Antarctic Treaty System

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status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of the continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years.

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inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused a crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition.

911: 473:, to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed. 51: 819: 2031: 1104: 1079: 1943: 1772: 2264: 617: 1620: 2300: 322: 1302: 2070: 1982: 1684: 1648: 2100: 4485: 1516: 1027: 1956: 2358: 1346: 695: 2044: 1594: 1542: 883: 2008: 1864: 1746: 1001: 1197: 2236: 1398: 1372: 1143: 793: 2330: 1890: 1171: 1117: 767: 146: 2210: 1568: 1710: 1320: 937: 1292: 1261: 1053: 1808: 2156: 4671: 1836: 849: 1916: 1225: 1452: 2128: 1480: 1424: 4495: 385:

on 1 February 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on 4 February. In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to

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Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one

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Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on the continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at the end of it. However, in February 1958,

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In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of the United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France,

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The positions of the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for

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The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in the mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the

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to declare the invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On 15 July 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on 1 August, the Argentine government also did so, so on 16 March 1956, the claims

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launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress, the Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police

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was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until 31 August 2009. He was succeeded on 1 September 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was

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In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making a territorial

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enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty is often considered to represent an example of the

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Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to

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As of 2024, there are 57 states party to the treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 49 non-claimant countries do not

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that took place between 1 July 1957, and 31 December 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At the ICSU meeting in Stockholm from 9 to 11 September 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic

342:, the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices. Its goals were to train military personnel and to test material in conditions of extreme cold for a hypothetical war in the Antarctic. 3223:"Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, 8 January 2007) – ATS 1 of 2011” 3199:"Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of the Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, 25 October 1938). ATS 13 of 1938." 594:

are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 57 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 28 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the

3720:…formålet med anneksjonen var å legge under seg det landet som til nå ligger herreløst og som ingen andre enn nordmenn har kartlagt og gransket. Norske myndigheter har derfor ikke motsatt seg at noen tolker det norske kravet slik at det går helt opp til og inkluderer polpunktet. 3211:"Treaty between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on cooperation in the maritime areas adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, 24 November 2003) – ATS 6 of 2005” 580:

Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, 8 January

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Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, 25 October

390:, which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent a fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948. 576:

Treaty Between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on Cooperation in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, 24 November

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incorporates the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements into South African law. In regard to violations of these treaties, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa.

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machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and a nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on 18 February near

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investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica.

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the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until the studies being carried out had been completed.

562:, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific. A sixth annex on liability arising from environmental emergencies was adopted in 2005, but is yet to enter into force. 361:

of Antarctica, and the United Kingdom supported this. Chile responded by presenting a plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years while negotiating a final solution, but this did not find acceptance.

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Jennifer Frakes, The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise? Wisconsin International Law Journal. 2003;

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and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. The Antarctic Treaty also has

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pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the

2506:, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy 312:

for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2024, the treaty has 57 parties.

2441:. Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to the area between its 484:

The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in the framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic

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was signed 4 October 1991, and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on

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As of the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a relative majority.

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In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the

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Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States,

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recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty".

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Section 2 of the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, No. 55 of 1962, as amended by the Environmental Laws Rationalisation Act, No. 51 of 1997.

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succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China.

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Supporting the annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) and the meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).

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Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$ 10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of

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Other agreements – some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments – include:

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Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Beardmore South Field Camp, Antarctica, 7–13 January 1985

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Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment: Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Beardmore South Field Camp, Antarctica, 7–13 January 1985

2565: 2553: 5062: 8210: 8190: 8015: 7414: 6420: 4833: 2482:) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the 124: 8195: 7011: 6609: 6197: 2660: 338:, the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From 26 August 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, it carried out 3945: 8145: 8120: 7803: 4522: 2949: 2601: 3089: 8095: 5749: 4503: 3769: 2638: 2557: 6614: 3742: 8020: 7935: 7697: 7378: 7200: 7090: 6859: 5448: 5397: 4266: 3860: 2576:, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the 2568:

share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the

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and Norway. Before the rejection, on 28 August 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of

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Johnstone, Rachael Lorna; Jabour, Julia; Tamm, Sune (8 December 2018). "Iceland's Accession to the Antarctic Treaty".

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or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between

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Facilitating the exchange of information between the Parties required in the Treaty and the Environment Protocol.

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and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from

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East Germany also acceded on 19 November 1974, and received consultative status on 5 October 1987, prior to its

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San Diego Union-Tribune, 25 August 2005 (Both South Korea and North Korea are members of the Antarctic Treaty)

3424: 604:, which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts. 304:(IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the 8150: 8135: 8115: 8085: 8000: 7905: 7076: 6586: 5719: 4261: 4223: 4034: 345:

On 2 September 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which the United States was interested (between 24° W and

3160:"In 30 years the Antarctic Treaty becomes modifiable, and the fate of a continent could hang in the balance" 2998: 2821: 8200: 8185: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8010: 7970: 7965: 7960: 6985: 6871: 6714: 5760: 5221: 4989: 4172: 4102: 4049: 4022: 2646: 2479: 2393: 420:

On 4 May 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the

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located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the

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Providing and disseminating public information about the Antarctic Treaty system and Antarctic activities.

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This 1959 cover commemorated the opening of the Wilkes post office in the Australian Antarctic Territory.

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detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor

2503: 445: 5068: 2461: 149: 7833: 6649: 6523: 6443: 5952: 5779: 4981: 4592: 4418: 4208: 4004: 3799: 3225:. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved 18 April 2017. 3213:. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved 18 April 2017. 185: 3680: 3198: 452:, the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the 300:

on 23 June 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the

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at the South Pole base in May 2000. Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States'

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Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaty Series. Retrieved 15 April 2017

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Various international conflicts motivated the creation of an agreement for the Antarctic.

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The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas:

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Orrego Vicuna, Francisco (1986). "Antarctic Conflict and International Cooperation".

2922: 2912: 2708: 2697: 382: 308:, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had established over 55 297: 161: 637: Parties with consulting status reserving the right to make a territorial claim 7861: 7593: 7285: 7165: 6991: 6964: 6904: 6779: 6709: 6694: 6433: 6362: 6357: 6331: 6326: 6208: 6131: 6084: 5851: 5671: 5636: 5532: 5527: 5461: 5375: 5157: 5149: 5035: 4955: 4907: 4897: 4870: 4514: 4460: 3942: 3483: 3304: 3061: 2681: 559: 551: 394: 208:; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all the land and 3922: 3666:

Wright, Minturn, "The Ownership of Antarctica, Its Living and Mineral Resources",

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Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist

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In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the

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claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none.

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The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially

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the discharge or disposal of pollutants into Antarctica or Antarctic waters

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Disposal of waste by simply dumping it at the shoreline, as at the Russian

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Collecting, storing, arranging and publishing the documents of the ATCM.

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On 17 January 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on

189: 166: 153: 353:, committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression. 7177: 6014: 5566: 5349: 4582: 4157: 3932: 3845: 3030: 3012: 2642: 2539:

the introduction into Antarctica of non-indigenous plants and animals

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Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities

511:, is no longer permitted by the Protocol on Environmental Protection. 413:. A British detachment remained three months on the island while the 209: 193: 4759: 1800:

Australia. Effective from their independence on 16 September 1975.

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Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

325:

Map of research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2015)

7109: 4182: 3134:"Por qué es importante la Antártida para Uruguay con miras al 2048" 2634: 2618: 2609: 201: 7736: 7116: 5381: 5357: 5345: 2529: 520:

Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora

414: 5903: 2829: 5982: 5307: 3305:"Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty" 2548:

the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica

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Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the

5368: 3965: 2633:, South African law applies to all South African citizens in 3816:"Death of Australian astrophysicist an Antarctic whodunnit". 3236:"Welcome to the Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty Website" 3136:(in Spanish). El Observador. 21 January 2021. Archived from 548:

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

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Whiteman, Marjorie (1963). "Tripartite Naval Declaration".

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Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants.

405: 220:, which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in 3927: 3839:"New Zealand Probes What May Be First South Pole Murder". 3704:"Norge utvider Dronning Maud Land helt frem til Sydpolen" 2369: 2346: 2341: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2288: 2283: 2278: 2252: 2247: 2221: 2195: 2172: 2167: 2144: 2139: 2116: 2111: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2055: 2019: 1993: 1967: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1901: 1875: 1852: 1847: 1824: 1819: 1783: 1757: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1695: 1672: 1667: 1662: 1636: 1631: 1605: 1579: 1553: 1527: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1468: 1463: 1440: 1435: 1409: 1383: 1357: 1331: 1283: 1278: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1213: 1208: 1182: 1159: 1154: 1128: 1095: 1090: 1064: 1038: 1012: 989: 984: 961: 956: 951: 922: 899: 894: 871: 866: 837: 832: 827: 804: 778: 755: 750: 745: 719: 714: 709: 444:(ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third 6573: 3869: 2492:

Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981

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National Science Foundation – Office of Polar Programs

3548:"Russian Federation: Ratification of Antarctic Treaty" 3235: 602:

Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM)

3912: 3876:"South Pole Death Mystery – Who killed Rodney Marks?" 3642:

Department of International Relations and Cooperation

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in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence.

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without a native human population. It was the first

