvets.2019.00407
635:Treatment and prevention
273:
27:Viral disease in animals
2125:"Search for Bluetongue"
628:climate change scenario
354:. Torsion of the neck (
1255:10.20506/rst.36.2.2667
784:10.3201/eid1404.071416
710:African horse sickness
599:
489:
299:
283:
263:Culicoides variipennis
2342:Animal viral diseases
2332:Insect-borne diseases
2044:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0
1471:Parasitology Research
1374:Gray R (2007-10-14).
728:on many blood tests.
594:
483:
289:
281:
1826:10.1128/CVI.00229-13
1517:Veterinærinstituttet
1406:on December 26, 2007
1223:on December 26, 2007
213:and less frequently
65:Virus classification
2150:on 18 October 2016.
1669:10.7717/peerj.12308
1281:European Commission
1187:10.1038/nrmicro1090
352:the dancing disease
57:Electron micrograph
32:Blue-tongued lizard
1879:Mertens P (2009).
1433:. 13 October 2007.
603:Culicoides imicola
600:
596:Culicoides imicola
490:
320:pronghorn antelope
300:
284:
257:Culicoides imicola
241:. It is caused by
191:Bluetongue disease
2337:Ruminant diseases
2319:
2318:
2192:Taxon identifiers
2140:"Bluetongue page"
2104:on 17 March 2008.
2037:(Pt 1): 227–235.
1713:(Pt B): 119–129.
1279:(Press release).
1090:10.3390/v12091038
947:10.3390/v13081511
911:978-0-8121-0836-1
902:Diseases of Sheep
886:978-0-901028-10-5
835:978-1-904455-22-6
748:. BBC. 2008-09-17
592:
370:incubation period
312:white-tailed deer
294:is infected with
188:
187:
16:(Redirected from
2349:
2312:
2311:
2299:
2298:
2286:
2285:
2273:
2272:
2260:
2259:
2247:
2246:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2230:Bluetongue virus
2219:
2218:
2217:
2200:Bluetongue virus
2187:
2186:
2180:Farmers Guardian
2151:
2146:. Archived from
2135:
2120:
2114:
2105:
2089:
2088:on 3 March 2016.
2084:. Archived from
2063:
2062:
2056:
2046:
2011:
2010:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1972:
1966:
1965:
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1927:
1904:
1895:
1894:
1876:
1867:
1866:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1837:
1820:(8): 1115–1122.
1805:
1799:
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1778:
1754:
1748:
1737:
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1046:
1022:
1016:
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705:Related diseases
593:
529:Ipswich, Suffolk
486:Bluetongue virus
420:), of the genus
413:Bluetongue virus
296:Bluetongue virus
243:Bluetongue virus
181:Bluetongue virus
132:Resentoviricetes
120:Duplornaviricota
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1948:(2): 107–111.
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1356:. 2007-09-22
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1317:
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1296:
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1283:. 2006-08-21
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509:C. obsoletus
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476:Epidemiology
470:
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399:Microbiology
389:asymptomatic
382:
367:
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356:opisthotonos
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266:, and other
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1449:Thelocal.se
1083:(9): 1038.
940:(8): 1511.
671:pentavalent
645:inoculation
513:C.pulicaris
435:arboviruses
387:is usually
360:torticollis
290:A domestic
235:dromedaries
205:disease of
2326:Categories
1926:2021-02-28
1662:: e12308.
1572:2023-12-12
1548:2023-12-12
1455:2008-09-24
1410:2007-10-31
1385:2007-10-15
1378:. London:
1360:2007-09-22
1333:2008-05-29
1308:2007-03-27
1287:2006-08-21
1227:2007-10-31
1134:(2): 405.
862:2008-10-24
752:2010-01-01
732:References
714:Culicoides
641:quarantine
623:C. imicola
565:See also:
554:Culicoides
549:Culicoides
533:Vest-Agder
428:Reoviridae
405:pathogenic
344:stertorous
331:salivation
144:Reovirales
18:Bluetongue
1921:0261-3077
1863:The Hindu
1031:Structure
517:C.imicola
463:Evolution
426:, of the
423:Orbivirus
385:infection
304:ruminants
268:culicoids
209:, mainly
207:ruminants
175:Species:
168:Orbivirus
103:Kingdom:
96:Riboviria
2283:11459258
2270:10638041
2209:Wikidata
2053:12533719
1962:21570141
1844:23720365
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1727:28040271
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1195:15685226
1160:33669284
1109:32961886
1053:10368304
1004:18299997
966:34452376
856:BBC News
802:18394296
664:Vaccines
456:in vitro
451:endosome
393:Red deer
339:cyanosis
335:swelling
308:blesbuck
239:antelope
151:Family:
115:Phylum:
2215:Q883122
2132:(Defra)
1986:26 July
1835:3754508
1786:6881303
1769:: 407.
1679:8559603
1615:2525685
1430:Reuters
1151:7920030
1100:7551957
1077:Viruses
957:8402766
934:Viruses
793:2570917
683:History
649:vaccine
505:vectors
227:buffalo
163:Genus:
139:Order:
127:Class:
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653:vector
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615:Europe
611:Africa
552:adult
378:breeds
325:Major
318:, and
253:midges
237:, and
215:cattle
2309:40051
2296:91520
2278:IRMNG
2113:(PDF)
1743:. In
1519:[
1495:S2CID
1199:S2CID
1008:S2CID
598:range
439:lipid
408:virus
327:signs
274:Signs
223:goats
211:sheep
203:viral
193:is a
89:Realm
82:Virus
2304:NCBI
2265:GBIF
2244:M7DR
2049:PMID
1988:2022
1958:PMID
1917:ISSN
1885:ISBN
1840:PMID
1791:PMID
1723:PMID
1684:PMID
1620:PMID
1487:PMID
1259:PMID
1191:PMID
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1000:PMID
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798:PMID
609:and
607:Asia
569:and
525:Cheb
511:and
368:The
231:deer
219:yaks
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1950:doi
1946:102
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316:elk
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