Infection - Knowledge

2410:. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the 2756: 1502:. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus. 2836: 1203: 1734: 1526:(PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, 2221:) of those affected. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use. Infectious diseases are commonly transmitted from person to person through direct contact. The types of contact are through person to person and droplet spread. Indirect contact such as airborne transmission, contaminated objects, food and drinking water, animal person contact, animal reservoirs, insect bites, and environmental reservoirs are another way infectious diseases are transmitted. 1725:. An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally, the expression of symptoms is often atypical, making a clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A rapid, sensitive, specific, and untargeted test for all known human pathogens that detects the presence of the organism's DNA rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable. 1515: 2185:, or the study and analysis of who, why and where disease occurs, and what determines whether various populations have a disease, is another important tool used to understand infectious disease. Epidemiologists may determine differences among groups within a population, such as whether certain age groups have a greater or lesser rate of infection; whether groups living in different neighborhoods are more likely to be infected; and by other factors, such as gender and race. Researchers also may assess whether a disease 633: 3956: 1783:. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large. 3355: 12047: 727: 12077: 1242:), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of 3941:

explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygyny may also be due to a lower male: female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.

609: 12087: 1568: 2461: 12067: 2312: 12057: 13999: 13987: 2217:). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called 871: 624:. The chain of events involves several steps – which include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place. 2118:. The second is an iatrogenic infection. This type of infection is one that is transmitted from a health care worker to a patient. A nosocomial infection is also one that occurs in a health care setting. Nosocomial infections are those that are acquired during a hospital stay. Lastly, a community-acquired infection is one in which the infection is acquired from a whole community. 66: 802:'s "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88). 3932:

transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher

798:. Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the 3976:, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur 2399:) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an 1952:(the severity of the disease they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect humans, however, many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from the environment or that infect non-human hosts. 665:, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids. 2710:

show that people dramatically differ in their susceptibility to infection. This may be because of general health, age, or their immune status, e.g. when they have been infected previously. However, it also has become clear that there are genetic factor which determine susceptibility to infection. For

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and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depend upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However, a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself

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Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not

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The classic symptoms of a bacterial infection are localized redness, heat, swelling and pain. One of the hallmarks of a bacterial infection is local pain, pain that is in a specific part of the body. For example, if a cut occurs and is infected with bacteria, pain occurs at the site of the infection.

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virus, for example, incapacitate those infected extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, those affected by this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the

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methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This

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Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those with compromised or weakened immune systems have an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have

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theorized: "Leprosy, fever, consumption, diseases of the eye, and other infectious diseases spread from one person to another by sexual union, physical contact, eating together, sleeping together, sitting together, and the use of same clothes, garlands and pastes." This book has been dated to about

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for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s,

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sequencing-based diagnostic tests are currently being developed for clinical use and show promise as a sensitive, specific, and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test is similar to current PCR tests; however, an untargeted whole genome amplification is used

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Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost-effective automated

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and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by

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Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some

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The organism that is the target of an infecting action of a specific infectious agent is called the host. The host harbouring an agent that is in a mature or sexually active stage phase is called the definitive host. The intermediate host comes in contact during the larvae stage. A host can be

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when given as prevention rather as treatment of infection. However, long term use of antibiotics leads to resistance of bacteria. While humans do not become immune to antibiotics, the bacteria does. Thus, avoiding using antibiotics longer than necessary helps preventing bacteria from forming

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Several studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen

3567:. Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended "passengers", that can spread diseases to faraway destinations. While with international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a disease can carry it to distant lands, or home to their families, before their first symptoms appear. 3940:

which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative

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are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other

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exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were affected by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another

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is the concept that healthcare providers should treat an infection with an antimicrobial that specifically works well for the target pathogen for the shortest amount of time and to only treat when there is a known or highly suspected pathogen that will respond to the medication.

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is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.

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Given the wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminthic pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illnesses, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of

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viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.

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The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called

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An English translation of the Sushruta samhita, based on original Sanskrit text. Edited and published by Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna. With a full and comprehensive introd., translation of different readings, notes, comparative views, index, glossary and

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Many infectious organisms are identified without culture and microscopy. This is especially true for viruses, which cannot grow in culture. For some suspected pathogens, doctors may conduct tests that examine a patient's blood or other body fluids for

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attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as

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anything living and can attain to asexual and sexual reproduction. The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1

702:. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most 565:

In general, viral infections are systemic. This means they involve many different parts of the body or more than one body system at the same time; i.e. a runny nose, sinus congestion, cough, body aches etc. They can be local at times as in viral

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killed an estimated 60 million Europeans during the 18th century (approximately 400,000 per year). Up to 30% of those infected, including 80% of the children under 5 years of age, died from the disease, and one-third of the survivors went

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Ge D, Fellay J, Thompson AJ, Simon JS, Shianna KV, Urban TJ, Heinzen EL, Qiu P, Bertelsen AH, Muir AJ, Sulkowski M, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB (2009). "Genetic variation in IL28B predicts hepatitis C treatment-induced viral clearance".

1315:. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound 1491:, that is retrieved from a patient's throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require 3340:. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world. 918:, wherein foodstuffs or water become contaminated (by people not washing their hands before preparing food, or untreated sewage being released into a drinking water supply) and the people who eat and drink them become infected. Common 896:

For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes:

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As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. Distinguishing the two is important, since viral infections cannot be cured by

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to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include

2592:, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in 1762:

as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific

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did important work demonstrating the contagiousness of typhoid and cholera through contaminated water. Both are credited with decreasing epidemics of cholera in their towns by implementing measures to prevent contamination of water.

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is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the

1754:, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of 1268:

can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in

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to the areas of Central and South America by European explorers during the 15th and 16th centuries caused pandemics among the native inhabitants. Between 1518 and 1568 disease pandemics are said to have caused the population of

3553:. As countries make use of their rain forests, by building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring previously unknown microorganisms. 2082:(the root cause) is a secondary infection. Primary pathogens often cause primary infection and often cause secondary infection. Usually, opportunistic infections are viewed as secondary infections (because immunodeficiency or 2138:

be identifiable only in patients who have the disease, and not in healthy controls, and second, that patients who contract the infectious agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that

3731:(1313–1374) hypothesised that infectious diseases were caused by "minute bodies" and described how they can be transmitted through garments, vessels and earrings. Ideas of contagion became more popular in Europe during the 1246:: the medium, in this case, being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". 5955:

Van den Bruel A, Haj-Hassan T, Thompson M, Buntinx F, Mant D (March 2010). "Diagnostic value of clinical features at presentation to identify serious infection in children in developed countries: a systematic review".

2598:, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from 2376:

One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include

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for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an

1234:, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a 9121: 9102: 7442:

Thomas DL, Thio CL, Martin MP, Qi Y, Ge D, O'Huigin C, Kidd J, Kidd K, Khakoo SI, Alexander G, Goedert JJ, Kirk GD, Donfield SM, Rosen HR, Tobler LH, Busch MP, McHutchison JG, Goldstein DB, Carrington M (2009).

3560:. The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries tends to concentrate large numbers of people into crowded areas with poor sanitation. These conditions foster transmission of contagious diseases. 1083:

is complex; with studies have shown that there were no clear relationship between the two. There is still a small number of evidence that partially suggests a link between virulence and transmissibility.

4966: 1238:, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its 1367:

allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the

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is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Many pathogenic

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Immune resistance to an infectious disease requires a critical level of either antigen-specific antibodies and/or T cells when the host encounters the pathogen. Some individuals develop natural

2335:, wearing gloves, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important. 1166:

The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is likely to be

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origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with

794:, and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly 5654:

Mordecai EA, Cohen JM, Evans MV, Gudapati P, Johnson LR, Lippi CA, Miazgowicz K, Murdock CC, Rohr JR, Ryan SJ, Savage V, Shocket MS, Stewart Ibarra A, Thomas MB, Weikel DP (27 April 2017).

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of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over five years. The plague reduced the old world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.

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Horneck G., Eschweiler, U., Reitz, G., Wehner, J., Willimek, R., Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I".

4370:"Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study" 2715:

infections may be asymptomatic, suggesting that many people are naturally protected from disease. Large genetic studies have defined risk factors for severe SARS-CoV-2 infections, and

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Infection with most pathogens does not result in death of the host and the offending organism is ultimately cleared after the symptoms of the disease have waned. This process requires

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Infectious disease is the subspecialty of internal medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of communicable diseases of all types, in all organs, and in all ages of patients.

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Hosainzadegan H, Khalilov R, Gholizadeh P (February 2020). "The necessity to revise Koch's postulates and its application to infectious and non-infectious diseases: a mini-review".

1323:. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with 1194:

increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C.

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Klunk J, Vilgalys TP, Demeure CE, Cheng X, Shiratori M, Madej J, Beau R, Elli D, Patino MI, Redfern R, DeWitte SN, Gamble JA, Boldsen JL, Carmichael A, Varlik N (November 2022).

3706:, gave warnings about how contagion can contaminate water, food, and garments, and could spread through the water supply, and may have implied contagion to be unseen particles. 3539:. The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas force animals to live in dense populations, creating opportunities for microbes to mutate and emerge. 856:

Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year. Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries.

13675: 2744:. People who inherited two copies of a complete variant of the gene were twice as likely to have survived the plague as those who inherited two copies of a truncated variant. 2723:(IFN). Autoantibodies against type I IFNs were found in up to 13.7% of patients with life-threatening COVID-19, indicating that a complex interaction between genetics and the 912:. If an infected person coughs or sneezes on another person the microorganisms, suspended in warm, moist droplets, may enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye surfaces. 2150:

However, Koch's postulates cannot usually be tested in modern practice for ethical reasons. Proving them would require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a

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from 659 patients with severe COVID-19 revealed genetic variants that appear to be associated with life-threatening disease. One gene identified in these studies is type I

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Susceptibility also determined the epidemiology of infection, given that different populations have different genetic and environmental conditions that affect infections.

7047:"The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures including hand-washing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings" 5419: 4417: 2552:

which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.

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until the incubation period has passed and the disease manifests itself or the person remains healthy. Groups may undergo quarantine, or in the case of communities, a

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Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as

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remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a

1151:) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone 11064: 9347: 1930:

in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians, therefore, classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses – either as

8961: 7097: 2201:, which is a global epidemic. If the cause of the infectious disease is unknown, epidemiology can be used to assist with tracking down the sources of infection. 4974: 3936:

and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with

468:, can also cause human disease, which conceptually are similar to infections, but invasion of a human or animal body by these macroparasites is usually termed 10231: 8354:

Peter Daszak, Andrew A. Cunningham, Alex D. Hyatt (27 January 2000). "Emerging Infectious Diseases of Wildlife – Threats to Biodiversity and Human Health".

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Hotez PJ, Bundy DA, Beegle K, Brooker S, Drake L, de Silva N, Montresor A, Engels D, Jukes M (2006), Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G (eds.),

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together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an

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is more likely to be diagnosed as bacterial if the pain occurs in only one ear. A cut that produces pus and milky-colored liquid is most likely infected.

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colonization refers to non-replicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All

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and attempting to blend it with his own early contagion theory. He mentioned that people can transmit disease to others by breath, noted contagion with

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can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (

719:, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding 13575: 7832: 2179:. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. 3867:(lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as 3320:. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include 3546:. The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases. 2054:). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host. 6093:"Trypanosoma cruzi, etiological agent of Chagas disease, is virulent to its triatomine vector Rhodnius prolixus in a temperature-dependent manner" 4347: 1710:

genomes are sequenced and aligned to the taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to

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of some agents although they have had little or no contact with the agent, these natural antibodies confer specific protection to adults and are

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Mideo N, Alizon S, Day T (September 2008). "Linking within- and between-host dynamics in the evolutionary epidemiology of infectious diseases".

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Torgerson PR, Devleesschauwer B, Praet N, Speybroeck N, Willingham AL, Kasuga F, Rokni MB, Zhou XN, Fèvre EM, Sripa B, Gargouri N (2015-12-03).

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Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another.

12612: 6733: 6026:"Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor-2α promotes the extracellular survival of obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii" 4583: 1554:. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria. 6177:"Single Viruses on the Fluorescence Microscope: Imaging Molecular Mobility, Interactions and Structure Sheds New Light on Viral Replication" 2327:

was introduced in medicine and surgery in the late 19th century and greatly reduced the incidence of infections caused by surgery. Frequent

12763: 12758: 11057: 10223: 9340: 9219: 8267: 4177: 1550:). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent 8186: 8074: 5258:"World Health Organization Estimates of the Global and Regional Disease Burden of 11 Foodborne Parasitic Diseases, 2010: A Data Synthesis" 1454:

from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither

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stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups

4251: 11576: 7881: 2645:) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied 3669:, and discussed the transmission of disease through water and dirt. The concept of invisible contagion was later discussed by several 1495:. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive. 11917: 4318: 2102:, and community-acquired infection. A mixed infection is an infection that is caused by two or more pathogens. An example of this is 5370: 13682: 7804: 783: 2154:

produced as a pure culture. Conversely, even clearly infectious diseases do not always meet the infectious criteria; for example,

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Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic

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eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent.

13155: 11516: 11074: 11050: 9333: 8010: 6719: 4022: 2755: 2544:. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for 1925:, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few 1462:, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic., of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein 233: 94: 40: 12944: 6767: 6711: 2602:

demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus.

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infections, symptoms take longer to develop than in acute infections but arise more quickly than those of chronic infections. A

1387:, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinomycetota genera 12773: 11251: 11004: 10991: 9605: 9361: 5572:"Spatial and temporal dynamics of epidemics of the rust fungus Uromyces valerianae on populations of its host Valeriana salina" 5411: 4421: 4192: 3840: 3670: 3457:

interactions. Diseases can emerge when existing parasites become pathogenic or when new pathogenic parasites enter a new host.

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killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe; by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by TB.

1948:

Primary pathogens cause disease as a result of their presence or activity within the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic

5549: 4699: 13626: 13554: 10276: 8297: 7905: 7289: 7167: 7142: 6689: 6643: 6500: 6159: 6008: 5328: 4624: 9618: 7557: 6466: 4453: 1481:

binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "

13160: 11816: 10793: 10251: 7190: 4491: 4026: 1879:) when they mean that some of the pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present. 8251: 4081:

in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence". More recently, in 2017,

3653:(1025), which later became the most authoritative medical textbook in Europe up until the 16th century. In Book IV of the 2965:. The following table lists the top infectious disease by number of deaths in 2002. 1993 data is included for comparison. 13192: 12949: 12875: 12728: 12123: 9930: 8867: 6657: 5342: 4653: 1256:

In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as

12555: 8951: 4808: 1632: 1299:

bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of

13602: 12914: 12547: 12434: 11952: 11294: 10996: 8620: 8589: 4683: 4167: 4147: 3796: 17: 10000: 4763: 4519: 1604: 1277:

is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent,

13014: 10426: 10421: 8159: 7105: 6753: 5726: 5144: 5098: 4794: 3025: 1651: 1112:

epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified.

1027: 10031: 5394: 734:

The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include:

13643: 13581: 12556: 12402: 10965: 10505: 9912: 9528: 9212: 4058: 3703: 2611: 1006: 842: 815:

can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host.

7319: 6350:"Erythrocyte Binding Preference of Human Pandemic Influenza Virus A and Its Effect on Antibody Response Detection" 3366:

With their potential for unpredictable and explosive impacts, infectious diseases have been major actors in human

13202: 13170: 13165: 12999: 11204: 10099: 5227: 4162: 3978: 1669:, a severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed,despite extensive testing using the standard of care ( 1611: 5903:"Review: Chlamydia trachonmatis and Genital Mycoplasmias: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health" 2954:

An estimated 1,680 million people died of infectious diseases in the 20th century and about 10 million in 2010.

525:. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host. 493:

of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as

13260: 12870: 12070: 11942: 11376: 10840: 10438: 10157: 10135: 9566: 7957: 7852: 5656:"Detecting the impact of temperature on transmission of Zika, dengue, and chikungunya using mechanistic models" 3511:. Under disease invasion, when a parasite invades a new host species, it may become pathogenic in the new host. 2835: 1711: 1589: 965: 833:. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with 8984: 6467:"Metagenomic Next Generation Sequencing: How Does It Work and Is It Coming to Your Clinical Microbiology Lab?" 4937: 3294:

Note: Other causes of death include maternal and perinatal conditions (5.2%), nutritional deficiencies (0.9%),

2406:

Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of

13058: 12768: 10808: 9506: 2839: 2585: 2581: 2016: 1485:" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, 846: 706:

organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as

44: 8983:

Dose K, Bieger-Dose A, Dillmann R, Gill M, Kerz O, Klein A, Meinert H, Nawroth T, Risi S, Stridde C (1995).

14019: 13895: 11922: 10835: 9988: 9751: 9466: 5052:

Reddy M, Gill SS, Wu W, et al. (Feb 2012). "Does this patient have an infection of a chronic wound?".

4217: 2392: 1618: 9660: 7829: 5442: 4997:"Staphylococcus aureus Infections: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management" 974:, diseases that are transmitted primarily by oral means may be caught through direct oral contact such as 11566: 10877: 10748: 10684: 10652: 10600: 9897: 9879: 9205: 9186:

Information concerning vaccine research clinical trials for Emerging and re-Emerging Infectious Diseases.

6348:

Makkoch J, Prachayangprecha S, Payungporn S, Chieochansin T, Songserm T, Amonsin A, Poovorawan Y (2012).

4733: 4187: 4172: 4142: 4127: 4070: 3488: 2433: 2251: 2099: 1687: 1428: 654: 3627:

speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air. In the

13977: 13890: 13180: 12622: 12605: 11546: 10433: 9846: 9586: 8612: 8409: 8202:

Barquet N (15 October 1997). "Smallpox: The Triumph over the Most Terrible of the Ministers of Death".

4339: 4132: 3763:

proved beyond doubt that certain diseases are caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for

1683: 1679: 1585: 1527: 257: 33: 8808:

Nettle D (2009). "Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity: a review of recent findings".

5787:

Weaver JS, Omar IM, Mar WA, Klauser AS, Winegar BA, Mlady GW, McCurdy WE, Taljanovic MS (2022-03-05).

1718:

and allow for the optimization of treatment using the most effective drugs for a patient's infection.

1600: 675:

are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a

228:. Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths). The branch of 13936: 13230: 11975: 11261: 10937: 10927: 10622: 10558: 10281: 10246: 10049: 10026: 9812: 9625: 9183: 8695:

Beretta M (2003). "The revival of Lucretian atomism and contagious diseases during the renaissance".

