French Third Republic

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families settled in the colonies, and they were too poor in natural resources and trade to significantly benefit the overall economy. Nevertheless, they were second in size only to the British Empire, provided prestige in world affairs, and gave an opportunity for Catholics (under heavy attack by the Republicans in Parliament) to devote their energies to spread French culture and civilization worldwide. An extremely expensive investment in building the Panama Canal was a total failure, in terms of money, many deaths by disease, and political scandal. Bismarck was fired in 1890, and after that German foreign policy was confused and misdirected. For example, Berlin broke its close ties with St. Petersburg, allowing the French to enter through heavy financial investment, and a Paris–St Petersburg military alliance that proved essential and durable. Germany feuded with Britain, which encouraged London and Paris to drop their grievances over Egypt and Africa, reaching a compromise whereby the French recognized British primacy in Egypt, while Britain recognized French primacy in Morocco. This enabled Britain and France to move closer together, finally achieving an

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of Mankind) (LDH). It kept a low profile in the first two years of war, holding its first congress in November 1916 against the background slaughters French soldiers on the Western Front. The theme was the "conditions for a lasting peace." Discussions focused on France's relationship with its autocratic, undemocratic ally, Russia, and in particular how to square support for all that the LDH stood for with Russia's bad treatment of its oppressed minorities, especially the Poles. Secondly, many delegates wanted to issue a demand for a negotiated peace. This was rejected only after a lengthy debate showed how the LDH was divided between a majority that believed that arbitration could be applied only in times of peace, and a minority that demanded an immediate end to the carnage. In spring 1918 the desperate German offensive failed, and the Allies successfully pushed back. The French people of all classes rallied to Prime Minister

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for veterans, were always remembered. France demanded that Germany assume many of the costs incurred from the war through annual reparation payments. French foreign and security policy used the balance of power and alliance politics to compel Germany to comply with its obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. The problem was that the United States and Britain rejected a defensive alliance. Potential allies in Eastern Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were too weak to confront Germany. Russia had been the long term French ally in the East, but now it was controlled by the Bolsheviks, who were deeply distrusted in Paris. France's transition to a more conciliatory policy in 1924 was a response to pressure from Britain and the United States, as well as to French weakness.

4803:, supported by Daladier, brought in a series of sweeping laws that undid much of the Popular Front's economic policies, most notably ending the 48 hour work week. Blum joined forces with the Communists in opposing the Daladier government's economic policies, and supported the general strike called by the Communists on 30 November 1938. Daladier called out the French Army to operate essential services and had the French police use tear gas to evict striking workers at the Renault works. The use of the military to operate essential services while sending out the police to arrest the strike leaders broke the general strike. In a speech, Blum accused Daladier of using repressive methods to crush the French working class and revert France back to the pre-1936 economic system. 3266: 3081:

information unless the business immediately started advertising in the paper. Foreign governments, especially Russia and Turkey, secretly paid the press hundreds of thousands of francs a year to guarantee favourable coverage of the bonds it was selling in Paris. When the real news was bad about Russia, as during its 1905 Revolution or during its war with Japan, it raised the ante to millions. During the World War, newspapers became more of a propaganda agency on behalf of the war effort and avoided critical commentary. They seldom reported the achievements of the Allies, crediting all the good news to the French army. In a sentence, the newspapers were not independent champions of the truth, but secretly paid advertisements for banking.

