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to a territory unless the state exercised strong and effective political control and, if so, only for a limited period of time, essentially an occupational force only. However, Britain's view was that
Germany was a latecomer to the continent and was assumptively unlikely to gain any possessions beyond those it already held, which were swiftly proving to be more valuable than British territories. That logic caused it to be generally assumed by Britain and France that Germany had an interest in embarrassing the other European powers on the continent and forcing them to give up their possessions if they could not muster a strong political presence. On the other side,
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power establishing some kind of base on the coast from which it was free to expand into the interior. The
Europeans did not believe that the rules of occupation demanded European hegemony on the ground. The Belgians originally wanted to include that effective occupation required provisions that "cause peace to be administered", but Britain and France were the powers that had that amendment struck out of the final document.
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The conference provided an opportunity to channel latent
European hostilities towards one another outward; provide new areas for assisting the European powers expand in the face of rising American, Russian and Japanese interests; and form constructive dialogue to limit future hostilities. In Africa,
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At the Berlin
Conference, the scope of the Principle of Effective Occupation was heavily contested between Germany and France. The Germans, who were new to the continent, essentially believed that as far as the extension of power in Africa was concerned, no colonial power should have any legal right
984:
stated that a power could acquire rights over colonial lands only if it possessed them or had effective occupation: if it had treaties with local leaders, flew its flag there, and established an administration in the territory to govern it with a police force to keep order. The colonial power could
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that was already in full swing. Some scholars, however, warn against an overemphasis on its role in the colonial partitioning of Africa, and draw attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after the conference. According to a 2024 study, the conference only set the borders for the Congo
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sped up after the
Conference since even within areas designated as their sphere of influence, the European powers had to take effective possession by the principle of effectivity. In central Africa in particular, expeditions were dispatched to coerce traditional rulers into signing treaties, using
97:
The conference contributed to ushering in a period of heightened colonial activity by
European powers; one writer once made the point that the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 was responsible for "the old carve-up of Africa". Other writers have also laid the blame in "the partition of Africa" on the
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The great powers' disinclination to rule their territories is apparent throughout the protocols of the Berlin
Conference but especially in the Principle of Effective Occupation. In line with Germany and Britain's opposing views, the powers finally agreed that it could be established by a European
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in Africa but also for delimiting their respective overseas possessions, as effective occupation served in some instances as a criterion for settling colonial boundary disputes. However, as the scope of the Berlin Act was limited to the lands that fronted on the
African coast, European powers in
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The
European race for colonies made Germany start launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe the brewing conflict, Belgian King Leopold II convinced France and Germany that common trade in Africa was in the best interests of all
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Crowe, Craven, and
Katzenellenbogen are authors who have attempted to soften the language and therefore the intent of the conference. They warn against an overemphasis on its role in the colonial partitioning of Africa, extensively justifying it by ignoring the motivations and outcomes of the
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Prior to the conference, European diplomats approached African rulers and the French leaders had already invaded some parts of Lagos in the same manner as they had in the Western Hemisphere, by establishing a connection to local trade networks. In the early 1800s, the European demand for
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That principle, along with others that were written at the conference, allowed the Europeans to conquer Africa but to do as little as possible to administer or control it. The principle did not apply so much to the hinterlands of Africa at the time of the conference. This gave rise to
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The properties occupied by Belgian King Leopold's International Congo Society, the name used in the General Act, were confirmed as the Society's. On 1 August 1885, a few months after the closure of the Berlin Conference, Leopold's Vice-Administrator General in the Congo,
232:
By the early 1880s, many factors including diplomatic successes, greater European local knowledge, and the demand for resources such as gold, timber, and rubber, triggered dramatically increased European involvement in the continent of Africa. Stanley's charting of the
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conference by only drawing attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after the conference, regardless of whether they were finalized and followed in practice. For example, Craven has questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference.
1018:
theory, which basically gave any colonial power with coastal territory the right to claim political influence over an indefinite amount of inland territory. Since Africa was irregularly shaped, that theory caused problems and was later rejected.
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However, the countries that ultimately participated in the Final Act ignored requirements set forth within it to establish their satellite governments, rights to the land, and trade for the benefit of their national, and domestic economies.
159:, led many European merchants into the interior markets of Africa. European spheres of power and influence were limited to coastal Africa at this time as Europeans had only established trading posts (protected by gunboats) up to this point.
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region (those borders were later revised). The study finds that "most of Africaâs borders were not initially formed until after the 1884â85 Berlin Conference... most did not take their final form until over two decades later."
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which, with the Berlin Conference of 1884, brought colonial imperialism to flower" and that "he primary reality of imperialism in Africa today is economic," going on to expound on the extraction of wealth from the continent.