8397: 8071: 7800: 4182: 3524: 3359: 2958: 2694: 1715: 1523: 1156: 8453:"The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the Greeks to the Renaissance" 7269: 7046: 6893:"The history of tuberculosis: from the first historical records to the isolation of Koch's bacillus" 1202: 501:, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin 13926: 13849: 13185: 13150: 13145: 13140: 11767: 11689: 11684: 11604: 11364: 11224: 11133: 10755: 10617: 10492: 10346: 9461: 9451: 9136: 8862: 8215: 3640: 2683: 2437: 2271: 1992: 1703: 1695: 1368: 6730: 4575: 2734:

gene, encoding endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 2, seem to increase the susceptibility to the

13668: 13631: 13564: 13545: 13341: 13313: 13275: 13270: 13250: 12778: 12509: 12116: 11747: 11721: 11138: 11128: 10942: 10860: 10726: 10256: 10054: 9761: 9699: 9533: 9501: 4212: 4157: 2690: 2241: 2169: 2071: 2011:). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of 1987: 1975: 1961: 1936: 1733: 1670: 1578: 1343: 1283:

in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case,

1219: 865: 650: 9613: 8271: 8179: 1990:, and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in 1849:

any presence of a particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a

13867: 13844: 13813: 13612: 13541: 12540: 11339: 11287: 10529: 10314: 10064: 9937: 9543: 9400: 9390: 9190: 4207: 4041: 4009:. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the 3816: 3577: 2545: 2190: 1895:

infection, symptoms usually develop gradually over weeks or months and are slow to resolve. In

876: 672: 198: 8094: 1857:

infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some

819:

can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example,

14024: 13790: 13607: 13441: 13436: 12892: 12838: 12748: 12297: 12265: 11990: 11876: 11849: 11822: 11774: 11728: 11423: 10850: 10482: 10351: 9859: 9766: 9685: 8575: 7874: 7213:"The foot-and-mouth epidemic in Great Britain: pattern of spread and impact of interventions" 4243: 4197: 3751: 3740: 3649: 3520: 3492: 2658: 2630: 2418: 2256: 2095: 1966:

Opportunistic pathogens can cause an infectious disease in a host with depressed resistance (

1812: 1804:, whereas an infection that is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called 1780: 1742: 1459: 1444: 1288: 1054: 940: 715: 275: 263: 217: 9630: 6490: 369:, a group of organisms causing infection of skin and other superficial structures in humans. 13931: 13877: 13490: 13431: 13222: 12865: 12743: 12694: 12661: 12595: 12467: 12462: 12419: 12369: 12260: 12239: 12010: 11970: 11837: 11651: 11646: 11626: 11561: 11413: 11256: 11194: 10932: 10825: 10771: 10699: 10689: 10381: 10236: 10109: 9716: 9325: 9049: 8999: 8904: 8363: 7748: 7456: 7400: 7224: 6037: 5583: 4122: 3922:

The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated

3836: 3772: 3747:

by being the first to observe microorganisms, allowing for easy visualization of bacteria.

3699: 3688: 2679: 2622: 2564: 2537: 2436:

may be imposed to prevent infection from spreading beyond the community, or in the case of

2407: 2127: 2108: 1407:

Biochemical tests used in the identification of infectious agents include the detection of

1258: 1040: 919: 571: 522: 190: 7578:

O'Brien DJ, Gould IM (August 2013). "Maximizing the impact of antimicrobial stewardship".

4272: 2540:

of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by

2213:

when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g.,

1534:

of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.

640:; there is pus (yellow) and resultant inflammation (redness and swelling around the nail). 8: 13959: 13900: 13831: 13764: 13413: 13379: 13265: 13088: 13031: 13026: 12977: 12808: 12676: 12648: 12600: 12424: 12392: 12234: 12202: 12090: 12032: 12015: 11674: 11391: 11123: 11118: 11093: 11019: 11009: 10975: 10580: 10018: 9854: 9665: 9254: 9125: 5362: 4222: 4202: 4112: 3736: 3583: 3450: 3382: 2654: 2381:, distance traveled by those affected, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of 2063: 1979: 1904: 1866: 1825: 1771:

or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the

1320: 676: 595: 555: 252: 221: 205: 174: 104: 74: 13083: 12828: 9130: 9053: 9003: 8908: 8772: 8558: 8540: 8367: 7752: 7460: 7404: 7228: 7003: 6993: 6976: 6041: 5587: 2042:, or as a result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with 1222:

to isolate a pathogen from the appropriate clinical specimen. In a microbial culture, a

578:

Bacterial throat pain is often characterized by more pain on one side of the throat. An

13746: 13446: 13280: 13021: 12987: 12972: 12848: 12833: 12818: 12738: 12656: 12452: 12444: 12429: 12397: 12377: 12285: 12109: 11980: 11937: 11927: 11716: 11669: 11636: 11631: 11381: 11359: 11103: 11098: 11088: 10743: 10738: 10647: 10627: 10261: 10104: 10069: 9923: 9889: 9439: 9307: 8927: 8890: 8793: 8748: 8723: 8672: 8637: 8485: 8452: 8339: 8314: 8227: 8119: 8006: 7777: 7736: 7717: 7655: 7622: 7603: 7526: 7501: 7477: 7444: 7424: 7367: 7342: 7281: 7250: 7071: 7016: 6957: 6909: 6892: 6868: 6843: 6819: 6792: 6607: 6574: 6550: 6517: 6442: 6409: 6382: 6349: 6325: 6292: 6211: 6176: 6127: 6092: 6068: 6025: 5981: 5929: 5902: 5878: 5845: 5821: 5788: 5737: 5718: 5706: 5682: 5655: 5601: 5541: 5494: 5292: 5257: 5204: 5171: 5155: 5136: 5124: 5029: 4996: 4914: 4889: 4865: 4830: 4557: 4394: 4369: 4310: 4273:"Trends in Epidemiology and Microbiology of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock in Children" 4006: 3820: 3503:

that had been confined to a remote habitat has a wider distribution and possibly a new

2533: 2529:, and has the potential to be more devastating than direct damage caused by a microbe. 2484: 2266: 2210: 2156: 2079: 2039: 1887:

Different terms are used to describe how and where infections present over time. In an

1721:

Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is

1691: 1625: 1264: 1108: 1104: 821: 684: 590: 490: 427: 9675: 9197: 6743: 6708: 6268: 6235: 5969: 4385: 3519:

human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia, and spread of

2471:. Over the course of her career as a cook, she infected 53 people, three of whom died. 1891:

infection, symptoms develop rapidly; its course can either be rapid or protracted. In

1338:(fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific 13818: 13736: 13705: 13569: 13536: 13369: 13210: 13100: 12994: 12855: 12680: 12643: 12533: 12489: 12076: 12050: 11932: 11902: 11881: 11844: 11827: 11742: 11706: 11696: 11591: 11511: 11455: 11418: 11403: 11344: 11311: 11280: 11230: 11154: 11108: 11029: 10970: 10830: 10783: 10585: 10087: 9756: 9746: 9736: 9538: 9521: 9385: 9278: 9147: 9065: 9061: 9015: 9011: 8932: 8825: 8753: 8704: 8677: 8659: 8616: 8585: 8521: 8490: 8472: 8379: 8293: 8219: 8054: 7782: 7764: 7721: 7709: 7701: 7660: 7642: 7595: 7531: 7482: 7416: 7372: 7285: 7242: 7163: 7138: 7021: 7008: 6961: 6949: 6914: 6873: 6824: 6759: 6749: 6685: 6649: 6639: 6612: 6594: 6555: 6537: 6496: 6447: 6429: 6387: 6369: 6330: 6312: 6273: 6255: 6251: 6216: 6198: 6155: 6132: 6114: 6073: 6055: 6004: 5973: 5934: 5883: 5865: 5826: 5808: 5722: 5707:"Principles of Infectious Diseases: Transmission, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control" 5687: 5636: 5596: 5571: 5533: 5486: 5334: 5324: 5297: 5279: 5209: 5191: 5140: 5069: 5034: 5016: 4919: 4870: 4852: 4800: 4790: 4679: 4620: 4483: 4399: 4314: 4302: 4294: 4152: 4137: 4107: 4078: 3973: 3890: 3852: 3800: 3674: 3378:) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area. For example: 3349: 2720: 2500: 2441: 2349: 2306: 2024: 2008: 1722: 1279: 1079: 985: 787: 768: 398: 386: 112: 89: 13515: 8952:"Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space" 8509: 8435: 8231: 7254: 5985: 5605: 5545: 5498: 4367: 837:

develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The

616:

There is a general chain of events that applies to infections, sometimes called the

13862: 13495: 13480: 13336: 13197: 13110: 12409: 12275: 12161: 12060: 11752: 11737: 11614: 11489: 11445: 11184: 11159: 11113: 11024: 10960: 10947: 10776: 10765: 10657: 10637: 10472: 10386: 10361: 10092: 10039: 9978: 9869: 9516: 9444: 9057: 9007: 8922: 8912: 8817: 8788: 8780: 8743: 8735: 8667: 8651: 8480: 8464: 8405: 8371: 8334: 8326: 8211: 8109: 8044: 7952: 7930: 7898: 7772: 7756: 7691: 7650: 7634: 7607: 7587: 7521: 7513: 7472: 7464: 7428: 7408: 7362: 7354: 7277: 7232: 7066: 7058: 6998: 6988: 6941: 6904: 6863: 6855: 6814: 6804: 6602: 6586: 6545: 6529: 6437: 6421: 6377: 6361: 6320: 6304: 6263: 6247: 6206: 6188: 6122: 6104: 6063: 6045: 5965: 5924: 5914: 5873: 5857: 5816: 5800: 5732: 5714: 5677: 5667: 5628: 5591: 5525: 5476: 5287: 5269: 5199: 5183: 5150: 5132: 5061: 5024: 5008: 4909: 4901: 4860: 4842: 4703: 4549: 4389: 4381: 4284: 3989: 3909: 3905: 3628: 3609: 3528: 3496: 3473: 3436:) killed 25–50 million people (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion). Today 3272: 2735: 2594: 2521:

The immune system response to a microorganism often causes symptoms such as a high

2135: 2114: 1983: 1967: 1699: 1316: 1239: 1235: 1044: 946: 909: 350: 344: 334: 269: 135: 13036: 8846:, edited by Tanke, D. H., and Carpenter, K., Indiana University Press, pp. 337–63. 5513: 4553: 13991: 13777: 13751: 13500: 13298: 13105: 13063: 12954: 12934: 12904: 12887: 12813: 12803: 12733: 12672: 12668: 12617: 12477: 12457: 12080: 12025: 11886: 11871: 11854: 11794: 11789: 11733: 11711: 11408: 11354: 11334: 11042: 10892: 10887: 10731: 10679: 10487: 10464: 10309: 10286: 9670: 9635: 9511: 9456: 9141: 8917: 8606: 8375: 8255: 8190: 7993: 7989: 7836: 7591: 7549: 6977:"Differentiating Epidemic from Endemic or Sporadic Infectious Disease Occurrence" 6737: 6726: 6715: 6109: 5672: 5446: 5398: 5274: 4445: 3481: 3415:

epidemic occurred between 1556 and 1560, with an estimated mortality rate of 20%.

3073: 2740: 2000: 1737:

A temporary drive-in testing site for COVID-19 set up with tents in a parking lot

1467: 1415:

products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment

1116: 955: 924: 885: 691: 658: 366: 288: 9640: 8784: 8244: 7184: 14003: 13872: 13637: 13364: 13255: 13215: 13095: 12921: 12860: 12499: 12494: 12414: 11912: 11866: 11679: 11609: 11428: 10922: 10855: 10798: 10570: 10459: 10451: 10376: 10329: 10324: 10271: 9995: 9776: 9771: 9731: 9680: 9645: 9483: 9419: 9152: 8821: 8739: 7985: 7969: 7760: 7131: 7062: 6945: 6859: 6740:(1996). Baron, Samuel MD. The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 6590: 6030:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

5632: 5317:"Helminth Infections: Soil-transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis" 4755: 4475: 4046: 4030: 3950: 3933: 3876: 3812: 3713: 3587: 3504: 3469: 2671: 2642: 2626: 2560: 2411: 2338: 2246: 2012: 1922: 1514: 1384: 1364: 1330:

techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with

1274: 1191: 1070: 881: 826: 764: 708: 695: 567: 443: 412: 225: 213: 143: 8655: 8468: 6518:"Herpesviruses: latency and reactivation – viral strategies and host response" 6425: 6365: 5316: 4847: 4784: 4645: 14013: 13964: 13520: 13505: 13475: 13470: 13325: 13078: 13073: 12982: 12627: 12382: 12195: 11995: 11784: 11779: 11641: 11581: 11484: 11174: 11164: 10803: 10760: 10719: 10612: 10595: 10553: 10266: 9817: 9786: 9407: 9266: 8663: 8476: 8353: 8078: 7981: 7768: 7705: 7646: 7358: 6631: 6598: 6541: 6433: 6373: 6347: 6316: 6259: 6202: 6118: 6059: 5869: 5812: 5391: 5283: 5195: 5020: 4856: 4298: 4090: 4036: 4001: 3960: 3776: 3760: 3728: 3662: 3325: 2759:

Deaths due to infectious and parasitic diseases per million persons in 2012:

2724: 2667: 2638: 2634: 2549: 2476: 2468: 2302: 2020: 1970:) or if they have unusual access to the inside of the body (for example, via 1834: 1829: 1817: 1492: 1463: 1455: 1389: 1355: 1284: 1223: 1211: 1207: 1180: 889: 816: 756: 720: 646: 579: 550: 372: 182: 163: 108: 12882: 9653: 9115: 9111: 7696: 7679: 7237: 7212: 6050: 5804: 4289: 3987:. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include 978:, or by indirect contact such as by sharing a drinking glass or a cigarette. 632: 13946: 13941: 13913: 13741: 13718: 13597: 13240: 13135: 13068: 13009: 12689: 12580: 12560: 12484: 12314: 12290: 12280: 12185: 12173: 12166: 12000: 11985: 11811: 11536: 11386: 11371: 11317: 11014: 10952: 10714: 10694: 10642: 10590: 10541: 10341: 10291: 9902: 9473: 9312: 9290: 9249: 9232: 9069: 9039: 9019: 8936: 8829: 8757: 8708: 8681: 8383: 8330: 8058: 7973: 7786: 7713: 7664: 7623:"Prevalence of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection : A Narrative Review" 7599: 7535: 7486: 7445:"Genetic variation in IL28B and spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus" 7420: 7376: 7246: 7012: 6953: 6918: 6877: 6828: 6763: 6653: 6616: 6559: 6533: 6491:

Kayser, Fritz H, Kurt A Bienz, Johannes Eckert, Rolf M Zinkernagel (2005).

6451: 6391: 6334: 6277: 6220: 6136: 6091:

Elliot SL, Rodrigues Jd, Lorenzo MG, Martins-Filho OA, Guarneri AA (2015).

6077: 5977: 5938: 5887: 5830: 5691: 5640: 5537: 5490: 5338: 5301: 5213: 5087: 5073: 5038: 4923: 4874: 4804: 4511: 4487: 4403: 4306: 3898: 3848: 3844: 3784: 3771:

provided the study of infectious diseases with a scientific basis known as

3755: 3666: 3557: 3550: 3454: 3426: 3313: 3095: 2556: 2526: 2517:

or by T lymphocytes, which will kill a cell parasitized by a microorganism.

2508: 2492: 2440:, into a community. Public health authorities may implement other forms of 2422: 2368: 2358: 2328: 2278: 2234: 2182: 2144: 2140: 2103: 2035: 1971: 1666: 1499: 1482: 1416: 1253:

may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.

637: 517: 439: 377: 361: 315: 194: 8525: 8494: 8223: 8151: 8049: 8032: 5919: 2197:, with a fast arising, and unusually high number of cases in a region; or 1498:

Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as

13800: 13795: 13384: 13374: 13235: 13041: 12929: 12897: 12823: 12685: 12576: 12568: 12472: 12338: 12219: 12214: 12190: 11859: 11804: 11701: 11556: 11531: 11349: 11218: 11212: 11169: 10907: 10709: 10632: 10607: 10356: 10336: 10241: 10201: 10125: 9496: 9491: 9412: 9395: 8842:

Molnar, R. E., 2001, "Theropod paleopathology: a literature survey": In:

8563:. Gerstein – University of Toronto. Oxford : At the Clarendon Press. 6809: 5861: 5065: 5012: 4368:

GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (17 December 2014).

4117: 4066: 4054: 3768: 3732: 3710: 3543: 3461: 3433: 3389: 3250: 2650: 2577: 2541: 2480: 2464: 2429: 2345: 2290: 2131: 2051: 1916: 1764: 1674: 1518:

Nucleic acid testing conducted using an Abbott Laboratories ID Now device

1487: 1477: 1335: 1324: 1296: 662: 469: 355: 7468: 7412: 5465:"Digest: Little evidence exists for a virulence-transmission trade-off*" 3362:

in 1720 killed 100,000 people in the city and the surrounding provinces.

3354: 2126:

One manner of proving that a given disease is infectious, is to satisfy

1682:

for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by

1231: 1132:

that indicate presence of a specific pathogen that the doctor suspects.

570:

or "pink eye" and herpes. Only a few viral infections are painful, like

13660: 13510: 13485: 13175: 13125: 12504: 12347: 12343: 12319: 12248: 12229: 11947: 11832: 11799: 11571: 11521: 11506: 11501: 11494: 11479: 11469: 11179: 10845: 10820: 10788: 10565: 10546: 10536: 10524: 10371: 9983: 9955: 9781: 9741: 8123: 7977: 7517: 7315: 6308: 5514:"Virulence-driven trade-offs in disease transmission: A meta-analysis*" 5512:

Acevedo MA, Dillemuth FP, Flick AJ, Faldyn MJ, Elderd BD (April 2019).

5255: 4753: 4086: 3995: 3916: 3886:

The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup

3872: 3808: 3804: 3780: 3744: 3717: 3612:, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others. In his 3591: 3329: 3206: 2712: 2663: 2657:

antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is

2618: 2364: 2286: 2218: 2161: 1978:

may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as

1850: 1846: 1791: 1776: 1759: 1747: 1551: 1539: 1372: 1334:

based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially

1312: 1247: 1034: 1023: 776: 726: 699: 574:. The pain of viral infections is often described as itchy or burning. 535: 510: 446:

are sometimes termed infestations, but are sometimes called infections.

435: 393: 340: 321: 309: 303: 281: 209: 81: 9094: 8437:

History of the Peloponnesian War, done into English by Richard Crawley

6193: 5954: 5529: 5481: 5464: 5235: 4561: 2842:

for infectious and parasitic diseases per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:

2066:

of an individual's current health problem, a secondary infection is a

1903:

infection is an initial site of infection from which organisms travel

13559: 13130: 13003: 12359: 12302: 12224: 12132: 12020: 11762: 11757: 11621: 11599: 11474: 11438: 11189: 10917: 10396: 9429: 9424: 9300: 7942:

Diarrheal diseases are caused by many different organisms, including

7926: 7922: 7805:"Age-standardized DALYs per 100,000 by cause, and Member State, 2004" 7638: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3658: 3564: 3477: 3437: 3412: 3385:, from 541 to 542, killed between 50% and 60% of Europe's population. 3321: 3162: 2675: 2589: 2514:

neutralization of viruses so that these organisms cannot enter cells,

2378: 2282: 2214: 1949: 1858: 1768: 1412: 1408: 1380: 1376: 1250: 1140: 1100: 1097: 1019: 951: 935: 767:

species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally

746: 680: 608: 449: 423: 420: 8114: 5187: 5172:"Immunity and immunopathology to viruses: what decides the outcome?" 4905: 3843:

and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of

2693:

infections the treatment may cause more side-effects than benefits.

1567: 39:"Infectious disease" redirects here. For the medical specialty, see 13401: 13394: 13389: 13359: 13115: 13051: 13046: 12514: 12309: 12270: 12255: 12178: 12156: 11526: 11303: 10900: 10815: 10391: 10366: 10319: 9864: 9434: 9377: 9295: 9261: 9241: 8895: 8581: 7947: 7848: 6934:

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases

6090: 4082: 4074: 4050: 3937: 3868: 3832: 3788: 3644: 3632: 3516: 3508: 3500: 3465: 3449:

In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via

3418: 3396: 3375: 3371: 3228: 2830: 2826: 2707: 2488: 2445: 2400: 2198: 2194: 2186: 2165: 2151: 2004: 1926: 1547: 1436: 1395: 1331: 1327: 1227: 1187: 1144: 1129: 1066: 1058: 989: 739: 703: 431: 416: 245: 229: 170: 139: 8891:"Spaceflight Promotes Biofilm Formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa" 8858:"Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease" 8290:

Zoonoses: Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans

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Bloomfield SF, Aiello AE, Cookson B, O'Boyle C, Larson EL (2007).

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International Journal of Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases

8440:. Robarts - University of Toronto. London Dent. pp. 131–132. 7943: 6638:(4th ed.), University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 4995:

Tong SY, Davis JS, Eichenberger E, Holland TL, Fowler VG (2015).

3955: 3679: 3536: 3367: 3337: 3333: 3317: 3184: 3140: 3118: 2646: 2504: 2460: 2428:

In cases where infection is merely suspected, individuals may be

2324: 2316: 2230: 2067: 2047: 2043: 1996: 1707: 1543: 1538:

benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the

1531: 1451: 1424: 1339: 1311:

Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is

1152: 1125: 1062: 984:, Some diseases that are transmissible by direct contact include 930: 812: 795: 494: 404: 116: 78: 9166: 5999:

Murray PR (2021). "Laboratory Diagnosis of Bacterial Diseases".

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Flint HJ, Scott KP, Duncan SH, Louis P, Forano E (2012-07-01).

6174: 5439: 4094: 3969: 3764: 3405: 3400: 2716: 2495:. Immunity mediated by these two factors may be manifested by: 2332: 2311: 2176: 2083: 2032: 2028: 1443:

are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in

1360: 1270: 1183:

signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.

1167: 1011: 830: 688: 292: 186: 7737:"Evolution of immune genes is associated with the Black Death" 4725: 3507:. Parasites jumping from nonhuman to human hosts are known as 2193:, with a steady level of regular cases occurring in a region; 1115:

Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by

612:

Chain of infection; the chain of events that lead to infection

13418: 13303: 12909: 12843: 10141: 9271: 9177: 7849:"Could Ebola rank among the deadliest communicable diseases?" 6891:

Barberis I, Bragazzi NL, Galluzzo L, Martini M (March 2017).

4673: 3792: 3624: 2963:

International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories

2731: 2522: 2387: 2382: 2260: 1862: 1698:

using large databases of thousands of pathogen and commensal

1440: 1432: 1420: 1243: 1160: 1136: 1015: 1002:, transmission by an inanimate reservoir (food, water, soil). 838: 834: 791: 772: 668: 506: 498: 477: 178: 147: 120: 13998: 12101: 9355: 6175:

Parveen N, Borrenberghs D, Rocha S, Hendrix J (2018-05-10).

4994: 4756:"Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases" 3735:, particularly through the writing of the Italian physician 2499:

a direct effect upon a pathogen, such as antibody-initiated

683:

relationship with the host. An example of the former is the

12718: 11272: 9594: 8982: 6293:"Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut" 5511: 4062: 3894: 3684: 3309: 3051: 2361:, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects. 2353: 2075: 2062:

While a primary infection can practically be viewed as the

1772: 1751: 1093: 993: 975: 870: 849:

invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.

799: 502: 465: 461: 457: 453: 7502:"Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance in the 21st Century" 7182: 5789:"Magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infections" 5653: 4420:. Association of American Medical Colleges. Archived from 694:, and an example of the latter are the various species of 65: 8642: 7799: 7734: 4828: 3305: 3047: 2962: 2396: 1755: 1351: 1148: 297: 8538: 7210: 6630:

Boldogh I, Albrecht T, Porter DD (1996), Baron S (ed.),

6024:

Joyce BR, Queener SF, Wek RC, Sullivan WJ (2010-10-05).

3296:

noncommunicable conditions (58.8%), and injuries (9.1%).

1828:. Some viral infections can also be latent, examples of 9227: 9171: 6023: 5900: 5314: 3608:) was the first person to write, in his account of the 2738:, the disease caused by an infection with the bacteria 2074:

of that root cause. For example, an infection due to a

1820:. An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a 1431:

products is commonly used in bacterial identification.

8287: 6791:

Patil NK, Guo Y, Luan L, Sherwood ER (November 2017).

4540:

Brown PJ (1987). "Microparasites and Macroparasites".

3799:

and near-eradication of these diseases, respectively.

3720:

in the 14th century, the Arab physicians Ibn Khatima (

3515:

Several human activities have led to the emergence of

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Murray PR (2021). "Microscopy and In Vitro Culture".

4754:

National Institutes of Health (US), Study BS (2007),

3476:

to the parasites or the parasites may evolve greater

2467:(a.k.a. Typhoid Mary) was an asymptomatic carrier of 1758:

in specific communities permitted the advancement of

730:

This image depicts the steps of pathogenic infection.

84:

migrating through the mosquito midgut epithelial cell

9084: 7340: 6790: 5786: 2341:

used to prevent transmission of infections include:

1792:

Subclinical versus clinical (latent versus apparent)

1673:) and state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. 7183:Programs NR, Normand J, Vlahov D, Moses LE (1995). 6748:. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 5569: 4829:Negut I, Grumezescu V, Grumezescu AM (2018-09-18). 4789:. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 4270: 4089:and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. 3847:. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by 3440:

kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.

2689:Not all infections require treatment, and for many 1592:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1190:, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a 27:

Invasion of an organism's body by pathogenic agents

11072: 9167:European Center for Disease Prevention and Control 8095:"Infectious Diseases and Human Population History" 7441: 7211:Ferguson NM, Donnelly CA, Anderson RM (May 2001). 7130: 5321:Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries 4646:"NIPA - Bacteria - Bacterial vs. Viral infections" 2588:(brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with 1120:directly identifying an organism by its genotype. 13576:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services 8836: 8433: 8268:"Influenza of 1918 (Spanish Flu) and the US Navy" 7677: 6793:"Targeting Immune Cell Checkpoints during Sepsis" 4938:"Bacterial Pathogenesis at Washington University" 3639:A basic form of contagion theory was proposed by 2281:where infection is the most common cause include 2175:– however the organism can be cultured in rabbit 1065:itself but that transmits infection by conveying 14011: 8033:"The perpetual challenge of infectious diseases" 7577: 7157: 6233: 5704: 5462: 3882:An infectious disease team may be alerted when: 1865:discussion; to get around this it is common for 1824:. An example of a latent bacterial infection is 9172:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 8721: 6786: 6784: 6495:. 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For example, an "uncomplicated" 2372:mutations that aide in antibiotic resistance. 1506:process for diagnosis of infectious disease. 825:releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and 752:the quantity or load of the initial inoculant 516:In certain cases, infectious diseases may be 232:that focuses on infections is referred to as 8092: 8072:"Infectious and Epidemic Disease in History" 7347:Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 7274:Computational Modeling of Infectious Disease 7270:"Modeling the control of infectious disease" 6968: 6925: 6884: 6835: 6781: 6407: 5843: 5412:"Clinical Infectious Disease – Introduction" 4178:Mathematical modelling of infectious disease 3915:The disease has not responded to first line 2417:A general method to prevent transmission of 908:, and the resultant infection can be termed 742:and the access to host regions that it gains 542:Comparison of viral and bacterial infection 244:Infections are caused by infectious agents ( 169:Infections can be caused by a wide range of 142:, their multiplication, and the reaction of 8855: 8249:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 8030: 7133:Six degrees: the science of a connected age 7038: 6797:International Journal of Molecular Sciences 5950: 5948: 5711:International Encyclopedia of Public Health 5051: 2094:Other types of infection consist of mixed, 2089: 800:Journal of the American Medical Association 13683: 13669: 12548: 12534: 12124: 12110: 11577:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility 11295: 11281: 11065: 11051: 9348: 9334: 9220: 9206: 8283: 8281: 7341:Barreto ML, Teixeira MG, Carmo EH (2006). 6897:Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene 5846:"Cost-Effective Respiratory Virus Testing" 5367:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4831:"Treatment Strategies for Infected Wounds" 4610: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4516:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4450:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2536:) may be acquired following a disease, by 1955: 1173: 64: 11918:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery 8926: 8916: 8792: 8747: 8694: 8671: 8484: 8338: 8113: 8088: 8086: 8048: 8024: 7875:"The World Health Report (Annex Table 2)" 7776: 7695: 7654: 7620: 7525: 7476: 7366: 7236: 7070: 7020: 7002: 6992: 6908: 6867: 6818: 6808: 6606: 6549: 6441: 6381: 6324: 6267: 6210: 6192: 6126: 6108: 6067: 6049: 5928: 5918: 5877: 5820: 5736: 5705:Seventer JM, Hochberg NS (October 2016). 5681: 5671: 5595: 5480: 5401:fungusfocus.com – Retrieved on 2010-01-21 5291: 5273: 5203: 5154: 5028: 4913: 4864: 4846: 4393: 4288: 3811:, which Florey and Chain then developed. 3571: 2961:collects information on global deaths by 2511:and killing, as occurs for some bacteria, 2209:Infectious diseases are sometimes called 1999:) or from the environment as a result of 1652:Learn how and when to remove this message 1557: 181:. 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Two methods, the 13664: 12529: 12105: 11276: 11046: 9329: 9201: 9178:Infectious Disease Society of America 8985:"ERA-experiment "space biochemistry"" 8976: 8889:Kim W, et al. (April 29, 2013). 8770: 8573: 8398:"Annals of medical history. v.1 1917" 7119: 7051:American Journal of Infection Control 6974: 6741: 6698: 6675: 6673: 5752: 5750: 5748: 5122: 4539: 3487:Human activity is involved with many 3408:to fall from 20 million to 3 million. 3343: 1767:diagnostic identification, and later 1218:Many diagnostic approaches depend on 528: 484: 480:(although they do not secrete toxins) 12056: 11817:Physical medicine and rehabilitation 10252:Compartmental models in epidemiology 9721: 8604: 6848:The Nursing Clinics of North America 6572: 6398: 4888:Duerkop BA, Hooper LV (2013-07-01). 4678:. 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On April 29, 2013, scientists in 2483:of the pathogen. Specific acquired 771:space, such as in the capsule of a 128: 24: 13603:Eradication of infectious diseases 13360:Androvax (androstenedione albumin) 12435:Fluorescence in situ hybridization 11953:Medical Scientist Training Program 8270:. 20 February 2006. Archived from 8245:Multidrug-Resistant "Tuberculosis" 8007:"WHO | The top 10 causes of death" 7343:"Infectious diseases epidemiology" 7322:from the original on 2 August 2019 7282:10.1016/b978-0-32-395389-4.00015-3 6770:from the original on June 29, 2009 6670: 6410:"Reference genes in real-time PCR" 5745: 5719:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00516-6 5392:Intestinal Parasites and Infection 4168:List of diseases caused by insects 4148:Eradication of infectious diseases 4093:have been observed to survive the 3795:, which would later result in the 3495:enabling a parasite to occupy new 2548:. There is also the phenomenon of 1210:plates growing colonies of common 759:status of the host being colonized 603: 538:whereas bacterial infections can. 389:, which are usually divided into: 189:hosts react to infections with an 25: 14036: 13193:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) 9080: 8722:Moorhead Robert (November 2002). 7189:. National Academies Press (US). 6471:American Society for Microbiology 5621:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 4760:NIH Curriculum Supplement Series 3859:will generally be treated by the 3787:developed effective vaccines for 3647:(known as Avicenna in Europe) in 2610:When infection attacks the body, 2204: 2134:), which require that first, the 1871: 1786: 1080:virulence versus transmissibility 1030:or one acquired during pregnancy. 1010:, directly from the mother to an 497:, loss of appetite, weight loss, 208:used to treat infections include 13997: 13985: 13582:Alternative vaccination schedule 12557:Artificial induction of immunity 12403:Oral and maxillofacial pathology 12085: 12075: 12065: 12055: 12046: 12045: 11001:Economics of Infectious Diseases 9029:from the original on 2022-10-09. 8764: 8724:"William Budd and typhoid fever" 8715: 8688: 8629: 8598: 8567: 8550: 8532: 8501: 8444: 8427: 8390: 8347: 8306: 8260: 7911:from the original on 2022-10-09. 7887:from the original on 2022-10-09. 7621:Oran DP, Topol EJ (2020-09-01). 6718:materials included in the text: 6684:. 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Most of these pathogens cause 649:are particularly susceptible to 12086: 8950:Dvorsky G (13 September 2017). 8608:Law and Piety in Medieval Islam 8577:Encyclopedia of the Black Death 8416:from the original on 2023-11-17 8238: 8195: 8173: 8162:from the original on 2023-03-28 8144: 8133:from the original on 2016-03-03 8065: 8037:New England Journal of Medicine 8013:from the original on 2017-05-30 7999: 7962: 7936: 7915: 7891: 7867: 7841: 7822: 7811:from the original on 2021-08-28 7793: 7728: 7671: 7614: 7571: 7560:from the original on 2021-03-10 7542: 7493: 7435: 7383: 7334: 7298:from the original on 2023-03-05 7261: 7204: 7193:from the original on 2021-03-10 7176: 7151: 7090: 7079:from the original on 2020-06-19 7035:Higurea & Pietrangelo 2016 7029: 6660:from the original on 2020-04-14 6623: 6566: 6509: 6484: 6464: 6458: 6341: 6284: 6227: 6168: 6143: 6084: 6017: 5992: 5837: 5780: 5698: 5647: 5612: 5563: 5552:from the original on 2022-12-04 5505: 5456: 5433: 5422:from the original on 2017-04-20 5404: 5385: 5355: 5345:from the original on 2016-10-10 5308: 5249: 5228:"Chronic Infection Information" 5220: 5163: 5116: 5104:from the original on 2022-10-09 5080: 5045: 4988: 4959: 4948:from the original on 2016-12-03 4930: 4881: 4822: 4811:from the original on 2016-04-25 4776: 4766:from the original on 2023-06-26 4747: 4736:from the original on 2023-11-10 4718: 4692: 4667: 4656:from the original on 2023-11-10 4586:from the original on 2022-05-10 4568: 4522:from the original on 2019-12-25 4494:from the original on 2020-06-19 4476:"Cryptococcus (Cryptococcosis)" 4456:from the original on 2020-04-01 4350:from the original on 2022-01-22 4321:from the original on 2021-04-13 4254:from the original on 2018-07-19 4163:List of causes of death by rate 3979:Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis 3908:is of an uncommon nature (e.g. 3631:, the ancient Indian physician 3614:On the Different Types of Fever 2750: 2315:Washing one's hands, a form of 1577:needs additional citations for 1474:and has no metabolic function. 964:, with the result being called 859: 657:, generally occurs through the 627: 13414:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin) 11943:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine 11377:Oral and maxillofacial surgery 11010:Infectious disease informatics 10841:Transmission-based precautions 8777:Bacterial Infections of Humans 8434:Thucydides, Crawley R (1914). 7958:Intestinal infectious diseases 7276:, Elsevier, pp. 173–215, 6844:"Emerging Infectious Diseases" 5763:Merck Manuals Consumer Version 5088:"Polio: Questions and Answers" 4615:Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. 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McGraw Hill. 4554:10.1525/can.1987.2.1.02a00120 4386:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2 4229: 4045:, a bacterium that can cause 3972:is a subject of interest for 3803:discovered the world's first 3721: 3692: 3623:), the Greco-Roman physician 3617: 3602: 3595: 2840:Disability-adjusted life year 2605: 2586:Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b 2582:Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a 2296: 2017:chronic granulomatous disease 1907:to another area of the body. 1306: 1230:are easily grown on nutrient 687:species, which colonizes the 353:); filamentous fungi such as 166:resulting from an infection. 13896:Obstetric labor complication 11923:Bachelor of Medical Sciences 11690:Neurosurgical anesthesiology 11302: 9989:Aerosol-generating procedure 9767:Silent/Subclinical infection 9467:Multidrug-resistant bacteria 9062:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N 9012:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R 8918:10.1371/journal.pone.0062437 8638:"How Islam changed medicine" 8376:10.1126/science.287.5452.443 8031:Fauci AS, Morens DM (2012). 7592:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283631046 6575:"Colonization and infection" 6522:Journal of Oral Microbiology 6110:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003646 5673:10.1371/journal.pntd.0005568 5275:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001920 4617:Sherris Medical Microbiology 4218:Vaccine-preventable diseases 3489:emerging infectious diseases 3026:Lower respiratory infections 2730:Similarly, mutations in the 2393:human immunodeficiency virus 1921:Among the many varieties of 1911:Primary versus opportunistic 1522:Technologies based upon the 1186:In children the presence of 1087: 392:Unicellular organisms (e.g. 7: 10653:Vaccine-preventable disease 10601:Monoclonal antibody therapy 8785:10.1007/978-0-387-09843-2_1 8204:Annals of Internal Medicine 7627:Annals of Internal Medicine 6414:Journal of Applied Genetics 6408:Kozera B, Rapacz M (2013). 5793:Polish Journal of Radiology 4188:Neglected tropical diseases 4173:List of infectious diseases 4143:Hospital-acquired infection 4100: 4071:International Space Station 4005:and a tyrannosaur from the 3819:, the first broad spectrum 3683:("impure substances"). The 3472:can lead to hosts becoming 2702:Susceptibility to infection 2649:. Severe infections of the 2455: 2444:, such as school closings, 2252:Respiratory tract infection 1796:Symptomatic infections are 1746:prior to the appearance of 1688:third-generation sequencing 874:A southern house mosquito ( 343:, including yeasts such as 291:and related agents such as 10: 14041: 13891:Complications of pregnancy 10794:Respiratory source control 8992:Advances in Space Research 8822:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.013 8773:"Epidemiological Concepts" 8740:10.1177/014107680209501115 8613:Cambridge University Press 8510:"Leprosy in ancient India" 7968:Tropical diseases include 7761:10.1038/s41586-022-05349-x 7063:10.1016/j.ajic.2007.07.001 6946:10.1007/s10096-019-03681-1 6860:10.1016/j.cnur.2019.02.006 6707:This section incorporates 6591:10.5173/ceju.2014.01.art19 5633:10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.009 4446:"Types of Fungal Diseases" 4133:Epidemiological transition 4020: 3948: 3661:, outlining the classical 3575: 3482:immunopathological disease 3347: 2824: 2559:antibodies to the surface 2503:-dependent bacteriolysis, 2479:to kill or inactivate the 2452:) to control an epidemic. 2300: 2277:In addition, locations of 1959: 1914: 1832:are any of those from the 1706:genes within pathogen and 1684:next-generation sequencing 1135:Other techniques (such as 863: 807: 749:of the particular organism 738:the route of entry of the 653:. Entrance to the host at 258:Mycobacterium tuberculosis 193:response, often involving 38: 34:Infection (disambiguation) 31: 13955: 13937:Connective tissue disease 13922: 13909: 13886: 13858: 13840: 13827: 13809: 13786: 13773: 13760: 13732: 13714: 13696: 13621: 13590: 13529: 13461: 13352: 13324: 13291: 12965: 12796: 12789: 12708: 12636: 12588: 12443: 12368: 12139: 12041: 11963: 11901: 11662: 11590: 11545: 11454: 11325: 11310: 11262:Social history of viruses 11244: 11203: 11147: 11081: 10984: 10938:Global Health Initiatives 10928:Evolutionary epidemiology 10876: 10668: 10623:Post-exposure prophylaxis 10559:Antimicrobial stewardship 10517: 10504: 10409: 10300: 10282:Multiplicity of infection 10247:Basic reproduction number 10222: 10194: 10180: 10166: 10150: 10118: 10080: 10023:Percutaneous inoculation 10009: 9971: 9964: 9946: 9878: 9845: 9838: 9802: 9795: 9698: 9585: 9507:Host–pathogen interaction 9482: 9376: 9369: 9239: 9088: 8656:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486 8469:10.1017/s0025727300042241 8451:Nutton V (January 1983). 7956:to name a few. See also: 7835:17 September 2021 at the 7801:World Health Organization 7158:Preston, Richard (1995). 7102:science.education.nih.gov 6842:McArthur DB (June 2019). 6426:10.1007/s13353-013-0173-x 6366:10.3343/alm.2012.32.4.276 5176:Nature Reviews Immunology 4848:10.3390/molecules23092392 4702:. Rencare. Archived from 4482:, StatPearls Publishing, 4183:Multiplicity of infection 3968:Evidence of infection in 3698:–1336), while discussing 3535:Encroachment on wildlife 3525:globalization and disease 3360:Great Plague of Marseille 3291: 2959:World Health Organization 2695:Antimicrobial stewardship 2653:are usually treated with 2532:Resistance to infection ( 1716:antimicrobial stewardship 1524:polymerase chain reaction 1342:present on a pathogen. A 1157:spongiform encephalopathy 1077:The relationship between 1051:Vector-borne transmission 847:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease 782:An interesting fact that 100: 88: 72: 63: 58: 13927:Musculoskeletal disorder 13850:Gastrointestinal disease 12945:Clostridioides difficile 11877:Transplantation medicine 11768:Clinical neurophysiology 11685:Obstetric anesthesiology 11605:Interventional radiology 11365:Digestive system surgery 10756:Protective sequestration 10618:Pre-exposure prophylaxis 9909:Generational difference 9462:Horizontal gene transfer 9452:Antimicrobial resistance 9191:Microbes & Infection 8863:Arizona State University 8844:Mesozoic Vertebrate Life 7359:10.1136/jech.2003.011593 7268:von Csefalvay C (2023), 4650:www.antibiotics-info.org 4065:, reported that, during 3750:In the mid-19th century 3677:who referred to them as 2438:protective sequestration 2339:Antimicrobial substances 2272:Intra-amniotic infection 2090:Other types of infection 1704:antimicrobial resistance 1696:taxonomic classification 1369:taxonomic classification 1287:involves the use of the 651:opportunistic infections 434:(cestodes), and flukes ( 239: 13203:Tick-borne encephalitis 12510:Microbiological culture 12140:Principles of pathology 11748:Intensive care medicine 11722:Mass gathering medicine 11567:Maternal–fetal medicine 10943:Microbial phylogenetics 10861:Wastewater surveillance 10382:Geographic distribution 10257:Critical community size 10055:Surgical site infection 9903:Iatrogenic/Medical care 9822:Microbial translocation 9818:Endogenous reactivation 9813:Normal flora overgrowth 9762:Opportunistic infection 9534:Opportunistic infection 9184:Vaccine Research Center 8771:Evans AS (2009-05-29). 8410:2027/mdp.39015016778261 7697:10.1126/science.abe7591 7500:Fair RJ, Tor Y (2014). 7238:10.1126/science.1061020 6516:Grinde B (2013-10-25). 6051:10.1073/pnas.1007610107 5805:10.5114/pjr.2022.113825 5363:"How Infections Spread" 5232:persistentinfection.net 4290:10.1542/hpeds.2020-0174 4213:Transmission (medicine) 4158:Isolation (health care) 3879:and other specialists. 3499:. When that happens, a 3005:All infectious diseases 2711:instance, up to 40% of 2546:opportunistic pathogens 2242:Urinary tract infection 1988:upper respiratory tract 1976:Opportunistic infection 1962:Opportunistic infection 1956:Opportunistic pathogens 1937:opportunistic pathogens 1830:latent viral infections 1671:microbiological culture 1530:, are derived from the 1447:liquid or solid media. 1344:fluorescence microscope 1220:microbiological culture 1174:Symptomatic diagnostics 916:Fecal-oral transmission 866:Transmission (medicine) 763:As an example, several 673:multicellular organisms 655:host–pathogen interface 442:). Diseases caused by 43:. For the journal, see 13868:Female genital disease 13845:Maxillofacial disorder 13814:Cardiovascular disease 13613:List of vaccine topics 12613:Mathematical modelling 11340:Cardiothoracic surgery 11015:Microbial bioterrorism 10638:efficacy/effectiveness 10046:Surgical intervention 9938:Breakthrough infection 9560:Genetic predisposition 9544:Susceptible individual 9391:Germ theory of disease 8331:10.3201/eid1907.AC1907 8313:Potter P (July 2013). 8254:March 9, 2010, at the 7129:Watts, Duncan (2003). 6975:Riley LW (July 2019). 6534:10.3402/jom.v5i0.22766 4786:Bacterial Pathogenesis 4208:Threshold host density 4042:Salmonella typhimurium 4039:experiment found that 3965: 3636:the sixth century BC. 3578:Germ theory of disease 3572:Germ theory of disease 3363: 2951: 2822: 2472: 2320: 1738: 1558:Metagenomic sequencing 1519: 1215: 1028:pre-existing infection 893: 877:Culex quinquefasciatus 731: 641: 613: 13791:Neurological disorder 13608:Vaccinate Your Family 13059:Japanese encephalitis 12473:Diagnostic immunology 12298:Programmed cell death 12266:Liquefactive necrosis 11991:Personalized medicine 11850:Reproductive medicine 11775:Occupational medicine 11729:Evolutionary medicine 10851:Universal precautions 9809:Endogenous overgrowth 9661:Poultry and livestock 8189:June 1, 2009, at the 8180:Smallpox and Vaccinia 8050:10.1056/NEJMra1108296 6981:Microbiology Spectrum 5440:Pathogens and vectors 5125:"Infectious Diseases" 4971:www.lifeextension.com 4542:Cultural Anthropology 4340:"Antiprotozoal Drugs" 4198:Sentinel surveillance 4077:seem to adapt to the 3958: 3869:laboratory scientists 3823:antibacterial drugs. 