Social class in the Ottoman Empire

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and women could not leave the home between sunset and sunrise. In most public spaces, different clothing was used to delineate between social groups; the differences in clothing were especially prominent between men and women. Notably, women wore veils starting from the onset of puberty in public places. Within the privacy of the home, women were responsible for nearly all domestic activities. The ability to perform household duties well was a marker of obedient and faithful wives. Family structure was highly patriarchal for peasants, with the husband viewed as the head and taxpayer of the family unit. Men were responsible for working the land and acting as representatives for their families in public settings, while child-rearing and domestic work were the responsibility of peasant women.

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girls who could enhance the family’s socioeconomic status. The prospective bride had little to no agency regarding marriage. Even in the acceptance of a dowry, the bride was represented by a male relative. Upon marriage, a wife’s “duty” was to show her husband obedience, while the husband took responsibility for all the household’s finances and public relations. While a woman in the Ottoman Empire could not initiate the legal process of divorce without the permission of her husband, she did have the ability to seek an annulment. Divorced individuals typically remarried, however women had more restrictions in this process, including having to wait “three menstrual courses” before entering a new marriage.

507:, the availability of specific commodities such as wine, kosher meat, or communion wafer was determined at the discretion of Muslim authorities, and non-Muslims were forbidden from wearing green clothes and white turbans. The second important domain of autonomy was that of administration and taxation: lay leaders, generally elected by their community, were in charge of administrative matters such as making arrangements with regards to the collection of taxes. The third domain concerned non-Muslims’ legal jurisdictions. Jews and Christians were notably allowed to adjudicate legal disputes between members of their group: in Jewish communities, rabbinical courts could rule on criminal cases. 35: 622:

interact. While guilds were originally organized to benefit artisans and merchants, the government wished to control the production and distribution of goods. Therefore, the state had a relatively large amount of control over urban guilds and even viewed them as a “means of controlling” a city’s population and activity. While craftsmanship and commerce was centered in cities, these industries relied on peasant farmers to provide raw materials and other necessary goods. However, it was rare that crafted goods were exported to rural towns and villages, as most peasants could not afford to travel or purchase them.

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ethno-religious groups, reinforced by formal agreements set in law, and grounded in a mutually-conceded, if limited, legitimacy,” Tezcan explains that religious divisions functioned around “convenience” and the ability of each group to occupy administrative and economic niches in the empire’s affairs, wherein a group that performed well in its niche tasks would gain more status than another, less effective group. Around the early 18th century, the convenience model broke down such that administrative and military posts were mostly occupied by upper-middle class Muslim citizens.

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ideals and the French Revolution started to inspired a growing intelligentsia among the Greek Millet until an uprising broke out in 1821. While some historians argue such a revolt was of a nationalist nature, others have claimed that it was a religious movement eager to liberate itself from Muslim oppression rather than a rebellion driven by the will to form a nation. Following the rebellion, religious divisions were transformed as Greeks lost many of their privileges and came to be seen as a group to fear rather than as a community to respect and accommodate. The

651:” in the Ottoman Empire was a very broad category and could encompass many different kinds of activities and social positions. Though generally defined in Islamic terms as a person being granted ownership over another person and their labor, property, and sexuality, slavery in the Ottoman context was more complex than a simple divide between free men and women and enslaved people. In fact, slavery did not equate a lower status than the rest of the population: not only did male slaves in the bureaucratic and military spheres and the females in elite 4161: 550:

male relatives and could claim property in the instance of divorce. In many instances, however, male relatives interfered with a woman’s control over her assets, thereby limiting legal autonomy. The extent to which women controlled property varied in different areas of the empire as well. The central government tended to confiscate and redistribute the land of widowed peasants without sons to maintain agricultural productivity.