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Other historians focus on the legal implications in international law and argue that the conference was only one of many (mostly bilateral) agreements between prospective colonists, which took place after the conference.
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later stated that from that same 1 August 1885 onwards, Leopold II was to be considered Sovereign of the new state, again an issue never discussed, let alone decided, at the Berlin Conference.
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from European maps of the continent, delineating the areas of British, Portuguese, French and Belgian control. These European nations raced to annex territory that might be claimed by rivals.
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holds a contrary view, although he conceded that "the Berlin Act did have a relevance to the course of the partition" of Africa. Of the fourteen countries being represented, seven of them â
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Frankema, Ewout, Jeffrey G. Williamson, and P. J. Woltjer. "An economic rationale for the West African scramble? The commercial transition and the commodity price boom of 1835â1885."
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was also formed, with more economic goals but still closely related to the former society. Leopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to
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Katzenellenbogen, S. (1996). "It didn't happen at Berlin: Politics, economics and ignorance in the setting of Africa's colonial boundaries.". In Nugent, P.; Asiwaju, A. I. (eds.).
315:, called on representatives of 13 nations in Europe as well as the United States to take part in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out a joint policy on the African continent.
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In 1882, realizing the geopolitical extent of Portuguese control on the coasts, but seeing penetration by France eastward across Central Africa toward Ethiopia, the Nile, and the
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Katzenellenbogen, S. 1996. It didn't happen at Berlin: Politics, economics and ignorance in the setting of Africa's colonial boundaries. In Nugent, P. and Asiwaju, A. I. (Eds.),
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De Belgische Koloniën - Documentaire over het Belgisch Koloniaal Rijk (English: The Belgian Colonies - Documentary on the Belgian Colonial Empire) timestamp 10:40 to 10:52)
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numerous instances later claimed rights over interior lands without demonstrating the requirement of effective occupation, as articulated in Article 35 of the Final Act.
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had large territorial holdings there and wanted to keep them while it minimised its responsibilities and administrative costs. In the end, the British view prevailed.
2252:
Adem, Gurminder K. Bhambra, Yolande Bouka, Randolph B. Persaud, Olivia U. Rutazibwa, Vineet Thakur, Duncan Bell, Karen Smith, Toni Haastrup, Seifudein (3 July 2020).
1055:). All of the countries attending the conference, except for Britain, endorsed Portugal's ambitions, and just over five years later, in 1890, the British government
1977:
1077:, determined which part belonged to whom. France would own territory to the north of the line, and Britain would own territory to the south of it. The basin of the
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colonialism was introduced across nearly all the continent. When African independence was regained after World War II, it was in the form of fragmented states.
803:(also called "International Congo Society"), as "the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs". The first name of this Society had been the "
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From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo not as a reporter but as Leopold's agent, with the secret mission to organise what would become known as the
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The Power of Geographical Imaginaries in the European International Order: Colonialism, the 1884â85 Berlin Conference, and Model International Organizations
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The Principle of Effective Occupation (based on effective occupation, see below) was introduced to prevent powers from setting up colonies in name only.
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powers. Thus, an international prohibition of the slave trade throughout their respected spheres was signed by the European members. In his novella
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Any fresh act of taking possession of any portion of the African coast would have to be notified by the power taking possession, or assuming a
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also make use of the colony economically. That principle became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire territorial
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By 1902, 90% of all the land that makes up Africa was under European control. Most of the Sahara was French, but after the quelling of the
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Cornelis, S. (1991). "Stanley au service de LĂ©opold II: La fondation de l'Ătat IndĂ©pendant du Congo (1878â1885)". In Cornelis, S. (ed.).
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varied per nation, but these 14 countries sent representatives to attend the Berlin Conference and sign the subsequent Berlin Act:
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819:", a name that in fact was not in use at the time of the conference and does not appear in the General Act. The Belgian official
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incident. French claims by Pierre de Brazza were quickly acted on by the French military, which took control of what is now the
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in East Africa. The way to do it was to "liberate Africa" by the introduction of "commerce, Christianity" and civilization.
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was dispatched to central Africa, travelled into the western Congo basin, and raised the French flag over the newly founded
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287:, Britain saw its vital trade route through Egypt to India threatened. Because of the collapsed Egyptian financing and a
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soon after the closure of the Berlin Conference in August 1885. French agents discovered Leopold's plans, and in response
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The following states were annexed by the British Empire roughly a decade after (see below for more information):
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European claims in Africa, 1913. Today's boundaries, which are largely a legacy of the colonial era, are shown.
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Definition of regions in which each European power had an exclusive right to pursue the legal ownership of land
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Bismarck at the crossroads: the reorientation of German foreign policy after the Congress of Berlin, 1878â1880
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Stengers, Jean, "Sur l'aventure congolaise de Joseph Conrad". In Quaghebeur, M. and van Balberghe, E. (eds),
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1346:, involved in colonial conflicts with Spain and France, which conquered the nation in the early 20th century.
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Craven, M. 2015. "Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 and the logic of free trade."
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The invention of a tradition: Westlake, the Berlin Conference and the historicisation of international law
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Uniquely, the United States reserved the right to decline or to accept the conclusions of the conference.
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Papier Blanc, Encre Noire: Cent Ans de Culture Francophone en Afrique Centrale (ZaĂŻre, Rwanda et Burundi)
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1952:
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1942:
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Slave traders and their captives bound in chains and collared with 'taming sticks'. From Livingstone's
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in which hundreds of British subjects were murdered or injured, Britain intervened in the nominally
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Förster, Susanne, et al. "Negotiating German colonial heritage in Berlin's Afrikanisches Viertel."
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and Miltou, was designated to be French, and the area to the south would be German, later called
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Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa conference 1884â1885 and the onset of partition
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Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference 1884â1885 and the Onset of Partition
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in Africans a great world movement of modern times is "the partitioning of Africa after the
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Fondation de l'Ătat IndĂ©pendant du Congo: Un chapitre de l'histoire du partage de l'Afrique
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617:
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517:
171:
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Shepperson, George. "The Centennial of the West African Conference of Berlin, 1884â1885."
1774:"Endogenous Colonial Borders: Precolonial States and Geography in the Partition of Africa"
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would be British, with the French taking the basin of Lake Chad. Furthermore, between the
8:
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1995:"Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 and the logic of free trade"
1714:"Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 and the logic of free trade"
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but recently, scholars have questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference.
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The conference opened on 15 November 1884 and closed on 26 February 1885. The number of
62:, concluded on 26 February 1885 with the signature of a General Act regulating European
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2004:
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Matua, Maka Wu (1995). "Why Redraw the Map of Africa: A Moral and Legal Inquiry".
1965:
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2228:"BBC - History - British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'"
2203:"BBC - History - British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'"
2028:"BBC â History â British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'"
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International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa
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three countries. Under support from the British and the initiative of Portugal,
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L'Europe coloniale et le grand tournant de la ConfĂ©rence de Berlin (1884â1885)
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Historians have long marked the Berlin Conference as the formalisation of the
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goals, with the "African Society" serving primarily as a philanthropic front.
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were united by co-option of the intervening territory (the land later became
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was created from a revision of this article dated 11 December 2017
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The first reference in an international act to the obligations attaching to
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Partly to gain public acceptance, the conference resolved to end slavery by
21:
This article is about the conference from 1884 to 1885. For other uses, see
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Mulligan, William. "The Anti-slave Trade Campaign in Europe, 1888â90." in
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Within a few years, Africa was at least nominally divided up south of the
1155:: Italy was to own what lies north of a line from the intersection of the
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Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds.
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Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds.
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sarcastically referred to one of the participants at the conference, the
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to join him in researching and "civilising" the continent. In 1878, the
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1411:, carved out of the former Majeerteen Sultanate, which ruled northern
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of 1895â1896 but fell to Italian occupation in 1936 defeat during the
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1119:: The area to the north of a line, formed by the intersection of the
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1845:. Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa. pp. 41â60 (53â54).
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was conquered by Italy in 1911, and Morocco was divided between the
883:
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A Global History of Anti-slavery Politics in the Nineteenth Century
1971:
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2587:(Cambridge University Press, 2012). 289 pp. ISBN 978-0-521-19421-1
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Bruce Gilley: In Defense of German Colonialism, September 1, 2022
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One of the chief stated justifications "was a desire to stamp out
225:. It quickly made a treaty on 26 February 1884 with its old ally,
28:
2476:, Paris, Le Manuscrit, coll. "Carrefours d'empires", 2013, 380 p.
1923:"The Conference of Berlin and British 'New' Imperialism, 1884â85"
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once and for all". Before he died in 1873, Christian missionary,
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2317:"The Realities in Africa: European Profit or Negro Development?"
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sent its own explorers to Africa. In 1881, French naval officer
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were overrun by the French in several wars by the beginning of
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1031:: The Portuguese government presented a project, known as the "
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276:, an event that upset Bismarck's carefully laid plans and led
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that demanded the Portuguese withdraw from the disputed area.
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The conference of Berlin, as illustrated in German newspaper
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Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law
2254:"Why Is Mainstream International Relations Blind to Racism?"