3473: 2966:"Falkland Islands Dependencies (Hope Bay Incident)" 349:) was included as part of the security zone of the 4303:Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs 3943:List of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings 3518:"Papua New Guinea: Succession to Antarctic Treaty" 2944:. Washington: National Academy Press. p. 55. 2911:. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1986. 2637:, and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the 2542:entry into specially protected or scientific areas 2488:Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 661:Overview of parties to the Antarctic Treaty System 527:Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals 176:and related agreements, collectively known as the 3866:, (14 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006. 2621:for failing to cooperate with the investigation. 435: 7882: 3831: 3425:"Czech Republic: Succession to Antarctic Treaty" 3383: 3381: 3379: 7976:Treaties of the military dictatorship in Brazil 7946:Treaties establishing nuclear-weapon-free zones 3850:(19 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006. 3828:, 14 December 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2006. 3805:, 17 December 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2006. 3278: 3276: 3274: 2536:the taking of native Antarctic mammals or birds 2387: 2036:Czechoslovakia, which acceded on 14 June 1962. 1109:Czechoslovakia, which acceded on 14 June 1962. 3861:"South Pole scientist may have been poisoned". 3284:"Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Parties" 2631:South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, 1962 655: Non-party UN member states and observers 624: Parties with consulting status making a 351:Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance 8141:Treaties of the Socialist Republic of Romania 7981:Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria 4775: 4530: 3981: 3612:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3552:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3522:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3454:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3429:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 3376: 3363:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 2939: 2856:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 592:Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) 277: 3578:"San Marino accedes to the Antarctic Treaty" 3271: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 464: 16:International treaties concerning Antarctica 8066:Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic 3792: 3389:"The Antarctic Treaty System: Introduction" 3092:(in Spanish). El Mostrador. 20 January 2022 3054:European Journal of International Relations 2822:"ATS – Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty" 2700:, found in 2022 and protected by the treaty 7996:Treaties of the People's Republic of China 4782: 4768: 4537: 4523: 3988: 3974: 3608:"Slovakia: Succession to Antarctic Treaty" 3114:(in Spanish). Revista Marina. 24 July 2021 3013:"Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Argentina)" 2870: 643: Other parties with consulting status 442:International Council of Scientific Unions 369: 284: 270: 8216:December 1959 events in the United States 3065: 2987:. U.S. Department of State. p. 1238. 2779: 8131:Treaties of the Polish People's Republic 7840:Pole of Inaccessibility research station 3853: 3630: 3450:"Germany: Accession to Antarctic Treaty" 2982: 2460: 615: 498: 320: 160: 7415:Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition 3899:Antarctic Treaties Act, No. 60 of 1996. 3031:"Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Chile))" 649: Parties without consulting status 377:Some incidents had occurred during the 125:Federal government of the United States 7883: 3923:Original facsimile of Antarctic Treaty 3702:Rapp, Ole Magnus (21 September 2015). 2762: 2760: 2661:Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition 6559: 4801: 4789: 4763: 4518: 3969: 3328: 3326: 2985:Digest of International Law, Volume 2 590:The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly 566: 543:(1988) (signed in 1988, not in force) 134:English, French, Russian, and Spanish 4494: 3955:An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas 3701: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2384:Reserved the right to make a claim. 165:A 2006 satellite composite image of 7941:Treaties entered into force in 1961 7201:Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition 5398:Norse colonization of North America 3844:, (14 December 2006), reprinted in 3808: 3800:"South Pole death file still open". 3405:from the original on 9 October 2022 3090:"La Antártica después del año 2048" 3047: 2757: 522:(1964) (entered into force in 1982) 494: 56:Flag of the Antarctic Treaty System 13: 6730:United States Exploring Expedition 3767: 3668:Journal of Law and the Environment 3588:from the original on 19 March 2023 3323: 2776:, 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 1, p. 439. 2570:Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs 417:patrolled its waters until April. 100:Ratification of all 12 signatories 14: 8227: 7804:Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station 7172:Australasian Antarctic Expedition 3918:Full Text of the Antarctic Treaty 3906: 3396:United States Department of State 3338:United States Department of State 3309:United States Department of State 2896: 2882:United States Department of State 2800:United States Department of State 2602:Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station 450:World Meteorological Organization 200:agreement established during the 7931:Territorial claims in Antarctica 7698:Amundsen's South Pole expedition 7091:Amundsen's South Pole expedition 4669: 4546:Territorial claims in Antarctica 4493: 4484: 4483: 4243: 3476:The Yearbook of Polar Law Online 3162:. The Conversation. 12 July 2018 2729:Category: Outposts of Antarctica 2497: 2437:is the only major land on Earth 2356: 2328: 2298: 2262: 2234: 2208: 2182: 2154: 2126: 2098: 2068: 2042: 2029: 2006: 1980: 1954: 1941: 1914: 1888: 1862: 1834: 1806: 1793: 1770: 1744: 1708: 1682: 1646: 1618: 1592: 1566: 1540: 1514: 1478: 1450: 1422: 1396: 1370: 1344: 1318: 1300: 1290: 1259: 1223: 1195: 1169: 1141: 1115: 1102: 1077: 1051: 1025: 999: 971: 935: 909: 881: 847: 817: 791: 765: 729: 693: 556:environmental impact assessments 230:International ownership treaties 144: 49: 3893: 3884: 3768:(USMS), U.S. Marshals Service. 3761: 3735: 3725: 3695: 3673: 3660: 3638:"Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)" 3600: 3570: 3540: 3510: 3467: 3442: 3417: 3351: 3297: 3246: 3228: 3216: 3204: 3192: 3174: 3152: 3126: 3104: 3082: 3041: 3023: 3005: 2991: 2769:The New Encyclopædia Britannica 2734:Research stations in Antarctica 2624: 2478:(which follows the laws of the 2423: 1309:reunification with West Germany 430:United Nations General Assembly 84:Washington, D.C., United States 8211:History of the Ross Dependency 8191:Treaties of the United Kingdom 8016:Treaties of the Czech Republic 4573:Australian Antarctic Territory 3995: 3961:Emblem of the Antarctic Treaty 3928:Australian Antarctic Territory 3035:International Court of Justice 3017:International Court of Justice 2976: 2958: 2933: 2844: 2814: 2704:International Seabed Authority 2587: 2471:Australian Antarctic Territory 454:International Geophysical Year 436:International Geophysical Year 422:International Court of Justice 302:International Geophysical Year 1: 8196:Treaties of the United States 7077:Japanese Antarctic Expedition 7012:Scottish Antarctic Expedition 6560: 2750: 2469:Since the designation of the 8146:Treaties of the Soviet Union 8121:Treaties of Papua New Guinea 7434:Soviet Antarctic Expeditions 7250:Shackleton–Rowett Expedition 7056:French Antarctic Expeditions 6986:Swedish Antarctic Expedition 6872:Belgian Antarctic Expedition 4990:Lady Franklin Bay Expedition 3913:Antarctic Treaty Secretariat 3710:(in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway 2774:Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2647:Antarctic Treaties Act, 1996 2480:Australian Capital Territory 2456: 2400:Antarctic Treaty Secretariat 2394:Antarctic Treaty Secretariat 2388:Antarctic Treaty Secretariat 381:, and a new one occurred in 218:Antarctic Treaty Secretariat 216:. Since September 2004, the 7: 8096:Treaties of the Netherlands 6519:Nuclear-powered icebreakers 6198:Austro-Hungarian Expedition 5063:Andrée's balloon expedition 4637:Chilean Antarctic Territory 4625:British Antarctic Territory 3683:. Norwegian Polar Institute 2653: 2606:National Science Foundation 2582:National Science Foundation 585: 448:. At the suggestion of the 386:send warships south of the 310:Antarctic research stations 10: 8232: 8021:Treaties of Czechoslovakia 7936:Treaties concluded in 1959 5720:Franklin's lost expedition 5420:Christian IV's expeditions 4802: 3814:Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 3488:10.1163/22116427_009010012 2739:Solar radiation management 2724:National Antarctic Program 2515:Antarctic Conservation Act 2451:common heritage of mankind 2439:not claimed by any country 2391: 607: 316: 7537: 7268: 6855: 6595: 6572: 6568: 6555: 6074:Great Northern Expedition 5968: 5750:Rae–Richardson expedition 5499: 5344: 4950:British Arctic Expedition 4842: 4814: 4810: 4797: 4723: 4705: 4678: 4667: 4552: 4479: 4432: 4331: 4295: 4252: 4241: 4196: 4145: 4068: 4003: 3112:"La Antártica es urgente" 3067:10.1177/13540661211033889 