3162: 4885:, in case the Germans retaliated. The French mobilisation had called up many essential workers, which disrupted vital French industries in the first weeks of the campaign. Gamelin's vision for France's defence was based upon a static defence along the Franco-German border, which was reinforced by the Maginot Line. However, the Line did not extend along the Belgian frontier. During the winter of 1939–40, which was one of the coldest of the 20th century, work on the extension of the Line along the Belgian frontier was slow and not of the same quality as the original defences. Gamelin, along with many other members of the French High Command, saw the 3478:(where the Foreign Ministry was located), and their style changed little from generation to generation. Most of the diplomats came from high status aristocratic families. Although France was one of the few republics in Europe, its diplomats mingled smoothly with the aristocratic representatives at the royal courts. Prime ministers and leading politicians generally paid little attention to foreign affairs, allowing a handful of senior men to control policy. In the decades before the First World War they dominated the embassies in the 10 major countries where France had an ambassador (elsewhere, they sent lower-ranking ministers). They included 1940: 1936:, to restore unity between the monarchy and the nation. Compromise on this was impossible, Chambord believed, if the nation were to be made whole again. The general population, however, was unwilling to abandon the Tricolour flag. Monarchists therefore resigned themselves to delay the monarchy until the death of the ageing, childless Chambord, then to offer the throne to his more liberal heir, the Comte de Paris. A "temporary" republican government was therefore established. Chambord lived on until 1883, but by that time, enthusiasm for a monarchy had faded, and the Comte de Paris was never offered the French throne. 794: 2033: 808: 2151: 749: 735: 822: 155: 4496:. It was intensely nationalistic, anti-Semitic and reactionary, calling for a return to the monarchy and domination of the state by the Catholic Church. In 1926, Pope Pius XI condemned Action Française because the pope decided that it was folly for the French Church to continue to tie its fortunes to the unlikely dream of a monarchist restoration and distrusted the movement's tendency to defend the Catholic religion in merely utilitarian and nationalistic terms. Action Française never fully recovered from the denunciation, but it was active in the Vichy era. 836: 3334:("popular") to signify this expansion. Membership was open to everyone, not just Catholics. It sought to gather all the "honest people" and to be the melting pot sought by Leo XIII where Catholics and moderate Republicans would unite to support a policy of tolerance and social progress. Its motto summarized its program: "Liberty for all; equality before the law; better conditions for the workers." However, the "old republicans" were few, and it did not manage to regroup all Catholics, as it was shunned by monarchists, Christian democrats, and 3085:

raised the price of newsprint, which was always in short supply. The cover price went up, circulation fell and many of the 242 dailies published outside Paris closed down. The government set up the Interministerial Press Commission to supervise the press closely. A separate agency imposed tight censorship that led to blank spaces where news reports or editorials were disallowed. The dailies sometimes were limited to only two pages instead of the usual four, leading one satirical paper to try to report the war news in the same spirit:

2855: 81: 1849: 4397:, as demanded by the Communists. Culturally, the Popular Front forced the Communists to come to terms with elements of French society they had long ridiculed, such as patriotism, the veterans' sacrifice, the honour of being an army officer, the prestige of the bourgeois, and the leadership of the Socialist Party and the parliamentary Republic. Above all, the Communists portrayed themselves as French nationalists. Young Communists dressed in costumes from the revolutionary period and the scholars glorified the 3503: 1722: 3741: 3490:, in Washington from 1902 to 1924; and Camille Barrère, in Rome from 1897 to 1924. In terms of foreign policy, there was general agreement about the need for high protective tariffs, which kept agricultural prices high. After the defeat by the Germans, there was a strong widespread anti-German sentiment focused on revanchism and regaining Alsace and Lorraine. The Empire was a matter of great pride, and service as administrators, soldiers and missionaries was a high status occupation. 150: 4658:, which had been declared to be a permanent demilitarized zone. With the Rhineland remilitarized, for the first time since 1918 German military forces could menace France directly, and equally importantly the Germans started to build the Siegfried line along the Franco-German border. The assumption behind the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was that the French Army would use the demilitarized status of the Rhineland to launch an offensive into western Germany if the 164: 4928:, many Allied aircraft were attacked while still on the ground. The rest of the air support was concentrated on the French advance, rather than attacking the exposed 150 km (93 mi) column supplying the German advance. Quickly, the French and the British became fearful of being outflanked and they withdrew from the defensive lines drawn up across Belgium. They did not pull back fast enough to prevent them being outflanked by the German Panzer divisions. 3254:, a time in French history most republicans hoped was long behind them. The republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and boards of charity; in 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations; from 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals; in 1882, the 721: 2877:

conservatives whose first priority was stability. The workers' demands for strikes threatened such stability and pushed many Radicals toward conservatism. It opposed women's suffrage for fear that women would vote for its opponents or for candidates endorsed by the Catholic Church. It favoured a progressive income tax, economic equality, expanded educational opportunities and cooperatives in domestic policy. In foreign policy, it favoured a strong

3984:. Building on foundations laid in the early months of the war, the Ministry of War matched production to the operational and tactical needs of the army, with an emphasis on meeting the insatiable demands for artillery. The elaborately designed link between industry and the army, and the compromises made to ensure that artillery and shells of the required quantity and quality were supplied, proved crucial to French success on the battlefield. 67: 4932: 3457:

decision came in response to popular demand, and the Army's demand for a strong frontier. It was not necessary since France was much weaker militarily than Germany, but it forced Bismarck to orient German foreign policy to block France from having any major allies. Alsace and Lorraine were a grievance for some years, but by 1890 had largely faded away with the French realization that nostalgia was not as useful as modernization.

5499:

military planning and readiness to fight. Young finds that American reporters in the late 1930s portrayed a calm, united, competent, and confident France. They praised French art, music, literature, theatre, and fashion, and stressed French resilience and pluck in the face of growing Nazi aggression and brutality. Nothing in the tone or content of the articles foretold the crushing military defeat and collapse of June 1940.

4878:, a German staff officer on the Western Front, if France had attacked in September 1939 German forces could not have held out for more than one or two weeks. Gamelin ordered his troops back behind the Maginot Line, but only after telling France's ally, Poland, that France had broken the Siegfried Line and that help was on its way . Before the war, he had expected the Polish Army to hold out against Germany for six months. 2773: 1412: 3628: 777: 707: 2927: 2788: 1427: 196: 4316:

appeased Italy on the Ethiopia question because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany. When Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland—the part of Germany where no troops were allowed—neither Paris nor London would risk war, and nothing was done. The military alliance with Czechoslovakia was sacrificed at Hitler's demand when France and Britain agreed to his terms at

2842:

activists were not as well organized or as influential as in Germany, Britain or the United States. For example, there was a long battle over a public health law which began in the 1880s as a campaign to reorganize the nation's health services, to require the registration of infectious diseases, to mandate quarantines, and to improve the deficient health and housing legislation of 1850.

4017: 4783:: "There is not a woman and a man to refuse MM. Neville Chamberlain and Édouard Daladier their rightful tribute of gratitude. War is avoided. The scourge recedes. Life can become natural again. One can resume one's work and sleep again. One can enjoy the beauty of an autumn sun. How would it be possible for me not to understand this sense of deliverance when I feel it myself?" 10692: 5280:, who was hostile to First and Second Empire, and wrote that France was living and wished to live in a world of illusion. Raudot pointed out the declining birth rate, falling below replacement level, which he considered a cancerous symptom of the national malaise, foretelling an inevitable national decline, while the Russians and the Americans pushed ahead as seen in 4477:. It encouraged young working women to adopt Catholic approaches to morality and to prepare for future roles as mothers at the same time as it promoted notions of spiritual equality and encouraged young women to take active, independent, and public roles in the present. The model of youth groups was expanded to reach adults in the 1968:

prompted resistance and outcry from radical and leftist elements of the republican movement. In Paris, a series of public altercations broke out between the Versailles-aligned Parisian government and the city's radical socialists. The radicals ultimately rejected the authority of Versailles, responding with the foundation of the

4767:

Anglo-French plan called for a transfer to occur after 1 October. For a time in September 1938, it appeared that Europe was on brink of a war again. The fact that the issue at stake was only a secondary issue, namely the timetable for transferring the Sudetenland, after the primary issue had been settled struck many as bizarre.

3535:, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt. 4791:. Bonnet was known to be the advocate of some sort of Franco-German understanding under which France would recognize Eastern Europe as being in the German sphere of influence and abandon all of France's allies in Eastern Europe. Blum focused his criticism on Bonnet as the main advocate of appeasement in the cabinet. 3407:. Church and State were declared separate, though all Church property was confiscated. Religious personnel were no longer paid by the State. Public worship was to be given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. However, in practice, masses and rituals continued to be performed. 3346:). The ALP was drawn into battle from its very beginnings (its first steps coincided with the beginning of the Combes ministry and its anticlerical combat policy), as religious matters were at the heart of its preoccupations. It defended the Church in the name of liberty and common law. Fiercely fought by the 127: 3287:—indoctrinated anti-republicanism into children. Determined to root this out, republicans insisted they needed control of the schools for France to achieve economic and militaristic progress. (Republicans felt one of the primary reasons for the German victory in 1870 was their superior education system.) 3041:, reached an audience more interested in diverse entertainment and gossip than hard news. It captured a quarter of the Parisian market and forced the rest to lower their prices. The main dailies employed their own journalists who competed for news flashes. All newspapers relied upon the Agence Havas (now 131: 130: 129: 4303:

France tried to create a web of defensive treaties against Germany with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. There was little effort to build up the military strength or technological capabilities of these small allies, and they remained weak and divided among themselves.

4209:

In 1931 the well-organized veterans movement demanded and received pensions for their wartime service. This was funded by a lottery—the first one allowed in France since 1836. The lottery immediately became popular, and became a major foundation of the annual budget. Although the Great Depression was

3975:

with controls and rationing. By 1915, the war economy went into high gear, as millions of French women and colonial men replaced the civilian roles of many of the 3 million soldiers. Considerable assistance came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917. This war economy would

3294:

in 1882. Religious instruction in all schools was forbidden, and religious orders were forbidden to teach in them. Funds were appropriated from religious schools to build more state schools. Later in the century, other laws passed by Ferry's successors further weakened the Church's position in French

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victory of 1936, and so had allowed themselves to fall under the spell of fascism and defeatism. Bloch said that the Third Republic suffered from a deep internal "rot" that generated bitter social tensions, unstable governments, pessimism and defeatism, fearful and incoherent diplomacy, hesitant and

4823:

on 9 December 1938, the Popular Front formally came to an end as Daladier chose to base his majority of the parties of the right and center. Despite the end of the Popular Front, Blum did not press for a vote of no-confidence or new elections. Blum believed that Daladier would win an election if one

4766:

where he agreed that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia would be transferred to Germany. At a subsequent Anglo-German summit at Bad Godesberg, Hitler rejected Chamberlain's plan over a secondary issue as he demanded that the Sudetenland be transferred to Germany before 1 October 1938 while the

4714:

strongly but unsuccessfully pressed Daladier to renounce the French-Czechoslovak alliance, which led to Britain becoming involved in the crisis. From the British perspective, the problem was not the Sudetenland but the French-Czechoslovak alliance. British military experts were almost unanimous that

4409:

Historians have turned their attention to the right in the interwar period, looking at various categories of conservatives and Catholic groups as well as the far right fascist movement. Conservative supporters of the old order were linked with the "haute bourgeoisie" (upper middle class), as well as

4357:

brought to power a government headed by the Socialists in alliance with the Radicals. The Communists supported its domestic policies, but did not take any seats in the cabinet. The prime minister was Léon Blum, a technocratic socialist who avoided making decisions. In two years in office, it focused

4040:

The entry into war by the United States turned the war around and in the summer and autumn of 1918 led to the defeat of Germany. The most important factors that led to the surrender of Germany were its exhaustion after four years of fighting and the arrival of large numbers of troops from the United

4003:

sought to draw the French people closer to the actual front and thus garner social, political, and economic support for the soldiers. Antiwar sentiment was very weak among the general population. However, among intellectuals there was a pacifistic "Ligue des Droits de l'Homme" (League for the Rights

3979:

The production of munitions proved a striking success, well ahead of Britain or the United States or even Germany. The challenges were monumental: the German seizure of the industrial heartland in the northeast, a shortage of manpower, and a mobilization plan that left France on the brink of defeat.

2044:

The elections of 1876 demonstrated strong public support for the increasingly anti-monarchist republican movement. A decisive Republican majority was elected to the Chamber of Deputies while the monarchist majority in the Senate was maintained by only one seat. President de MacMahon responded in May

5275:

and was a recurring theme of debate during the Third Republic. Each defeat, setback, or national humiliation served to confirm the idea, as France lost its vital essence or even will to exist, while energetic young countries like the United States appeared to be on the upsurge, France and old world

4786:

Blum's contorted position of voting for the Munich Agreement, but being opposed to further appeasement was largely an attempt to hold together the Socialists. In the months that followed, Blum became more critical of the "men of Munich". The principal object of his criticism was not Daladier - whom

4725:

At the Anglo-French summit on 28–29 April 1938, Chamberlain pressured Daladier to renounce the alliance with Czechoslovakia, only to be firmly informed that France would stand by its obligations, which forced the British to be involved very reluctantly in the Sudetenland Crisis. The summit of 28–29

4681:

The nation that France wanted the most as an ally was Great Britain, which had the world's largest navy and provided that Britain made the "continental commitment" of sending another large expeditionary force to France like the BEF of the First World War would allow the French to face any challenge

4378:

in an effort to break the power of the richest 200 families in the country. Farmers received higher prices, and the government purchased surplus wheat, but farmers had to pay higher taxes. Wave after wave of strikes hit French industry in 1936. Wage rates went up 48%, but the work week was cut back

4271:

Foreign policy was of growing concern to France during the inter-war period, with fears of German militarism in the forefront. The horrible devastation of the war, including the death of 1.5 million French soldiers, the devastation of much of the steel and coal regions, and the long-term costs

3460:

France rebuilt its Army, emphasizing modernization in such features as new artillery, and after 1905 invested heavily in military aircraft. Most important in restoring prestige was a strong emphasis on the growing French Empire, which brought prestige, despite large financial costs. Very few French

3433:

law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching. On 10 February 1905, the Chamber declared that "the attitude of the Vatican" had rendered the separation of Church and State inevitable and the law of the separation of church and state was passed in December 1905. The Church was

3410:

Combes was vigorously opposed by all the Conservative parties, who saw the mass closure of church schools as a persecution of religion. Combes led the anti-clerical coalition on the left, facing opposition primarily organized by the pro-Catholic ALP. The ALP had a stronger popular base, with better

2964:

as the real spy. After high-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy. In response, the Army brought up additional charges against Dreyfus based on false documents. Word of the military court's attempts to frame Dreyfus began to spread,

2899:

Governing coalitions collapsed with regularity, rarely lasting more than a few months, as radicals, socialists, liberals, conservatives, republicans and monarchists all fought for control. Some historians argue that the collapses were not important because they reflected minor changes in coalitions

2845:

However, the reformers met opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and physicians. Because it was so threatening to so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Implementation finally came when the government realized that contagious diseases

2178:

Revisionist scholars have argued that the Boulangist movement more often represented elements of the radical left rather than the extreme right. Their work is part of an emerging consensus that France's radical right was formed in part during the Dreyfus era by men who had been Boulangist partisans

5204:

One of the most surprising aspects of the Third Republic was that it constituted the first stable republican government in French history and the first to win the support of the majority of the population, but it was intended as an interim, temporary government. Following Thiers's example, most of

4920:

Despite reports of the build-up of German forces, and even knowing the date of the planned German attack, Gamelin did nothing until May 1940, stating that he would "await events". Then, when the Germans attacked, Gamelin insisted on moving 40 of his best divisions, including the BEF, northwards to

4685:

The other major ally the French wanted was the Soviet Union. However, the lack of a common German-Soviet frontier, the unwillingness of Romania and especially Poland to grant the Red Army transit rights, and the strong British dislike of the alliance that the French signed with the Soviet Union in

4625:

center-right party. Reynaud was Prime Minister during the German defeat of France in May and June 1940; he persistently refused to support an armistice with Germany, as premier in June 1940, he unsuccessfully attempted to save France from German occupation in World War II, and resigned on 16 June.

4205:

affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the GDP in the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43% per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63%. In comparison to countries such as the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, the depression was relatively mild:

3802:

rose from 1,600,000 hectares in 1890 to 2,700,000 hectares in 1940; combined with similar operations in Morocco and Tunisia, the result was that North African agriculture became one of the most efficient in the world. Metropolitan France was a captive market, so large landowners could borrow large

3493:

French foreign policy from 1871 to 1914 showed a dramatic transformation from a humiliated power with no friends and not much of an empire in 1871, to the centerpiece of the European alliance system in 1914, with a flourishing colonial empire that was second in size only to Great Britain. Although

2832:

France lagged behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain and Ireland, in developing a welfare state with public health, unemployment insurance and national old age pension plans. There was an accident insurance law for workers in 1898, and in 1910, France created a national pension plan.

2174:

marked a decisive defeat for the Boulangists. They were defeated by the changes in the electoral laws that prevented Boulanger from running in multiple constituencies; by the government's aggressive opposition; and by the absence of the general himself, in self-imposed exile with his mistress. The

4669:

being sent east with the remainder of the Wehrmacht staying on the defensive in the Rhineland to halt any French offensive into Germany, a situation that boded ill for the survival of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe. A further complication for the French was the greater population of

3072:

It vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems, with regional editions tailored to local taste. Secularists and Republicans recognized the newspaper as their greatest enemy, especially when it took the

3010:

From 1894 to 1906, the scandal divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps: the pro-Army "anti-Dreyfusards" composed of conservatives, Catholic traditionalists and monarchists who generally lost the initiative to the anti-clerical, pro-republican "Dreyfusards", with strong support

132: 5498:

argued that French society was not decadent, that the defeat of 1940 was due to only military factors, not moral failures, and that the Third Republic's leaders had done their best under the difficult conditions of the 1930s. Young argued that the decadence, if it existed, did not impact French

4818:

Daladier responded with a series of resolute speeches on French radio where he rejected all of the Italian demands, which won him much popularity in France. From the viewpoint of Blum, being opposed to Daladier at a time when he won himself many accolades as the defender of France's territorial

3084:

The World War ended a golden era for the press. Their younger staff members were drafted, and male replacements could not be found (female journalists were not considered suitable). Rail transportation was rationed and less paper and ink came in, and fewer copies could be shipped out. Inflation

2914:

The Dreyfus affair was a major political scandal that convulsed France from 1894 until its resolution in 1906, and then had reverberations for decades more. The conduct of the affair has become a modern and universal symbol of injustice. It remains one of the most striking examples of a complex

2876:

in political orientation and opposed the monarchists and clerical elements on the one hand, and the Socialists on the other. Many members had been recruited by the Freemasons. The Radicals were split between activists who called for state intervention to achieve economic and social equality and

4315:

Appeasement was increasingly adopted as Germany grew stronger after 1933, for France suffered a stagnant economy, unrest in its colonies, and bitter internal political fighting. Appeasement, says historian Martin Thomas was not a coherent diplomatic strategy or a copying of the British. France

3456:

Foreign policy of 1871–1914 was based on a slow rebuilding of alliances with Russia and Britain in order to counteract the threat from Germany. Bismarck had made a mistake in taking Alsace and Lorraine in 1871, setting off decades of popular hatred of Germany and demand for revenge. Bismarck's

2077:

again brought a Republican majority to the Chamber of Deputies, reiterating public opinion. The Republicans would go on to gain a majority in the Senate by January 1879, establishing dominance in both houses and effectively ending the potential for a monarchist restoration. De MacMahon himself

1967:

due to the encirclement of Paris by Prussian forces. New representatives were elected in February of that year, constituting the government which would come to evolve into the Third Republic. These representatives – predominantly conservative republicans – enacted a series of legislation which

2841:

was the most dreaded disease of the day, especially striking young people in their twenties. Germany set up vigorous measures of public hygiene and public sanatoria, but France let private physicians handle the problem. The French medical profession guarded its prerogatives, and public health

2069:

to the office. The Chamber of Deputies declared the appointment illegitimate, exceeding the president's powers, and refused to cooperate with either de MacMahon or de Broglie. De MacMahon then dissolved the Chamber and called for a new general election to be held the following October. He was

5588:

1872–73: After the nation faced the immediate political problems, it needed to establish a permanent form of government. Thiers wanted to base it on the constitutional monarchy of Britain, however he realized France would have to remain republican. In expressing this belief, he violated the

4682:

from Germany on more even terms. The need for the "continental commitment" allowed Britain to have a sort of veto power over French foreign policy in the interwar period as the French wanted the "continental commitment" very badly, and thus could not afford to alienate the British too much.

3080:

Banks secretly paid certain newspapers to promote particular financial interests and hide or cover up misbehaviour. They also took payments for favourable notices in news articles of commercial products. Sometimes, a newspaper would blackmail a business by threatening to publish unfavorable

3030:

The democratic political structure was supported by the proliferation of politicized newspapers. The circulation of the daily press in Paris went from 1 million in 1870 to 5 million in 1910; it later reached 6 million in 1939. Advertising grew rapidly, providing a steady financial basis for

3206:

did at the famous department stores in the central city. Like the bourgeois stores, it helped transform consumption from a business transaction into a direct relationship between consumer and sought-after goods. Its advertisements promised the opportunity to participate in the newest, most

5836:, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 voluntary association law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching (more than 2,500 private teaching establishments were by then closed by the state, causing bitter opposition from the Catholic and conservative population). 3991:(GDP) of 1913, chiefly the destruction of productive capital and housing. The national debt rose from 66% of GDP in 1913 to 170% in 1919, reflecting the heavy use of bond issues to pay for the war. Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound. 3939:("the Tiger"), led a coalition government after 1917 that was determined to defeat Germany. Meanwhile, large swaths of northeastern France fell under the brutal control of German occupiers. The bloodbath of the war of attrition reached its apogee in the Battles of Verdun and the Somme. 3152:

was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas. Weber's scholarship was widely praised, but was criticized by some who argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before 1870.

4257:, in an attempt to thwart the rise of fascism in France. According to historian Joel Colton, "The consensus among scholars is that there was no concerted or unified design to seize power and that the leagues lacked the coherence, unity, or leadership to accomplish such an end." 1558:). The early governments of the French Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but disagreement as to the nature of that monarchy and the rightful occupant of the throne could not be resolved. Consequently, the French Third Republic, originally envisioned as a 3007:. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was given a pardon and set free. