Civil war - Knowledge

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largest ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war. A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i.e. the more chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance. The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases.

2236: 2998:. In some cases, superpowers would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower. Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the end of the Cold War marked by the fall of the 2887: 2447:

the study average resulted in a decline in the chance of a civil war of about 1%. The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings foregone by rebellion, and therefore that lower foregone earnings encourages rebellion. Phrased another way: young males (who make up the vast majority of combatants in civil wars) are less likely to join a rebellion if they are getting an education and/or have a comfortable salary, and can reasonably assume that they will prosper in the future.

2760: 2805: 2558:, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-nineteenth century, nineteenth century to early twentieth century, and late twentieth century. In nineteenth century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following 2145: 2468: 2262:, states that "a civil war is a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies". The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a civil war is contested by academics. Some political scientists define as civil war as having more than 1000 casualties, while others further specify that at least 100 must come from each side. The 2227:. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by who people are, whether that be defined in terms of ethnicity, religion or other social affiliation, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war. 2630:, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The 2423: 2801:, some French military conscripts from rural regions were unable to name the country they were fighting for. Nevertheless, Western states that survived into the latter half of the twentieth century were considered "strong" by simple reason that they had managed to develop the institutional structures and military capability required to survive predation by their fellow states. 2969:

receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European Great Powers, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist

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commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth, e.g. it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services.

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300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while intervention on both sides lengthens the average civil war by an addition 92%. If one of the intervening states was a superpower, a civil war is extended a further 72%; a conflict such as the

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the state. This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. If a rebellion failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself, it was normally doomed to a quick destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871

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High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain increased the chance of conflict. Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains

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Higher male secondary school enrollment, per capita income and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing the chance of civil war. Specifically, a male secondary school enrollment 10% above the average reduced the chance of a conflict by about 3%, while a growth rate 1% higher than

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of 1821 for events in its Central American "backyard". However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources. On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was

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have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half year average of the 1900-1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-1800s, the increasing length of those wars resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing

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may be included. Neither did imperial powers make territorial integration a priority, and may have discouraged nascent nationalism as a danger to their rule. Many newly independent states thus found themselves impoverished, with minimal administrative capacity in a fragmented society, while faced

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Following World War II, the major European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained. More states

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Civil wars through the nineteenth century to early twentieth century tended to be short; the average length of a civil war between 1900 and 1944 was one and half years. The state itself was the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of

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the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds. The study found that the presence of diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding

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in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironaka's statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total

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Most proxies for "grievance" - the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics - were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the

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There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that served to extend wars. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to

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regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in

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Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards

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and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high-level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary

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to favor a particular interest group. In such a situation, factions manipulate the state to benefit themselves or, alternatively, state leaders use the bureaucracy to further their own self-interest. The lack of credible governance was compounded by the fact that most colonies were economic

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Based on the 1000 casualties per year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997, 104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007.

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prohibited any self-government up until it suddenly granted independence to its colonies in 1960. Like Western states of previous centuries, the new ex-colonies lacked autonomous bureaucracies, which would make decisions based on the benefit to society as a whole, rather than respond to

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and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the Western states they were modeled after. In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states' actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong

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Low per capita income has been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect economic inequality to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of

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In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after

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in the early 2000s. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier-Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1167 five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to

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in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of

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While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state - centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights -, as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the

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the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-nineteenth century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in

2658:, would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions were nearly always decisive and quickly ended the civil wars. 2419:, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. 2850:

loss-makers at independence, lacking both a productive economic base and a taxation system to effectively extract resources from economic activity. Among the rare states profitable at decolonization was India, to which scholars credibly argue that

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The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based. The elapsed time may represent the

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do not specifically define the term 'civil war'. They do, however, describe the criteria for acts qualifying as "armed conflict not of an international character", which includes civil wars. Among the conditions listed are four requirements:

2946:+114% from 1945-1997. The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars. 2756:

also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-WWII incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number.

2990:(1945-1989) provided a global network of material and ideological support that perpetuated civil wars, which were mainly fought in ex-colonial weak states, rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the 2923:

to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order. The formation of a strong

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territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990

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administrative structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, or in

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at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the twentieth century, while over 20 concurrent civil wars were occurring at the end of the

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sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers

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was an entirely different process of state formation. Most imperial powers had not foreseen a need to prepare their colonies for independence; for example, Britain had given limited self-rule to

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The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.

2266:, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the 2368:

to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically-significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were:

2181: 2950: 3087:, Anke Hoeffler and Nicholas Sambanis, "The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design," in Collier, Paul and Nicholas Sambanis, eds, 3163:

on Third 1949 Geneva Convention, Article III, Section "A. Cases of armed conflict" for the ICRC's reading of the definition and a listing of proposed alternate wording

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did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede.

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was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years. This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the

2695:(1861-1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities, rather than political ideologies, and it was ended through a 2172:

and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state. It is high-intensity conflict, often involving

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in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at "peak danger", with commodities comprising 32% of

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sovereignty changed in the wake of WWII in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given

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The legal Government is "obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military."

3109: 2781:'s famous formulation: "War made the state and the state made war". For example, the formation of the modern states of 1878: 171: 3033: 2995: 2073: 1851: 466: 126: 106: 118: 3128: 2867:. The "strong"-"weak" categorization is not the same as "Western"-"non-Western", as some Latin American states like 1527: 2809: 1605: 2863:

with the expectation of immediately meeting the demands of a modern state. Such states are considered "weak" or "

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in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the

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are examples of nations that were considered to have promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars.

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of civilians by the state is not a civil war. Similarly, less intense forms of societal conflict, such as

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and the expenditure of large amounts of resource. A civil war involves two-sided violence; for example, a

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as little more than a trading post, while all major decisions for French colonies were made in Paris and

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in the nineteenth century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by

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states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the

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There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The

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Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War

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The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory

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are considered to have "strong" administrative structures and economic infrastructure.

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Roy Licklider, "The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945--1993,"

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authority over the population within the determinate portion of the national territory.

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David T. Mason and Patrick 3. Fett, "How Civil Wars End: A Rational Choice Approach,"

2176:, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars result in large numbers of 3496: 2975: 2958: 2925: 2764: 2700: 2696: 2684: 2479: 2314: 2263: 2177: 2124: 2033: 1980: 1883: 1873: 1868: 1838: 1821: 1816: 1789: 1734: 1435: 1425: 1420: 1410: 1330: 1320: 1315: 1290: 1260: 1150: 1120: 1115: 1105: 1100: 1090: 1005: 958: 928: 767: 560: 537: 471: 97: 54: 21: 3518: 2093: 2720: 2676: 2537: 2475: 2452: 2279: 2205: 2098: 2063: 1995: 1888: 1826: 1719: 1647: 1640: 1497: 1430: 1380: 1370: 1245: 1165: 1125: 1110: 1077: 1062: 933: 918: 871: 779: 737: 680: 675: 633: 456: 433: 340: 269: 198: 181: 3513: 3114: 2970: 2920: 2643: 2189: 1908: 1893: 1811: 1767: 1709: 1365: 1360: 1250: 1240: 1155: 1130: 1072: 913: 843: 833: 685: 670: 593: 565: 365: 345: 193: 2962: 2821: 2773: 2639: 2604: 2592: 2083: 1831: 1255: 1215: 1193: 1180: 1170: 1140: 1057: 1010: 813: 804: 695: 648: 628: 618: 588: 555: 443: 400: 355: 227: 160: 2752:

formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry.

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The party in revolt must be in possession of a part of the national territory.

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The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation

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Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict

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of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse;

3508: 3129:"A Matter of Definition: What Makes a Civil War, and Who Declares It So?" 3065:, Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Mass., 2005, p. 3, ISBN 0674015320 2999: 2991: 2798: 2631: 2588: 2533: 2274:, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as 2244: 2028: 1779: 1744: 1583: 1270: 1235: 948: 891: 794: 578: 299: 294: 2804: 2359:

A comprehensive studies of civil war was carried out by a team from the

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Scholars of war divide theories on the causes of civil war into either

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from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital.

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Andrew Mack, "Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community,"

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sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have

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The insurgents must have some amount of recognition as a belligerent.

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Stathis Kalyvas, "'New' and 'Old' Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?"