2667:Antarctic Protected Areas 2484:Antarctic Treaty Act 1960 2354: 2326: 2296: 2260: 2232: 2206: 2180: 2152: 2124: 2096: 2066: 2040: 2004: 1978: 1952: 1912: 1886: 1860: 1832: 1804: 1768: 1742: 1706: 1680: 1644: 1616: 1590: 1564: 1538: 1512: 1476: 1448: 1420: 1394: 1368: 1342: 1316: 1257: 1221: 1193: 1167: 1139: 1113: 1075: 1049: 1023: 997: 969: 933: 907: 879: 845: 815: 789: 763: 727: 691: 686: 681: 673: 670: 667: 465:Negotiation of the treaty 143: 138: 130: 120: 112: 104: 96: 88: 80: 72: 62: 48: 36: 26: 8156:Treaties of South Africa 8051:Treaties of East Germany 8046:Treaties of West Germany 7901:1959 in Washington, D.C. 7358:British Antarctic Survey 7352:Captain Arturo Prat Base 6597:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 4153:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 3821:1 September 2007 at the 2578:Office of Polar Programs 2504:law of the United States 446:International Polar Year 329: 32:Traité sur l'Antarctique 8176:Treaties of Switzerland 8161:Treaties of South Korea 8106:Treaties of North Korea 8101:Treaties of New Zealand 7916:1961 in the environment 7834:Pole of inaccessibility 7497:Antarctic Treaty System 5838:2nd Grinnell expedition 3770:"U.S. Marshals Service" 370:International conflicts 238:Antarctic Treaty System 186:international relations 178:Antarctic Treaty System 3864:The New Zealand Herald 3826:Monstersandcritics.com 2766:"Antarctic Treaty" in 2672:Antarctic Treaty issue 2466: 657: 512: 505:Bellingshausen Station 326: 169: 41: 31: 8206:Treaties of Venezuela 8061:Treaties of Guatemala 7956:Treaties of Australia 7951:Treaties of Argentina 7921:Arms control treaties 7891:Antarctica agreements 7504:Transglobe Expedition 7403:Operation Deep Freeze 6812:Challenger expedition 5678:Coppermine expedition 5199:Drifting ice stations 3948:26 March 2010 at the 2517:, Public Law 95-541, 2464: 619: 502: 324: 164: 37:Договор об Антарктике 8151:Treaties of Slovakia 8136:Treaties of Portugal 8116:Treaties of Pakistan 8086:Treaties of Malaysia 8001:Treaties of Colombia 7906:December 1959 events 4738:Uruguayan Antarctica 4733:Brazilian Antarctica 4630:Queen Elizabeth Land 4568:Argentine Antarctica 3681:"Dronning Maud Land" 3584:. 22 February 2023. 3048:Yao, Joanne (2021). 2476:Jervis Bay Territory 2445:and the South Pole. 597:Consultative Parties 471:Dwight D. Eisenhower 359:internationalization 258:International waters 27:The Antarctic Treaty 8201:Treaties of Uruguay 8186:Treaties of Ukraine 8036:Treaties of Finland 8031:Treaties of Estonia 8026:Treaties of Ecuador 8011:Treaties of Denmark 7971:Treaties of Belgium 7966:Treaties of Belarus 7961:Treaties of Austria 7674:South magnetic pole 6340:Brusilov expedition 5449:Danish colonization 4887:North magnetic pole 4742:American Antarctica 4466:Robert Falcon Scott 4123:South magnetic pole 4081:Antarctic Peninsula 4076:Biogeographic realm 3842:The Daily Telegraph 2972:. 20 February 1952. 2719:Multilateral treaty 2687:Crime in Antarctica 630:Antarctic territory 554:, fauna and flora, 388:60th parallel south 23: 8181:Treaties of Turkey 8171:Treaties of Sweden 8111:Treaties of Norway 8091:Treaties of Monaco 8056:Treaties of Greece 8041:Treaties of France 7986:Treaties of Canada 7911:1961 in Antarctica 7896:1959 in Antarctica 7365:Operation Windmill 7346:Operation Highjump 6321:Rusanov expedition 6226:A. E. Nordenskiöld 5970:North East Passage 5774:McClure expedition 4749:Spanish Antarctica 4745:Russian Antarctica 4593:Princess Elizabeth 4404:Telecommunications 4318:Territorial claims 3780:on 5 February 2012 3359:"Antarctic Treaty" 3334:"Antarctic Region" 3254:"List of Meetings" 2878:"Antarctic Treaty" 2852:"Antarctic Treaty" 2796:"Antarctic Treaty" 2639:magistrate's court 2614:New Zealand Police 2467: 658: 567:Bilateral treaties 513: 509:King George Island 340:Operation Highjump 327: 298:entered into force 248:Outer Space Treaty 170: 21: 8166:Treaties of Spain 8081:Treaties of Japan 8076:Treaties of India 8071:Treaties of Italy 7991:Treaties of Chile 7926:Cold War treaties 7878: 7877: 7874: 7873: 7870: 7869: 7332:Operation Tabarin 7194:Far Eastern Party 7040:Nimrod Expedition 6551: 6550: 6547: 6546: 6110:M. Pronchishcheva 6032:Siberian Cossacks 5501:Northwest Passage 4834:Research stations 4791:Polar exploration 4757: 4756: 4724:Unrecognized and 4698: 4690: 4662: 4654: 4646: 4598:Kaiser Wilhelm II 4564: 4512: 4511: 4471:Ernest Shackleton 4399:Research stations 4344:Antarctic English 4313:National programs 4308:Military activity 4282:COVID-19 pandemic 4239: 4238: 4108:Floristic Kingdom 4013:Antarctic sea ice 3881:(21 January 2007) 3879:Sunday Star Times 3803:Sunday Star Times 3798:Hotere, Andrea. 3311:. 27 October 2017 3140:on 6 January 2021 2951:978-0-309-03640-5 2709:Montreal Protocol 2698:Ernest Shackleton 2380: 2379: 1777:Papua New Guinea 294: 293: 206:military activity 159: 158: 44: 42:Tratado Antártico 8223: 8126:Treaties of Peru 8006:Treaties of Cuba 7379:Ronne Expedition 6864: 6858: 6722:Dumont d'Urville 6570: 6569: 6557: 6556: 6105:V. Pronchishchev 4812: 4811: 4799: 4798: 4784: 4777: 4770: 4761: 4760: 4696: 4688: 4673: 4660: 4652: 4644: 4562: 4539: 4532: 4525: 4516: 4515: 4497: 4496: 4487: 4486: 4461:James Clark Ross 4433:Famous explorers 4247: 4066: 4065: 3990: 3983: 3976: 3967: 3966: 3900: 3897: 3891: 3888: 3882: 3873: 3867: 3859:Booker, Jarrod. 3857: 3851: 3847:The New York Sun 3835: 3829: 3812: 3806: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3776:. Archived from 3765: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3745:. Archived from 3739: 3733: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3717: 3715: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3677: 3671: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3644:. Archived from 3634: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3618:on 13 March 2014 3614:. Archived from 3604: 3598: 3597: 3595: 3593: 3582:Antarctic Treaty 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3558:on 13 March 2014 3554:. Archived from 3544: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3528:on 13 March 2014 3524:. Archived from 3514: 3508: 3507: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3446: 3440: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3404: 3393: 3385: 3374: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3355: 3349: 3348: 3346: 3344: 3330: 3321: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3280: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3156: 3150: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3069: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3027: 3021: 3020: 3009: 3003: 3002: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2905: 2894: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2858:. United Nations 2848: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2828:. Archived from 2818: 2812: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2792: 2777: 2764: 2682:Arctic sanctuary 2574:State Department 2435:150 degrees west 2371: 2362: 2360: 2359: 2348: 2343: 2334: 2332: 2331: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2304: 2302: 2301: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2269:United Kingdom ( 2268: 2266: 2265: 2254: 2249: 2240: 2238: 2237: 2223: 2214: 2212: 2211: 2197: 2188: 2186: 2185: 2174: 2169: 2160: 2158: 2157: 2146: 2141: 2132: 2130: 2129: 2118: 2113: 2104: 2102: 2101: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2074: 2072: 2071: 2057: 2048: 2046: 2045: 2035: 2033: 2032: 2027:Succession from 2021: 2012: 2010: 2009: 1995: 1986: 1984: 1983: 1969: 1960: 1958: 1957: 1947: 1945: 1944: 1939:Ratified as the 1936: 1931: 1926: 1920: 1918: 1917: 1903: 1894: 1892: 1891: 1877: 1868: 1866: 1865: 1854: 1849: 1840: 1838: 1837: 1826: 1821: 1812: 1810: 1809: 1799: 1797: 1796: 1791:Succession from 1785: 1776: 1774: 1773: 1759: 1750: 1748: 1747: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1714: 1712: 1711: 1697: 1688: 1686: 1685: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1652: 1650: 1649: 1638: 1633: 1624: 1622: 1621: 1607: 1598: 1596: 1595: 1581: 1572: 1570: 1569: 1555: 1546: 1544: 1543: 1529: 1520: 1518: 1517: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1488:historical claim 1484: 1482: 1481: 1470: 1465: 1456: 1454: 1453: 1442: 1437: 1428: 1426: 1425: 1411: 1402: 1400: 1399: 1385: 1376: 1374: 1373: 1359: 1350: 1348: 1347: 1333: 1324: 1322: 1321: 1306: 1304: 1303: 1296: 1294: 1293: 1285: 1280: 1269:historical claim 1265: 1263: 1262: 1251: 1246: 1241: 1229: 1227: 1226: 1215: 1210: 1201: 1199: 1198: 1184: 1175: 1173: 1172: 1161: 1156: 1147: 1145: 1144: 1130: 1121: 1119: 1118: 1108: 1106: 1105: 1100:Succession from 1097: 1092: 1083: 1081: 1080: 1066: 1057: 1055: 1054: 1040: 1031: 1029: 1028: 1014: 1005: 1003: 1002: 991: 986: 977: 975: 974: 963: 958: 953: 941: 939: 938: 924: 915: 913: 912: 901: 896: 887: 885: 884: 873: 868: 857:unofficial claim 853: 851: 850: 839: 834: 829: 823: 821: 820: 806: 797: 795: 794: 780: 771: 769: 768: 757: 752: 747: 735: 733: 732: 721: 716: 711: 699: 697: 696: 665: 664: 654: 648: 642: 636: 623: 560:waste management 552:marine pollution 495:Other agreements 395:Deception Island 379:Second World War 286: 279: 272: 227: 226: 188:with respect to 174:Antarctic Treaty 150:Antarctic Treaty 148: 147: 53: 38: 29: 24: 22:Antarctic Treaty 20: 8231: 8230: 8226: 8225: 8224: 8222: 8221: 8220: 7881: 7880: 7879: 7866: 7541: 7533: 7409:McMurdo Station 7278:Modern research 7276: 7264: 6999:O. Nordenskjöld 6862: 6856: 6851: 6767:Ross expedition 6591: 6564: 6543: 5972: 5964: 5505:Northern Canada 5503: 5495: 5348: 5340: 4846: 4838: 4806: 4793: 4788: 4758: 4753: 4726:Proposed claims 4725: 4719: 4715:Marie Byrd Land 4701: 4694:Yamato Yukihara 4674: 4665: 4658:Ross Dependency 4650:Queen Maud Land 4548: 4543: 4513: 4508: 4475: 4445:Richard E. Byrd 4428: 4389:Protected areas 4327: 4291: 4248: 4235: 4192: 4146:Bodies of Water 4141: 4130:West Antarctica 4086:East Antarctica 4064: 3999: 3994: 3950:Wayback Machine 3909: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3885: 3874: 3870: 3858: 3854: 3837:Chapman, Paul. 3836: 3832: 3823:Wayback Machine 3813: 3809: 3797: 3793: 3783: 3781: 3766: 3762: 3752: 3750: 3741: 3740: 3736: 3730: 3726: 3713: 3711: 3700: 3696: 3686: 3684: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3649: 3648:on 13 July 2011 3636: 3635: 3631: 3621: 3619: 3606: 3605: 3601: 3591: 3589: 3576: 3575: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3531: 3529: 3516: 3515: 3511: 3472: 3468: 3458: 3456: 3448: 3447: 3443: 3433: 3431: 3423: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3391: 3387: 3386: 3377: 3367: 3365: 3357: 3356: 3352: 3342: 3340: 3332: 3331: 3324: 3314: 3312: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3281: 3272: 3262: 3260: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3163: 3158: 3157: 3153: 3143: 3141: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3117: 3115: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3060:(4): 995–1019. 