116:
17:
182:
349:, making errors difficult to correct but preserving the brilliant colors of the oxides when fired. The glazed and decorated vessels are returned to the kiln for a second firing, usually between 1000 and 1120 °C (the higher temperatures used by modern potters). Lustered wares have a third firing at a lower temperature, necessitating a delicate control of the amount of oxygen in the kiln atmosphere and therefore a flame-burning kiln.
888:
vellum surface finish. The firing temperatures of such glazes are low, in the region of 950 – 1000 °C because of the variable degrees of solution of the individual oxides. The amount of tin oxide used for coloured glazes depends upon the opacifying property of the chosen chromophore and the intensity of the colour desired; if a deep colour is required less opacifier will be needed than for pastel shades.
432:
403:. Whilst zirconium compounds are not as effective, their low price led to a gradual increase in popularity with an associated reduction in use of tin oxide. Today, tin oxide finds limited use in glazes, generally its use is restricted to specialist low temperature applications, and by artisanal studio potters. The whiteness resulting from the use of zirconia has been described as more
289:. In the sixteenth century, the use of subtle and blended colours which were not strong enough to penetrate the opaque glaze made the delicate control of tonal values possible, and the painting therefore had to be done on the glaze surface, which then becomes a common manner of painting on tin-glazed wares.
241:
Though the recipe of tin glazes may differ in different sites and periods, the process of the production of tin glazes is similar. Generally speaking, the first step of the production of tin glazes is to mix tin and lead in order to form oxides, which was then added to a glaze matrix (alkali-silicate
232:
and related types, stronger, lighter and often cheaper than traditional earthenwares, hit the production of tin-glazed wares very hard, and production of "useful" rather than decorative wares almost ceased, so that "by 1850 the industry was almost extinct" in France. In 1947 Arthur Lane wrote it was
100:
and as a white colorant. Tin oxide has long been used to produce a white, opaque and glossy glaze. As well as an opacifying agent, tin oxide also finds use as a colour stabiliser in some pigments and glazes. Minor quantities are also used in the conducting phases in some electrical porcelain glazes.
363:
The recrystallisation of tin oxide during the firing provides evidence of the slightly different methods of different production sites, as the crystal size, the distribution and the concentration may be influenced. For instance, the analysis of the 14th century
Islamic tin glazes from eastern Spain
887:
In combination with chromium compounds addition of 0.5 - 1.5% tin oxide to a glaze result in a pink colour, with such glazes being known as Chrome-tin pinks. In conjunction with small additions of zinc oxide and titanium oxide, additions of tin oxide up to 18% to lead glazes can produce a satin or
692:
helps to increase the hardness of the surface and clarify the colour of the glaze as well. With the development of tin glazes, the significant amount of tin oxide indicates its deliberate addition as an opacifier. A recipe involving the use of three ingredients was given in Abu’l-Qasim’s treatise
729:
have been found in ancient archives. However, recent research has shown that, at least since the 10th century AD, most
Islamic white glazes in Spain were lead-silica glazes with tin oxide as an opacifier. That is, no alkaline glazes or lead-alkaline glazes have been found. Piccolpasso recorded
500:
Some research on medieval tin glaze has shown that the particle size of tin oxide which appears as cassiterite is around several hundred nanometers, which corresponds to the range of wavelength of visible light. In some cases, the tin oxide is presented not only as small crystals but also as
46:. Tin-glaze is plain lead glaze with a small amount of tin oxide added. The opacity and whiteness of tin glaze encourage its frequent decoration. Historically this has mostly been done before the single firing, when the colours blend into the glaze, but since the 17th century also using
568:
increases with the increasing of temperature. During either heating or cooling, the recrystallisation is taken place until the supply of tin is exhausted. In the second heating, lead in the form of lead oxide no longer reacts with tin oxide to form lead silicate, thus the recrystallised
77:, where the basic glaze is transparent; some types of pottery use both. However, when pieces are glazed only with lead, the glaze becomes fluid during firing, and may run or pool. Colours painted on the glaze may also run or blur. Tin-glazing avoids these problems.