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An artillery school set up by the non-socialist "Whites" during the

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The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on

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sides of the war received support from intervening great powers:

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Royal Air Force Doctrine - The Nature of War and Armed Conflict

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Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars

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Breaking the Conflict Trap: civil war and development policy

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to this revision, which may differ significantly from the

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Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements

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Ali, Taisier Mohamed Ahmed and Robert O. Matthews, eds.

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Elisabeth Jean Wood; "Civil Wars: What We Don't Know,"

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was a part, marked the end of the early unity of the

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Greed and Grievance: economic agendas in civil wars

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Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars

66: 3083:See, for example, Hironaka (2005), pp. 9-10, and 2660: 2525: 2355:Causes of civil war in the Collier-Hoeffler Model 3537: 2380:An economic dependence on commodities, such the 3091:, Volume 1: Africa, The World Bank, 2005, p. 13 2571:Civil wars in the 19th and early 20th centuries 2464:offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary. 2125: 3205:Collier, Hoeffler and Sambanis, 2005, p. 18 3193:Collier, Hoeffler and Sambanis, 2005, p. 16 3057: 3055: 3053: 3402:Civil Wars in Africa: roots and resolution 2132: 2118: 2981: 2521: 3158:International Committee of the Red Cross 3101: 3099: 3097: 3050: 2948: 2885: 2803: 2758: 2738: 2466: 2421: 2375: 2305: 2234: 2143: 1096:List of military strategies and concepts 74:Revision as of 19:37, 4 January 2009 by 47: 3201: 3199: 3145:Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949 2415:A second source of finance is national 73: 14: 3538: 3428:David Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds. 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3173: 3171: 3169: 2301: 3312: 3310: 3177:Collier, Hoeffler and Sambanis, p. 17 3094: 44: 25: 3519:Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends 3449:David M. Malone and Mats R. Berdal. 3439:89, no. 3 (summer 1995): pp 681-690. 3196: 2703:(1936-1939) was exceptional because 2192:, are excluded from the definition. 17: 3488:(Princeton University Press, 2002), 3432:(Princeton University Press, 1996). 3180: 3166: 2953:Artist's depiction of the death of 135: 104: 3307: 3034:The Logic of Violence in Civil War 2996:North Atlantic Treaty Organization 136: 3557: 3502: 3437:American Political Science Review 3407:Mats Berdal and David M. Malone, 2622:The two major global ideologies, 2384:being mined by these children in 60:. The present address (URL) is a 2810:Ogaden National Liberation Front 2662: 2527: 170: 100:) to last version by BanyanTree) 57:) to last version by BanyanTree) 3460:40, no. 4 (fall 1996): 546-568. 3394: 3382: 3373: 3364: 3355: 3346: 3337: 3328: 3319: 3298: 3289: 3280: 3271: 3262: 3253: 3244: 3235: 3226: 3217: 3208: 2875:and Middle Eastern states like 2455:better explained the findings. 3458:Journal of Conflict Resolution 3446:39, no. 5 (2002): pp. 515-525. 3277:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 7 & 23 3150: 3137: 3121: 3077: 3068: 2340:civil authority must exercise 13: 1: 3418:World Bank (2003) - 320 pages 3074:Hironaka (2005), pp. 1-2, 4-5 3044: 2442:Opportunity cost of rebellion 2399:A high proportion of primary 2258:, a scholar of civil wars at 2230: 2719:supported opposition leader 2580:occurred almost entirely in 2436:British Mandate of Palestine 2195:Civil wars since the end of 7: 3039:Wars of national liberation 3022: 2890:A checkpoint manned by the 2663:File:Pipistrellobombing.jpg 1589:Military–industrial complex 1068:Operational manoeuvre group 24:of this page, as edited by 10: 3562: 2957:(71 BC) at the end of the 2528:File:Battle of Siffin1.jpg 3524:"What makes a civil war?" 3470:Stephen John et al, eds. 3444:Journal of Peace Research 3425:54, no. 1 (2001): 99-118. 3388:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 48-50 3379:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 50-51 3370:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 37-40 3334:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 59-61 3268:Hironaka, 2005, p. 1, 4-5 3232:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 28-29 2284:African National Congress 2268:Second Sudanese Civil War 1653:Loss-of-strength gradient 510:Combat information center 3509:Map of current conflicts 2617:United States of America 2554:Ann Hironaka, author of 2282:and the struggle of the 2243:tank after rebels enter 1971:Military science fiction 1456:Technology and equipment 877:List of military tactics 3147:, (Volume II-B, p. 121) 3089:Understanding Civil War 2372:Availability of finance 2039:Wartime sexual violence 1795:Full-spectrum dominance 1606:Supply-chain management 139:Template:Two other uses 3411:(Lynne Rienner, 2000). 3286:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 36 2982:Effect of the Cold War 2965: 2903: 2817: 2768: 2688: 2679:'s Nationalists bombs 2673:smaller fighter planes 2634:, defined in the 1815 2551: 2522:Duration of civil wars 2483: 2438: 2430:volunteers during the 2405:gross domestic product 2396: 2321: 2252: 2225:greed versus grievance 2157: 1951:Awards and decorations 1924:Peace through strength 1899:Low-intensity conflict 1533:Conscientious objector 1406:Area of responsibility 3495:Vol. 9, 2003 pp 247+ 3361:Hironaka, 2005, p. 16 3352:Hironaka, 2005, pp. 6 3343:Hironaka, 2005, p. 56 3325:Hironaka, 2005, p. 58 3304:Hironaka, 2005, p. 54 3295:Hironaka, 2005, p. 40 3259:Hironaka, 2005, p. 31 3250:Hironaka, 2005, p. 30 3241:Hironaka, 2005, p. 29 3214:Hironaka, 2005, p. 28 2952: 2889: 2807: 2762: 2739:Civil wars since 1945 2666: 2540:(657) in present-day 2531: 2470: 2425: 2379: 2309: 2238: 2147: 543:Torpedo data computer 533:Ship gun fire-control 45:19:37, 4 January 2009 3316:Hironaka, 2005, p. 6 3223:Hironaka, 2005, p. 1 3143:Final Record of the 3118:, March/April 2007, 2474:soldiers during the 2311:Battle of Tewkesbury 2174:regular armed forces 2150:Battle of Gettysburg 2069:Military occupations 1904:Military engineering 1806:Unrestricted Warfare 1663:Force multiplication 561:Military manoeuvrers 3484:Barbara F. Walter, 3477:Monica Duffy Toft, 2820:In sharp contrast, 2750:fragility of states 2599:were recognized as 2432:1947-1948 civil war 2366:regression analysis 2302:Further definitions 2272:Cambodian Civil War 2260:Stanford University 2249:Ethiopian Civil War 2206:forced displacement 1755:Penal military unit 1740:Rules of engagement 1416:Command and control 1041:Operations research 505:Director (military) 495:Fire-control system 265:Command and control 146:Part of a series on 111:← Previous revision 92:(Reverted edits by 49:(Reverted edits by 3493:Global Governance, 3463:Patrick M. Regan. 3110:"Iraq's Civil War" 3029:List of civil wars 2966: 2931:invasion of Kuwait 2904: 2900:Lebanese Civil War 2834:British Somaliland 2818: 2769: 2693:American Civil War 2689: 2636:Congress of Vienna 2552: 2484: 2459:Military advantage 2439: 2397: 2326:Geneva Conventions 2322: 2253: 2247:at the end of the 2158: 2154:American Civil War 1864:Counter-insurgency 1785:Command of the sea 1730:Jewish laws on war 1705:Geneva Conventions 1241:Divide and conquer 1036:Military operation 1001:Tactical objective 500:Fire-control radar 477:Electronic-warfare 3474:(2002), 729 pages 3453:(2000), 251 pages 3404:(1999), 322 pages 3134:November 26, 2006 2976:Angolan Civil War 2959:Third Servile War 2926:international law 2832:, while treating 2765:Finnish Civil War 2701:Spanish Civil War 2685:Spanish Civil War 2480:Chinese Civil War 2315:Wars of the Roses 2264:Correlates of War 2148:Aftermath of the 2142: 2141: 2034:Horses in warfare 1981:Anti-war movement 1884:Gunboat diplomacy 1874:Disaster response 1822:Philosophy of war 1817:Principles of war 1790:Deterrence theory 1735:Right of conquest 1658:Lanchester's laws 1426:Principles of war 1116:Counter-offensive 1101:Military campaign 1006:Target saturation 929:Counterinsurgency 538:Gun data computer 472:Close air support 434:Aircraft carriers 3553: 3467:(2000) 172 pages 3389: 3386: 3380: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3344: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3326: 3323: 3317: 3314: 3305: 3302: 3296: 3293: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3275: 3269: 3266: 3260: 3257: 3251: 3248: 3242: 3239: 3233: 3230: 3224: 3221: 3215: 3212: 3206: 3203: 3194: 3191: 3178: 3175: 3164: 3154: 3148: 3141: 3135: 3125: 3119: 3103: 3092: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3066: 3059: 3015:(1970-1990) and 2721:Francisco Franco 2697:war of attrition 2677:Francisco Franco 2664: 2644:Habsburg Austria 2556:Neverending Wars 2538:Battle of Siffin 2529: 2476:Battle of Siping 2453:opportunity cost 2280:Northern Ireland 2190:social movements 2134: 2127: 2120: 1889:Humanitarian aid 1827:Security dilemma 1648:Power projection 1431:Economy of force 1411:Chain of command 1126:Defence in depth 1111:Commerce raiding 934:Defeat in detail 270:Defense ministry 174: 165: 164: 155: 143: 142: 123:Newer revision → 101: 90: 69: 67:current revision 59: 58: 46: 42: 41: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3555: 3554: 3552: 3551: 3550: 3536: 3535: 3532:, 20 April 2006 3505: 3397: 3392: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3329: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3245: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3197: 3192: 3181: 3176: 3167: 3155: 3151: 3142: 3138: 3126: 3122: 3115:Foreign Affairs 3104: 3095: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3060: 3051: 3047: 3025: 2984: 2971:Monroe Doctrine 2921:development aid 2741: 2671:, supported by 2573: 2536:, of which the 2524: 2496:Population size 2357: 2304: 2233: 2138: 2109: 2108: 2059: 2049: 2048: 2014: 2006: 2005: 1946: 1936: 1935: 1909:Multilateralism 1894:Law enforcement 1854: 1844: 1843: 1812:Just war theory 1770: 1760: 1759: 1710:Geneva Protocol 1680: 1670: 1669: 1643: 1633: 1632: 1574: 1564: 1563: 1471: 1461: 1460: 1401: 1391: 1390: 1356: 1346: 1345: 1276:Network-centric 1196: 1186: 1185: 1093: 1083: 1082: 1031: 1021: 1020: 969:Rapid dominance 874: 864: 863: 819:Electromagnetic 728: 718: 717: 704: 657: 605: 581: 571: 570: 566:Combat training 547: 524: 490:Combat systems: 486: 448: 444:Auxiliary ships 410: 370: 366:Military police 332: 255: 245: 244: 184: 158: 157: 156: 151: 134: 133: 132: 131: 130: 115:Latest revision 103: 102: 91: 80: 78: 65: 48: 31: 29: 12: 11: 5: 3559: 3549: 3548: 3534: 3533: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3504: 3503:External links 3501: 3500: 3499: 3497:online version 3489: 3482: 3475: 3468: 3461: 3454: 3447: 3440: 3433: 3426: 3423:World Politics 3419: 3414:Paul Collier, 3412: 3405: 3396: 3393: 3391: 3390: 3381: 3372: 3363: 3354: 3345: 3336: 3327: 3318: 3306: 3297: 3288: 3279: 3270: 3261: 3252: 3243: 3234: 3225: 3216: 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1832:Tripwire force 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1782: 1777: 1771: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1758: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1742: 1737: 1732: 1727: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1707: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1687: 1681: 1676: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1655: 1650: 1644: 1639: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1608: 1603: 1602: 1601: 1596: 1586: 1581: 1575: 1570: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1552: 1547: 1546: 1545: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1484: 1483: 1472: 1467: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1459: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1402: 1397: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1357: 1354:Administrative 1352: 1351: 1348: 1347: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1281:New generation 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1256:Fleet in being 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1197: 1194:Grand strategy 1192: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1183: 1181:Scorched earth 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1094: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1058:Deep operation 1055: 1050: 1043: 1038: 1032: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 987: 986: 976: 971: 966: 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 905: 904: 899: 894: 884: 875: 870: 869: 866: 865: 862: 861: 859:Unconventional 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 807: 805:Disinformation 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 776: 775: 770: 760: 755: 750: 745: 740: 735: 729: 724: 723: 720: 719: 716: 715: 710: 703: 702: 701: 700: 699: 698: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 656: 655: 654: 653: 652: 651: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 604: 603: 602: 601: 596: 591: 582: 577: 576: 573: 572: 569: 568: 563: 558: 556:Basic training 553: 546: 545: 540: 535: 530: 523: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 485: 484: 482:Reconnaissance 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 447: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 409: 408: 403: 401:Special forces 398: 393: 392: 391: 381: 376: 369: 368: 363: 358: 356:Reconnaissance 353: 348: 343: 338: 331: 330: 321: 316: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 256: 251: 250: 247: 246: 243: 242: 241: 240: 235: 225: 224: 223: 218: 208: 207: 206: 199:Post-classical 196: 191: 185: 180: 179: 176: 175: 167: 166: 148: 147: 76: 62:permanent link 27: 16: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3558: 3547: 3544: 3543: 3541: 3531: 3530: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3487: 3483: 3480: 3476: 3473: 3469: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3455: 3452: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3438: 3434: 3431: 3427: 3424: 3420: 3417: 3413: 3410: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3398: 3385: 3376: 3367: 3358: 3349: 3340: 3331: 3322: 3313: 3311: 3301: 3292: 3283: 3274: 3265: 3256: 3247: 3238: 3229: 3220: 3211: 3202: 3200: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3162: 3159: 3156:See also the 3153: 3146: 3140: 3133: 3130: 3127:Edward Wong, 3124: 3117: 3116: 3111: 3107: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3090: 3086: 3085:Collier, Paul 3080: 3071: 3064: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3049: 3040: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3026: 3020: 3019:(1980-2000). 3018: 3014: 3011:(1979–1991), 3010: 3007:(1960-1996), 3006: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2979: 2977: 2972: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2917: 2912: 2911: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2802: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2779:Charles Tilly 2775: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2751: 2747: 2736: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2618: 2614: 2613:Massachusetts 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2597:Barbary Coast 2594: 2590: 2585: 2583: 2579: 2578:Paris Commune 2568: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2550: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2519: 2516: 2512: 2503: 2502: 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1945: 1940: 1939: 1932: 1931:Show of force 1929: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1919:Peacebuilding 1917: 1916: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1840: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1829: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1807: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1775:Air supremacy 1773: 1772: 1769: 1764: 1763: 1756: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1736: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1715:Islamic rules 1713: 1711: 1708: 1706: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1696: 1695:Court-martial 1693: 1691: 1688: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1679: 1674: 1673: 1664: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1637: 1636: 1627: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1594:Arms industry 1592: 1591: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1568: 1567: 1560: 1556: 1553: 1551: 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1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1086: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1053:Expeditionary 1051: 1049: 1048: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1025: 1024: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 985: 982: 981: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 924:Counterattack 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 889: 888: 885: 883: 880: 879: 878: 873: 868: 867: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 849:Psychological 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 785:Combined arms 783: 781: 778: 774: 771: 769: 766: 765: 764: 761: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 730: 727: 722: 721: 714: 711: 709: 706: 705: 697: 694: 693: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 663: 662: 659: 658: 650: 647: 646: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 624:Fortification 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 611: 610: 607: 606: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 586: 584: 583: 580: 575: 574: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 548: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 525: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 487: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 449: 445: 442: 440: 439:Landing craft 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 411: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 390: 387: 386: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 371: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 333: 329: 325: 324:Standing army 322: 320: 317: 315: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 257: 254: 249: 248: 239: 236: 234: 231: 230: 229: 226: 222: 219: 217: 216:pike and shot 214: 213: 212: 209: 205: 202: 201: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 186: 183: 178: 177: 173: 169: 168: 162: 154: 150: 149: 145: 144: 141: 140: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 99: 95: 88: 84: 79: 72: 71: 68: 63: 56: 52: 39: 35: 30: 23: 3527: 3492: 3485: 3478: 3471: 3464: 3457: 3450: 3443: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3415: 3408: 3401: 3395:Bibliography 3384: 3375: 3366: 3357: 3348: 3339: 3330: 3321: 3300: 3291: 3282: 3273: 3264: 3255: 3246: 3237: 3228: 3219: 3210: 3152: 3139: 3131: 3123: 3113: 3106:James Fearon 3088: 3079: 3070: 3062: 2985: 2967: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2898:, 1982. The 2819: 2770: 2754: 2746:World War II 2742: 2704: 2690: 2632:Great Powers 2621: 2600: 2586: 2574: 2560:World War II 2555: 2553: 2513:of whatever 2511:depreciation 2507: 2499: 2490: 2462: 2449: 2445: 2414: 2398: 2389: 2386:Sierra Leone 2358: 2341: 2323: 2296: 2292:South Africa 2276:The Troubles 2256:James Fearon 2254: 2222: 2197:World War II 2194: 2161: 2159: 2044:Fifth column 2024:War resister 2019:Women in war 1914:Peacekeeping 1859:Arms control 1804: 1493:Mobilization 1488:Conscription 1446:Intelligence 1399:Organization 1045: 974:Encirclement 854:Radiological 790:Conventional 644:Subterranean 551:Development: 550: 527: 489: 451: 414:Naval units: 413: 406:Signal corps 373: 351:Intelligence 336:Specialties: 335: 260:Organization 211:Early modern 137: 22:old revision 19: 18: 3009:El Salvador 3000:Berlin Wall 2992:Warsaw Pact 2799:World War I 2687:(1936-1939) 2683:during the 2589:sovereignty 2534:First Fitna 2401:commodities 2245:Addis Ababa 2212:(Myanmar), 2029:War studies 1852:Non-warfare 1780:Appeasement 1745:Martial law 1584:War economy 1523:Transgender 1476:Recruitment 1236:Containment 1121:Culminating 1029:Operational 949:Envelopment 892:Air assault 773:Air cavalry 733:Air defence 713:Information 614:Cold-region 579:Battlespace 528:Historical: 374:Land units: 300:Space force 295:Coast guard 228:Late modern 189:Prehistoric 20:This is an 3546:Civil wars 3161:commentary 3045:References 2896:US Marines 2843:corruption 2812:rebels in 2808:A band of 2731:supported 2624:monarchism 2390:(See also 2361:World Bank 2231:Definition 2178:casualties 2168:between a 2089:War crimes 2079:Operations 1986:Foot drill 1956:Battle cry 1869:deterrence 1528:Harassment 1503:Specialism 1326:Technology 1321:Succession 1266:Liberation 1201:Asymmetric 1136:Empty fort 1047:Blitzkrieg 1016:Withdrawal 979:Investment 758:Camouflage 753:Biological 691:Underwater 666:Amphibious 585:Aerospace 452:Air units: 429:Submarines 238:fourth-gen 233:industrial 221:napoleonic 3013:Nicaragua 3005:Guatemala 2955:Spartacus 2894:army and 2869:Argentina 2830:Sri Lanka 2628:democracy 2487:Grievance 2472:Communist 2417:diasporas 2409:petroleum 2338:insurgent 2288:Apartheid 2162:civil war 1976:War novel 1879:Grey-zone 1839:War games 1800:Overmatch 1750:War crime 1700:Desertion 1690:Ceasefire 1685:Armistice 1572:Logistics 1550:Mercenary 1538:Volunteer 1469:Personnel 1441:Engineers 1386:Sociology 1341:World war 1336:Total war 1316:Strategic 1306:Religious 1291:Political 1286:Perpetual 1261:Irregular 1176:Offensive 1151:Defensive 1146:Deception 1106:Attrition 959:Guerrilla 954:Formation 897:Airbridge 829:Loitering 743:Artillery 396:Artillery 346:Engineers 314:Irregular 285:Air force 77:J.delanoy 28:J.delanoy 3540:Category 3529:BBC News 3023:See also 2988:Cold War 2916:de facto 2892:Lebanese 2865:fragile" 2856:Malaysia 2847:nepotism 2814:Ethiopia 2795:Sardinia 2723:, while 2717:Portugal 2609:Virginia 2601:de facto 2382:diamonds 2342:de facto 2202:Cold War 2182:massacre 1991:War song 1966:War film 1599:Materiel 1518:Children 1498:Training 1436:Medicine 1421:Doctrine 1376:Training 1311:Resource 1296:Princely 1246:Economic 1231:Conquest 1226:Colonial 1221:Cold war 1206:Blockade 1091:Strategy 1063:Maneuver 824:Infantry 780:Chemical 634:Mountain 594:Airborne 457:Fighters 424:Warships 379:Infantry 305:Reserves 253:Military 87:contribs 38:contribs 2910:de jure 2838:Belgium 2791:Prussia 2783:Germany 2709:Germany 2648:Prussia 2638:as the 2615:in the 2595:of the 2593:pirates 2515:capital 2434:in the 2319:England 2104:Writers 2099:Weapons 2064:Battles 2013:Related 2001:Wargame 1996:Uniform 1944:Culture 1725:Perfidy 1720:Justice 1641:Science 1626:Outpost 1579:History 1559:Warrior 1555:Soldier 1543:foreign 1481:counter 1381:Service 1331:Theater 1271:Limited 1251:Endemic 1166:Nuclear 939:Foxhole 914:Cavalry 902:Airdrop 887:Airlift 872:Tactics 844:Nuclear 834:Missile 763:Cavalry 748:Barrage 726:Weapons 686:Surface 467:Command 462:Bombers 419:Frogman 389:Cavalry 361:Medical 328:Militia 310:Regular 290:Marines 204:castles 194:Ancient 182:History 161:outline 94:Maurath 51:Maurath 2943:Taiwan 2939:Cyprus 2881:Israel 2873:Brazil 2860:Angola 2852:Uganda 2816:, 2006 2767:, 1918 2729:Russia 2725:France 2681:Madrid 2656:Russia 2654:, and 2652:France 2546:Muslim 2482:, 1941 2426:Armed 2251:, 1991 2218:Angola 2214:Uganda 2156:, 1863 2084:Sieges 1768:Theory 1508:Morale 1366:Policy 1361:Branch 1141:Mosaic 1131:Fabian 1078:Covert 1011:Trench 996:Screen 919:Charge 909:Battle 882:Aerial 800:Denial 768:Horses 696:Seabed 649:Tunnel 629:Jungle 619:Desert 589:Aerial 3112:] in 2877:Egypt 2826:India 2787:Italy 2713:Italy 2675:, of 2669:plane 2582:Paris 2549:Ummah 2542:Syria 2290:-era 2210:Burma 2186:riots 2170:state 2164:is a 2057:Lists 1513:Women 1451:Ranks 1371:Staff 1301:Proxy 1216:Class 1171:Naval 1156:Depth 991:Swarm 984:Siege 964:Naval 944:Drone 839:Music 814:Robot 810:Drone 795:Cyber 738:Armor 708:Cyber 681:Green 676:Brown 639:Urban 599:Space 520:Radar 515:Sonar 384:Armor 341:Staff 319:Ranks 3017:Peru 2994:and 2986:The 2941:and 2935:Iraq 2879:and 2871:and 2858:and 2845:and 2828:and 2793:and 2785:and 2727:and 2715:and 2705:both 2626:and 2611:and 2532:The 2504:Time 2428:Arab 2336:The 2324:The 2270:and 2241:T-62 2216:and 2094:Wars 1611:Base 1161:Goal 1073:Raid 671:Blue 609:Land 280:Navy 275:Army 127:diff 121:) | 119:diff 107:diff 98:talk 83:talk 55:talk 34:talk 2933:by 2317:in 2286:in 2278:of 2188:or 2166:war 1678:Law 1621:FOB 1616:MOB 661:Sea 153:War 43:at 3542:: 3526:, 3309:^ 3198:^ 3182:^ 3168:^ 3108:, 3096:^ 3052:^ 2961:, 2854:, 2735:. 2711:, 2667:A 2650:, 2646:, 2642:, 2567:. 2478:, 2394:.) 2294:. 2160:A 2152:, 1557:/ 812:/ 326:/ 312:/ 113:| 109:) 85:| 36:| 2133:e 2126:t 2119:v 163:) 159:( 129:) 125:( 117:( 105:( 96:( 89:) 81:( 70:. 53:( 40:) 32:(

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