499:, a system of autonomous religious communities that allowed rulers to organize the population into ethnoreligious groups and devolve power to local elites and leaders. There were three basic Millets: the Greek, the Jewish, and the Armenian communities: though many other ethnic and religious existed, most were incorporated into and ruled by one of the three major Millets. 511:

matter to the central Ottoman authorities: within the Greek Millet, Romanians, Albanians, Serbs, etc. could shift from one identity to another without changing their status vis-à-vis the metropole. To the Millet authorities however, such ethnic and religious differences were important and even instrumental in highlighting divisions.

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There were notably three domains in which autonomy was important to non-Muslims. The first one was that of religious theory and practice: though Muslims did not directly interfere in theological matters, they still imposed religious restrictions. For example, non-Muslims religious buildings could not

482:

Moreover, Muslims were not a homogenous group: many different ethnic groups such as Arabs, Kurds, Albanians, Bosniaks, and Turks practiced Sunni Islam. Even among Muslims, different groups enjoyed different levels of privilege: Turks, as the “conquering” population, enjoyed some degree of superiority

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All farmland in the empire was deemed to belong to the current ruler, therefore the central government organized and controlled peasant land and the agricultural economy. While they did not own their land, peasant farmers were considered “hereditary tenants” of the land they worked. Peasant land was

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The Ottoman Empire was patriarchal in structure, and separation of the sexes was common in public places. Typically, men in the Ottoman Empire controlled public spaces, while women could hold power in private spaces, such as the home. Outside the home, men did not walk beside their female relatives,

514:

Divisions between Millets were reflected in the organization of cities such as Istanbul: until the beginning of the nineteench century, religious groups inhabitied their traditional quarters. In Istanbul, Greeks lives in Fener, Samatya, Cibal, and in villages along the Bosposrus; Armenians inhabited

415:

The Ottoman system traditionally stood on a division between four socioeconomic groups: the military, the learned, the merchants, and the peasants. Each group had its own set of skills and societal roles that came with different privileges and social statuses: while the military and the intellectual

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were granted a higher social status than other religious groups in the Ottoman Empire: they were considered “first-class subjects,” in opposition to non-Muslims who were granted the label of “second-class subjects.” Several privileges came with the status of Muslim: many high-ranking positions were

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Islamic tradition viewed women’s sexuality as a force that needed to be controlled by a man, typically a father or husband. Marriages were typically arranged by the parents of young men and women. The process of arranged marriage was initiated by a young man’s father, who sought out young women or

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Unlike many European societies of the same period, women in the Ottoman Empire were considered legal entities and subjects distinct from their husbands or fathers. They had the ability to maintain control over their property and assets after marriage. Women had the ability to inherit property from

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The Millet as a system of social divisions along ethno-religious lines lost its vigor throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with the rise of liberation and nationalist movements, especially in the Greek Millet. Starting in the second half of the eighteenth century, Western enlightened

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Alternatively spelled as "reaya". Considered to be the class that was ruled over. Made up of merchants, artisans, and peasants and were the taxed class. This group was largely Muslim, though their Christian counterparts were also placed under the same label. Ottoman officials sought to disarm this

672:

Opportunities for social mobility were more numerous within the Ottoman Empire as opposed to many European societies during the time. Possibilities existed for those of modest origin to rise in sociopolitical rank and even enter the ruling class. Manumission of enslaved men was normalized in the

600:

included craftsmen and merchants in urban areas; however, the largest social group in the Ottoman Empire were rural farmers. While nomadic groups existed throughout the empire’s entire existence, the central government often attempted to get such groups to settle and farm land. In doing so, they

387:

Some of the most notable roles to fall under the askeri class were people who performed: praying, preaching, scribal service, superintendancy, tax and rent collection, trusteeship, couriers, falconers, guardians of bridges and passes, tent-makers, dealers of oil and butter, tent-pitchers, copper

510:

The Millets developed internal class structures: the upper layers of this strata were composed of merchant elites residing in Istanbul as well as of the high clergy, while the lower classes were made of new type merchants and craftsmen. Ethnic and religious differences within the Millet did not