3046: 3042: 3029: 3028: 3024: 3011: 3010: 3006: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2981: 2977: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2952: 2938: 2934: 2919: 2907: 2906: 2897: 2887: 2885: 2884:. 22 April 2019 2876: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2859: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2820: 2819: 2815: 2805: 2803: 2802:. 22 April 2019 2794: 2793: 2780: 2765: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2744:Svalbard Treaty 2696:– lost ship of 2656: 2627: 2612:poisoning. The 2590: 2500: 2459: 2443:Queen Maud Land 2431:90 degrees west 2426: 2396: 2390: 2383: 2357: 2355: 2329: 2327: 2299: 2297: 2263: 2261: 2235: 2233: 2209: 2207: 2183: 2181: 2155: 2153: 2127: 2125: 2099: 2097: 2069: 2067: 2043: 2041: 2030: 2028: 2007: 2005: 1981: 1979: 1955: 1953: 1942: 1940: 1915: 1913: 1889: 1887: 1863: 1861: 1835: 1833: 1807: 1805: 1794: 1792: 1771: 1769: 1745: 1743: 1709: 1707: 1683: 1681: 1647: 1645: 1619: 1617: 1593: 1591: 1567: 1565: 1541: 1539: 1515: 1513: 1479: 1477: 1451: 1449: 1423: 1421: 1397: 1395: 1371: 1369: 1345: 1343: 1319: 1317: 1301: 1299: 1291: 1289: 1260: 1258: 1224: 1222: 1196: 1194: 1170: 1168: 1142: 1140: 1116: 1114: 1103: 1101: 1084:Czech Republic 1078: 1076: 1052: 1050: 1026: 1024: 1000: 998: 972: 970: 936: 934: 910: 908: 882: 880: 848: 846: 818: 816: 792: 790: 766: 764: 730: 728: 694: 692: 683: 678: 663: 656: 652: 650: 646: 644: 640: 638: 634: 632: 621: 610: 588: 569: 497: 467: 438: 372: 332: 319: 290: 192:, Earth's only 145: 76:1 December 1959 58: 39: 34: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8229: 8219: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8003: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7876: 7875: 7872: 7871: 7868: 7867: 7865: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7830: 7829: 7828: 7826:Vostok Station 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7777:Cherry-Garrard 7774: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7742: 7741: 7740: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7694: 7693: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7670: 7669: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7627: 7626: 7625: 7617:Southern Cross 7613: 7612: 7611: 7598: 7597: 7596: 7583: 7578: 7577: 7576: 7563: 7562: 7561: 7547: 7545: 7539:Farthest South 7535: 7534: 7532: 7531: 7526: 7519: 7518: 7517: 7512: 7500: 7493: 7492: 7491: 7490: 7489: 7477: 7476: 7475: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7454: 7449: 7430: 7429: 7428: 7423: 7411: 7406: 7399: 7398: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7375: 7374: 7373: 7361: 7354: 7349: 7342: 7341: 7340: 7328: 7327: 7326: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7300: 7293: 7288: 7282: 7280: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7236:Ross Sea party 7232: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7197: 7190: 7189: 7188: 7183: 7168: 7163: 7162: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7122: 7121: 7120: 7113: 7106: 7101: 7087: 7086: 7085: 7073: 7072: 7071: 7066: 7052: 7051: 7050: 7036: 7029: 7028: 7027: 7020: 7008: 7007: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6982: 6981: 6980: 6975: 6961: 6960: 6959: 6954: 6940: 6939: 6938: 6933: 6930:Southern Cross 6923:Southern Cross 6919: 6918: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6867: 6865: 6853: 6852: 6850: 6849: 6848: 6847: 6835: 6834: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6808: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6788: 6782: 6763: 6762: 6761: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6741: 6726: 6725: 6724: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6686: 6685: 6673: 6672: 6671: 6669:Bellingshausen 6659: 6652: 6647: 6646: 6645: 6632: 6631: 6630: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6601: 6599: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6566: 6565: 6553: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6541: 6540: 6539: 6528: 6516: 6511: 6504: 6497: 6496: 6495: 6483: 6482: 6481: 6469: 6468: 6467: 6455: 6454: 6453: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6430: 6429: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6366: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6336: 6335: 6334: 6329: 6317: 6312: 6311: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6281: 6280: 6279: 6265: 6264: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6213: 6212: 6211: 6206: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6128: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5978: 5976: 5974:Russian Arctic 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5941: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5920: 5915: 5914: 5913: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5885: 5884: 5883: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5856: 5855: 5854: 5849: 5834: 5833: 5832: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5790: 5785: 5770: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5758: 5746: 5741: 5740: 5739: 5731: 5716: 5715: 5714: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5663: 5662: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5634: 5633: 5632: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5603: 5602: 5589: 5588: 5587: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5563: 5562: 5557: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5509: 5507: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5482: 5481: 5476: 5464: 5459: 5458: 5457: 5445: 5444: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5416: 5411: 5409:Snæbjörn galti 5406: 5401: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5360: 5354: 5352: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5338: 5337: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5311: 5304: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5276: 5266: 5265: 5264: 5259: 5245: 5238: 5231: 5230: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5202: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5171: 5170: 5169: 5155: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5078: 5073: 5072: 5071: 5059: 5058: 5057: 5045: 5044: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5010: 5009: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4966: 4961: 4946: 4945: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4852: 4850: 4844:Farthest North 4840: 4839: 4837: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4808: 4807: 4795: 4794: 4787: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4764: 4755: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4746: 4743: 4740: 4735: 4729: 4727: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4717: 4711: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4691: 4682: 4680: 4676: 4675: 4668: 4666: 4664: 4663: 4655: 4647: 4642:Peter I Island 4639: 4634: 4633: 4632: 4622: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4588:Mac. Robertson 4585: 4580: 4570: 4565: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4542: 4541: 4534: 4527: 4519: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4506: 4501: 4491: 4480: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4455:Ui-te-Rangiora 4452: 4450:Douglas Mawson 4447: 4442: 4440:Roald Amundsen 4436: 4434: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4379:Gateway cities 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4339:Antarctica Day 4335: 4333: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4299: 4297: 4293: 4292: 4290: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4258: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4233: 4232: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4211: 4209:Microorganisms 4206: 4200: 4198: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4173:List of rivers 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4149: 4147: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4139: 4138: 4137: 4127: 4126: 4125: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4103:Extreme points 4100: 4099: 4098: 4093: 4083: 4078: 4072: 4070: 4063: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4031: 4030: 4025: 4023:Climate change 4015: 4009: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3993: 3992: 3985: 3978: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3958: 3952: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3908: 3907:External links 3905: 3902: 3901: 3892: 3883: 3868: 3852: 3830: 3807: 3791: 3774:usmarshals.gov 3760: 3749:on 19 May 2009 3734: 3724: 3694: 3672: 3659: 3629: 3599: 3569: 3539: 3509: 3482:(1): 262–281. 3466: 3441: 3416: 3375: 3350: 3322: 3296: 3270: 3245: 3227: 3215: 3203: 3191: 3173: 3151: 3125: 3103: 3081: 3040: 3022: 3004: 2990: 2975: 2957: 2950: 2932: 2917: 2895: 2869: 2843: 2832:on 15 May 2019 2813: 2778: 2755: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2701: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2677:Arctic Council 2674: 2669: 2664: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2626: 2623: 2589: 2586: 2562:Transportation 2550: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2519:16 U.S.C. 2499: 2496: 2458: 2455: 2425: 2422: 2421: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2392:Main article: 2389: 2386: 2378: 2377: 2375: 2372: 2367: 2364: 2352: 2351: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2336: 2324: 2323: 2321: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2305:United States 2294: 2293: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2258: 2257: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2242: 2230: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2219: 2216: 2204: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2193: 2190: 2178: 2177: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2162: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2134: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2106: 2094: 2093: 2091: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2064: 2063: 2061: 2058: 2053: 2050: 2038: 2037: 2025: 2022: 2017: 2014: 2002: 2001: 1999: 1996: 1991: 1988: 1976: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1965: 1962: 1950: 1949: 1948:Soviet Union. 1937: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1910: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1899: 1896: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1873: 1870: 1858: 1857: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1842: 1830: 1829: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1814: 1802: 1801: 1789: 1786: 1781: 1778: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1755: 1752: 1740: 1739: 1737: 1732: 1727: 1722: 1704: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1693: 1690: 1678: 1677: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1642: 1641: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1626: 1614: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1603: 1600: 1588: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1577: 1574: 1562: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1551: 1548: 1536: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1525: 1522: 1510: 1509: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1458: 1446: 1445: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1430: 1418: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1407: 1404: 1392: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1381: 1378: 1366: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1355: 1352: 1340: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1329: 1326: 1314: 1313: 1297:West Germany. 1286: 1281: 1276: 1273: 1255: 1254: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1219: 1218: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1203: 1191: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1180: 1177: 1165: 1164: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1149: 1137: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1126: 1123: 1111: 1110: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1085: 1073: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1062: 1059: 1047: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1036: 1033: 1021: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1010: 1007: 995: 994: 992: 987: 982: 979: 967: 966: 964: 959: 954: 949: 931: 930: 928: 925: 920: 917: 905: 904: 902: 897: 892: 889: 877: 876: 874: 869: 864: 861: 843: 842: 840: 835: 830: 825: 813: 812: 810: 807: 802: 799: 787: 786: 784: 781: 776: 773: 761: 760: 758: 753: 748: 743: 725: 724: 722: 717: 712: 707: 689: 688: 685: 680: 672: 669: 662: 659: 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7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7134: 7130: 7129: 7128: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7118: 7114: 7112: 7111: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7099: 7095: 7094: 7093: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7081: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7064: 7060: 7059: 7058: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7048: 7044: 7043: 7042: 7041: 7037: 7035: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7025: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7015: 7014: 7013: 7009: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6994: 6990: 6989: 6988: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6973: 6969: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6957:Discovery Hut 6955: 6953: 6952: 6948: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6941: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6931: 6927: 6926: 6925: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6880: 6876: 6875: 6874: 6873: 6869: 6868: 6866: 6861: 6854: 6846: 6843: 6842: 6841: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6821: 6816: 6815: 6814: 6813: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6799: 6795: 6794: 6789: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6777: 6776: 6771: 6770: 6769: 6768: 6764: 6760: 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Sibiryakov 6484: 6480: 6477: 6476: 6475: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6463: 6462: 6461: 6460: 6459:Glavsevmorput 6456: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6447: 6446: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6428: 6425: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6402: 6398: 6395: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6391: 6385: 6384: 6383: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6348: 6344: 6343: 6342: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6322: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6282: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6271: 6266: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6251: 6246: 6245: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6236: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6223: 6222: 6221: 6219: 6214: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6076: 6075: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6033: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6016: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5984: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5961: 5958: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5948: 5947: 5942: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5928: 5927: 5926: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5900: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5877: 5876: 5871: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5862: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5847: 5842: 5841: 5840: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5828: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5796: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5783: 5778: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5762: 5761:J. Richardson 5759: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5738: 5737: 5732: 5730: 5729: 5724: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5679: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5661: 5658: 5657: 5656: 5655: 5650: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5635: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5596: 5595: 5590: 5586: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5580: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5551: 5550: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5523:M. Corte-Real 5521: 5519: 5518:G. Corte-Real 5516: 5514: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5470: 5469: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5456: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5441:C. Richardson 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5423: 5422: 5421: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5399: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5373: 5371: 5370: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5355: 5353: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5323: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5303: 5302: 5301: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5282: 5277: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5267: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5253: 5252: 5251: 5250:Georgiy Sedov 5246: 5244: 5243: 5239: 5237: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5207: 5203: 5201: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5165: 5164: 5163: 5162: 5161: 5156: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5147: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5137:Riiser-Larsen 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5118: 5117: 5116: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5053: 5052: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5021: 5020: 5019: 5017: 5011: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4972: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4932: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4918: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4890: 4889: 4888: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4785: 4780: 4778: 4773: 4771: 4766: 4765: 4762: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4722: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4704: 4695: 4692: 4687: 4684: 4683: 4681: 4679:Former claims 4677: 4672: 4659: 4656: 4651: 4648: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4623: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4561: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4540: 4535: 4533: 4528: 4526: 4521: 4520: 4517: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4492: 4490: 4482: 4481: 4478: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4431: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4384:Midwinter Day 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4323:Treaty System 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4259: 4257: 4255: 4251: 4246: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4220: 4217: 4216: 4215: 4212: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4178:McMurdo Sound 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4148: 4144: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4131: 4128: 4124: 4121: 4120: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4088: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4073: 4071: 4067: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4020: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3986: 3984: 3979: 3977: 3972: 3971: 3968: 3962: 3959: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3933:Why 60 South? 3931: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3910: 3896: 3887: 3880: 3877: 3872: 3865: 3862: 3856: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3840: 3834: 3827: 3824: 3820: 3817: 3811: 3804: 3801: 3795: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3748: 3744: 3738: 3728: 3721: 3709: 3705: 3698: 3682: 3676: 3669: 3663: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3633: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3543: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3513: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3470: 3455: 3451: 3445: 3430: 3426: 3420: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3384: 3382: 3380: 3364: 3360: 3354: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3327: 3310: 3306: 3300: 3285: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3224: 3219: 3212: 3207: 3200: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3161: 3155: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3113: 3107: 3091: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3044: 3036: 3032: 3026: 3018: 3014: 3008: 3000: 2994: 2986: 2979: 2971: 2967: 2961: 2953: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2918:0-585-26158-X 2914: 2910: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2817: 2801: 2797: 2791: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2783: 2775: 2771: 2770: 2763: 2761: 2756: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2694: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2658: 2651: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2622: 2620: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2509: 2508:U.S. Marshals 2505: 2498:United States 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2472: 2463: 2454: 2452: 2446: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2408: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2395: 2385: 2376: 2373: 2368: 2365: 2353: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2337: 2325: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2295: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2274: 2273: 2259: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2243: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2220: 2217: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2194: 2191: 2179: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2163: 2151: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2135: 2123: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2107: 2095: 2092: 2087: 2082: 2077: 2075:South Africa 2065: 2062: 2059: 2054: 2051: 2039: 2026: 2023: 2018: 2015: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1992: 1989: 1987:Saudi Arabia 1977: 1974: 1971: 1966: 1963: 1951: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1911: 1908: 1905: 1900: 1897: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1874: 1871: 1859: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1843: 1831: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1815: 1803: 1790: 1787: 1782: 1779: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1756: 1753: 1741: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1705: 1702: 1699: 1694: 1691: 1679: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1658: 1657: 1653:New Zealand ( 1643: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1627: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1604: 1601: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1578: 1575: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1552: 1549: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1526: 1523: 1511: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1475: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1459: 1447: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1431: 1419: 1416: 1413: 1408: 1405: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1382: 1379: 1367: 1364: 1361: 1356: 1353: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1330: 1327: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1256: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1220: 1217: 1212: 1207: 1204: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1181: 1178: 1166: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1150: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1127: 1124: 1112: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1086: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1063: 1060: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1037: 1034: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1011: 1008: 996: 993: 988: 983: 980: 968: 965: 960: 955: 950: 947: 946: 932: 929: 926: 921: 918: 906: 903: 898: 893: 890: 878: 875: 870: 865: 862: 859: 858: 844: 841: 836: 831: 826: 814: 811: 808: 803: 800: 788: 785: 782: 777: 774: 762: 759: 754: 749: 744: 741: 740: 726: 723: 718: 713: 708: 705: 704: 690: 676: 666: 631: 627: 618: 614: 605: 603: 598: 593: 579: 575: 571: 570: 561: 557: 553: 549: 545: 542: 538: 535: 531: 528: 524: 521: 518: 517: 516: 510: 506: 501: 492: 489: 487: 482: 478: 474: 472: 462: 458: 455: 451: 447: 443: 440:In 1950, the 433: 431: 426: 425:were closed. 423: 418: 416: 412: 411:South Georgia 407: 403: 402: 396: 391: 389: 384: 380: 375: 367: 363: 360: 354: 352: 348: 343: 341: 337: 323: 314: 311: 307: 303: 299: 287: 282: 280: 275: 273: 268: 267: 265: 264: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 235: 234: 233: 229: 228: 225: 224:, Argentina. 223: 219: 215: 214:60°S latitude 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 168: 163: 155: 151: 142: 137: 133: 129: 126: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 68: 65: 61: 57: 52: 47: 43: 33: 25: 19: 7832: 7820:Pole of Cold 7818: 7744: 7735: 7703: 7696: 7672: 7643: 7629: 7623:Borchgrevink 7615: 7602: 7587: 7567: 7552: 7521: 7502: 7496: 7495: 7479: 7465: 7456: 7439: 7432: 7413: 7401: 7377: 7363: 7356: 7344: 7330: 7316: 7302: 7295: 7256: 7248: 7234: 7227: 7225: 7207: 7199: 7192: 7179: 7170: 7132: 7124: 7115: 7108: 7096: 7089: 7075: 7063:Pourquoi-Pas 7062: 7054: 7046: 7038: 7033:Orcadas Base 7031: 7023: 7010: 7004:C. A. Larsen 6992: 6984: 6970: 6963: 6950: 6942: 6936:Borchgrevink 6929: 6921: 6878: 6870: 6845:C. A. Larsen 6838: 6819: 6810: 6792: 6774: 6765: 6752: 6737: 6728: 6715: 6676: 6662: 6655: 6636: 6621: 6531: 6524: 6507: 6500: 6486: 6471: 6457: 6444: 6419: 6405: 6403: 6389: 6387: 6381: 6379: 6345: 6338: 6319: 6285: 6283: 6269: 6267: 6249: 6239: 6237: 6217: 6215: 6196: 6072: 6030: 6013: 5981: 5945: 5943: 5923: 5922: 5902: 5901: 5887: 5874: 5859: 5845: 5836: 5823: 5794: 5782:Investigator 5781: 5772: 5748: 5735: 5727: 5718: 5705: 5676: 5653: 5638: 5623: 5593: 5578: 5548: 5467: 5447: 5418: 5414:Erik the Red 5396: 5374: 5367: 5324:submersibles 5321: 5315:Arktika 2007 5313: 5306: 5299: 5296: 5280: 5271: 5268: 5249: 5247: 5240: 5233: 5204: 5197: 5173: 5159: 5158: 5150: 5148: 5114: 5112: 5083: 5080: 5069:S. A. Andrée 5061: 5048: 5023: 5015: 5012: 4988: 4970: 4957: 4948: 4930: 4921: 4919: 4885: 4369:Firefighting 4354:Demographics 4322: 4277:Colonization 4272:World War II 3895: 3886: 3878: 3871: 3863: 3855: 3846: 3841: 3833: 3825: 3810: 3802: 3794: 3782:. Retrieved 3778:the original 3773: 3763: 3751:. Retrieved 3747:the original 3737: 3727: 3719: 3714:22 September 3712:. Retrieved 3707: 3697: 3687:22 September 3685:. Retrieved 3675: 3667: 3662: 3650:. Retrieved 3646:the original 3632: 3620:. Retrieved 3616:the original 3602: 3590:. Retrieved 3581: 3572: 3560:. Retrieved 3556:the original 3542: 3530:. Retrieved 3526:the original 3512: 3479: 3475: 3469: 3457:. Retrieved 3444: 3432:. Retrieved 3419: 3407:. Retrieved 3366:. Retrieved 3353: 3341:. Retrieved 3337: 3313:. Retrieved 3299: 3289:11 September 3287:. Retrieved 3261:. Retrieved 3257: 3248: 3239: 3230: 3218: 3206: 3194: 3185: 3176: 3164:. Retrieved 3154: 3142:. Retrieved 3138:the original 3128: 3116:. Retrieved 3106: 3094:. Retrieved 3084: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3034: 3025: 3016: 3007: 2993: 2984: 2978: 2969: 2960: 2941: 2935: 2908: 2888:11 September 2886:. Retrieved 2872: 2860:. Retrieved 2855: 2846: 2834:. Retrieved 2830:the original 2825: 2816: 2806:11 September 2804:. Retrieved 2767: 2692: 2628: 2625:South Africa 2598:Rodney Marks 2594:Christchurch 2591: 2566:the Interior 2554:the Treasury 2551: 2525: 2512: 2501: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2468: 2447: 2427: 2424:Legal system 2405: 2399: 2397: 2381: 2270: 2189:Switzerland 2187: 2105:South Korea 1716: 1689:North Korea 1654: 1625:Netherlands 1486: 1298: 1288:Ratified as 1267: 1231: 943: 855: 737: 701: 682:Consultative 675:Ratification 611: 601: 596: 591: 589: 514: 490: 483: 479: 475: 468: 459: 439: 427: 419: 400: 392: 376: 373: 364: 355: 344: 336:World War II 333: 306:Soviet Union 295: 237: 222:Buenos Aires 198:arms control 184:), regulate 181: 177: 173: 171: 92:23 June 1961 18: 7523:Lake Vostok 7473:Tryoshnikov 7395:Schlossbach 7286:Christensen 7228:James Caird 7149:E. R. Evans 6915:Dobrowolski 6885:de Gerlache 6587:Expeditions 6473:Aviaarktika 6427:Samoylovich 6298:Kolomeitsev 6192:Middendorff 6152:Gedenshtrom 5572:I. Fyodorov 5334:Chilingarov 5222:E. Fyodorov 4829:Expeditions 4560:Adélie Land 4457:(legendary) 4364:Field camps 4262:Expeditions 4188:Weddell Sea 4168:Lake Vostok 4163:Lake Mercer 4035:Ice shelves 3708:Aftenposten 2836:10 February 2772:. Chicago: 2714:Moon treaty 2588:New Zealand 2523:§ 2401 2453:principle. 2370:24 May 1999 2342:11 Jan 1980 2319:23 Jun 1961 2314:18 Aug 1960 2289:23 Jun 1961 2284:31 May 1960 2248:28 Oct 1992 2222:24 Jan 1996 2196:15 Nov 1990 2173:21 Sep 1988 2168:24 Apr 1984 2145:21 Sep 1988 2140:31 Mar 1982 2112:28 Nov 1986 2089:23 Jun 1961 2084:21 Jun 1960 2056:22 Apr 2019 1994:22 May 2024 1968:14 Feb 2023 1961:San Marino 1935:23 Jun 1961 1902:15 Sep 1971 1876:29 Jan 2010 1853:29 Jul 1977 1820:10 Apr 1981 1784:16 Mar 1981 1735:23 Jun 1961 1730:24 Aug 1960 1696:21 Jan 1987 1673:23 Jun 1961 1637:19 Nov 1990 1632:30 Mar 1967 1606:23 Mar 2015 1580:31 May 2008 1554:31 Oct 2011 1528:27 Jan 2015 1521:Kazakhstan 1505:23 Jun 1961 1464:18 Mar 1981 1441:12 Sep 1983 1436:19 Aug 1983 1410:13 Oct 2015 1384:27 Jan 1984 1358:31 Jul 1991 1250:23 Jun 1961 1245:16 Sep 1960 1214:20 Oct 1989 1209:15 May 1984 1183:17 May 2001 1160:19 Nov 1990 1155:15 Sep 1987 1129:20 May 1965 1065:16 Aug 1984 1039:11 Aug 2022 1032:Costa Rica 1013:31 Jan 1989 962:23 Jun 1961 957:23 Jun 1961 895:11 Sep 1978 872:27 Sep 1983 867:16 May 1975 838:23 Jun 1961 833:26 Jul 1960 805:27 Dec 2006 779:25 Aug 1987 756:23 Jun 1961 751:23 Jun 1961 736:Australia ( 720:23 Jun 1961 715:23 Jun 1961 700:Argentina ( 486:sovereignty 404:armed with 253:Moon Treaty 210:ice shelves 105:Signatories 67:Condominium 7885:Categories 7746:Terra Nova 7651:Shackleton 7594:J. C. Ross 7553:Resolution 7543:South Pole 7318:New Swabia 7242:Mackintosh 7214:Shackleton 7133:Terra Nova 7126:Terra Nova 6860:Heroic Age 6820:Challenger 6780:J. C. Ross 6690:Bransfield 6622:Resolution 6537:icebreaker 6501:Chelyuskin 6242:expedition 6220:Expedition 6162:Matyushkin 6120:Kh. Laptev 6115:Chelyuskin 6009:Heemskerck 5999:Chancellor 5994:Willoughby 5989:Koch boats 5932:Stefansson 5866:McClintock 5830:Inglefield 5672:J. C. Ross 5579:Resolution 5431:Cunningham 5329:Sagalevich 5018:expedition 4977:Stephenson 4937:C. F. Hall 4924:expedition 4898:J. C. Ross 4861:Heemskerck 4848:North Pole 4686:New Swabia 4603:Queen Mary 4267:Heroic Age 4118:South Pole 4028:Heat waves 3997:Antarctica 3784:11 January 3263:13 January 3186:ccamlr.org 2970:Parliament 2751:References 2635:Antarctica 2629:Under the 2363:Venezuela 2347:7 Oct 1985 2309:1 Dec 1959 2279:1 Dec 1959 2253:4 Jun 2004 2117:9 Oct 1989 2079:1 Dec 1959 2020:1 Jan 1993 1930:2 Nov 1960 1925:1 Dec 1959 1848:8 Jun 1961 1825:9 Oct 1989 1758:1 Mar 2012 1725:1 Dec 1959 1668:1 Nov 1960 1663:1 Dec 1959 1500:4 Aug 1960 1495:1 Dec 1959 1469:5 Oct 1987 1351:Guatemala 1332:8 Jan 1987 1284:3 Mar 1981 1279:5 Feb 1979 1240:1 Dec 1959 1096:1 Apr 2014 1091:1 Jan 1993 990:7 Oct 1985 985:8 Jun 1983 952:1 Dec 1959 923:4 May 1988 900:5 Jun 1998 828:1 Dec 1959 746:1 Dec 1959 710:1 Dec 1959 679:Accession 671:Signature 190:Antarctica 167:Antarctica 154:Wikisource 121:Depositary 7845:Tolstikov 7631:Discovery 7601:HMS 7586:HMS 7568:Adventure 7566:HMS 7551:HMS 7487:Tolstikov 7208:Endurance 6993:Antarctic 6978:Drygalski 6951:Discovery 6944:Discovery 6905:Arctowski 6818:HMS 6791:HMS 6785:Abernethy 6773:HMS 6751:USS 6738:Vincennes 6736:USS 6716:Astrolabe 6656:San Telmo 6637:Adventure 6635:HMS 6620:HMS 6615:Kerguelen 6577:Continent 6562:Antarctic 6439:Urvantsev 6397:Vilkitsky 6250:Jeannette 6248:USS 6240:Jeannette 6204:Weyprecht 6182:Pakhtusov 6132:Chichagov 6125:D. Laptev 6068:Permyakov 6043:Stadukhin 6038:Perfilyev 6015:Mangazeya 5953:H. Larsen 5918:Rasmussen 5873:HMS 5844:USS 5793:HMS 5780:HMS 5744:Collinson 5734:HMS 5726:HMS 5704:HMS 5652:HMS 5637:HMS 5622:HMS 5607:Mackenzie 5594:Discovery 5592:HMS 5577:HMS 5549:Discovery 5528:Frobisher 5491:Rasmussen 5404:Gunnbjörn 5350:Greenland 5279:USS 5270:USS 5142:Ellsworth 5084:Roosevelt 5014:Nansen's 4971:Discovery 4969:HMS 4956:HMS 4903:Abernethy 4871:Marmaduke 4707:Unclaimed 4419:Transport 4158:Lake CECs 4135:ice sheet 4091:ice sheet 4060:Volcanoes 4050:Mountains 4005:Geography 3670:4 (1987). 3652:5 October 3504:159373678 3496:2211-6427 3343:16 August 3076:238807417 2693:Endurance 2643:Cape Town 2457:Australia 2049:Slovenia 2013:Slovakia 1869:Portugal 1751:Pakistan 1599:Mongolia 1547:Malaysia 1266:Germany ( 1006:Colombia 888:Bulgaria 212:south of 194:continent 139:Full text 131:Languages 97:Condition 89:Effective 40:Spanish: 35:Russian: 7857:A. Fuchs 7814:V. Fuchs 7794:McKinley 7757:E. Evans 7716:Bjaaland 7711:Amundsen 7661:Marshall 7574:Furneaux 7426:V. Fuchs 7390:E. Ronne 7385:F. Ronne 7324:Ritscher 7178:SY 7166:Filchner 7110:Framheim 7104:Amundsen 6910:Racoviță 6895:Amundsen 6890:Lecointe 6759:Ringgold 6753:Porpoise 6643:Furneaux 6479:Shevelev 6434:Begichev 6413:Amundsen 6375:Nagórski 6353:Brusilov 6347:Sv. Anna 6261:Melville 6231:Palander 6187:Tsivolko 6147:Sannikov 6142:Billings 6085:Chirikov 6004:Barentsz 5946:St. Roch 5937:Bartlett 5911:Amundsen 5895:Sverdrup 5795:Resolute 5684:Franklin 5612:Kotzebue 5479:Sverdrup 5462:Scoresby 5436:Lindenov 5287:Plaisted 5272:Nautilus 5217:Shirshov 5191:Belyakov 5186:Baydukov 5160:Nautilus 5122:Amundsen 5082:SS 5041:Sverdrup 5036:Johansen 5006:Brainard 5001:Lockwood 4856:Barentsz 4613:George V 4489:Category 4394:Religion 4296:Politics 4214:Wildlife 4183:Ross Sea 4045:Glaciers 3946:Archived 3819:Archived 3753:3 August 3622:13 March 3592:28 April 3586:Archived 3562:13 March 3532:13 March 3459:13 March 3434:12 March 3409:12 March 3400:Archived 3368:12 March 3166:29 March 3144:29 March 3118:29 March 3096:29 March 2927:45730572 2862:28 March 2654:See also 2619:Raytheon 2610:methanol 2558:Commerce 2490:and the 2335:Uruguay 2241:Ukraine 1895:Romania 1715:Norway ( 1403:Iceland 1377:Hungary 1230:France ( 1202:Finland 1176:Estonia 1148:Ecuador 1122:Denmark 854:Brazil ( 824:Belgium 798:Belarus 772:Austria 668:Country 586:Meetings 383:Hope Bay 202:Cold War 81:Location 30:French: 7862:Messner 7809:Hillary 7789:Balchen 7737:Polheim 7731:Wisting 7609:Crozier 7581:Weddell 7559:J. Cook 7529:Kapitsa 7510:Fiennes 7452:Klenova 7421:Hillary 7371:Ketchum 7297:BANZARE 7272:· 7117:Polheim 7083:Shirase 7069:Charcot 6879:Belgica 6798:Crozier 6710:Morrell 6705:Weddell 6683:Lazarev 6628:J. Cook 6582:History 6532:Arktika 6508:Krassin 6493:Voronin 6465:Schmidt 6451:Ushakov 6390:Vaygach 6358:Albanov 6327:Rusanov 6308:Kolchak 6303:Matisen 6277:Makarov 6256:De Long 6157:Wrangel 6137:Lyakhov 6090:Malygin 6048:Dezhnev 5875:Pandora 5846:Advance 5813:Kennedy 5808:Belcher 5801:Kellett 5788:McClure 5712:Beechey 5706:Blossom 5699:Simpson 5667:Crozier 5660:Hoppner 5617:J. Ross 5585:J. Cook 5533:Gilbert 5426:J. Hall 5392:Ingólfr 5382:Naddodd 5376:Vikings 5363:Brendan 5358:Pytheas 5346:Iceland 5300:Arktika 5292:Herbert 5257:Badygin 5227:Krenkel 5212:Papanin 5181:Chkalov 5167:Wilkins 5132:Wisting 5076:F. Cook 4982:Markham 4942:Bessels 4931:Polaris 4922:Polaris 4893:J. Ross 4876:Carolus 4824:History 4578:Enderby 4499:Commons 4414:Tourism 4359:Economy 4332:Society 4254:History 4224:Mammals 4113:Islands 4069:Regions 4040:Geology 4018:Climate 3315:30 June 2580:of the 2572:of the 2530:statute 2526:et seq. 2215:Turkey 2161:Sweden 1921:Russia 1841:Poland 1573:Monaco 1485:Japan ( 1325:Greece 942:Chile ( 916:Canada 684:status 608:Parties 415:frigate 317:History 113:Parties 7772:Bowers 7767:Wilson 7726:Hassel 7721:Helmer 7690:Mackay 7680:Mawson 7645:Nimrod 7603:Terror 7588:Erebus 7515:Burton 7310:Rymill 7186:Mawson 7180:Aurora 7159:Lashly 7144:Wilson 7047:Nimrod 7024:Scotia 6831:Murray 6806:Cooper 6793:Terror 6775:Erebus 6744:Wilkes 6695:Palmer 6663:Vostok 6610:Bouvet 6534:-class 6514:Gakkel 6382:Taymyr 6363:Konrad 6332:Kuchin 6270:Yermak 6177:Lavrov 6095:Ovtsyn 6080:Bering 6058:Ivanov 6021:Hudson 5983:Pomors 5960:Cowper 5925:Karluk 5824:Isabel 5818:Bellot 5768:Austin 5736:Terror 5728:Erebus 5624:Griper 5600:Clerke 5560:Baffin 5543:Hudson 5474:Nansen 5387:Garðar 5308:Barneo 5175:ANT-25 5151:Italia 5127:Nobile 5096:Henson 5055:Amedeo 5031:Nansen 4996:Greely 4866:Hudson 4804:Arctic 4697:(Jap.) 4689:(Ger.) 4661:(N.Z.) 4653:(Nor.) 4645:(Nor.) 4608:Wilkes 4553:Claims 4096:shield 4055:Tundra 3732:21:409 3502: 3494: 3258:ats.aq 3240:ats.aq 3074: 2948: 2925: 2915: 2826:ats.aq 2663:(ASOC) 2645:. 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