1133:: The separation came in the form of a line passing through
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in South Africa in 1879, moved on to annex the independent
1078:
229:, to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic.
1941:. Taipei: Department of History and Research Institute of
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815:, announced that the territory was henceforth called "the
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African boundaries: Barriers, conduits and opportunities
2003:. Lril.oxfordjournals.org. 10 March 2015. Archived from
1897:"The Berlin Conference: Where a Continent Was Colonized"
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African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities
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Some have argued the conference central to imperialism.
1479:
The Boer republics were conquered by the British in the
1035:", or the "Rose-Coloured Map", in which the colonies of
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in the area, long held through the mostly defunct proxy
2727:
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Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist, Edwardian Proconsul
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The King Incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo
1772:
Paine, Jack; Qiu, Xiaoyan; Ricart-Huguet, Joan (2024).
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Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
1396:, founded in the early 18th century, it was annexed by
18:
1884â1885 European regulation of colonisation in Africa
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until the 20th century, when it was incorporated into
130:â came home without any formal possessions in Africa.
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Archives of Empire: Volume 2. The Scramble for Africa
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The Conference at Berlin on the West-African Question
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and down from Egypt and conquered states such as the
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217:, also claimed the area, based on old treaties with
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58:of 1884â1885 met on 15 November 1884 and, after an
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146:and other imperial powers at the Berlin Conference
2056:." EXPLORING Novels, Online Edition. Gale, 2003.
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1472:being under British occupation before becoming a
155:, which was then often used in the production of
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2472:Lorin, Amaury, and de Gemeaux, Christine, eds.,
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1101:in Sudan, which would be British. In reality, a
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997:Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913
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1105:200 km wide was put in place between the
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2406:The Berlin West African Conference, 1884â1885
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2076:. 2 Vols. Brussels: Labor. Vol. 1, pp. 15â34.
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1756:The Berlin West African Conference, 1884â1885
1331:. By 1895, the only independent states were:
1276:force if necessary, such as was the case for
2535:(Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2013). 149â170
2345:Aghie, Antony (2004). Landauer, Carl (ed.).
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1883:European Alliances and Alignments: 1871â1890
1870:European Alliances and Alignments: 1871â1890
777:The General Act fixed the following points:
45:The conference of Berlin, as illustrated in
1843:H.M. Stanley: Explorateur au Service du Roi
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2509:International Journal of Heritage Studies
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280:to join the European invasion of Africa.
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2160:Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts
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838:and east of it in an area south of 5° N.
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89:can be seen as the formalisation of the
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2362:Prelude to the Partition of West Africa
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1499:Motives and David Livingstone's crusade
849:rivers were made free for ship traffic.
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2524:Harlow, Barbara, and Mia Carter, eds.
2164:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
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801:International Association of the Congo
427:Gabriel August van der Straten-Ponthoz
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1646:The Belgian Congo and the Berlin act
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906:adding citations to reliable sources
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209:, which had essentially abandoned a
98:doors of the Berlin Conference. But
3338:19th-century diplomatic conferences
2729:International relations (1814â1919)
1980:General-Akte der Berliner Konferenz
1914:
1442:republic founded by Dutch settlers.
826:The 14 signatory powers would have
298:, which it controlled for decades.
237:Basin (1874â1877) removed the last
13:
2653:
2480:
2398:London Review of International Law
2384:. London: Longman, 1974, 4th edn.
2118:. Brussels. 1885â1886. p. 22.
2019:
2000:London Review of International Law
1888:
1719:London Review of International Law
23:Berlin Conference (disambiguation)
14:
3389:
3328:Diplomatic conferences in Germany
2611:
2454:. pp. 21â34. London: Pinter.
2427:; 30 topical chapters by experts.
2025:
1921:Wang, Shih-tsung (31 July 1998).
1778:American Political Science Review
1762:
1692:. London: Pinter. pp. 21â34.
1596:wrote in 1948 that alongside the
1456:(Transvaal), also a Boer republic
1308:and, having already defeated the
982:principle of effective occupation
874:Principle of effective occupation
168:International African Association
2665:
2585:Belgium and the Congo, 1885â1980
2567:How Europe Underdeveloped Africa
2423:(Oxford University Press, 1988)
2192:(Oxford University Press, 2005).
1549:
1446:
1428:
1403:
1388:
1364:
1350:
1336:
1093:, the border would pass between
882:
870:is contained in the Berlin Act.
859:, to the other signatory powers.
744:
718:
691:
653:
627:
594:
567:
540:
505:
473:
446:
412:
386:
341:
73:The conference was organized by
3348:1885 in international relations
3343:1884 in international relations
3313:European colonisation of Africa
2353:
2338:
2285:
2245:
2220:
2195:
2182:
2136:
2108:
2079:
2066:
1987:
1875:
1862:
1849:
1145:, going up to the extremity of
1073:, on the northeastern coast of
893:needs additional citations for
66:and trade in Africa during the
2528:(Duke University Press, 2020).