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They were a social class made up primarily of the military and all public servants and members of their households. This class depended on the Sultan for income and as such, were not included in taxation. They were not considered to be aristocrats however, as membership depended on the Sultan's

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was one way women had increased visibility and power in public spaces. The history of prostitution in Ottoman society is complex, with various attempts by the government to regulate or ban the profession. Prostitutes were more likely to be women of lower socioeconomic status or women from less

621:

In cities, merchants and craftsmen were ranked below the ruling class and divided into guilds to manage the local commercial industry. City life outside of the sultan’s palace centered around marketplaces and bazaars, in which people of many religions, ethnicities, and financial classes would

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According to historian Baki Tezcan, the millet system did not stay static overtime. Drawing from Brian Catlos’s analysis of intercommunal relationships in the medieval Mediterranean as “the consequence of a series of relationships born of a perceived mutual benefit among majority and minority

725:

The empire was a bureaucratic state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system. It was also, however, the last great expression of the universality of the world of Islam. It was also a multi-religious state, giving a recognized status to christian and Jewish

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system was another aspect of slavery that enabled social mobility for a small group of individuals. In this system, young Christian boys would be sold into slavery, converted to Islam, and educated, all with the goal of assuming a high government post upon the completion of their training.

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over Arabs, Kurds, Albanians, and Bosniaks who were all conquered against their will. Nevertheless, conquered groups retained a great deal of agency: for instance, Muslim Bosniaks and Albanians were involved in the governance of the empire and were a part of the Janissary units.

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desires. The askeri held their class unless specifically dismissed by the Sultan or if they pursued a non-governmental role. Additionally, according to some sources, only non-Muslims were allowed to join this class, as a means to ensure loyalty only to the Sultan.

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reserved for Muslims, Muslims were frequently privileged by the law, one could not be enslaved by a non-Muslim, etc. The Muslim category was a flexible one: many members of other religious groups converted to Islam in order to access certain benefits.

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began recruiting rather than enslaving and could thus not be referred to as an enslaved class anymore. In 1855, slavery was even abolished to appease liberal concerns in Europe, though in practice, the institution persisted until 1905.

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system in the empire provided young Muslim men with education, providing a potential opportunity to have a high ranking position in the legal, religious, educational or bureaucratic fields. Those educated in

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classes were rather influential in politics, the peasantry was much more disenfranchised from the central power. By the 19th century, this system had disintegrated with the progressive emergence of the

423:

This was a class of local notables, who often had a role in governing to some degree, especially from the seventeenth century onward. Also played the role of warlords at times, appearing most often in

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class and prevent them from achieving any sort of military status in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They were typically considered the lesser class and dubbed as non-governing.

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prominent family lineages. While there were laws that dictated harsh punishments for convicted prostitutes, the most common consequence for a prostitute was removal from the neighborhood.

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system for instance, a class of enslaved people doing administrative work, was challenged by the increasing number of free Muslims entering government service: having to accommodate, the

523:, though he did not participate in the uprising, was hanged; the post of dragoman (interpreter), who since the mid-seventeenth century had been reserved to Greeks, was given to a Turk. 458:

religious orders together. From the Sultan’s point of view, that meant the loss of many supporting foundations: quickly, a new bureaucracy emerged as a symbol of Ottoman modernity, the

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have much more influence over the state’s affairs than most people did, but even some common domestic workers were better fed, clothed, and protected than many freed men.

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outside of a major city were often ranked lower than those educated in cities, therefore the internal provinces tended to attract the majority of Ottoman students.

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The 19th century also saw the rise of a new political and socioeconomic class: the modern bureaucracy. In 1826, Mahmud II shut down the Janissaries, abolished the

248:

was one of the most dominant empires in the Mediterranean region, having lasted ~600 years and controlling much of the eastern and southern portions of the Sea.

217: 17: 3237: 2546: 1902: 404:. These groups were allowed to maintain their own traditional laws and could have internal administrative organizations led by their own religious leader. 384:

The kalemiye were the scribal branch, the ilmiye focused on religious and judicial services, and the seyfiye were the military and administrative branch.