340:
which sticks to it, leaving a smooth and absorbent surface when dry. On this surface colours are applied by brush, the colours made from powered oxides mixed with water to a consistency of water-colour paint, sometimes with the addition of a binding agent such as
585:
rates of the precipitation depend upon temperature and time. The particle size of the cassiterite developed is also dependent on the temperature, and smaller than that used in the very beginning. It is the smaller particle size of the recrystallised
177:
by local
Islamic potters. Another might be local glaze-making rather than foreign influence, supported by the similarity between the chemical and microstructural features of pre-Islamic white opaque glazes and that on the first tin-opacified wares
472:
The degree of dissolution increases with the firing temperature, and hence the extent of opacity diminishes. Although dependent on the other constituents the solubility of tin oxide in glaze melts is generally low. Its solubility is increased by
296:
in
English. The wares were fired twice, firstly just the clay body, then again after the glaze and painted colours were added. The colours applied on top of the glaze blended into it during firing (the technique thereby differing from
242:
glaze, for example) and heated. After the mixture cooled, the tin oxide crystallises as what has been mentioned above, therefore generates the so-called white tin-opacified glazes. Besides, the body of tin-opacified wares is generally
590:
in glazes that increases the opacity in tin-opacified glazes. Besides the increasing the opacity, the high lead oxide to tin oxide ratio also reduces the melting point of glazes, lead to a lower firing temperature during production.
1465:
Borgia, I., B. Brunettu, A. Sgamellontti, F. Shokouhi, P. Oliaiy, J. Rahighi, M. Lamehi-rachti, M. Mellini, and C. Viti. 2004. Characterisation of decorations on
Iranian (10th–13th century) lustreware Applied Physics A 79
1533:
Kleimann, B. 1986. History and development of early
Islamic pottery glazes. In Proceedings of the 24th international archaeometry symposium, edited by J. S. Olin and M. J. Blackman. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution
520:
and air bubble as other opacifiers. The microanalysis of later tin glazes reveals the distribution of tin oxide through the glazes rather than just at the interface, which indicates that tin oxide is really acting as an
1627:
Tite, M. S., T. Pradell, and A. Shortland. 2008. Discovery, production and use of tin-based opacifiers in glasses, enamels and glazes from the late Iron Age onwards: a reassessment. Journal of
Archaeological Science
301:
painting used with transparent glazes). The disadvantage was that only a narrow group of pigments produced good colours after firing at the relatively high temperatures of up to 1000 °C. These included
209:, born in Florence about 1400, used tin oxide as an opacifier in glazes. Potters began to draw polychrome paintings on the white opaque surface with metallic oxides such as cobalt oxide and to produce
721:
and quartz. Afterwards, with the spread of tin glazes, lead gradually became the principal background in tin glazes, though a small proportion of alkali was still introduced in order to increase the
1607:
Ravaglioli, A., A. Keajewski, M. S. Tite, R. R. Burn, P. A. Simpson, and G. C. Bojani. 1996. A physico-chemical study on some glazes coming from
Romagna's and Neaples's Moiolica. Fraenza 82:18-29.
333:). A much wider range of colours was possible, but after the fired and glazed wares were painted a third firing was required, at a lower temperature of perhaps 750 °C and 850 °C.
1459:
al-Saad, Z. 2002. Chemical composition and manufacturing technology of a collection of various types of
Islamic glazes excavated from Jordan. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:803-810.
391:
Tin oxide has been widely used as the opacifier in sanitaryware glazes. In this application, additions of up to 6% are reported to be used. The cost of tin oxide rose considerably during
162:. From Mesopotamia, tin glazes spread to Islamic Egypt (868–905 AD) during the 10th century, and then to Andalusian Spain (711-1492 AD), leading to the maximum development of Islamic
254:
during the firing process. On the other hand, the calcareous clay fired in an oxidising atmosphere results in a buff colour, thus lower the concentration of tin oxide used
169:
The history of tin glazes in the
Islamic world is disputed. One possible reason for the earlier production of tin-glazed wares could be attributed to the trade between the
364:
indicates that these samples may be produced by non-fritting methods, as the heterogeneous distribution of tin oxides may be the remains of original grains of tin oxides.
221:
was made to appear white, and hence mimic the appearance of Chinese porcelain, by the application of a glaze opacified and coloured white by the addition of tin oxide.
457:
remains in suspension in the vitreous matrix of the glaze. Because tin's high refractive index is different from the vitreous matrix, light is scattered: hence the
1685:
512:
photomicrographs of some earlier Islamic glazed ceramics, of which the particles of tin oxide are concentrated at the interface, together with the existence of
501:
aggregates of particles. These factors – the high refractive index, the low solubility in glazes and the particle size make tin oxide an excellent opacifier.
407:
than that from tin oxide, and is consequently preferred in some applications. The Koninklijke Tichelaar Makkum factory, or Royal Tichelaar Makkum, based in
1576:
Molera, J., M. Vendrell-Saz, and J. Pérez-Arantegui. 2001. "Chemical and textural characterization of tin glazes in Islamic ceramics from eastern Spain".
465:
between the particles and the glaze matrix, the larger the opacity. Similarly, the closer the particle size to the light wavelength (100-1000 nm for
367:
The interaction between glaze and body also give clues to different handling and firing processes. As mentioned above, tin glaze suspension is applied to
730:
several glazes used in Italy in the 1550s, all variations of lead, tin, lime, soda and potash glazes. It is believed early Spanish glazes were similar.
336:
In modern versions, the pottery vessels are biscuit fired, usually between 900 °C and 1000 °C. The fired vessel is dipped in a liquid glaze
1624:
Tite, M. S., I. Freestone, and R. B. Manson. 1998. "Lead glazes in antiquity - methods of production and reasons for use". archaeometry 40:241-260.
1027:'Conducting Glazes Part 2 : The Use of Valency Controlled Semiconducting Oxides and the Development of Tin Oxide Glazes'. D.B.Binns.
257:
The white opaque surface makes tin glaze a good base for painted decoration. The decoration is applied as metallic oxides, most commonly
115:
1569:
Molera, J., T. Pradell, N. Salvadó, and M. Vendrell-Saz. 1999. "Evidence of Tin Oxide Recrystallization in Opacified Lead Glazes".
532:
of tin oxide, and thus enhances the degree of opacification in tin-opacified glazes than in tin-opacified glass. A high PbO/SnO
1348:
Molera, J., Pradell T., Salvadó, N. and Vendrell-Saz, M. "Evidence of Tin Oxide Recrystallization in Opacified Lead Glazes",
1056:
Borgia, I., B. Brunettu, A. Sgamellontti, F. Shokouhi, P. Oliaiy, J. Rahighi, M. Lamehi-rachti, M. Mellini, and C. Viti. 2004
132:
1725:
1668:
1602:
1492:
1478:
1163:
Tite, M. S., Freestone, I. and Manson, R.B., "Lead glazes in antiquity - methods of production and reasons for use",
921:
285:. To these oxides modern potters are able to add powdered ceramic colours made from combinations of oxide, sometimes
1680:
1649:
Vendrell, M., J. Molera, and M. S. Tite. 2000. Optical properties of tin-opacified glazes. Archaeometry 42:325-340.
1471:
Tin-Glaze Pottery in Europe and the Islamic World: The Tradition of 1000 Years in Maiolica, Faience and Delftware
914:
Tin-Glaze Pottery in Europe and the Islamic World: The Tradition of 1000 Years in Maiolica, Faience and Delftware
1640:
1560:
1517:
529:
528:
Lead is usually brought into the glazes with tin oxide. The reaction between lead and tin oxide results in the
352:
Traditional kilns were wood firing, which required the pots to be protected in the glaze and luster firings by
375:. This could be inferred from the absence of trapped glaze bubbles. If it is applied to an unfired body, the
247:
201:, where the earliest recorded reference to their use is in the 1330s, resulting in the emergence of Italian
556:
occurs at the temperature in the range of 700 °C to 750 °C, resulting in the dissolution of PbSnO
509:
314:
yellow, and the very tricky iron reds and brown, which only some potters were able to make as a good red.
1710:
243:
1681:
Book: Tin-Glazed Earthenware: From Maiolica, Faience and Delftware to the Contemporary by Daphne Carnegy
1584:
1336:’A Treatise On Ceramic Industries.’ E.Bourry. Fourth edition. Scott, Greenwood & son. London. 1926.
548:) at a temperature higher than 600 °C. After the formation of lead-tin oxide, the melting of PbSiO
627:
in silica. An Islamic opaque white glaze has been analysed, and is quoted below as a Seger formula:
1705:
395:(1914-1918), and resulted in a search for cheaper alternatives. The first successful replacement was
383:, the releasing of which from the body to the glaze results in trapped bubbles in the glaze layers.
1730:
154:
in the 8th century, fragments having been excavated during the First World War from the palace of
1720:
1715:
1686:
Low fire majolica glaze recipe cone 04 oxidation by Linda Arbuckle on http://ceramicartsdaily.org
1619:
Italian Renaissance pottery: papers written in association with a colloqium at the British Museum
74:
337:
173:
and ancient China from the 8th to 9th century onwards, resulting in imitation of white Chinese
408:
1564:
1544:
Mason, R. B., and M. S. Tite. 1997. "The beginnings of tin-opacification of pottery glazes".
1521:
194:
1644:
1229:
J. R. Taylor & A. C. Bull. The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press. Oxford. 1986
1154:
Ravaglioli, A., A. Keajewski, M. S. Tite, R. R. Burn, P. A. Simpson, and G. C. Bojani. 1996
8:
1690:
1583:
Moon, Iris, "French Faience", in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, 2016, New York: The
1364:
Manson, R. B., and M. S. Tite, "The beginnings of tin-opacification of pottery glazes",
360:
kiln. Except for those making luster ware, modern tin-glaze potters use electric kilns.
1176:
1043:
Mason, R. B., and M. S. Tite, "The beginnings of tin-opacification of pottery glazes",
110:
67:
35:
1664:
1636:
1633:
Conservation Science for the Cultural Heritage: Applications of Instrumental Analysis
1617:
Tite, M. S. 1991. "Technological investigations of Italian Renaissance ceramics". In
1598:
1556:
1513:
1488:
1474:
917:
853:
815:
620:
376:
368:
270:
251:
206:
1588:
292:
This method was used until the 18th century, and is often called by the French name
1109:’Pottery’ C.J.Noke & H.J.Plant. Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. London. 1924.
462:
458:
318:
262:
1485:
Lustre Pottery: Technique, Tradition and Innovation in Islam and the Western World
16:
505:
1502:
582:
537:
380:
170:
136:
469:) and the more irregular the surface, the larger the degree of opacification.
281:
blended oxides to produce detailed and realistic polychrome paintings, called
1699:
466:
372:
39:
513:
258:
181:
42:
that is white, glossy and opaque, which is normally applied to red or buff
25:
714:
605:
570:
454:
443:
435:
420:
392:
303:
151:
93:
85:
50:
enamels, with a light second firing, allowing a wider range of colours.
43:
1087:’Pottery And Ceramics.’ E.Rosenthal. Pelican Books. Harmondsworth. 1949.
450:), also called stannic acid, is commercially exploited for tin glaze.
865:
809:
722:
578:
342:
298:
266:
210:
163:
508:
layer between the glaze and ceramic body. This could be seen from the
1530:(J. Paul Getty Museum in association with British Museum Press, 1993)
942:
871:
827:
718:
522:
416:
412:
322:
307:
229:
225:
214:
186:
174:
120:
97:
81:
59:
47:
193:
From the Middle East, tin-glaze spread through the Islamic world to
1462:
Allan, J. 1973. Abu'l-Qasim's treatise on ceramics. Iran 9:111-120.
847:
544:, which then reacts with tin oxide to produce lead-tin oxide (PbSnO
536:
ratio is often found in ancient glazes. During the firing process,
517:
504:
In the beginning of the use of tin oxide, it is mainly viewed as a
396:
311:
278:
274:
218:
202:
89:
55:
51:
233:"now only in a few places to provide the tourist with souvenirs"
609:
159:
155:
144:
63:
21:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
733:
A Seger analysis of a tin glaze from the early 20th century is:
988:’Ceramic Glazes’ Third edition. C.W.Parmelee & C.G.Harman.
859:
706:
702:
689:
624:
617:
400:
357:
353:
346:
1323:’A Treatise On Ceramic Industries.’ E.Bourry. Fourth edition.
1597:(trans. A.Caiger Smith and R.Lightbown) (Scolar Press, 1980)
995:
821:
726:
540:
reacts with quartz at approximately 550 °C to form PbSiO
431:
198:
143:
The earliest tin-glazed pottery appears to have been made in
1621:, edited by T. Wilson. London: British Museum Publications.
1306:
803:
799:
710:
698:
694:
613:
329:
in English when talking about faience (the Italian name is
286:
147:
128:
124:
1217:
Molera, J., M. Vendrell-Saz, and J. Pérez-Arantegui. 2001
461:
of tin glaze. Generally speaking, the more different the
127:, and Iraqi tin-glazed earthenware bowl (right) found in
1430:‘Ceramics Glaze Technology.’ J.R.Taylor & A.C.Bull.
1417:‘An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery.’ P.Rado.
1251:‘Ceramics Glaze Technology.’ J.R.Taylor & A.C.Bull.
1014:‘Ceramics Glaze Technology.’ J.R.Taylor & A.C.Bull.
577:) remain undissolved and precipitate in the glazes. The
1510:
The Art of Ceramics: European Ceramic Design, 1500–1830
224:
By the late 18th-century the reduction in the price of
1263:
1261:
1280:'Science For Craft Potters And Enamellers.' K.Shaw.
236:
1258:
984:
982:
1404:'A Text-Book On Ceramic Calculations.' W.Jackson.
371:body made of calcareous clay with high content of
123:white ware bowl, not tin-glazed (left), found in
1697:
979:
725:. No specific recipes alluding to tin glazes in
594:
1635:, 2012, Springer Science & Business Media,
1499:Pottery in the making: world ceramic traditions
1432:The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press.
1377:Tite, M. S., T. Pradell, and A. Shortland. 2008
908:
906:
904:
902:
900:
386:
1253:The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press
1016:The Institute Of Ceramics & Pergamon Press
345:. The unfired glaze absorbs the pigment like
92:. It was never used in East Asian ceramics.
1344:
1342:
1267:‘Ceramic Glazes.’ F.Singer & W.L.German.
1213:
1211:
66:are among the terms used for common types of
1497:Canby, S. R. 1997. "Islamic lustreware". In
897:
1663:(A&C Black/Chilton Book Company, 1993)
250:is close to that of tin glazes, thus avoid
1339:
1208:
564:. The degree of the crystallisation of SnO
426:
197:. In the 13th century, tin glazes reached
1360:
1358:
525:instead of only a surface coating layer.
1196:Lane, 1; Varella, 4; Coutts, 15-17; Moon
1039:
1037:
430:
180:
114:
15:
1240:Gruppo Editoriale Faenza Editrice s.p.a
974:A.B.Searle.The Technical Press Limited.
599:
321:began to be used in the same way as on
1698:
1691:Colorants for Low fire majolica glazes
1553:Seventeenth-Century French Ceramic Art
1355:
882:
442:Only one tin compound, tin (IV) oxide
1096:’Pottery And Ceramics.’ E.Rosenthal.
1034:
133:Chinese influences on Islamic pottery
131:, both 9-10th century, an example of
96:is still valued in glazes as both an
88:, with a peak in Italian Renaissance
1555:, 1987, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
1528:Guide To Looking At Italian Ceramics
1029:British Ceramic Research Association
438:, the raw ingredient in Tin-glazing.
246:containing 15-25% CaO, of which the
1595:The Three Books of the Potter's Art
1571:Journal of American Ceramic Society
1350:Journal of American Ceramic Society
972:’The Glazer’s Book’ – 2nd edition.
84:and reached Europe during the late
13:
1653:
623:as fluxes in combination with the
489:, and reduced by CaO, BaO, ZnO, Al
14:
1742:
1674:
1578:Journal of Archaeological Science
1366:Journal of Archaeological Science
1045:Journal of Archaeological Science
325:; this technique is often called
237:Manufacturing process and colours
916:, London, Faber and Faber, 1973
688:In this recipe, the addition of
80:The technique originated in the
1512:, 2001, Yale University Press,
1505:. London: British Museum Press.
1453:
1443:’Ceramic Glazes’ C.W.Parmelee.
1437:
1424:
1411:
1398:
1389:
1380:
1371:
1330:
1317:
1299:
1287:
1274:
1245:
1232:
1220:
1199:
1190:
1181:
1170:
1157:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1121:
1112:
1103:
1090:
1081:
1074:’Ceramic Glazes’ C.W.Parmelee.
1068:
1059:
1050:
497:, and to a limited extent PbO.
1021:
992:, Boston, Massachusetts. 1973.
966:
957:
948:
935:
926:
213:. The off-white fired body of
1:
1501:, edited by I. Freestone and
1445:Industrial Publications, Inc.
891:
697:in the 14th century: a glass-
595:The technology of tin-glazing
248:thermal expansion coefficient
1296:. 13, No.4, 1992. Pg.103-106
1076:Industrial Publications, Inc
387:Current use and alternatives
7:
1726:Types of pottery decoration
1238:’Sanitaryware’. D.Fortuna.
1205:Lane, 1-2; Varella, 4; Moon
379:will decompose, generating
310:dark purple, copper green,
158:about fifty miles north of
10:
1747:
1585:Metropolitan Museum of Art
1325:Scott, Greenwood & Son
1269:Borax Consolidated Limited
1227:Ceramics Glaze Technology.
277:for yellow. Late Italian
108:
104:
1541:, 1948, Faber & Faber
1419:The Institute Of Ceramics
791:A more recent recipe is:
34:is the process of giving
1612:Pottery Through the Ages
1487:(Faber and Faber, 1985)
1473:(Faber and Faber, 1973)
1406:Longhmans, Green And Co.
415:continue the production
1631:Varella, Evangelia A.,
1593:Piccolpasso, Cipriano,
941:For example polychrome
427:The nature of tin glaze
1661:Tin-glazed Earthenware
1100:. Harmondsworth. 1949.
439:
228:, and the new English
190:
140:
28:
434:
273:for purple-brown and
184:
118:
19:
1483:Caiger-Smith, Alan,
1469:Caiger-Smith, Alan,
1352:, 1999, 82:2871-2875
912:Caiger-Smith, Alan,
600:Analyses and recipes
356:or to be fired in a
317:In the 18th century
1282:A.H.& A.W.Reed.
1127:Lane, v, 1 (quoted)
883:As a glaze colorant
1711:Glass compositions
1187:McNab, 11; Lane, 1
1177:Potters Connection
1167:, 1998, 40:241-260
440:
205:. Amongst others,
191:
141:
111:Tin-glazed pottery
73:An alternative is
68:tin-glazed pottery
36:tin-glazed pottery
29:
1659:Carnegy, Daphne,
1643:, 9783642309854,
1563:, 9780870994906,
1520:, 9780300083873,
1242:. Florence. 2000.
1136:Canby, S. R. 1997
1065:Kleimann, B. 1986
530:recrystallisation
419:using tin-glazed
377:calcium carbonate
369:bisque or biscuit
319:overglaze enamels
271:manganese dioxide
207:Luca della Robbia
1738:
1706:History of glass
1610:Savage, George,
1508:Coutts, Howard,
1448:
1441:
1435:
1428:
1422:
1415:
1409:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1386:al-Saad, Z. 2002
1384:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1362:
1353:
1346:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1284:Wellington. 1973
1278:
1272:
1265:
1256:
1249:
1243:
1236:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1194:
1188:
1185:
1179:
1174:
1168:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1145:Tite, M. S. 1991
1143:
1137:
1134:
1128:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1101:
1094:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1078:. Chicago. 1948.
1072:
1066:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1048:
1041:
1032:
1025:
1019:
1012:
993:
986:
977:
970:
964:
961:
955:
952:
946:
939:
933:
930:
924:
910:
838:And another is:
608:tin glazes used
463:refractive index
244:calcareous clays
1746:
1745:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1731:Arab inventions
1696:
1695:
1677:
1656:
1654:Further reading
1614:, Penguin, 1959
1551:McNab, Jessie,
1526:Harris, David,
1456:
1451:
1442:
1438:
1429:
1425:
1421:. Oxford. 1968.
1416:
1412:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1363:
1356:
1347:
1340:
1335:
1331:
1327:. London. 1926.
1322:
1318:
1305:
1304:
1300:
1294:Klei/Glas/Keram
1292:
1288:
1279:
1275:
1271:. London. 1960.
1266:
1259:
1250:
1246:
1237:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1175:
1171:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1042:
1035:
1026:
1022:
1018:. Oxford. 1986.
1013:
996:
987:
980:
971:
967:
962:
958:
953:
949:
940:
936:
931:
927:
911:
898:
894:
885:
782:
775:
768:
764:
757:
750:
679:
672:
665:
661:
651:
644:
602:
597:
589:
576:
567:
563:
559:
555:
552:, PbO and PbSnO
551:
547:
543:
535:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
449:
429:
389:
239:
189:tin-glazed tile
113:
107:
12:
11:
5:
1744:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1721:Arabic pottery
1718:
1716:Ceramic glazes
1713:
1708:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1676:
1675:External links
1673:
1672:
1671:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1629:
1625:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1605:
1591:
1581:
1574:
1567:
1549:
1542:
1539:French Faïence
1537:Lane, Arthur,
1535:
1531:
1524:
1506:
1495:
1481:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1447:Chicago. 1948.
1436:
1423:
1410:
1397:
1395:Allan, J. 1973
1388:
1379:
1370:
1368:39:41-58, 1997
1354:
1338:
1329:
1316:
1298:
1286:
1273:
1257:
1255:. Oxford. 1986
1244:
1231:
1219:
1207:
1198:
1189:
1180:
1169:
1156:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1089:
1080:
1067:
1058:
1049:
1047:39:41-58, 1997
1033:
1020:
994:
978:
965:
956:
947:
934:
925:
895:
893:
890:
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881:
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879:
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876:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
836:
835:
834:
833:
832:
831:
825:
824:, calcined: 4%
819:
813:
807:
789:
788:
787:
786:
785:
784:
780:
777:
773:
770:
766:
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748:
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742:
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683:
682:
681:
677:
674:
670:
667:
663:
659:
656:
653:
649:
646:
642:
639:
636:
606:Middle Eastern
601:
598:
596:
593:
587:
574:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
533:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
453:After firing,
447:
428:
425:
388:
385:
381:carbon dioxide
238:
235:
171:Abbasid Empire
150:(750-1258 AD)/
137:British Museum
109:Main article:
106:
103:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1743:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
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1703:
1701:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1670:
1669:0-7136-3718-8
1666:
1662:
1658:
1657:
1648:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1603:0-85967-452-5
1600:
1596:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1573:82:2871-2875.
1572:
1568:
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1558:
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1515:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1494:
1493:0-571-13507-2
1490:
1486:
1482:
1480:
1479:0-571-09349-3
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1446:
1440:
1434:Oxford. 1986.
1433:
1427:
1420:
1414:
1408:London. 1904.
1407:
1401:
1392:
1383:
1374:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1351:
1345:
1343:
1333:
1326:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1295:
1290:
1283:
1277:
1270:
1264:
1262:
1254:
1248:
1241:
1235:
1228:
1223:
1214:
1212:
1202:
1193:
1184:
1178:
1173:
1166:
1160:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1106:
1099:
1098:Pelican Books
1093:
1084:
1077:
1071:
1062:
1053:
1046:
1040:
1038:
1030:
1024:
1017:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
991:
990:Cahners Books
985:
983:
976:London. 1935.
975:
969:
960:
951:
945:; Savage, 160
944:
938:
929:
923:
922:0-571-09349-3
919:
915:
909:
907:
905:
903:
901:
896:
889:
873:
870:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
852:
849:
845:
844:
843:
842:
841:
840:
839:
829:
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
801:
798:
797:
796:
795:
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793:
792:
778:
771:
760:
753:
746:
743:
740:
739:
738:
737:
736:
735:
734:
731:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
709:, a lead-tin
708:
704:
700:
696:
691:
675:
668:
657:
654:
647:
640:
637:
634:
633:
632:
631:
630:
629:
628:
626:
622:
619:
615:
611:
607:
604:The earliest
592:
584:
580:
572:
539:
531:
526:
524:
519:
515:
511:
507:
502:
498:
470:
468:
467:visible light
464:
460:
456:
451:
445:
437:
433:
424:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
384:
382:
378:
374:
373:calcium oxide
370:
365:
361:
359:
355:
350:
348:
344:
339:
334:
332:
331:piccolo fuoco
328:
324:
320:
315:
313:
309:
305:
300:
295:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
255:
253:
249:
245:
234:
231:
227:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
188:
183:
179:
176:
172:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
146:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
117:
112:
102:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
78:
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
40:ceramic glaze
37:
33:
27:
23:
18:
1660:
1645:google books
1632:
1618:
1611:
1594:
1577:
1570:
1565:google books
1552:
1546:Archaeometry
1545:
1538:
1527:
1522:google books
1509:
1498:
1484:
1470:
1454:Bibliography
1444:
1439:
1431:
1426:
1418:
1413:
1405:
1400:
1391:
1382:
1373:
1365:
1349:
1332:
1324:
1319:
1311:tichelaar.nl
1310:
1301:
1293:
1289:
1281:
1276:
1268:
1252:
1247:
1239:
1234:
1226:
1222:
1201:
1192:
1183:
1172:
1165:archaeometry
1164:
1159:
1150:
1141:
1132:
1123:
1114:
1105:
1097:
1092:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1061:
1052:
1044:
1031:RP652. 1973.
1028:
1023:
1015:
989:
973:
968:
959:
950:
937:
928:
913:
886:
837:
790:
732:
687:
603:
527:
514:wollastonite
503:
499:
471:
452:
441:
404:
390:
366:
362:
351:
335:
330:
326:
316:
293:
291:
282:
263:copper oxide
259:cobalt oxide
256:
240:
223:
217:and English
192:
168:
142:
79:
75:lead-glazing
72:
31:
30:
1580:28:331-340.
1503:D. Gaimster
802:bisilicate
715:calcination
571:cassiterite
444:Tin dioxide
436:Tin dioxide
421:earthenware
393:World War I
304:cobalt blue
269:for brown,
265:for green,
152:Mesopotamia
86:Middle Ages
44:earthenware
32:Tin-glazing
1700:Categories
1641:3642309852
1561:0870994905
1518:0300083874
1466:(257-261).
892:References
866:Zinc oxide
846:Potassium
810:China clay
723:fusibility
579:nucleation
538:lead oxide
399:and later
343:gum arabic
338:suspension
299:underglaze
267:iron oxide
261:for blue,
230:creamwares
211:lustreware
164:lusterware
1628:50:67-84.
1548:39:41-58.
943:Delftware
932:Lane, 1-2
872:Tin oxide
854:Limestone
828:Tin oxide
719:limestone
621:compounds
523:opacifier
455:tin oxide
417:Delftware
413:Friesland
327:petit feu
323:porcelain
308:manganese
294:grand feu
283:istoriato
226:porcelain
215:Delftware
187:delftware
175:stoneware
121:porcelain
98:opacifier
94:Tin oxide
82:Near East
60:delftware
48:overglaze
26:Lunéville
1118:Lane, 17
848:feldspar
744:CaO=0.16
741:PbO=0.52
655:MgO=0.04
638:CaO=0.32
635:PbO=0.32
518:diopside
405:clinical
397:zirconia
312:antimony
279:maiolica
275:antimony
219:Majolica
203:Maiolica
119:Chinese
90:maiolica
56:maiolica
52:Majolica
38:items a
963:Lane, 3
954:Lane, 1
816:Whiting
610:calcium
481:O and B
459:opacity
354:saggars
287:fritted
252:crazing
160:Baghdad
156:Samarra
145:Abbasid
105:History
64:faience
24:, from
22:faience
20:French
1667:
1639:
1601:
1589:online
1559:
1534:Press.
1516:
1491:
1477:
1307:"Home"
920:
860:Silica
758:O=0.29
751:O=0.03
713:and a
707:potash
703:quartz
695:Persia
690:alkali
652:O=0.29
645:O=0.03
625:silica
618:sodium
583:growth
560:to SnO
409:Makkum
401:zircon
358:muffle
347:fresco
185:Dutch
862:: 11%
856:: 11%
850:: 65%
830:: 10%
822:Flint
812:: 10%
806:: 74%
783:=0.23
776:=2.77
769:=0.15
727:Spain
693:from
680:=0.07
673:=1.73
666:=0.03
199:Italy
195:Spain
1665:ISBN
1637:ISBN
1599:ISBN
1557:ISBN
1514:ISBN
1489:ISBN
1475:ISBN
918:ISBN
874:: 4%
868:: 9%
818:: 2%
804:frit
800:Lead
711:calx
705:and
699:frit
616:and
614:lead
581:and
573:(SnO
506:slip
477:O, K
446:(SnO
148:Iraq
129:Iraq
125:Iran
62:and
779:SnO
772:SiO
717:of
701:of
676:SnO
669:SiO
586:SnO
510:SEM
1702::
1587:,
1357:^
1341:^
1309:.
1260:^
1210:^
1036:^
997:^
981:^
899:^
761:Al
754:Na
658:Al
648:Na
612:,
516:,
473:Na
423:.
411:,
306:,
166:.
135:.
70:.
58:,
54:,
1313:.
781:2
774:2
767:3
765:O
763:2
756:2
749:2
747:K
678:2
671:2
664:3
662:O
660:2
650:2
643:2
641:K
588:2
575:2
566:2
562:2
558:3
554:3
550:3
546:3
542:3
534:2
495:3
493:O
491:2
487:3
485:O
483:2
479:2
475:2
448:2
139:.
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