1947:
1937:
1927:
1815:
1802:
1652:
772:
1:
3099:KronstadtâToulon naval visits
3053:1917 Franco-Russian agreement
3043:JapanâKorea Annexation Treaty
2577:46#1 (1985), pp. 37â48.
2552:Institute of European History
2548:EGO â European History Online
2408:. New York: Longmans, Green.
2349:. Cambridge University Press.
2090:. Brussels. pp. 177â189.
1629:
1097:, which would be French, and
301:
133:
2959:Second Industrial Revolution
2833:League of the Three Emperors
2633:South African History Online
2326:. Vol. 21, no. 4.
1296:. The British moved up from
1175:
7:
2989:Treaty of Versailles (1871)
2606:International Organization.
2554:. Retrieved 25 March 2021 (
2516:Journal of Economic History
2499:Political Science Quarterly
1612:
1528:Arab-controlled slave trade
1163:to the intersection of the
672:AntÎnio José da Serra Gomes
423:International Congo Society
419:International Congo Society
256:, using a claim of another
176:International Congo Society
10:
3394:
3038:JapanâKorea Treaty of 1905
2371:
2144:States and Power in Africa
1943:National Taiwan University
1384:Second Italo-Ethiopian War
667:Portuguese colonial empire
248:France moved to take over
20:
3197:
3061:
2974:
2859:European balance of power
2851:
2786:
2735:
2493:Leon, Daniel De (1886). "
2459:Brazza, A Life for Africa
2360:Hargreaves, John (1963).
1979:
1787:10.1017/S0003055424000054
1758:. London: Longmans Green.
1380:First Italo-Ethiopian War
1022:
683:AntĂłnio de Serpa Pimentel
438:Auguste, Baron Lambermont
252:, one of the last of the
3150:Venezuela Naval Blockade
2821:Anglo-Russian Convention
2457:Petringa, Maria (2006).
2416:(1981, New ed. edition).
2404:Crowe, Sybil E. (1942).
2312:Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt
2086:Thomson, Robert (1933).
1808:Chamberlain, Muriel E.,
518:American colonial empire
399:Austrian colonial empire
3155:Alaska boundary dispute
2828:Anglo-Japanese Alliance
2811:Franco-Russian Alliance
2618:"The Berlin Conference"
2382:The Scramble for Africa
2062:(subscription required)
1810:The Scramble for Africa
732:Swedish colonial empire
608:Italian colonial empire
581:British colonial empire
533:(as Technical Adviser)
467:, 1st Count of Benomar
465:Francisco Merry y Colom
460:Spanish colonial empire
170:the same year, invited
3373:19th century in Berlin
3074:Unification of Germany
3021:TaftâKatsura agreement
2661:
2641:Listen to this article
2378:Chamberlain, Muriel E.
2058:Discovering Collection
1928:æææè°èè±ćăæ°ćžć䞻矩ă,1884â85
1542:Analysis by historians
1526:crusade to defeat the
1511:
1464:and the ending of the
1454:South African Republic
1264:
1065:: A line running from
998:
554:French colonial empire
486:Danish colonial empire
406:von SĂĄrvĂĄr-FelsĆvidĂ©k
355:German colonial empire
239:
147:
51:
38:
3160:First Moroccan Crisis
2874:Spread of nationalism
2838:Eight-Nation Alliance
2660:
2600:Yao, Joanne (2022). "
2542:Nuzzo, Luigi (2012),
2511:22.7 (2016): 515â529.
2052:"Historical Context:
1958:on 13 September 2020.
1754:Crowe, S. E. (1942).
1506:
1306:Sultanate of Zanzibar
1183:
996:
645:Philip van der Hoeven
640:Dutch colonial empire
372:Heinrich von Kusserow
313:Chancellor of Germany
262:Republic of the Congo
219:Restoration-era Spain
164:Leopold II of Belgium
141:
87:General Act of Berlin
83:Leopold II of Belgium
79:chancellor of Germany
44:
31:
3165:Algeciras Conference
3145:Annexation of Hawaii
3084:Great Eastern Crisis
3079:Unification of Italy
3069:Formation of Romania
2886:FrenchâGerman enmity
2692:More spoken articles
2436:King Leopold's Ghost
1885:(1950), pp. 251â280.
1872:(1950), pp. 217â220.
1868:Langer, William L.,
1598:Atlantic slave trade
1474:British protectorate
1400:in the 20th century.