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Catlos, Brian (8 July 2009). ""Conveniencia" or "The Convenience Principle:" The Mechanics of Ethno-Religious Diversity in the Medieval Mediterranean".

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did not live in the village he represented. Rather, a local village headman served as the main connection between his village and the urban government.

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The Muslim millet was considered to be above the other millets due to their practicing of the same laws and religion as the ruling class of the empire.

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On the other hand, there was a political subclass called the "askeri kassam". Whose estates were often liable to confiscation by the Sultan.

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The rayah class was largely divided by religion, with each religious group being divided into a. internally autonomous community called a

4185: 3965: 3840: 2675: 2376: 3850: 2481: 1939: 443:, this became a title for district nobles who were elected by their community to negotiate in its name and handle taxes and security. 4108: 2779: 2276: 1949: 520: 151: 131: 3006: 2744: 2013: 388:

miners, rice-growers, judges, circuit judges, and city wardens, along with the sons and wives of askeri members and freed slaves.

3957: 3895: 2085: 1924: 3937: 3268: 2914: 2828: 2620: 2608: 2525: 2207: 2080: 1944: 51: 3932: 2739: 2033: 1678: 1653: 1564: 1533: 1467: 1384: 1306: 1281: 1256: 1192: 1167: 1140: 1113: 1086: 961: 888: 861: 827: 1411:"From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821" 3942: 2217: 2192: 2161: 1836: 3975: 2003: 1824: 1765: 1210:"Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul" 4103: 4082: 2873: 2833: 2807: 2761: 2502: 2249: 1897: 576: 4087: 3970: 3813: 2131: 2048: 2038: 1882: 1741: 1081:. Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden, The Netherlands ; Boston: Brill. 711: 601:

would be required to pay taxes to the central government and were eligible to be recruited to the Ottoman military.

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The soldiers and their commander belonged to a subclass called the "kul" and were considered slaves of the Sultan.

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Semerdjian, Elyse (2008). "Prostitutes, Soldiers, and the People: Monitoring Morality Through Customary Law".

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Jelavich, Charles; Jelavich, Barbara; Studies, University of California Center for Slavic and East European.

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Some sources instead divide the askeri into multiple branches: the kalemiye, the seyfiye, and the ilmiye.

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The Ottoman Empire lasted for over six hundred years (1299–1923) and encompassed present-day Turkey, the

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Barkey, Karen. "The Ottoman Empire (1299-1923): The Bureaucratization of Patrimonial Authority".

496: 401: 99: 4022: 3651: 3393: 2454: 2055: 1841: 1817: 492: 2700: 817: 4077: 4052: 4042: 4032: 4027: 3880: 2948: 2900: 2461: 2176: 1971: 1379:. Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden Boston: Brill. 271:. Thus the Empire included an extremely diverse population ranging from the Muslim majority ( 204: 4138: 4133: 4037: 3907: 3858: 3252: 3218: 3203: 3039: 2986: 2685: 2670: 2414: 1528:. The Greenwood Press daily life through history series. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood. 697: 609:

Large urban centers within the Ottoman Empire held the best educational opportunities. The

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empire after an individual had served his owner for a predetermined period of time. The

3679: 3661: 3656: 3644: 3478: 3297: 3277: 3247: 3029: 3001: 2717: 1976: 1853: 1829: 798: 755: 296: 141: 2242: 3684: 3602: 3339: 3292: 3230: 3059: 2848: 2690: 2043: 1737: 1718: 1674: 1649: 1595: 1560: 1529: 1463: 1422: 1380: 1346: 1302: 1277: 1252: 1229: 1225: 1188: 1163: 1136: 1109: 1082: 1021: 990: 957: 932: 884: 857: 823: 790: 707: 1377:

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state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system".