3741:Anton van Leeuwenhoek 3657:, Ibn Sina discussed 3650:The Canon of Medicine 3425:In the 19th century, 3357: 2838: 2758: 2565:passively transmitted 2538:asymptomatic carriage 2463: 2314: 2257:Odontogenic infection 2237:infected, including: 2106:, which is caused by 1993:Clostridium difficile 1781:anti-retroviral drugs 1750:for the treatment of 1736: 1692:alignment comparisons 1517: 1510:PCR-based diagnostics 1460:reverse transcriptase 1205: 1047:of infected material. 1007:Vertical transmission 941:Entamoeba histolytica 873: 729: 716:Viridans streptococci 661:in orifices like the 635: 611: 276:Clostridium botulinum 264:Staphylococcus aureus 156:transmissible disease 13932:Soft tissue disorder 13878:Male genital disease 13691:Major Disease groups 13491:John Franklin Enders 12468:Medical microbiology 12463:Transfusion medicine 12420:Immunohistochemistry 12370:Anatomical pathology 12261:Coagulative necrosis 12011:Traditional medicine 11971:Alternative medicine 11838:Addiction psychiatry 11652:Transfusion medicine 11647:Medical microbiology 11562:Gynecologic oncology 11414:Reproductive surgery 11257:Smallpox eradication 11195:Israel Jacob Kligler 10953:Genomic reassortment 10933:Genetic epidemiology 10772:Health communication 10700:Flattening the curve 10690:Disease surveillance 10473:Systemic/Generalized 10237:Animal disease model 9717:Asymptomatic carrier 8870:on 14 September 2017 8274:on 20 February 2006. 8210:(8_Part_1): 635–42. 7978:lymphatic filariasis 7830:'20th Century Death' 6810:10.3390/ijms18112413 6745:Medical Microbiology 6720:Medical Microbiology 6636:Medical Microbiology 6493:Medical microbiology 6152:Medical Microbiology 6001:Medical Microbiology 5907:Journal of Pathogens 5862:10.1128/JCM.00373-19 5416:microbiologybook.org 5066:10.1001/jama.2012.98 5013:10.1128/CMR.00134-14 4783:Peterson JW (1996). 4123:Copenhagen Consensus 3689:Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari 3493:environmental change 3395:The introduction of 2571:Host genetic factors 2421:-borne pathogens is 2408:small-world networks 2225:By anatomic location 2109:Bacteroides fragilis 2007:wound infections or 2003:introduction (as in 1867:health professionals 1741:There is usually an 1586:improve this article 1291:of the Chagas agent 1259:Mycobacterium leprae 1061:that does not cause 1000:Vehicle transmission 904:, also known as the 523:asymptomatic carrier 160:communicable disease 32:For other uses, see 14020:Infectious diseases 13960:Congenital disorder 13901:Postpartum disorder 13832:Respiratory disease 13765:Hematologic disease 12677:Virus-like particle 12601:Vaccine ingredients 12425:Electron microscopy 12393:Molecular pathology 12271:Gangrenous necrosis 12203:Cellular adaptation 12033:History of medicine 12016:Veterinary medicine 11823:Preventive medicine 11675:Adolescent medicine 11517:Infectious diseases 11082:Individual diseases 11075:infectious diseases 11020:Pandemic prevention 10976:Viral phylodynamics 10957:Re-emerging disease 10846:Travel restrictions 10050:Postoperative wound 10019:Blood-borne disease 10001:Respiratory droplet 9913:Vertical/Congenital 9898:Nosocomial/Hospital 9855:Spillover infection 9054:1995AdSpR..16h.105H 9004:1995AdSpR..16h.119D 8909:2013PLoSO...862437K 8697:Medicina Nei Secoli 8557:Hoernle AF (1907). 8368:2000Sci...287..443D 8152:"NCpedia | NCpedia" 7753:2022Natur.611..312K 7469:10.1038/nature08463 7461:2009Natur.461..798T 7413:10.1038/nature08309 7405:2009Natur.461..399G 7229:2001Sci...292.1155F 6042:2010PNAS..10717200J 6036:(40): 17200–17205. 5920:10.1155/2014/183167 5588:1999JEcol..87..649E 4344:The Free Dictionary 4277:Hospital Pediatrics 4248:The Free Dictionary 4223:Waterborne diseases 4203:Spillover infection 4113:Blood-borne disease 4053:when cultivated in 3927:Society and culture 3827:Medical specialists 3737:Girolamo Fracastoro 3549:The destruction of 3523:diseases, see also 3411:The first European 3383:Plague of Justinian 2972: 2938: 25,000–50,000 2930: 12,500–25,000 2211:contagious diseases 2130:(first proposed by 2058:Secondary infection 1980:pathogenic bacteria 1905:via the bloodstream 1883:Course of infection 1855:clinically apparent 1826:latent tuberculosis 1729:Indication of tests 1427:, the detection of 1321:electron microscope 1053:, transmitted by a 962:Sexual transmission 596:Pathogenic bacteria 556:Bacterial infection 543: 234:infectious diseases 173:, most prominently 134:is the invasion of 95:Infectious diseases 75:electron micrograph 13747:Metabolic disorder 13648:Never to phase III 13447:Hexavalent vaccine 13261:Epstein–Barr virus 13156:Oxford–AstraZeneca 12849:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 12453:Clinical chemistry 12445:Clinical pathology 12430:Immunofluorescence 12398:Forensic pathology 12378:Surgical pathology 12286:Fibrinoid necrosis 11981:Molecular oncology 11938:Doctor of Medicine 11928:Master of Medicine 11845:Radiation oncology 11717:Emergency medicine 11670:Addiction medicine 11637:Clinical chemistry 11632:Clinical pathology 11424:Transplant surgery 11382:Orthopedic surgery 11360:Colorectal surgery 10966:Selection pressure 10262:Force of infection 9890:Contagious disease 9825:Endogenous seeding 9722:Chain of infection 9646:Injection drug use 9557:Vaccination status 9440:Case fatality rate 9358:infectious disease 9229:Infectious disease 8077:July 12, 2012, at 7828:David McCandless, 7518:10.4137/PMC.S14459 6736:2009-02-19 at the 6725:2009-07-01 at the 6714:2009-06-29 at the 6309:10.4161/gmic.19897 5576:Journal of Ecology 5445:2017-10-05 at the 5397:2010-10-28 at the 5369:. 1 January 2016. 5129:Molecular Medicine 4007:Kirtland Formation 3966: 3841:Infectious Disease 3364: 3344:Historic pandemics 3074:Diarrheal diseases 2968: 2952: 2823: 2706:Pandemics such as 2473: 2321: 2267:Vaginal infections 2157:Treponema pallidum 2080:penetrating trauma 2040:ionizing radiation 2009:compound fractures 1739: 1702:. Simultaneously, 1520: 1265:Treponema pallidum 1216: 1109:diarrheal diseases 1105:respiratory system 894: 822:Clostridium tetani 732: 685:anaerobic bacteria 642: 622:transmission chain 618:chain of infection 614: 591:Pathogenic viruses 541: 529:Bacterial or viral 491:signs and symptoms 485:Signs and symptoms 413:worms or helminths 154:, also known as a 152:infectious disease 46:Infectious Disease 18:Infectious disease 13973: 13972: 13819:Lymphatic disease 13737:Endocrine disease 13706:Parasitic disease 13658: 13657: 13570:Vaccines and SIDS 13457: 13456: 13231:Hepatitis A and B 13207:Varicella zoster 12669:Subunit/component 12523: 12522: 12490:Mass spectrometry 12099: 12098: 11933:Master of Surgery 11897: 11896: 11882:Tropical medicine 11828:Prison healthcare 11743:Hospital medicine 11707:Disaster medicine 11697:Aviation medicine 11512:Hospital medicine 11419:Surgical oncology 11404:Pediatric surgery 11398: 11345:Endocrine surgery 11270: 11269: 11231:COVID-19 pandemic 11225:HIV/AIDS pandemic 11155:Alexander Fleming 11040: 11039: 11030:Tropical medicine 10971:Synthetic biology 10872: 10871: 10831:Social distancing 10784:Outbreak response 10405: 10404: 10232:Agent-based model 10218: 10217: 10214: 10213: 10210: 10209: 9757:Natural reservoir 9747:Infectious period 9737:Incubation period 9694: 9693: 9650:Natural disaster 9619:Tropical diseases 9602:Biodiversity loss 9539:Risk of infection 9529:Microbiome health 9522:Immunosuppression 9323: 9322: 9162: 9161: 8810:Trends Ecol. Evol 8650:(7531): 1486–87. 8574:Byrne JP (2012). 8299:978-1-55581-236-2 7803:(February 2009). 7747:(7935): 312–319. 7690:(6515): 404–405. 7455:(7265): 798–801. 7399:(7262): 399–401. 7291:978-0-323-95389-4 7223:(5519): 1155–60. 7169:978-0-385-49522-6 7144:978-0-393-04142-2 6691:978-0-393-60257-9 6680:Foster J (2018). 6645:978-0-9631172-1-2 6502:978-3-13-131991-3 6246:(10): 4497–4501. 6194:10.3390/v10050250 6161:978-0-323-67450-8 6010:978-0-323-67450-8 5530:10.1111/evo.13692 5482:10.1111/evo.13724 5330:978-0-8213-6179-5 5123:Trent RJ (2005). 4894:Nature Immunology 4626:978-0-8385-8529-0 4512:"About Parasites" 4283:(12): 1021–1030. 4153:Infection control 4138:Foodborne illness 4108:Biological hazard 4079:space environment 3974:paleopathologists 3910:tropical diseases 3893:(for example, in 3891:immunocompromised 3853:internal medicine 3833:medical treatment 3801:Alexander Fleming 3773:Koch's postulates 3675:Ayyubid Sultanate 3445:Emerging diseases 3350:List of epidemics 3302: 3301: 3273:Tropical diseases 2922: 6250–12,500 2819: 3,955–6,812 2813: 2,477–3,954 2807: 1,194–2,476 2477:immune mechanisms 2442:social distancing 2325:Aseptic technique 2307:Infection control 2128:Koch's postulates 2122:Infectious or not 2025:immunosuppressive 1944:Primary pathogens 1932:primary pathogens 1723:immunocompromised 1700:reference genomes 1662: 1661: 1654: 1636: 1450:The isolation of 1403:Biochemical tests 1280:Trypanosoma cruzi 1198:Microbial culture 972:Oral transmission 906:respiratory route 788:16S ribosomal RNA 601: 600: 562:Typical symptoms 349:(the most common 197:, followed by an 150:they produce. An 126: 125: 53:Medical condition 16:(Redirected from 14032: 14002: 14001: 13990: 13989: 13988: 13981: 13863:Urologic disease 13685: 13678: 13671: 13662: 13661: 13549:MMR autism fraud 13496:Maurice Hilleman 13481:Hilary Koprowski 12794: 12793: 12550: 12543: 12536: 12527: 12526: 12410:Gross processing 12276:Caseous necrosis 12126: 12119: 12112: 12103: 12102: 12089: 12088: 12079: 12069: 12068: 12059: 12058: 12049: 12048: 11753:Medical genetics 11738:General practice 11615:Nuclear medicine 11490:Gastroenterology 11446:Vascular surgery 11396: 11323: 11322: 11297: 11290: 11283: 11274: 11273: 11236: 11185:Ignaz Semmelweis 11160:Maurice Hilleman 11067: 11060: 11053: 11044: 11043: 11025:Tropical disease 10961:Reverse zoonosis 10948:One Health Model 10777:Health education 10766:Community health 10685:Cordon sanitaire 10658:Ring vaccination 10628:Repurposed drugs 10515: 10514: 10434:Gastrointestinal 10277:Machine learning 10081:Gastrointestinal 10032:Intravenous line 9969: 9968: 9883:/Cross-infection 9870:Reverse zoonosis 9843: 9842: 9800: 9799: 9705: 9704: 9686:War and conflict 9554:Nutrition status 9517:Immunodeficiency 9374: 9373: 9350: 9343: 9336: 9327: 9326: 9240:Disciplines and 9222: 9215: 9208: 9199: 9198: 9086: 9085: 9074: 9073: 9037: 9031: 9030: 9028: 8989: 8980: 8974: 8973: 8971: 8969: 8947: 8941: 8940: 8930: 8920: 8886: 8880: 8879: 8877: 8875: 8866:. 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Archived from 5754: 5743: 5742: 5740: 5702: 5696: 5695: 5685: 5675: 5651: 5645: 5644: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5599: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5557: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5484: 5460: 5454: 5451:MetaPathogen.com 5437: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5427: 5408: 5402: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5351: 5350: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5295: 5277: 5268:(12): e1001920. 5253: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5243: 5238:on July 22, 2015 5234:. Archived from 5224: 5218: 5217: 5207: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5103: 5092: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5032: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4982: 4973:. Archived from 4967:"Print Friendly" 4963: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4953: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4917: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4868: 4850: 4826: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4816: 4780: 4774: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4742: 4741: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4706:on March 5, 2012 4696: 4690: 4689: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4642: 4631: 4630: 4612: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4580:Cleveland Clinic 4572: 4566: 4565: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4527: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4500: 4499: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4462: 4461: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4429: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4397: 4380:(9963): 117–71. 4365: 4359: 4358: 4356: 4355: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4326: 4292: 4268: 4262: 4261: 4260: 4259: 4240: 4128:Cordon sanitaire 4097:of outer space. 3990:Acrocanthosaurus 3906:infectious agent 3726: 3723: 3697: 3694: 3671:Islamic scholars 3629:Sushruta Samhita 3622: 3619: 3610:plague of Athens 3607: 3604: 3600: 3597: 3529:wildlife disease 3298: 2973: 2967: 2945: 2937: 2929: 2921: 2913: 2905: 2897: 2889: 2881: 2873: 2865: 2857: 2849: 2818: 2812: 2806: 2800: 2794: 2788: 2782: 2776: 2770: 2764: 2717:genome sequences 2450:circuit breakers 2434:cordon sanitaire 2160:, the causative 2136:infectious agent 2115:Escherichia coli 1984:gastrointestinal 1982:or fungi in the 1968:immunodeficiency 1861:or prompts some 1822:latent infection 1714:– to facilitate 1657: 1650: 1646: 1643: 1637: 1635: 1594: 1570: 1562: 1317:light microscope 1303:within its gut. 1295:, an uninfected 947:Escherichia coli 910:airborne disease 636:Infection of an 544: 540: 411:Macroparasites ( 351:fungal infection 270:Escherichia coli 130: 68: 56: 55: 21: 14040: 14039: 14035: 14034: 14033: 14031: 14030: 14029: 14010: 14009: 14008: 13996: 13986: 13984: 13976: 13974: 13969: 13951: 13918: 13905: 13882: 13854: 13836: 13823: 13805: 13782: 13778:Mental disorder 13769: 13756: 13752:Immune disorder 13728: 13710: 13692: 13689: 13659: 13654: 13653: 13638:Clinical trials 13617: 13586: 13525: 13501:Stanley Plotkin 13463: 13453: 13365:Cancer vaccines 13348: 13342:Schistosomiasis 13320: 13314:Trypanosomiasis 13287: 13251:Cytomegalovirus 13161:Pfizer–BioNTech 12961: 12785: 12734:Vaccine wastage 12704: 12632: 12584: 12554: 12524: 12519: 12478:Immunopathology 12458:Hematopathology 12439: 12364: 12135: 12130: 12100: 12095: 12037: 12026:Chief physician 11959: 11904: 11893: 11887:Travel medicine 11872:Sports medicine 11855:Sexual medicine 11795:Palliative care 11790:Pain management 11734:Family medicine 11712:Diving medicine 11658: 11586: 11548: 11541: 11457: 11450: 11409:Plastic surgery 11355:General surgery 11335:Cardiac surgery 11316: 11314: 11306: 11301: 11271: 11266: 11240: 11205:Major epidemics 11199: 11143: 11077: 11071: 11041: 11036: 10980: 10893:Antigenic shift 10888:Antigenic drift 10879: 10868: 10732:Barrier nursing 10680:Contact tracing 10671: 10664: 10509: 10507: 10500: 10411: 10401: 10302: 10296: 10287:Serial interval 10206: 10190: 10181:Cervico-vaginal 10176: 10167:Trans-placental 10162: 10146: 10114: 10076: 10012:Vascular system 10011: 10005: 9960: 9948: 9942: 9882: 9874: 9834: 9791: 9709: 9690: 9581: 9512:Immune response 9478: 9457:Drug resistance 9401:Infectious dose 9365: 9354: 9324: 9319: 9235: 9226: 9163: 9158: 9157: 9097: 9083: 9078: 9077: 9038: 9034: 9026: 8987: 8981: 8977: 8967: 8965: 8948: 8944: 8887: 8883: 8873: 8871: 8854: 8850: 8841: 8837: 8806: 8802: 8769: 8765: 8720: 8716: 8693: 8689: 8634: 8630: 8623: 8603: 8599: 8592: 8572: 8568: 8555: 8551: 8537: 8533: 8506: 8502: 8457:Medical History 8449: 8445: 8432: 8428: 8419: 8417: 8396: 8395: 8391: 8352: 8348: 8311: 8307: 8300: 8286: 8279: 8266: 8265: 8261: 8256:Wayback Machine 8243: 8239: 8200: 8196: 8191:Wayback Machine 8178: 8174: 8165: 8163: 8156:www.ncpedia.org 8150: 8149: 8145: 8136: 8134: 8130: 8115:10.2307/1312814 8097: 8091: 8084: 8070: 8066: 8029: 8025: 8016: 8014: 8005: 8004: 8000: 7994:trypanosomiasis 7990:schistosomiasis 7967: 7963: 7941: 7937: 7920: 7916: 7908: 7901: 7897: 7896: 7892: 7884: 7877: 7873: 7872: 7868: 7858: 7856: 7847: 7846: 7842: 7837:Wayback Machine 7827: 7823: 7814: 7812: 7798: 7794: 7733: 7729: 7676: 7672: 7619: 7615: 7576: 7572: 7563: 7561: 7548: 7547: 7543: 7498: 7494: 7440: 7436: 7388: 7384: 7339: 7335: 7325: 7323: 7316:"Herd Immunity" 7314: 7313: 7309: 7301: 7299: 7292: 7266: 7262: 7209: 7205: 7196: 7194: 7181: 7177: 7170: 7156: 7152: 7145: 7127: 7120: 7111: 7109: 7096: 7095: 7091: 7082: 7080: 7057:(10): S27–S64. 7043: 7039: 7034: 7030: 6973: 6969: 6930: 6926: 6889: 6885: 6840: 6836: 6789: 6782: 6773: 6771: 6756: 6738:Wayback Machine 6727:Wayback Machine 6716:Wayback Machine 6706: 6699: 6692: 6678: 6671: 6663: 6661: 6646: 6628: 6624: 6573:Dani A (2014). 6571: 6567: 6514: 6510: 6503: 6489: 6485: 6475: 6473: 6463: 6459: 6406: 6399: 6346: 6342: 6289: 6285: 6232: 6228: 6173: 6169: 6162: 6148: 6144: 6103:(3): e0003646. 6089: 6085: 6022: 6018: 6011: 5997: 5993: 5953: 5946: 5899: 5895: 5842: 5838: 5785: 5781: 5772: 5770: 5755: 5746: 5729: 5703: 5699: 5666:(4): e0005568. 5652: 5648: 5617: 5613: 5568: 5564: 5555: 5553: 5510: 5506: 5461: 5457: 5447:Wayback Machine 5438: 5434: 5425: 5423: 5410: 5409: 5405: 5399:Wayback Machine 5390: 5386: 5376: 5374: 5361: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5346: 5331: 5313: 5309: 5254: 5250: 5241: 5239: 5226: 5225: 5221: 5188:10.1038/nri2802 5168: 5164: 5147: 5121: 5117: 5107: 5105: 5101: 5090: 5086: 5085: 5081: 5050: 5046: 4993: 4989: 4980: 4978: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4951: 4949: 4936: 4935: 4931: 4906:10.1038/ni.2614 4886: 4882: 4827: 4823: 4814: 4812: 4797: 4781: 4777: 4769: 4767: 4752: 4748: 4739: 4737: 4730:Infection Cycle 4724: 4723: 4719: 4709: 4707: 4698: 4697: 4693: 4686: 4672: 4668: 4659: 4657: 4644: 4643: 4634: 4627: 4613: 4598: 4589: 4587: 4574: 4573: 4569: 4538: 4534: 4525: 4523: 4510: 4509: 4505: 4497: 4495: 4472: 4468: 4459: 4457: 4444: 4443: 4439: 4427: 4425: 4416: 4415: 4411: 4366: 4362: 4353: 4351: 4338: 4337: 4333: 4324: 4322: 4269: 4265: 4257: 4255: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4103: 4033: 4021:Main articles: 4019: 3953: 3947: 3934:fertility rates 3929: 3889:The patient is 3877:bacteriologists 3829: 3724: 3695: 3620: 3605: 3598: 3580: 3574: 3447: 3399:, measles, and 3352: 3346: 3295: 3292: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2950: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2914: 5000–6250 2911: 2907: 2906: 4000–5000 2903: 2899: 2898: 3000–4000 2895: 2891: 2890: 2000–3000 2887: 2883: 2882: 1000–2000 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2833: 2821: 2820: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2802: 2801: 517–1,193 2798: 2796: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2784: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2772: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2753: 2741:Yersinia pestis 2704: 2672:aminoglycosides 2608: 2573: 2561:polysaccharides 2458: 2414:virus in 2001. 2309: 2301:Main articles: 2299: 2227: 2207: 2124: 2092: 2060: 2038:), exposure to 2019:), exposure to 2013:genetic defects 1964: 1958: 1946: 1919: 1913: 1885: 1794: 1789: 1731: 1658: 1647: 1641: 1638: 1595: 1593: 1583: 1571: 1560: 1512: 1468:red blood cells 1405: 1309: 1200: 1176: 1117:medical history 1107:infections and 1090: 1045:transplantation 1018:or baby during 956:gastroenteritis 925:Vibrio cholerae 902:Droplet contact 886:West Nile fever 868: 862: 843:mad cow disease 810: 638:ingrown toenail 630: 606: 604:Pathophysiology 551:Viral infection 547:Characteristic 531: 487: 242: 226:antihelminthics 54: 51: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 14038: 14028: 14027: 14022: 14007: 14006: 13994: 13971: 13970: 13968: 13967: 13962: 13956: 13953: 13952: 13950: 13949: 13944: 13939: 13934: 13929: 13923: 13920: 13919: 13917: 13916: 13910: 13907: 13906: 13904: 13903: 13898: 13893: 13887: 13884: 13883: 13881: 13880: 13875: 13873:Breast disease 13870: 13865: 13859: 13856: 13855: 13853: 13852: 13847: 13841: 13838: 13837: 13835: 13834: 13828: 13825: 13824: 13822: 13821: 13816: 13810: 13807: 13806: 13804: 13803: 13798: 13793: 13787: 13784: 13783: 13781: 13780: 13774: 13771: 13770: 13768: 13767: 13761: 13758: 13757: 13755: 13754: 13749: 13744: 13739: 13733: 13730: 13729: 13727: 13726: 13721: 13715: 13712: 13711: 13709: 13708: 13703: 13697: 13694: 13693: 13688: 13687: 13680: 13673: 13665: 13656: 13655: 13652: 13651: 13650: 13649: 13646: 13635: 13629: 13623: 13622: 13619: 13618: 13616: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13594: 13592: 13588: 13587: 13585: 13584: 13579: 13572: 13567: 13562: 13557: 13552: 13539: 13533: 13531: 13527: 13526: 13524: 13523: 13518: 13516:Katalin Karikó 13513: 13508: 13503: 13498: 13493: 13488: 13483: 13478: 13473: 13467: 13465: 13459: 13458: 13455: 13454: 13452: 13451: 13450: 13449: 13444: 13439: 13434: 13426: 13421: 13416: 13411: 13406: 13405: 13404: 13399: 13398: 13397: 13392: 13382: 13377: 13372: 13362: 13356: 13354: 13350: 13349: 13347: 13346: 13345: 13344: 13339: 13330: 13328: 13322: 13321: 13319: 13318: 13317: 13316: 13308: 13307: 13306: 13295: 13293: 13289: 13288: 13286: 13285: 13284: 13283: 13278: 13273: 13271:Herpes simplex 13268: 13263: 13258: 13253: 13245: 13244: 13243: 13238: 13233: 13225: 13220: 13219: 13218: 13213: 13205: 13200: 13195: 13190: 13189: 13188: 13183: 13178: 13173: 13171:Sinopharm BIBP 13168: 13163: 13158: 13153: 13148: 13143: 13138: 13133: 13128: 13123: 13121:Bharat Biotech 13118: 13108: 13103: 13098: 13093: 13092: 13091: 13086: 13076: 13071: 13066: 13061: 13056: 13055: 13054: 13049: 13039: 13034: 13029: 13024: 13019: 13018: 13017: 13012: 13007: 12992: 12991: 12990: 12980: 12975: 12969: 12967: 12963: 12962: 12960: 12959: 12958: 12957: 12952: 12947: 12939: 12938: 12937: 12932: 12924: 12919: 12918: 12917: 12912: 12902: 12901: 12900: 12890: 12885: 12880: 12879: 12878: 12873: 12863: 12858: 12853: 12852: 12851: 12846: 12836: 12831: 12826: 12821: 12816: 12811: 12806: 12800: 12798: 12791: 12787: 12786: 12784: 12783: 12782: 12781: 12776: 12771: 12766: 12761: 12753: 12752: 12751: 12749:Vaccine injury 12746: 12741: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12721: 12712: 12710: 12709:Administration 12706: 12705: 12703: 12702: 12697: 12692: 12683: 12666: 12665: 12664: 12659: 12651: 12646: 12640: 12638: 12634: 12633: 12631: 12630: 12625: 12620: 12615: 12610: 12609: 12608: 12598: 12592: 12590: 12586: 12585: 12553: 12552: 12545: 12538: 12530: 12521: 12520: 12518: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12500:Flow cytometry 12497: 12495:Chromatography 12492: 12487: 12481: 12480: 12475: 12470: 12465: 12460: 12455: 12449: 12447: 12441: 12440: 12438: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12415:Histopathology 12412: 12406: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12390: 12385: 12380: 12374: 12372: 12366: 12365: 12363: 12362: 12357: 12356: 12355: 12350: 12341: 12329: 12323: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12306: 12305: 12295: 12294: 12293: 12288: 12283: 12278: 12273: 12268: 12263: 12253: 12251: 12245: 12244: 12243: 12242: 12237: 12227: 12222: 12217: 12212: 12207: 12205: 12199: 12198: 12193: 12188: 12183: 12182: 12181: 12171: 12170: 12169: 12164: 12159: 12154: 12143: 12141: 12137: 12136: 12129: 12128: 12121: 12114: 12106: 12097: 12096: 12094: 12093: 12083: 12073: 12063: 12053: 12042: 12039: 12038: 12036: 12035: 12030: 12029: 12028: 12018: 12013: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11983: 11978: 11973: 11967: 11965: 11964:Related topics 11961: 11960: 11958: 11957: 11956: 11955: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11913:Medical school 11909: 11907: 11899: 11898: 11895: 11894: 11892: 11891: 11890: 11889: 11879: 11874: 11869: 11867:Sleep medicine 11864: 11863: 11862: 11852: 11847: 11842: 11841: 11840: 11830: 11825: 11820: 11814: 11809: 11808: 11807: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11782: 11777: 11772: 11771: 11770: 11760: 11755: 11750: 11745: 11740: 11731: 11726: 11725: 11724: 11714: 11709: 11704: 11699: 11694: 11693: 11692: 11687: 11680:Anesthesiology 11677: 11672: 11666: 11664: 11660: 11659: 11657: 11656: 11655: 11654: 11649: 11644: 11639: 11634: 11629: 11619: 11618: 11617: 11612: 11610:Neuroradiology 11607: 11596: 11594: 11588: 11587: 11585: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11564: 11559: 11553: 11551: 11547:Obstetrics and 11543: 11542: 11540: 11539: 11534: 11529: 11524: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11498: 11497: 11487: 11482: 11477: 11472: 11462: 11460: 11452: 11451: 11449: 11448: 11443: 11442: 11441: 11431: 11429:Trauma surgery 11426: 11421: 11416: 11411: 11406: 11401: 11400: 11399: 11392:Otolaryngology 11389: 11384: 11379: 11374: 11369: 11368: 11367: 11362: 11352: 11347: 11342: 11337: 11331: 11329: 11320: 11318:subspecialties 11308: 11307: 11300: 11299: 11292: 11285: 11277: 11268: 11267: 11265: 11264: 11259: 11254: 11248: 11246: 11242: 11241: 11239: 11238: 11228: 11227:(1981–present) 11222: 11216: 11209: 11207: 11201: 11200: 11198: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11167: 11162: 11157: 11151: 11149: 11145: 11144: 11142: 11141: 11136: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11111: 11106: 11101: 11096: 11091: 11085: 11083: 11079: 11078: 11070: 11069: 11062: 11055: 11047: 11038: 11037: 11035: 11034: 11033: 11032: 11022: 11017: 11012: 11007: 11002: 10999: 10994: 10988: 10986: 10982: 10981: 10979: 10978: 10973: 10968: 10963: 10958: 10955: 10950: 10945: 10940: 10935: 10930: 10925: 10923:Emergent virus 10920: 10915: 10910: 10905: 10904: 10903: 10895: 10890: 10884: 10882: 10874: 10873: 10870: 10869: 10867: 10866: 10863: 10858: 10856:Vector control 10853: 10848: 10843: 10838: 10833: 10828: 10823: 10818: 10813: 10812: 10811: 10806: 10801: 10799:N95 respirator 10791: 10786: 10781: 10780: 10779: 10774: 10769: 10758: 10753: 10752: 10751: 10741: 10736: 10735: 10734: 10724: 10723: 10722: 10717: 10712: 10702: 10697: 10692: 10687: 10682: 10676: 10674: 10672:pharmaceutical 10666: 10665: 10663: 10662: 10661: 10660: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10604: 10603: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10578: 10573: 10568: 10563: 10562: 10561: 10551: 10550: 10549: 10539: 10534: 10533: 10532: 10521: 10519: 10518:Pharmaceutical 10512: 10502: 10501: 10499: 10498: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10470: 10469:Cardiovascular 10467: 10462: 10457: 10454: 10449: 10448:Nervous system 10446: 10443: 10442: 10441: 10431: 10430: 10429: 10424: 10415: 10413: 10407: 10406: 10403: 10402: 10400: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10369: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10349: 10344: 10339: 10334: 10333: 10332: 10327: 10317: 10312: 10306: 10304: 10298: 10297: 10295: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10279: 10274: 10272:Infection rate 10269: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10228: 10226: 10220: 10219: 10216: 10215: 10212: 10211: 10208: 10207: 10205: 10204: 10198: 10196: 10192: 10191: 10189: 10188: 10184: 10182: 10178: 10177: 10175: 10174: 10170: 10168: 10164: 10163: 10161: 10160: 10154: 10152: 10148: 10147: 10145: 10144: 10138: 10133: 10128: 10122: 10120: 10116: 10115: 10113: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10096: 10095: 10084: 10082: 10078: 10077: 10075: 10074: 10073: 10072: 10067: 10059: 10058: 10057: 10052: 10044: 10043: 10042: 10037: 10034: 10029: 10027:Injection site 10021: 10015: 10013: 10007: 10006: 10004: 10003: 9998: 9996:Dental aerosol 9993: 9992: 9991: 9981: 9975: 9973: 9966: 9962: 9961: 9959: 9958: 9952: 9950: 9944: 9943: 9941: 9940: 9935: 9934: 9933: 9928: 9927: 9926: 9921: 9918: 9907: 9906: 9905: 9900: 9892: 9886: 9884: 9880:Human-to-human 9876: 9875: 9873: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9851: 9849: 9840: 9836: 9835: 9833: 9832: 9826: 9823: 9820: 9815: 9810: 9806: 9804: 9797: 9793: 9792: 9790: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9777:Super-spreader 9774: 9772:Superinfection 9769: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9744: 9739: 9734: 9729: 9724: 9719: 9713: 9711: 9702: 9696: 9695: 9692: 9691: 9689: 9688: 9683: 9681:Vector control 9678: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9658: 9657: 9656: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9628: 9623: 9622: 9621: 9616: 9610:Climate zones 9608: 9606:Climate change 9603: 9600: 9597: 9591: 9589: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9579: 9578: 9577: 9574: 9571: 9570: 9569: 9561: 9558: 9555: 9552: 9549: 9541: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9525: 9524: 9519: 9509: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9488: 9486: 9480: 9479: 9477: 9476: 9471: 9470: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9449: 9448: 9447: 9442: 9437: 9432: 9422: 9420:Quorum sensing 9417: 9416: 9415: 9405: 9404: 9403: 9393: 9388: 9382: 9380: 9371: 9367: 9366: 9353: 9352: 9345: 9338: 9330: 9321: 9320: 9318: 9317: 9316: 9315: 9305: 9304: 9303: 9298: 9288: 9287: 9286: 9276: 9275: 9274: 9269: 9259: 9258: 9257: 9246: 9244: 9237: 9236: 9225: 9224: 9217: 9210: 9202: 9196: 9195: 9187: 9181: 9175: 9169: 9160: 9159: 9156: 9155: 9144: 9133: 9118: 9098: 9093: 9092: 9090: 9089:Classification 9082: 9081:External links 9079: 9076: 9075: 9042:Adv. Space Res 9032: 8975: 8942: 8881: 8848: 8835: 8816:(11): 618–24. 8800: 8763: 8734:(11): 561–64. 8714: 8687: 8628: 8622:978-1107067110 8621: 8597: 8591:978-1598842531 8590: 8584:. p. 29. 8566: 8549: 8531: 8500: 8443: 8426: 8404:. p. 14. 8389: 8346: 8305: 8298: 8277: 8259: 8237: 8194: 8172: 8143: 8082: 8064: 8023: 7998: 7986:onchocerciasis 7970:Chagas disease 7961: 7935: 7914: 7890: 7866: 7840: 7821: 7792: 7727: 7670: 7633:(5): 362–367. 7613: 7570: 7541: 7492: 7434: 7382: 7333: 7307: 7290: 7260: 7203: 7175: 7168: 7150: 7143: 7118: 7089: 7037: 7028: 6967: 6940:(2): 215–218. 6924: 6883: 6854:(2): 297–311. 6834: 6780: 6754: 6697: 6690: 6669: 6644: 6622: 6565: 6508: 6501: 6483: 6457: 6420:(4): 391–406. 6397: 6360:(4): 276–282. 6340: 6303:(4): 289–306. 6283: 6226: 6167: 6160: 6142: 6083: 6016: 6009: 5991: 5944: 5893: 5836: 5779: 5744: 5727: 5697: 5646: 5627:(9): 511–517. 5611: 5582:(4): 649–658. 5562: 5524:(4): 636–647. 5504: 5475:(4): 858–859. 5455: 5432: 5403: 5384: 5354: 5329: 5307: 5248: 5219: 5182:(7): 514–526. 5162: 5145: 5115: 5079: 5044: 5007:(3): 603–661. 4987: 4958: 4929: 4880: 4821: 4795: 4775: 4746: 4717: 4691: 4685:978-1438126371 4684: 4666: 4632: 4625: 4596: 4567: 4532: 4518:. 2019-02-25. 4503: 4466: 4452:. 2019-06-27. 4437: 4409: 4360: 4331: 4263: 4234: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4104: 4102: 4099: 4091:Microorganisms 4049:, became more 4047:food poisoning 4031:Space medicine 4018: 4015: 3970:fossil remains 3951:Paleopathology 3949:Main article: 3946: 3943: 3928: 3925: 3924: 3923: 3920: 3913: 3902: 3887: 3851:physicians or 3828: 3825: 3813:Gerhard Domagk 3714:bubonic plague 3606: 400 BCE 3576:Main article: 3573: 3570: 3569: 3568: 3561: 3554: 3547: 3540: 3513: 3512: 3485: 3446: 3443: 3442: 3441: 3430: 3423: 3416: 3409: 3393: 3386: 3345: 3342: 3300: 3299: 3289: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3262: 3259: 3256: 3253: 3248: 3244: 3243: 3240: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3204: 3200: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3187: 3182: 3178: 3177: 3174: 3171: 3168: 3165: 3160: 3156: 3155: 3152: 3149: 3146: 3143: 3138: 3134: 3133: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3093: 3089: 3088: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3045: 3041: 3040: 3037: 3034: 3031: 3028: 3023: 3019: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2998: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2979:Cause of death 2977: 2949: 2948: 2942: 2940: 2934: 2932: 2926: 2924: 2918: 2916: 2910: 2908: 2902: 2900: 2894: 2892: 2886: 2884: 2878: 2876: 2874: 500–1000 2870: 2868: 2862: 2860: 2854: 2852: 2846: 2843: 2815: 2809: 2803: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2761: 2760: 2752: 2749: 2703: 2700: 2668:cephalosporins 2643:antihelminthic 2623:antitubercular 2613:anti-infective 2607: 2604: 2572: 2569: 2519: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2457: 2454: 2412:foot-and-mouth 2374: 2373: 2362: 2356: 2298: 2295: 2275: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2254: 2249: 2247:Skin infection 2244: 2226: 2223: 2206: 2205:Contagiousness 2203: 2143:species cause 2123: 2120: 2091: 2088: 2059: 2056: 1960:Main article: 1957: 1954: 1945: 1942: 1923:microorganisms 1912: 1909: 1884: 1881: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1787:Classification 1785: 1730: 1727: 1660: 1659: 1642:September 2024 1574: 1572: 1565: 1559: 1556: 1511: 1508: 1456:RNA replicases 1404: 1401: 1385:Actinomycetota 1365:crystal violet 1308: 1305: 1275:Chagas disease 1199: 1196: 1192:petechial rash 1175: 1172: 1159:produced by a 1089: 1086: 1075: 1074: 1057:, which is an 1048: 1031: 1003: 997: 986:athlete's foot 979: 969: 959: 913: 864:Main article: 861: 858: 827:staphylococcus 817:Microorganisms 809: 806: 765:staphylococcal 761: 760: 753: 750: 745:the intrinsic 743: 709:Corynebacteria 698:that exist on 696:staphylococcus 629: 626: 605: 602: 599: 598: 593: 588: 584: 583: 575: 568:conjunctivitis 563: 559: 558: 553: 548: 530: 527: 486: 483: 482: 481: 475: 474: 473: 447: 409: 384: 383: 382: 370: 332: 286: 241: 238: 222:antiprotozoals 183:immune systems 124: 123: 102: 98: 97: 92: 86: 85: 73:False-colored 70: 69: 61: 60: 52: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14037: 14026: 14023: 14021: 14018: 14017: 14015: 14005: 14000: 13995: 13993: 13983: 13982: 13979: 13966: 13965:Fetal disease 13963: 13961: 13958: 13957: 13954: 13948: 13945: 13943: 13940: 13938: 13935: 13933: 13930: 13928: 13925: 13924: 13921: 13915: 13912: 13911: 13908: 13902: 13899: 13897: 13894: 13892: 13889: 13888: 13885: 13879: 13876: 13874: 13871: 13869: 13866: 13864: 13861: 13860: 13857: 13851: 13848: 13846: 13843: 13842: 13839: 13833: 13830: 13829: 13826: 13820: 13817: 13815: 13812: 13811: 13808: 13802: 13799: 13797: 13794: 13792: 13789: 13788: 13785: 13779: 13776: 13775: 13772: 13766: 13763: 13762: 13759: 13753: 13750: 13748: 13745: 13743: 13740: 13738: 13735: 13734: 13731: 13725: 13722: 13720: 13717: 13716: 13713: 13707: 13704: 13702: 13699: 13698: 13695: 13686: 13681: 13679: 13674: 13672: 13667: 13666: 13663: 13647: 13645: 13642: 13641: 13639: 13636: 13633: 13630: 13628: 13625: 13624: 13620: 13614: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13595: 13593: 13589: 13583: 13580: 13578: 13577: 13573: 13571: 13568: 13566: 13563: 13561: 13558: 13556: 13553: 13550: 13548: 13543: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13534: 13532: 13528: 13522: 13521:Drew Weissman 13519: 13517: 13514: 13512: 13509: 13507: 13506:H. Fred Clark 13504: 13502: 13499: 13497: 13494: 13492: 13489: 13487: 13484: 13482: 13479: 13477: 13476:Louis Pasteur 13474: 13472: 13471:Edward Jenner 13469: 13468: 13466: 13460: 13448: 13445: 13443: 13442:DTwP-HepB-Hib 13440: 13438: 13437:DTaP-IPV-HepB 13435: 13433: 13430: 13429: 13428:combination: 13427: 13425: 13422: 13420: 13417: 13415: 13412: 13410: 13407: 13403: 13400: 13396: 13393: 13391: 13388: 13387: 13386: 13383: 13381: 13378: 13376: 13373: 13371: 13368: 13367: 13366: 13363: 13361: 13358: 13357: 13355: 13351: 13343: 13340: 13338: 13335: 13334: 13332: 13331: 13329: 13327: 13326:Helminthiasis 13323: 13315: 13312: 13311: 13309: 13305: 13302: 13301: 13300: 13297: 13296: 13294: 13290: 13282: 13279: 13277: 13274: 13272: 13269: 13267: 13264: 13262: 13259: 13257: 13254: 13252: 13249: 13248: 13246: 13242: 13239: 13237: 13234: 13232: 13229: 13228: 13227:combination: 13226: 13224: 13221: 13217: 13214: 13212: 13209: 13208: 13206: 13204: 13201: 13199: 13196: 13194: 13191: 13187: 13184: 13182: 13179: 13177: 13174: 13172: 13169: 13167: 13164: 13162: 13159: 13157: 13154: 13152: 13149: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13137: 13134: 13132: 13129: 13127: 13124: 13122: 13119: 13117: 13114: 13113: 13112: 13109: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13097: 13094: 13090: 13087: 13085: 13082: 13081: 13080: 13077: 13075: 13072: 13070: 13067: 13065: 13062: 13060: 13057: 13053: 13050: 13048: 13045: 13044: 13043: 13040: 13038: 13035: 13033: 13030: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13005: 13001: 12998: 12997: 12996: 12993: 12989: 12986: 12985: 12984: 12981: 12979: 12976: 12974: 12971: 12970: 12968: 12964: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12942: 12940: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12930:DPT/DTwP/DTaP 12928: 12927: 12926:combination: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12907: 12906: 12903: 12899: 12896: 12895: 12894: 12891: 12889: 12886: 12884: 12881: 12877: 12874: 12872: 12869: 12868: 12867: 12864: 12862: 12859: 12857: 12854: 12850: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12841: 12840: 12839:Meningococcus 12837: 12835: 12832: 12830: 12829:Leptospirosis 12827: 12825: 12822: 12820: 12817: 12815: 12812: 12810: 12807: 12805: 12802: 12801: 12799: 12795: 12792: 12788: 12780: 12777: 12775: 12772: 12770: 12767: 12765: 12764:Vaccine court 12762: 12760: 12757: 12756: 12754: 12750: 12747: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12719:GAVI Alliance 12717: 12716: 12714: 12713: 12711: 12707: 12701: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12691: 12687: 12684: 12682: 12678: 12674: 12670: 12667: 12663: 12660: 12658: 12655: 12654: 12652: 12650: 12647: 12645: 12642: 12641: 12639: 12635: 12629: 12626: 12624: 12621: 12619: 12616: 12614: 12611: 12607: 12604: 12603: 12602: 12599: 12597: 12594: 12593: 12591: 12587: 12582: 12578: 12574: 12570: 12566: 12562: 12558: 12551: 12546: 12544: 12539: 12537: 12532: 12531: 12528: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12486: 12483: 12482: 12479: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12469: 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12450: 12448: 12446: 12442: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12407: 12404: 12401: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12383:Cytopathology 12381: 12379: 12376: 12375: 12373: 12371: 12367: 12361: 12358: 12354: 12351: 12349: 12345: 12342: 12340: 12337: 12336: 12335: 12334: 12330: 12328: 12327:Accumulations 12325: 12324: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12304: 12301: 12300: 12299: 12296: 12292: 12289: 12287: 12284: 12282: 12279: 12277: 12274: 12272: 12269: 12267: 12264: 12262: 12259: 12258: 12257: 12254: 12252: 12250: 12247: 12246: 12241: 12238: 12236: 12233: 12232: 12231: 12228: 12226: 12223: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12211: 12208: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12200: 12197: 12196:Wound healing 12194: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12180: 12177: 12176: 12175: 12172: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12149: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12142: 12138: 12134: 12127: 12122: 12120: 12115: 12113: 12108: 12107: 12104: 12092: 12084: 12082: 12078: 12074: 12072: 12064: 12062: 12054: 12052: 12044: 12043: 12040: 12034: 12031: 12027: 12024: 12023: 12022: 12019: 12017: 12014: 12012: 12009: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11996:Public health 11994: 11992: 11989: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11977: 11976:Allied health 11974: 11972: 11969: 11968: 11966: 11962: 11954: 11951: 11950: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11916: 11914: 11911: 11910: 11908: 11906: 11900: 11888: 11885: 11884: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11875: 11873: 11870: 11868: 11865: 11861: 11858: 11857: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11839: 11836: 11835: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11806: 11803: 11802: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11785:Oral medicine 11783: 11781: 11780:Ophthalmology 11778: 11776: 11773: 11769: 11766: 11765: 11764: 11761: 11759: 11756: 11754: 11751: 11749: 11746: 11744: 11741: 11739: 11735: 11732: 11730: 11727: 11723: 11720: 11719: 11718: 11715: 11713: 11710: 11708: 11705: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11691: 11688: 11686: 11683: 11682: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11673: 11671: 11668: 11667: 11665: 11661: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11643: 11642:Cytopathology 11640: 11638: 11635: 11633: 11630: 11628: 11625: 11624: 11623: 11620: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11606: 11603: 11602: 11601: 11598: 11597: 11595: 11593: 11589: 11583: 11582:Urogynecology 11580: 11578: 11575: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11558: 11555: 11554: 11552: 11550: 11544: 11538: 11535: 11533: 11530: 11528: 11525: 11523: 11520: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11496: 11493: 11492: 11491: 11488: 11486: 11485:Endocrinology 11483: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11473: 11471: 11467: 11464: 11463: 11461: 11459: 11453: 11447: 11444: 11440: 11437: 11436: 11435: 11432: 11430: 11427: 11425: 11422: 11420: 11417: 11415: 11412: 11410: 11407: 11405: 11402: 11395: 11394: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11378: 11375: 11373: 11370: 11366: 11363: 11361: 11358: 11357: 11356: 11353: 11351: 11348: 11346: 11343: 11341: 11338: 11336: 11333: 11332: 11330: 11328: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11313: 11309: 11305: 11298: 11293: 11291: 11286: 11284: 11279: 11278: 11275: 11263: 11260: 11258: 11255: 11253: 11250: 11249: 11247: 11243: 11233:(2019–present 11232: 11229: 11226: 11223: 11220: 11217: 11214: 11211: 11210: 11208: 11206: 11202: 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11175:Louis Pasteur 11173: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11165:Edward Jenner 11163: 11161: 11158: 11156: 11153: 11152: 11150: 11146: 11140: 11137: 11135: 11134:Typhoid fever 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11115: 11112: 11110: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11095: 11092: 11090: 11087: 11086: 11084: 11080: 11076: 11068: 11063: 11061: 11056: 11054: 11049: 11048: 11045: 11031: 11028: 11027: 11026: 11023: 11021: 11018: 11016: 11013: 11011: 11008: 11006: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10993: 10990: 10989: 10987: 10983: 10977: 10974: 10972: 10969: 10967: 10964: 10962: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10902: 10899: 10898: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10885: 10883: 10881: 10875: 10864: 10862: 10859: 10857: 10854: 10852: 10849: 10847: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10836:Sterilization 10834: 10832: 10829: 10827: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10810: 10807: 10805: 10804:Surgical mask 10802: 10800: 10797: 10796: 10795: 10792: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10778: 10775: 10773: 10770: 10767: 10764: 10763: 10762: 10761:Public health 10759: 10757: 10754: 10750: 10747: 10746: 10745: 10742: 10740: 10737: 10733: 10730: 10729: 10728: 10725: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10708: 10707: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10686: 10683: 10681: 10678: 10677: 10675: 10673: 10667: 10659: 10656: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10635: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10613:Phage therapy 10611: 10609: 10606: 10602: 10599: 10598: 10597: 10596:Immunotherapy 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10569: 10567: 10564: 10560: 10557: 10556: 10555: 10554:Antimicrobial 10552: 10548: 10545: 10544: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10531: 10528: 10527: 10526: 10523: 10522: 10520: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10503: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10447: 10445:Genitourinary 10444: 10440: 10437: 10436: 10435: 10432: 10428: 10425: 10423: 10420: 10419: 10417: 10416: 10414: 10408: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10353: 10350: 10348: 10345: 10343: 10340: 10338: 10335: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10322: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10307: 10305: 10303:in population 10299: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10278: 10275: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10267:Herd immunity 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10229: 10227: 10225: 10221: 10203: 10200: 10199: 10197: 10193: 10186: 10185: 10183: 10179: 10172: 10171: 10169: 10165: 10159: 10156: 10155: 10153: 10151:Genitourinary 10149: 10143: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10132: 10129: 10127: 10124: 10123: 10121: 10117: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10094: 10093:Contamination 10091: 10090: 10089: 10086: 10085: 10083: 10079: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10062: 10061:Vector-borne 10060: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10047: 10045: 10041: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10024: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10016: 10014: 10008: 10002: 9999: 9997: 9994: 9990: 9987: 9986: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9976: 9974: 9970: 9967: 9963: 9957: 9954: 9953: 9951: 9945: 9939: 9936: 9932: 9929: 9925: 9922: 9919: 9916: 9915: 9914: 9911: 9910: 9908: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9895: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9887: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9852: 9850: 9848: 9847:Cross-species 9844: 9841: 9837: 9830: 9827: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9808: 9807: 9805: 9801: 9798: 9794: 9788: 9787:Window period 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9752:Latent period 9750: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9735: 9733: 9730: 9728: 9725: 9723: 9720: 9718: 9715: 9714: 9712: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9697: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9655: 9652: 9651: 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9631:Deforestation 9629: 9627: 9624: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9612: 9611: 9609: 9607: 9604: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9592: 9590: 9588: 9584: 9576:Stress levels 9575: 9572: 9568: 9565: 9564: 9562: 9559: 9556: 9553: 9550: 9547: 9546: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9523: 9520: 9518: 9515: 9514: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9489: 9487: 9485: 9481: 9475: 9472: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9454: 9453: 9450: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9436: 9433: 9431: 9428: 9427: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9418: 9414: 9411: 9410: 9409: 9408:Pathogenicity 9406: 9402: 9399: 9398: 9397: 9394: 9392: 9389: 9387: 9384: 9383: 9381: 9379: 9375: 9372: 9368: 9363: 9359: 9351: 9346: 9344: 9339: 9337: 9332: 9331: 9328: 9314: 9313:ectoparasites 9311: 9310: 9309: 9306: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9293: 9292: 9289: 9285: 9282: 9281: 9280: 9277: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9264: 9263: 9260: 9256: 9253: 9252: 9251: 9248: 9247: 9245: 9243: 9238: 9234: 9230: 9223: 9218: 9216: 9211: 9209: 9204: 9203: 9200: 9193: 9192: 9188: 9185: 9182: 9179: 9176: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9164: 9154: 9150: 9149: 9145: 9143: 9139: 9138: 9134: 9132: 9128: 9127: 9123: 9119: 9117: 9113: 9109: 9108: 9104: 9100: 9099: 9096: 9091: 9087: 9071: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9055: 9051: 9048:(8): 105–18. 9047: 9043: 9036: 9025: 9021: 9017: 9013: 9009: 9005: 9001: 8998:(8): 119–29. 8997: 8993: 8986: 8979: 8963: 8959: 8958: 8953: 8946: 8938: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8898: 8897: 8892: 8885: 8869: 8865: 8864: 8859: 8852: 8845: 8839: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8811: 8804: 8795: 8790: 8786: 8782: 8778: 8774: 8767: 8759: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8725: 8718: 8710: 8706: 8703:(2): 129–54. 8702: 8698: 8691: 8683: 8679: 8674: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8653: 8649: 8645: 8644: 8639: 8632: 8624: 8618: 8614: 8610: 8609: 8601: 8593: 8587: 8583: 8579: 8578: 8570: 8562: 8561: 8553: 8545: 8544: 8535: 8527: 8523: 8520:(4): 541–43. 8519: 8515: 8511: 8504: 8496: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8447: 8439: 8438: 8430: 8415: 8411: 8407: 8403: 8399: 8393: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8350: 8341: 8336: 8332: 8328: 8324: 8320: 8316: 8315:"Summer buzz" 8309: 8301: 8295: 8291: 8284: 8282: 8273: 8269: 8263: 8257: 8253: 8250: 8246: 8241: 8233: 8229: 8225: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8198: 8192: 8188: 8185: 8181: 8176: 8161: 8157: 8153: 8147: 8129: 8125: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8108:(2): 115–26. 8107: 8103: 8096: 8089: 8087: 8080: 8079:archive.today 8076: 8073: 8068: 8060: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8043:(5): 454–61. 8042: 8038: 8034: 8027: 8012: 8008: 8002: 7995: 7991: 7987: 7983: 7982:leishmaniasis 7979: 7975: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7955: 7954: 7949: 7945: 7939: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7918: 7907: 7900: 7894: 7883: 7876: 7870: 7854: 7850: 7844: 7838: 7834: 7831: 7825: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7796: 7788: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7731: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7674: 7666: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7586:(4): 352–58. 7585: 7581: 7574: 7559: 7555: 7551: 7545: 7537: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7496: 7488: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7446: 7438: 7430: 7426: 7422: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7406: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7386: 7378: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7353:(3): 192–95. 7352: 7348: 7344: 7337: 7321: 7317: 7311: 7297: 7293: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7264: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7214: 7207: 7192: 7188: 7187: 7179: 7171: 7165: 7161: 7154: 7146: 7140: 7135: 7134: 7125: 7123: 7108:on 2009-09-24 7107: 7103: 7099: 7093: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7041: 7032: 7023: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6971: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6928: 6920: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6903:(1): E9–E12. 6902: 6898: 6894: 6887: 6879: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6838: 6830: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6787: 6785: 6769: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6755:9780963117212 6751: 6747: 6746: 6739: 6735: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6710: 6709:public domain 6704: 6702: 6693: 6687: 6683: 6676: 6674: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6626: 6618: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6569: 6561: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6543: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6512: 6504: 6498: 6494: 6487: 6472: 6468: 6461: 6453: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6404: 6402: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6344: 6336: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6287: 6279: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6236:"Nocardiosis" 6230: 6222: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6171: 6163: 6157: 6153: 6146: 6138: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6087: 6079: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6020: 6012: 6006: 6002: 5995: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5951: 5949: 5940: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5913:(183167): 3. 5912: 5908: 5904: 5897: 5889: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5840: 5832: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5799:: e141–e162. 5798: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5769:on 2024-01-02 5768: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5751: 5749: 5739: 5734: 5730: 5728:9780128037089 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5701: 5693: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5650: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5508: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5459: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5441: 5436: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5407: 5400: 5396: 5393: 5388: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5358: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5311: 5303: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5262:PLOS Medicine 5259: 5252: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5223: 5215: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5157: 5152: 5148: 5146:9780126990577 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5119: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5060:(6): 605–11. 5059: 5055: 5048: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4991: 4977:on 2016-12-02 4976: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4947: 4944:. St. Louis. 4943: 4939: 4933: 4925: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4900:(7): 654–59. 4899: 4895: 4891: 4884: 4876: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4825: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4796:9780963117212 4792: 4788: 4787: 4779: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4721: 4705: 4701: 4695: 4687: 4681: 4677: 4670: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4628: 4622: 4618: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4548:(1): 155–71. 4547: 4543: 4536: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4441: 4434: 4424:on 2015-02-06 4423: 4419: 4413: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4335: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4267: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4239: 4235: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4105: 4098: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4037:Space Shuttle 4032: 4028: 4024: 4014: 4012: 4011:Herrerasaurus 4008: 4004: 4003: 4002:Tyrannosaurus 3998: 3997: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3985:Herrerasaurus 3981: 3980: 3975: 3971: 3963: 3962: 3961:Herrerasaurus 3957: 3952: 3945:Fossil record 3942: 3939: 3935: 3921: 3918: 3914: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3885: 3884: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3873:immunologists 3870: 3866: 3865:pulmonologist 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3837:medical field 3834: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3817:sulphonamides 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3777:Edward Jenner 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3761:Louis Pasteur 3757: 3753: 3748: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3729:Ibn al-Khatib 3719: 3715: 3712: 3707: 3705: 3701: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3681: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3663:miasma theory 3660: 3656: 3652: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3637: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3621: 175 AD 3615: 3611: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3579: 3566: 3562: 3559: 3556:Uncontrolled 3555: 3552: 3548: 3545: 3541: 3538: 3534: 3533: 3532: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3505:host organism 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3483: 3480:, leading to 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3460: 3459: 3458: 3456: 3452: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3407: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3391: 3387: 3384: 3381: 3380: 3379: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3326:poliomyelitis 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3297: 3290: 3287:9, 10, 16–18 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3260: 3257: 3254: 3252: 3249: 3246: 3245: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3208: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3157: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3135: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3120: 3117: 3114: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3090: 3086: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3068: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3046: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3021: 3020: 3016: 3013: 3010: 3007: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2994:(in millions) 2991: 2987:Percentage of 2986: 2984:(in millions) 2981: 2978: 2975: 2974: 2971: 2966: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2946: ≥50,000 2941: 2933: 2925: 2917: 2909: 2901: 2893: 2885: 2877: 2869: 2866: 250–500 2861: 2853: 2850: no data 2845: 2844: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2828: 2795: 284–516 2789: 213–283 2783: 172–212 2777: 115–171 2757: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2742: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2726: 2725:immune system 2722: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2691:self-limiting 2687: 2685: 2684:tetracyclines 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2639:antiprotozoal 2636: 2635:antiparasitic 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2614: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2580:treated with 2579: 2568: 2567:to newborns. 2566: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2551: 2550:herd immunity 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2505:opsonoization 2502: 2498: 2497: 2496: 2494: 2493:T lymphocytes 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2470: 2469:typhoid fever 2466: 2462: 2453: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2426: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2380: 2370: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2359:disinfectants 2357: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2344: 2343: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2304: 2303:Public health 2294: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2273: 2270: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2258: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2239: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2222: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2119: 2117: 2116: 2111: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2021:antimicrobial 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1963: 1953: 1951: 1941: 1939: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1924: 1918: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1880: 1878: 1875:(rather than 1874: 1873: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1837: 1836: 1835:Herpesviridae 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1814: 1810: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1735: 1726: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1656: 1653: 1645: 1634: 1631: 1627: 1624: 1620: 1617: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1603: – 1602: 1598: 1597:Find sources: 1591: 1587: 1581: 1580: 1575:This article 1573: 1569: 1564: 1563: 1555: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1516: 1507: 1503: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1493:refrigeration 1490: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1475: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1464:hemagglutinin 1461: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1417:carbohydrates 1414: 1410: 1400: 1398: 1397: 1392: 1391: 1390:Mycobacterium 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1356:electrostatic 1353: 1348: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1285:xenodiagnosis 1282: 1281: 1276: 1272: 1267: 1266: 1261: 1260: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1224:growth medium 1221: 1213: 1212:Gram negative 1209: 1208:nutrient agar 1204: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1182: 1181:pathognomonic 1171: 1169: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1121: 1118: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1004: 1001: 998: 995: 991: 987: 983: 980: 977: 973: 970: 967: 963: 960: 957: 953: 949: 948: 943: 942: 937: 933: 932: 927: 926: 921: 917: 914: 911: 907: 903: 900: 899: 898: 892:among others. 891: 890:avian malaria 887: 883: 879: 878: 872: 867: 857: 854: 850: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 823: 818: 814: 805: 803: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 780: 778: 774: 770: 766: 758: 754: 751: 748: 744: 741: 737: 736: 735: 728: 724: 722: 721:wound healing 718: 717: 712: 710: 705: 701: 697: 693: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 647:immune system 645:a suppressed 639: 634: 625: 623: 619: 610: 597: 594: 592: 589: 586: 585: 581: 580:ear infection 576: 573: 569: 564: 561: 560: 557: 554: 552: 549: 546: 545: 539: 537: 526: 524: 519: 514: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 479: 476: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 448: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 422: 418: 414: 410: 407: 406: 401: 400: 395: 391: 390: 388: 385: 381: 379: 374: 373:Basidiomycota 371: 368: 367:dermatophytes 365:species; and 364: 363: 359: 357: 352: 348: 347: 342: 339: 338: 336: 333: 330: 329: 324: 323: 318: 317: 312: 311: 306: 305: 300: 299: 294: 290: 287: 284: 283: 278: 277: 272: 271: 266: 265: 260: 259: 254: 251: 250: 249: 248:) including: 247: 237: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 202: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 167: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 103: 99: 96: 93: 91: 87: 83: 80: 76: 71: 67: 62: 57: 49: 47: 42: 35: 30: 19: 14025:Epidemiology 13947:Chondropathy 13942:Bone disease 13914:Skin disease 13742:Malnutrition 13719:Benign tumor 13700: 13598:Epidemiology 13574: 13546: 13432:DTaP-IPV/Hib 13223:Yellow fever 13136:EpiVacCorona 12893:Tuberculosis 12866:Pneumococcal 12834:Lyme disease 12662:Heterologous 12572: 12561:Immunization 12485:Enzyme assay 12331: 12326: 12315:Karyorrhexis 12291:Myocytolysis 12281:Fat necrosis 12186:Inflammation 12174:Hemodynamics 12167:Pathogenesis 12151: 12001:Rural health 11986:Nanomedicine 11537:Rheumatology 11468: / 11387:Hand surgery 11372:Neurosurgery 11139:Yellow fever 11129:Tuberculosis 10744:Notification 10715:Hand washing 10710:Food hygiene 10695:Disinfection 10591:Immunization 10542:Anthelmintic 10530:prophylactic 10418:Respiratory 10342:Hyperendemic 10292:WAIFW matrix 9947:Environment- 9700:Transmission 9676:Urbanization 9474:Host tropism 9370:Determinants 9357: 9356:Concepts in 9291:Parasitology 9250:Bacteriology 9233:microbiology 9228: 9189: 9146: 9135: 9120: 9101: 9045: 9041: 9035: 8995: 8991: 8978: 8968:14 September 8966:. Retrieved 8955: 8945: 8903:(4): e6237. 8900: 8894: 8884: 8874:14 September 8872:. Retrieved 8868:the original 8861: 8851: 8843: 8838: 8813: 8809: 8803: 8776: 8766: 8731: 8727: 8717: 8700: 8696: 8690: 8647: 8641: 8631: 8607: 8600: 8576: 8569: 8559: 8552: 8541: 8534: 8517: 8513: 8503: 8460: 8456: 8446: 8436: 8429: 8418:. Retrieved 8401: 8392: 8359: 8355: 8349: 8322: 8318: 8308: 8289: 8272:the original 8262: 8248: 8240: 8207: 8203: 8197: 8183: 8175: 8164:. Retrieved 8155: 8146: 8135:. Retrieved 8105: 8101: 8067: 8040: 8036: 8026: 8015:. Retrieved 8001: 7974:dengue fever 7964: 7951: 7938: 7917: 7893: 7869: 7857:. Retrieved 7843: 7824: 7813:. Retrieved 7795: 7744: 7740: 7730: 7687: 7683: 7673: 7630: 7626: 7616: 7583: 7579: 7573: 7562:. Retrieved 7553: 7544: 7509: 7505: 7495: 7452: 7448: 7437: 7396: 7392: 7385: 7350: 7346: 7336: 7324:. Retrieved 7310: 7300:, retrieved 7273: 7263: 7220: 7216: 7206: 7195:. Retrieved 7185: 7178: 7160:The hot zone 7159: 7153: 7132: 7110:. Retrieved 7106:the original 7101: 7092: 7081:. Retrieved 7054: 7050: 7040: 7031: 6984: 6980: 6970: 6937: 6933: 6927: 6900: 6896: 6886: 6851: 6847: 6837: 6803:(11): 2413. 6800: 6796: 6772:. Retrieved 6744: 6682:Microbiology 6681: 6662:, retrieved 6635: 6625: 6585:(1): 86–87. 6582: 6578: 6568: 6525: 6521: 6511: 6492: 6486: 6476:17 September 6474:. Retrieved 6470: 6460: 6417: 6413: 6357: 6353: 6343: 6300: 6297:Gut Microbes 6296: 6286: 6243: 6239: 6229: 6184: 6180: 6170: 6151: 6145: 6100: 6096: 6086: 6033: 6029: 6019: 6000: 5994: 5961: 5957: 5910: 5906: 5896: 5853: 5849: 5839: 5796: 5792: 5782: 5771:. Retrieved 5767:the original 5762: 5710: 5700: 5663: 5659: 5649: 5624: 5620: 5614: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5554:. Retrieved 5521: 5517: 5507: 5472: 5468: 5458: 5450: 5435: 5424:. Retrieved 5415: 5406: 5387: 5375:. Retrieved 5366: 5357: 5347:, retrieved 5320: 5310: 5265: 5261: 5251: 5240:. Retrieved 5236:the original 5231: 5222: 5179: 5175: 5165: 5128: 5118: 5106:. 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Retrieved 4280: 4276: 4266: 4256:, retrieved 4247: 4238: 4061:, funded by 4040: 4034: 4010: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3967: 3959: 3930: 3899:chemotherapy 3881: 3849:primary care 3845:Epidemiology 3830: 3785:Albert Sabin 3756:William Budd 3749: 3708: 3700:Islamic diet 3678: 3667:tuberculosis 3654: 3648: 3638: 3613: 3581: 3558:urbanization 3551:rain forests 3521:vector-borne 3514: 3448: 3427:tuberculosis 3365: 3303: 3293: 3096:Tuberculosis 2969: 2956: 2953: 2771: 82–114 2751:Epidemiology 2746: 2739: 2729: 2705: 2688: 2621:; including 2612: 2609: 2599: 2593: 2574: 2554: 2531: 2527:inflammation 2520: 2509:phagocytosis 2474: 2427: 2423:pest control 2416: 2405: 2375: 2369:prophylactic 2337: 2329:hand washing 2322: 2279:inflammation 2276: 2235:organ system 2233:location or 2228: 2208: 2183:Epidemiology 2181: 2172: 2168:, cannot be 2155: 2149: 2145:tuberculosis 2141:Mycobacteria 2125: 2113: 2107: 2104:appendicitis 2093: 2072:complication 2061: 2036:chemotherapy 1991: 1965: 1947: 1935: 1931: 1920: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1886: 1876: 1872:colonization 1870: 1869:to speak of 1854: 1842: 1840: 1833: 1821: 1811: 1808: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1795: 1777:geographical 1740: 1720: 1678:rather than 1667:encephalitis 1663: 1648: 1639: 1629: 1622: 1615: 1608: 1596: 1584:Please help 1579:verification 1576: 1536: 1521: 1504: 1500:immunoassays 1497: 1486: 1483:Strep throat 1476: 1471: 1449: 1429:fermentation 1406: 1394: 1388: 1349: 1310: 1300: 1292: 1278: 1263: 1257: 1255: 1217: 1185: 1177: 1165: 1134: 1122: 1114: 1091: 1078: 1076: 1050: 1037:transmission 1033: 1005: 999: 981: 971: 961: 945: 939: 929: 923: 915: 905: 901: 895: 875: 860:Transmission 855: 851: 820: 811: 804: 781: 762: 733: 714: 707: 667: 643: 628:Colonization 621: 617: 615: 532: 518:asymptomatic 515: 488: 440:schistosomes 415:) including 403: 397: 378:Cryptococcus 376: 362:Pneumocystis 360: 354: 345: 326: 320: 316:Rabies virus 314: 310:Lyssaviruses 308: 302: 296: 280: 274: 268: 262: 256: 243: 203: 195:inflammation 168: 159: 155: 151: 131: 127: 45: 29: 13801:Ear disease 13796:Eye disease 13634:from market 13530:Controversy 13464:researchers 13380:Hepatitis B 13266:Hepatitis C 13211:Chicken pox 13037:Hepatitis E 13032:Hepatitis B 13027:Hepatitis A 12978:Chikungunya 12955:Shigellosis 12809:Brucellosis 12695:Therapeutic 12649:Inactivated 12589:Development 12577:Inoculation 12569:Vaccination 12339:Hemosiderin 12220:Hyperplasia 12215:Hypertrophy 12191:Cell damage 12071:Wikiproject 11860:Venereology 11805:Neonatology 11702:Dermatology 11557:Gynaecology 11549:gynaecology 11532:Pulmonology 11350:Eye surgery 11312:Specialties 11221:(1918–1920) 11219:Spanish flu 11215:(1346–1353) 11213:Black Death 11170:Robert Koch 11073:History of 10997:Eradication 10908:Biosecurity 10633:Vaccination 10608:Inoculation 10586:Drug safety 10581:Combination 10508:and Control 10456:Soft tissue 10410:Anatomical 10377:Seasonality 10357:Mesoendemic 10337:Holoendemic 10330:Farr's laws 10242:Attack rate 10040:Animal bite 10036:Insect bite 9972:Respiratory 9599:Air quality 9587:Environment 9497:Comorbidity 9413:Attack rate 9396:Infectivity 8728:J R Soc Med 8463:(1): 1–34. 8325:(3): 1184. 5131:: 193–220. 4841:(9): 2392. 4700:"Infection" 4244:"infection" 4118:Coinfection 4087:antibiotics 4067:spaceflight 4017:Outer space 3917:antibiotics 3797:eradication 3769:Robert Koch 3733:Renaissance 3725: 1369 3711:Black Death 3696: 1250 3544:agriculture 3542:Changes in 3462:Coevolution 3434:Spanish flu 3390:Black Death 3374:(or global 3251:Hepatitis B 2992:Deaths 1993 2982:Deaths 2002 2765: 28–81 2655:intravenous 2637:(including 2578:hepatitis C 2542:vaccination 2465:Mary Mallon 2430:quarantined 2365:antibiotics 2346:antiseptics 2291:salpingitis 2132:Robert Koch 2052:HIV disease 1917:Coinfection 1853:implying a 1813:subclinical 1806:inapparent, 1765:serological 1675:Metagenomic 1601:"Infection" 1552:neurotoxins 1540:clostridial 1488:S. pyogenes 1478:Serological 1354:due to the 1336:fluorescent 1325:biochemical 1271:embryonated 1073:to another. 936:rotaviruses 677:mutualistic 663:oral cavity 536:antibiotics 470:infestation 356:Aspergillus 218:antifungals 210:antibiotics 206:medications 14014:Categories 13565:Thiomersal 13511:Paul Offit 13486:Jonas Salk 13462:Inventors/ 13333:research: 13310:research: 13247:research: 13176:Skycovione 13166:Sanofi–GSK 13111:SARS-CoV-2 13022:Hantavirus 12988:rVSV-ZEBOV 12973:Adenovirus 12941:research: 12819:Diphtheria 12657:Attenuated 12505:Blood bank 12348:Lipofuscin 12344:Lipochrome 12320:Karyolysis 12249:Cell death 12230:Metaplasia 11833:Psychiatry 11819:(PM&R) 11812:Phlebology 11800:Pediatrics 11627:Anatomical 11592:Diagnostic 11572:Obstetrics 11522:Nephrology 11507:Hematology 11502:Geriatrics 11495:Hepatology 11480:Cardiology 11470:Immunology 11180:Jonas Salk 10880:infections 10821:Sanitation 10789:Quarantine 10648:resistance 10566:Antiseptic 10547:Ascaricide 10537:Antifungal 10525:Antibiotic 10506:Prevention 10439:Intestinal 10372:Prevalence 10352:Inequality 10301:Occurrence 10100:Breastmilk 9984:Bioaerosol 9956:Sapronosis 9931:Horizontal 9803:Endogenous 9782:Viral load 9742:Index case 9308:Entomology 9148:DiseasesDB 8420:2023-11-17 8402:HathiTrust 8166:2023-11-17 8137:2013-11-27 8102:BioScience 8017:2015-09-24 7927:influenzas 7923:pneumonias 7859:21 October 7815:2020-10-05 7564:2020-11-10 7302:2023-03-02 7197:2022-10-20 7112:2010-01-21 7083:2017-03-26 6774:2013-11-27 6664:2020-01-23 6187:(5): 250. 5773:2024-01-02 5556:2022-06-28 5426:2017-04-19 5377:17 October 5349:2021-08-13 5242:2010-01-14 4981:2016-12-02 4952:2016-12-02 4815:2022-10-20 4770:2023-11-17 4740:2023-11-10 4660:2023-11-10 4590:2022-04-22 4526:2019-12-09 4498:2019-12-09 4480:StatPearls 4460:2019-12-09 4428:2015-08-20 4354:2022-04-22 4325:2021-03-26 4258:2023-11-17 4230:References 4013:specimen. 3996:Allosaurus 3815:developed 3809:penicillin 3805:antibiotic 3781:Jonas Salk 3745:microscopy 3718:Al-Andalus 3643:physician 3599: 460 3592:Thucydides 3590:historian 3491:, such as 3348:See also: 3330:diphtheria 3207:Meningitis 2997:1993 Rank 2989:all deaths 2858: ≤250 2825:See also: 2721:interferon 2713:SARS-CoV-2 2680:quinolones 2676:macrolides 2664:penicillin 2659:resistance 2631:antifungal 2619:antibiotic 2606:Treatments 2501:complement 2489:antibodies 2297:Prevention 2287:meningitis 2219:quarantine 2162:spirochete 2100:nosocomial 2096:iatrogenic 2064:root cause 1915:See also: 1760:hypotheses 1743:indication 1612:newspapers 1542:diseases ( 1373:Gram stain 1313:microscopy 1307:Microscopy 1297:triatomine 1248:Eukaryotic 1130:antibodies 1035:Iatrogenic 1024:childbirth 952:tape worms 920:fecal-oral 790:analysis, 777:peritoneum 700:human skin 511:runny nose 450:Arthropods 438:, such as 436:trematodes 424:roundworms 399:Toxoplasma 341:Ascomycota 322:Ebolavirus 304:Rhinovirus 282:Salmonella 214:antivirals 201:response. 82:sporozoite 77:showing a 13701:Infection 13644:Phase III 13632:Withdrawn 13560:Pox party 13370:ALVAC-CEA 13292:Protozoan 13181:Sputnik V 13131:CoronaVac 13101:Rotavirus 13004:Pandemrix 12856:Pertussis 12797:Bacterial 12681:Synthetic 12644:Conjugate 12596:Adjuvants 12573:Infection 12360:Steatosis 12303:Apoptosis 12240:Glandular 12225:Dysplasia 12157:Neoplasia 12152:Infection 12133:Pathology 12021:Physician 11905:education 11763:Neurology 11758:Narcology 11622:Pathology 11600:Radiology 11475:Angiology 11439:Andrology 11190:John Snow 10992:Discovery 10918:Disease X 10878:Emerging 10826:Screening 10727:Isolation 10571:Antiviral 10397:Twindemic 10347:Incidence 10224:Modelling 10187:Perinatal 10119:Cutaneous 10010:Linked to 9920:Perinatal 9839:Exogenous 9831:formation 9573:Pregnancy 9430:Endotoxin 9425:Virulence 9301:helminths 9242:pathogens 9194:(journal) 8664:0959-8138 8477:0025-7273 7899:"Table 5" 7769:1476-4687 7722:225041500 7706:0036-8075 7647:1539-3704 7554:Drugs.com 7512:: 25–64. 7326:11 August 7022:198135563 6962:201283277 6731:Chapter 8 6599:2080-4806 6542:0901-8328 6528:: 22766. 6434:1234-1983 6374:2234-3806 6317:1949-0976 6260:0095-1137 6203:1999-4915 6119:1935-2735 6060:0027-8424 5870:0095-1137 5813:1733-134X 5713:: 22–39. 5518:Evolution 5469:Evolution 5284:1549-1277 5196:1474-1741 5021:0893-8512 4942:StudyBlue 4857:1420-3049 4835:Molecules 4315:227067133 4299:2154-1663 3897:or after 3861:internist 3857:pneumonia 3821:synthetic 3752:John Snow 3709:When the 3659:epidemics 3584:Antiquity 3565:transport 3478:virulence 3474:resistant 3455:commensal 3438:Influenza 3413:influenza 3322:pertussis 3163:Pertussis 2647:topically 2627:antiviral 2590:ribavirin 2446:lockdowns 2379:virulence 2367:, called 2283:pneumonia 2215:influenza 2029:poisoning 2023:drugs or 2015:(such as 2001:traumatic 1950:virulence 1927:pathogens 1877:infection 1859:ambiguity 1843:infection 1841:The word 1769:genotypic 1445:selective 1413:enzymatic 1409:metabolic 1381:Bacillota 1377:acid-fast 1363:stain or 1251:parasites 1145:PET scans 1141:CAT scans 1101:abscesses 1098:cutaneous 1088:Diagnosis 1069:from one 1067:pathogens 1041:injection 1020:pregnancy 934:species, 747:virulence 689:mammalian 681:commensal 444:helminths 432:tapeworms 421:parasitic 417:nematodes 387:Parasites 295:. (E.g. 246:pathogens 204:Specific 187:Mammalian 171:pathogens 140:pathogens 132:infection 113:parasitic 105:Bacterial 90:Specialty 59:Infection 48:(journal) 13992:Medicine 13402:Prostvac 13395:Gardasil 13390:Cervarix 13337:Hookworm 13216:Shingles 13198:Smallpox 13116:Corbevax 13052:Gardasil 13047:Cervarix 12790:Vaccines 12744:Schedule 12715:Global: 12623:Timeline 12565:Vaccines 12515:Serology 12310:Pyknosis 12256:Necrosis 12235:Squamous 12179:Ischemia 12051:Category 11527:Oncology 11458:medicine 11456:Internal 11304:Medicine 11124:Syphilis 11119:Smallpox 11094:HIV/AIDS 10901:EARS-Net 10816:Safe sex 10768:services 10739:Lockdown 10510:measures 10412:location 10392:Syndemic 10387:Sporadic 10367:Pandemic 10362:Outbreak 10320:Epidemic 10173:Prenatal 10065:Mosquito 9949:to-human 9924:Neonatal 9917:Prenatal 9865:Zoonosis 9710:concepts 9641:Humidity 9626:Commerce 9502:Diabetes 9435:Exotoxin 9296:protozoa 9279:Mycology 9262:Virology 9255:bacteria 9070:11542695 9024:Archived 9020:11542696 8962:Archived 8937:23658630 8896:PLOS ONE 8830:19683831 8779:: 1–50. 8758:12411628 8709:15309812 8682:16373721 8582:ABC-CLIO 8414:Archived 8384:10642539 8252:Archived 8232:20357515 8187:Archived 8160:Archived 8128:Archived 8075:Archived 8059:22296079 8011:Archived 7948:botulism 7906:Archived 7904:. 1995. 7882:Archived 7880:. 2004. 7853:Archived 7833:Archived 7809:Archived 7787:36261521 7714:33093097 7665:32491919 7600:23806898 7558:Archived 7536:25232278 7487:19759533 7421:19684573 7377:16476746 7320:Archived 7296:archived 7255:16914744 7247:11303090 7191:Archived 7077:Archived 7013:31325286 7004:10957193 6954:31440916 6919:28515626 6878:31027668 6829:29135922 6768:Archived 6764:21413252 6734:Archived 6723:Archived 6712:Archived 6658:archived 6654:21413348 6617:24982790 6560:24167660 6452:24078518 6392:22779069 6335:22572875 6278:14532173 6221:29748498 6137:25793495 6078:20855600 5986:28014329 5978:20132979 5939:25614838 5888:31142607 5831:35505859 5692:28448507 5641:18657880 5606:86478171 5550:Archived 5546:73418339 5538:30734920 5499:85448255 5491:30900249 5443:Archived 5420:Archived 5395:Archived 5371:Archived 5343:archived 5339:21250326 5302:26633705 5214:20577268 5099:Archived 5074:22318282 5039:26016486 4946:Archived 4924:23778792 4875:30231567 4809:Archived 4805:21413346 4764:archived 4734:Archived 4654:Archived 4584:Archived 4520:Archived 4492:archived 4488:28613714 4454:Archived 4404:25530442 4348:Archived 4319:Archived 4307:33208389 4252:archived 4101:See also 4083:bacteria 4075:microbes 4051:virulent 3938:polygyny 3789:smallpox 3716:reached 3687:scholar 3645:Ibn Sina 3633:Sushruta 3537:habitats 3517:zoonotic 3509:zoonoses 3501:pathogen 3466:parasite 3464:between 3419:Smallpox 3397:smallpox 3376:epidemic 3372:pandemic 3229:Syphilis 2831:Pandemic 2827:Epidemic 2708:COVID-19 2534:immunity 2485:immunity 2481:inoculum 2456:Immunity 2401:epidemic 2231:anatomic 2199:pandemic 2195:epidemic 2187:outbreak 2173:in vitro 2170:cultured 2166:syphilis 2152:pathogen 2005:surgical 1897:subacute 1838:family. 1802:clinical 1798:apparent 1773:temporal 1548:botulism 1466:to bind 1437:alcohols 1396:Nocardia 1375:and the 1340:antigens 1332:antibody 1328:staining 1301:T. cruzi 1293:T. cruzi 1228:bacteria 1214:bacteria 1188:cyanosis 1126:antigens 1059:organism 990:impetigo 841:causing 740:pathogen 704:virulent 507:coughing 452:such as 428:pinworms 419:such as 313:such as 253:Bacteria 230:medicine 199:adaptive 175:bacteria 162:, is an 14004:Viruses 13978:Portals 13591:Related 13537:General 13299:Malaria 13186:Valneva 13151:Novavax 13146:Moderna 13141:Janssen 13126:CanSino 13106:Rubella 13064:Measles 12935:Td/Tdap 12905:Typhoid 12888:Tetanus 12883:Q fever 12814:Cholera 12804:Anthrax 12673:Peptide 12637:Classes 12618:Storage 12388:Autopsy 12353:Melanin 12333:pigment 12210:Atrophy 12147:Disease 12091:Outline 12061:Commons 12006:Therapy 11903:Medical 11466:Allergy 11434:Urology 11327:Surgery 11104:Malaria 11099:Leprosy 11089:Cholera 10705:Hygiene 10643:booster 10576:Asepsis 10315:Endemic 10310:Cluster 9894:Source 9829:Biofilm 9666:Poverty 9636:Ecology 9614:El Niño 9567:Smoking 9445:factors 9386:Biofilm 9362:Outline 9267:viruses 9142:D003141 9131:001-139 9050:Bibcode 9000:Bibcode 8957:Gizmodo 8928:3639165 8905:Bibcode 8794:7176254 8749:1279260 8673:1322233 8526:6399073 8495:6339840 8486:1139262 8364:Bibcode 8356:Science 8340:3903457 8224:9341063 8124:1312814 8009:. WHO. 7953:E. coli 7944:cholera 7778:9580435 7749:Bibcode 7684:Science 7656:7281624 7608:5487584 7527:4159373 7478:3172006 7457:Bibcode 7429:1707096 7401:Bibcode 7368:2465549 7225:Bibcode 7217:Science 7072:7115270 6910:5432783 6869:7096727 6820:5713381 6608:4074726 6551:3809354 6465:Lee R. 6443:3825189 6383:3384809 6326:3463488 6212:5977243 6181:Viruses 6128:4368190 6069:2951449 6038:Bibcode 5930:4295611 5879:6711893 5822:9047866 5738:7150340 5683:5423694 5584:Bibcode 5293:4668834 5205:3899649 5156:7149788 5030:4451395 4915:3760236 4866:6225154 4395:4340604 4069:on the 4035:A 2006 3863:or the 3704:hygiene 3680:najasat 3673:in the 3641:Persian 3563:Modern 3368:history 3338:tetanus 3334:measles 3318:malaria 3185:Tetanus 3141:Measles 3119:Malaria 2491:and/or 2317:hygiene 2191:endemic 2068:sequela 2048:malaria 2044:measles 1997:colitis 1986:or the 1893:chronic 1809:silent, 1708:plasmid 1680:primers 1626:scholar 1544:tetanus 1532:genomes 1528:primers 1452:enzymes 1425:species 1244:viruses 1153:abscess 1063:disease 976:kissing 931:Giardia 880:) is a 813:Disease 808:Disease 796:sterile 775:or the 769:sterile 509:, or a 495:fatigue 405:Babesia 394:malaria 346:Candida 293:viroids 289:Viruses 179:viruses 164:illness 136:tissues 79:malaria 13724:Cancer 13627:WHO-EM 13547:Lancet 13424:TA-NIC 13409:NicVAX 13256:Dengue 13096:Rabies 12922:Typhus 12861:Plague 12739:Policy 12700:Toxoid 12628:Trials 12081:Portal 11948:MD–PhD 11148:People 11109:Plague 10913:CRISPR 10865:Zoning 10720:Gloves 10131:Fomite 9965:Routes 9860:Vector 9727:Fomite 9708:Basic 9671:Travel 9551:Gender 9272:prions 9180:(IDSA) 9068: 9018: 8935: 8925: 8828: 8791: 8756: 8746: 8707: 8680: 8670: 8662: 8619: 8588: 8543:plates 8524: 8493: 8483: 8475: 8382: 8337: 8296: 8230: 8222: 8122: 8057: 7950:, and 7785: 7775: 7767: 7741:Nature 7720: 7712: 7704: 7663: 7653: 7645: 7606: 7598: 7534: 7524: 7485: 7475: 7449:Nature 7427: 7419: 7393:Nature 7375: 7365: 7288: 7253: 7245: 7166: 7141: 7069: 7019: 7011: 7001: 6960: 6952: 6917: 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