1394:Majeerteen Sultanate
902:improve this article
868:spheres of influence
586:Edward Baldwin Malet
531:Henry Morton Stanley
172:Henry Morton Stanley
81:, at the request of
3230:PhilippineâAmerican
3215:First Sino-Japanese
3048:Racconigi agreement
2994:Treaty of Frankfurt
2954:Great Rapprochement
2908:Scramble for Africa
2490:(Klosterman, 2012).
2146:. Ch. 3, pp. 71â72.
1984:, 26 February 1885.
1733:10.1093/lril/lrv002
1712:Craven, M. (2015).
1602:Franco-Prussian War
1583:Scramble for Africa
1483:from 1899 to 1902.
1273:Scramble for Africa
1254: Independent (
1165:15th parallel north
1057:issued an ultimatum
917:"Berlin Conference"
705:Russian colonialism
559:Alphonse de Courcel
272:became part of the
201:in what is now the
91:Scramble for Africa
48:Illustrirte Zeitung
3089:Congress of Berlin
3006:Reinsurance Treaty
2984:Congress of Vienna
2964:Industrial warfare
2930:Scramble for China
2662:
2583:Vanthemsche, Guy.
2294:Harvard Law School
2007:on 16 October 2015
1561:. You can help by
1512:
1417:Italian Somaliland
1409:Sultanate of Hobyo
1265:
1169:21st meridian east
1161:17th meridian east
1121:14th meridian east
999:
364:Paul von Hatzfeldt
334:Plenipotentiaries
296:Khedivate of Egypt
148:
142:Cartoon depicting
52:
39:
3300:
3299:
3269:Albanian Revolts
3126:German Naval Laws
3110:Naval arms races
3094:Berlin Conference
3026:Hague Conventions
2658:
2518:(2018): 231â267.
2486:Craven, Matthew.
2467:978-1-4259-1198-0
2142:Herbst, Jeffrey.
2054:Heart of Darkness
2032:bbc.co.uk/history
1951:). Archived from
1895:Rosenberg, Matt.
1579:
1578:
1520:David Livingstone
1436:Orange Free State
1322:Orange Free State
1089:degrees north in
978:
977:
970:
952:
813:Francis de Winton
792:Heart of Darkness
767:
766:
762:Mehmed Said Pasha
613:Edoardo de Launay
360:Otto von Bismarck
320:plenipotentiaries
309:Otto von Bismarck
289:subsequent mutiny
203:Republic of Congo
75:Otto von Bismarck
56:Berlin Conference
3385:
3378:1880s in Prussia
3358:1885 conferences
3353:1884 conferences
3220:SpanishâAmerican
3140:Fashoda Incident
3016:Treaty of Björkö
3001:Treaty of Berlin
2935:Open Door Policy
2869:Eastern question
2816:Entente Cordiale
2722:
2715:
2708:
2699:
2698:
2682:
2680:
2669:
2668:
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2647:
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2431:Hochschild, Adam
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1594:W. E. B. Du Bois
1590:African-American
1574:
1571:
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1450:
1449:
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1372:Ethiopian Empire
1370:
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1157:Tropic of Cancer
1029:PortugalâBritain
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817:Congo Free State
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527:Henry S. Sanford
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215:Kingdom of Kongo
195:Pierre de Brazza
187:Congo Free State
3393:
3392:
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3387:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3323:1885 in Germany
3318:1884 in Germany
3303:
3302:
3301:
3296:
3235:Boxer Rebellion
3193:
3057:
3011:Treaty of Paris
2976:
2970:
2903:New Imperialism
2864:Ottoman decline
2847:
2794:Triple Alliance
2782:
2743:Austria-Hungary
2731:
2726:
2696:
2695:
2684:
2678:
2676:
2673:This audio file
2670:
2663:
2654:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2640:
2614:
2590:Waller, Bruce.
2483:
2481:Further reading
2374:
2369:
2358:
2354:
2343:
2339:
2323:Foreign Affairs
2309:
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1992:
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1976:
1972:
1960:Also available
1955:
1932:
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1643:
1636:
1632:
1615:
1575:
1569:
1566:
1559:needs expansion
1544:
1522:, called for a
1501:
1481:Second Boer War
1462:Mahdi rebellion
1447:
1445:
1429:
1427:
1365:
1363:
1351:
1349:
1337:
1335:
1282:King of Katanga
1251:
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1233:
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1222:
1214:
1213:
1205:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1178:
1131:BritainâGermany
1125:German Cameroon
1113:meridians east.
1025:
974:
963:
957:
954:
911:
909:
899:
887:
876:
830:throughout the
775:
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394:Austria-Hungary
387:
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374:
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366:
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342:
340:
331:Colonial empire
304:
274:Triple Alliance
241:terra incognita
223:Catholic Church
211:colonial empire
136:
104:Austria-Hungary
100:Wm. Roger Louis
68:New Imperialism
35:Die Gartenlaube
26:
19:
12:
11:
5:
3391:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3368:1884 in Africa
3365:
3363:1885 in Africa
3360:
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3252:
3247:
3245:Russo-Japanese
3242:
3237:
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3222:
3217:
3212:
3210:Anglo-Egyptian
3207:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3184:Bosnian Crisis
3181:
3180:
3179:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3133:Austro-Italian
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2913:Egyptian Lever
2900:
2898:Pax Britannica
2895:
2894:
2893:
2883:
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2879:Sovereign debt
2876:
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2806:Triple Entente
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2773:United Kingdom
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2562:Rodney, Walter
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2258:Foreign Policy
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2045:
2018:
1986:
1970:
1948:ćç«èșçŁć€§ćžæ·ćČćžçł»æšç 究æ
1913:
1887:
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1822:Acherson, Neal
1814:
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1570:September 2020
1556:
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1466:Fashoda crisis
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1114:
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2843:Balkan League
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2414:0-8371-3287-8
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2390:0-582-36881-2
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2314:(July 1943).
2313:
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2288:
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2274:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2233:
2232:www.bbc.co.uk
2229:
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2207:www.bbc.co.uk
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2033:
2029:
2026:David, Saul.
2022:
2006:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1990:
1983:
1974:
1967:
1963:
1954:
1944:
1924:
1917:
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1557:This section
1555:
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1325:
1323:
1319:
1316:republics of
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1302:Mahdist State
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1261:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1230:
1229:Great Britain
1220:
1211:
1202:
1193:
1182:
1170:
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1144:
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1129:
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1118:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:no man's land
1100:
1096:
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1088:
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1080:
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933:
929:
926:
922:
919: â
918:
914:
913:Find sources:
907:
903:
897:
896:
891:This article
889:
885:
880:
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871:
869:
861:
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837:
833:
829:
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818:
814:
809:
806:
802:
798:
797:Joseph Conrad
794:
793:
788:
784:
780:
779:
778:
770:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
742:
741:
738:
735:
733:
730:
727:
726:SwedenâNorway
715:
714:
711:
710:Pyotr Kapnist
708:
706:
703:
700:
688:
687:
684:
678:
673:
670:
668:
665:
662:
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649:
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624:
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563:
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552:
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536:
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528:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
513:United States
503:
502:
497:
492:
489:
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470:
466:
463:
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384:
383:
378:
373:
369:
368:Clemens Busch
365:
361:
358:
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314:
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243:
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230:
228:
227:Great Britain
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
183:
181:
180:imperialistic
177:
173:
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165:
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158:
154:
145:
140:
131:
129:
128:United States
125:
121:
120:Sweden-Norway
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
95:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
57:
50:
49:
43:
37:
36:
30:
24:
16:
3118:
3114:Anglo-German
3103:
3093:
2975:Treaties and
2736:Great powers
2622:
2605:
2591:
2584:
2574:
2565:
2544:Colonial Law
2532:
2525:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2498:
2487:
2473:
2458:
2451:
2434:
2420:
2405:
2396:
2381:
2364:. Macmillam.
2361:
2355:
2346:
2340:
2321:
2306:
2297:
2293:
2287:
2261:. Retrieved
2257:
2247:
2235:. Retrieved
2231:
2222:
2210:. Retrieved
2206:
2197:
2189:
2188:Roger Owen,
2184:
2159:
2151:
2143:
2138:
2115:
2110:
2087:
2081:
2073:
2068:
2053:
2048:
2038:19 September
2036:. Retrieved
2031:
2021:
2011:24 September
2009:. Retrieved
2005:the original
1998:
1989:
1973:
1953:the original
1916:
1906:19 September
1904:. Retrieved
1900:
1890:
1882:
1877:
1869:
1864:
1856:
1851:
1842:
1825:
1817:
1809:
1804:
1777:
1755:
1723:
1717:
1689:
1665:
1654:
1645:
1607:
1587:
1580:
1567:
1563:adding to it
1558:
1536:
1532:
1523:
1513:
1508:
1478:
1459:
1422:
1326:
1310:Zulu Kingdom
1298:South Africa
1270:
1266:
1153:FranceâItaly
1152:
1130:
1116:
1069:in Niger to
1062:
1028:
1012:
1008:
1000:
981:
979:
964:
955:
945:
938:
931:
924:
912:
900:Please help
895:verification
892:
865:
857:protectorate
820:
790:
776:
768:
737:Gillis Bildt
317:
305:
282:
264:in 1881 and
247:
231:
184:
161:
157:luxury goods
149:
96:
86:
77:, the first
72:
64:colonization
55:
53:
46:
33:
15:
3333:Imperialism
3292:World War I
3255:Balkan Wars
3240:Second Boer
3225:Banana Wars
3189:July Crisis
3120:Dreadnought
3105:Weltpolitik
2949:Pan-Slavism
2623:In Our Time
2263:13 November
2237:13 November
2212:13 November
1964:, original
1294:World War I
987:sovereignty
836:Lake Malawi
834:as well as
832:Congo Basin
821:Law Gazette
773:General Act
675: [
635:Netherlands
616: [
494: [
430: [
375: [
235:Congo River
205:. Finally,
199:Brazzaville
116:Netherlands
60:adjournment
3307:Categories
2977:agreements
2925:Great Game
2891:Revanchism
2688:Audio help
2679:2017-12-11
1935:(Report).
1630:References
1592:historian
1041:Mozambique
1016:hinterland
928:newspapers
828:free trade
302:Conference
285:Suez Canal
144:Leopold II
134:Background
126:, and the
2940:Meiji era
2787:Alliances
2550:, Mainz:
2401:3, 31â59.
2332:0015-7120
2124:cite book
2096:cite book
1901:ThoughtCo
1796:0003-0554
1726:: 31â59.
1524:worldwide
1509:Narrative
1495:in 1912.
1476:in 1914.
1318:Transvaal
1176:Aftermath
1147:Lake Chad
1137:, on the
1075:Lake Chad
958:June 2021
491:Emil Vind
268:in 1884.
70:period.
2690: ·
2570:(1972) â
2433:(1999).
2380:(2014).
2273:cite web
1881:Langer,
1780:: 1â20.
1613:See also
1320:and the
1304:and the
1288:and the
1260:Ethiopia
1247:Portugal
1167:and the
1159:and the
1091:latitude
1049:Zimbabwe
1033:Pink Map
661:Portugal
221:and the
207:Portugal
2920:In Asia
2753:Germany
2677: (
2648:minutes
2594:(1974)
2372:Sources
1859:(1988).
1828:(1999).
1812:(1999).
1516:slavery
1493:Spanish
1413:Somalia
1378:in the
1376:Eritrea
1358:Liberia
1344:Morocco
1256:Liberia
1201:Germany
1192:Belgium
1095:OuaddaĂŻ
1004:Britain
942:scholar
787:Islamic
783:African
481:Denmark
349:Germany
293:Ottoman
278:Germany
250:Tunisia
112:Denmark
3278:Second
3265:Second
3062:Events
2852:Trends
2768:Russia
2748:France
2620:, BBC
2596:online
2579:online
2575:Phylon
2537:online
2520:online
2465:
2443:
2425:online
2412:
2388:
2330:
2172:
1931:]
1794:
1489:French
1451:
1433:
1369:
1355:
1341:
1329:Sahara
1286:Sahara
1252:
1245:
1243:
1236:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1219:France
1217:
1215:
1208:
1206:
1199:
1197:
1190:
1188:
1099:Darfur
1071:Maroua
1053:Malawi
1051:, and
1045:Zambia
1037:Angola
1023:Agenda
944:
937:
930:
923:
915:
749:
723:
699:Russia
696:
658:
632:
599:
572:
548:France
545:
510:
478:
451:
391:
346:
311:, the
266:Guinea
258:piracy
191:France
122:, the
114:, the
108:Russia
85:. The
3283:Third
3273:First
3260:First
2763:Japan
2758:Italy
2034:. BBC
1956:(PDF)
1933:(PDF)
1925:[
1485:Libya
1470:Egypt
1398:Italy
1290:Sahel
1278:Msiri
1238:Italy
1210:Spain
1143:Dekoa
1139:Benue
949:JSTOR
935:books
847:Congo
843:Niger
679:]
620:]
602:Italy
498:]
454:Spain
434:]
379:]
328:State
270:Italy
153:ivory
3198:Wars
2504:(1).
2463:ISBN
2441:ISBN
2410:ISBN
2386:ISBN
2328:ISSN
2300:(4).
2279:link
2265:2022
2239:2022
2214:2022
2170:ISBN
2130:link
2102:link
2040:2017
2013:2018
1966:here
1962:here
1908:2017
1792:ISSN
1491:and
1440:Boer
1438:, a
1314:Boer
1271:The
1258:and
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1111:23rd
1109:and
1107:21st
1087:15th
1085:and
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1079:Nile
1039:and
980:The
921:news
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841:The
785:and
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