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The Other Faces of the Empire: Ordinary Lives Against Social Order and Hierarchy

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The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: a social and cultural history

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The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: a social and cultural history

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The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: A Social and Cultural History

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passed from father to son as an inheritance. All rural communities had a

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to the nineteenth century, ethnoreligious divisions were embodied by the

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The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: Social History in the Early Modern World

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The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: social history in the early modern world

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Slavery, much like other social divisions, evolved overtime. The

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Kumpaki and Samatya; Jews lived in Balat, Hasköy, and Kasimpasa.

475: 436: 264: 2561: 1594:. Translated by Tasdelen, Esra. Istanbul: Koc University Press. 3737: 3550: 3483: 3423: 3418: 3225: 2892: 2843: 2320: 2303: 2151: 504: 312: 308: 194: 184: 3545: 3473: 3024: 653: 432: 428: 324: 276: 199: 3555: 3097: 2337: 292: 596:, or “the flock,” was composed of the lower classes. The 1553:"Ottoman women as legal and marital subjects: Başak Tuğ" 588:

Ottoman society was divided into two major classes. The

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A ́goston, Ga ́bor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2010-05-21).

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(1998). 1208:Baer, Marc (August 2004). 642: 470: 86:Ethnoreligious communities 4155: 4096: 3988: 3956: 3923: 3849: 3821: 3808: 3795: 3713: 3670: 3630: 3612: 3531: 3449: 3409: 3318: 3311: 3266: 3169: 3165: 3152: 3015: 2969: 2965: 2936: 2861: 2821: 2793: 2760: 2661: 2616: 2607: 2524: 2490: 2440: 2368: 2359: 2296: 2228: 2190: 2129: 2118: 2021: 2012: 1920: 1913: 1866:Decline and modernization 1788: 1697:Faroqhi, Suraiya (2019). 1183:Faroqhi, Suraiya (2019). 1077:Karpat, Kemal H. (2002). 1042:The Balkans in Transition 563:Public and private spaces 539: 366: 4129:Pre-industrial East Asia 2394:Six Divisions of Cavalry 1930:Foreign Affairs Ministry 1734:Harvard University Press 1726:Cambridge, Massachusetts 1008:Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). 977:Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). 919:Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). 391: 3177:Administrative detainee 2387:Agha of the Janissaries 2034:List of Ottoman sultans 773:Inalcik, Halil (1954). 738:Inalcik, Halil (1954). 545:Women as legal entities 466:Ethno-religious divides 411:Socioeconomic divisions 3593: 2589:Science and technology 2039:Roman succession claim 605:Urban areas and cities 493:fall of Constantinople 4134:Pre-industrial Europe 2462:Dragoman of the Fleet 2177:Dragoman of the Porte 1967:Armenian Constitution 1854:Stagnation and reform 1524:Kia, Mehrdad (2011). 698:Hourani, Albert Habib 584:Urban and rural areas 58:Court and aristocracy 3991: or countries 3802:By country or region 3040:Class discrimination 2182:Outer Palace Service 2098:Inner Palace Service 1590:Yasa, Firat (2019). 1214:Gender & History 3523:Vanniar (Chieftain) 2377:Classic period army 2218:Chamber of Deputies 2193:Imperial Government 521:Orthodox patriarche 152:Rise of nationalism 4104:18th-century Spain 3958:Standard of living 3662:Upper middle class 3657:Lower middle class 3248:Political prisoner 3030:Chattering classes 3002:Spoon class theory 2004:Translation Office 1888:2nd Constitutional 1876:1st Constitutional 1830:Sultanate of Women 297:People of the Book 142:Great Fire of 1660 4173: 4172: 4151: 4150: 4147: 4146: 3984: 3983: 3791: 3790: 3787: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3685:Lumpenproletariat 3187:illegal immigrant 3148: 3147: 3060:Classless society 2890: 2889: 2857: 2856: 2849:Star and crescent 2520: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2355: 2354: 2292: 2291: 2044:Ottoman Caliphate 1925:Foreign relations 1680:978-0-691-14617-1 1655:978-0-295-97642-6 1566:978-0-203-14285-1 1557:The Ottoman World 1535:978-0-313-06402-9 1469:978-0-415-44492-7 1460:The Ottoman world 1386:978-90-04-20742-4 1308:978-1-107-03363-4 1283:978-1-107-03363-4 1258:978-1-107-03363-4 1194:978-1-78831-366-7 1169:978-1-4381-1025-7 1142:978-0-521-57455-6 1115:978-0-521-57455-6 1088:978-90-04-12101-0 963:978-1-107-03363-4 890:978-0-521-57455-6 863:978-0-521-57455-6 829:978-1-4767-0025-0 487:The Millet system 450:, and merged the 242: 241: 16:(Redirected from 4193: 4163: 4162: 3990: 3891:Mexican-American 3819: 3818: 3810: 3809: 3797: 3796: 3598: 3541:Business magnate 3431:Knowledge worker 3316: 3315: 3204:dual or multiple 3167: 3166: 3154: 3153: 3108:Social exclusion 3103:Social cleansing 3017: 2967: 2966: 2956:Economic classes 2917: 2910: 2903: 2894: 2893: 2621:Social structure 2614: 2613: 2467:Imperial Arsenal 2366: 2365: 2200: 2139: 2137:(classic period) 2132:Imperial Council 2127: 2126: 2019: 2018: 1918: 1917: 1775: 1768: 1761: 1752: 1751: 1747: 1723: 1703: 1702: 1694: 1685: 1684: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1641: 1626: 1625: 1615: 1606: 1605: 1587: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1549: 1540: 1539: 1521: 1474: 1473: 1455: 1446: 1445: 1437: 1431: 1430: 1406: 1391: 1390: 1372: 1355: 1354: 1322: 1313: 1312: 1294: 1288: 1287: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1205: 1199: 1198: 1180: 1174: 1173: 1153: 1147: 1146: 1126: 1120: 1119: 1099: 1093: 1092: 1074: 1047: 1046: 1036: 1030: 1029: 1005: 999: 998: 974: 968: 967: 947: 941: 940: 916: 910: 909: 901: 895: 894: 874: 868: 867: 847: 834: 833: 813: 807: 806: 770: 764: 763: 735: 729: 728: 722: 720: 694: 269:Fertile Crescent 234: 227: 220: 52:Social structure 46: 37: 30: 29: 21: 4201: 4200: 4196: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4191: 4190: 4176: 4175: 4174: 4169: 4143: 4092: 3980: 3952: 3919: 3903:Underprivileged 3845: 3804: 3803: 3779: 3709: 3666: 3626: 3608: 3527: 3445: 3405: 3307: 3262: 3161: 3160: 3144: 3123:Social position 3113:Social mobility 3011: 2961: 2932: 2931: 2921: 2891: 2886: 2853: 2817: 2789: 2756: 2657: 2646:Ottoman Turkish 2603: 2512: 2486: 2436: 2431:Modernized army 2415:Sekban-i Djedid 2351: 2288: 2243:Shaykh al-Islām 2224: 2201: 2196: 2195: 2186: 2140: 2135: 2134: 2114: 2029:Ottoman dynasty 2008: 1909: 1784: 1779: 1744: 1712: 1707: 1706: 1695: 1688: 1681: 1667: 1663: 1656: 1642: 1629: 1616: 1609: 1602: 1588: 1579: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1551: 1550: 1543: 1536: 1522: 1477: 1470: 1456: 1449: 1438: 1434: 1407: 1394: 1387: 1373: 1358: 1323: 1316: 1309: 1295: 1291: 1284: 1270: 1266: 1259: 1245: 1241: 1206: 1202: 1195: 1181: 1177: 1170: 1154: 1150: 1143: 1127: 1123: 1116: 1100: 1096: 1089: 1075: 1050: 1037: 1033: 1006: 1002: 989:(1): 123, 125. 975: 971: 964: 948: 944: 917: 913: 902: 898: 891: 875: 871: 864: 848: 837: 830: 814: 810: 787:10.2307/1595144 779:Studia Islamica 771: 767: 752:10.2307/1595144 744:Studia Islamica 736: 732: 718: 716: 714: 695: 691: 686: 647:The status of “ 645: 628: 607: 586: 574: 565: 556: 547: 542: 533: 489: 473: 468: 413: 394: 369: 238: 209: 171: 146: 81: 42: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4199: 4189: 4188: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4167: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4149: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4142: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4124:Ottoman Empire 4121: 4116: 4111: 4109:Ancient Greece 4106: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4093: 4091: 4090: 4085: 4083:United Kingdom 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3994: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3982: 3981: 3979: 3978: 3976:Home-ownership 3973: 3968: 3962: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3917: 3916: 3915: 3910: 3900: 3899: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3855: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3831:American Dream 3828: 3822: 3816: 3806: 3805: 3793: 3792: 3789: 3788: 3785: 3784: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3777: 3772: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3744: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3719: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3676: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3665: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3648: 3647: 3636: 3634: 3628: 3627: 3625: 3624: 3618: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3606: 3599: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3574: 3573: 3568: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3537: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3525: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3455: 3453: 3447: 3446: 3444: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3427: 3426: 3415: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3403: 3398: 3397: 3396: 3391: 3390: 3389: 3374: 3373: 3372: 3367: 3359: 3358: 3357: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3336: 3335: 3324: 3322: 3313: 3309: 3308: 3306: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3274: 3272: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3243:Migrant worker 3240: 3235: 3234: 3233: 3223: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3206: 3196: 3195: 3194: 3189: 3179: 3173: 3171: 3163: 3162: 3159:By demographic 3150: 3149: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3142: 3139:Status Anxiety 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3095: 3093:Ranked society 3090: 3085: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3052: 3047: 3042: 3037: 3035:Class conflict 3032: 3027: 3021: 3019: 3018: topics 3013: 3012: 3010: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2994: 2992:Mudsill theory 2989: 2984: 2979: 2973: 2971: 2963: 2962: 2960: 2959: 2952: 2945: 2937: 2934: 2933: 2930: 2929: 2923: 2920: 2919: 2912: 2905: 2897: 2888: 2887: 2885: 2884: 2877: 2870: 2862: 2859: 2858: 2855: 2854: 2852: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2799: 2797: 2791: 2790: 2788: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2766: 2764: 2758: 2757: 2755: 2754: 2749: 2748: 2747: 2742: 2732: 2731: 2730: 2725: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2704: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2680: 2679: 2678: 2667: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2656: 2655: 2650: 2649: 2648: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2604: 2602: 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2585: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2543: 2542: 2537: 2530: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2518: 2517: 2514: 2513: 2511: 2510: 2505: 2500: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2487: 2485: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2464: 2459: 2458: 2457: 2446: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2435: 2434: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2410:Nizam-i Djedid 2401: 2396: 2391: 2390: 2389: 2372: 2370: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2350: 2349: 2344: 2335: 2333:Mutasarrifates 2330: 2329: 2328: 2318: 2313: 2312: 2311: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2287: 2286: 2285: 2284: 2274: 2273: 2272: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2234: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2223: 2222: 2221: 2220: 2215: 2204: 2202: 2191: 2188: 2187: 2185: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2172:Reis ül-Küttab 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2143: 2141: 2130: 2124: 2116: 2115: 2113: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2108:Palace Schools 2105: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2056:Imperial Harem 2053: 2052: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2025: 2023: 2022:House of Osman 2016: 2010: 2009: 2007: 2006: 2001: 2000: 1999: 1994: 1986: 1985: 1984: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1964: 1954: 1953: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1932: 1921: 1915: 1911: 1910: 1908: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1880: 1879: 1878: 1873: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1844: 1842:Decline thesis 1837:Transformation 1834: 1833: 1832: 1822: 1821: 1820: 1818:Constantinople 1815: 1810: 1800: 1794: 1792: 1786: 1785: 1782:Ottoman Empire 1778: 1777: 1770: 1763: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1742: 1711: 1708: 1705: 1704: 1686: 1679: 1661: 1654: 1627: 1607: 1600: 1577: 1565: 1541: 1534: 1475: 1468: 1447: 1432: 1392: 1385: 1356: 1314: 1307: 1289: 1282: 1264: 1257: 1239: 1220:(2): 425–458. 1200: 1193: 1175: 1168: 1148: 1141: 1121: 1114: 1094: 1087: 1048: 1031: 1000: 969: 962: 942: 931:(1): 126–127. 911: 896: 889: 869: 862: 835: 828: 808: 765: 730: 712: 688: 687: 685: 682: 644: 641: 627: 624: 606: 603: 585: 582: 573: 570: 564: 561: 555: 552: 546: 543: 541: 538: 532: 525: 488: 485: 472: 469: 467: 464: 412: 409: 393: 390: 368: 365: 254:Ottoman Empire 252:described the 250:Albert Hourani 246:Ottoman Empire 240: 239: 237: 236: 229: 222: 214: 211: 210: 208: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 181: 178: 177: 173: 172: 170: 169: 164: 158: 155: 154: 148: 147: 145: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 123: 122: 117: 112: 107: 105:Greek Orthodox 97: 91: 88: 87: 83: 82: 80: 79: 74: 69: 63: 60: 59: 55: 54: 48: 47: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4198: 4187: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4166: 4158: 4157: 4154: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4101: 4099: 4095: 4089: 4088:United States 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3989:Other regions 3987: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3955: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3928: 3926: 3922: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3905: 3904: 3901: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3882: 3879: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3861: 3860: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3848: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3814:United States 3811: 3807: 3798: 3794: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3748: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3712: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3641: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3623: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3597: 3596: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3563: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3530: 3524: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3505: 3502: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3448: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3425: 3422: 3421: 3420: 3417: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3399: 3395: 3392: 3388: 3385: 3384: 3383: 3380: 3379: 3378: 3375: 3371: 3368: 3366: 3363: 3362: 3360: 3356: 3353: 3352: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3329: 3326: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3275: 3273: 3270: 3265: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3253:Socioeconomic 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3229: 3228: 3227: 3224: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3201: 3200: 3197: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3174: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3155: 3151: 3141: 3140: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3128:Social stigma 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3118:Social orphan 3116: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3083: 3078: 3077: 3076:Nouveau riche 3073: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3056: 3053: 3051: 3050:Class traitor 3048: 3046: 3045:Class society 3043: 3041: 3038: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3022: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2988: 2985: 2983: 2982:Gilbert model 2980: 2978: 2975: 2974: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2958: 2957: 2953: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2938: 2935: 2928: 2925: 2924: 2918: 2913: 2911: 2906: 2904: 2899: 2898: 2895: 2883: 2882: 2878: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2869: 2868: 2864: 2863: 2860: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2820: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2765: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2737: 2736: 2733: 2729: 2726: 2724: 2721: 2720: 2719: 2716: 2714: 2711: 2709: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2672: 2669: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2654: 2651: 2647: 2644: 2643: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2636:Ottoman court 2634: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2559: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2548: 2545: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2483: 2480: 2478: 2477:Naval battles 2475: 2473: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2456: 2453: 2452: 2451: 2450:Kapudan Pasha 2448: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2433: 2432: 2428: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2407: 2406: 2405:Reform period 2402: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2388: 2385: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2378: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2358: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2306: 2305: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2283: 2280: 2279: 2278: 2275: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2252: 2251: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2240: 2239: 2236: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2209: 2206: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2117: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2099: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2077: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2066:Haseki sultan 2064: 2062: 2061:Valide sultan 2059: 2058: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2031: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2005: 2002: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1990: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1941: 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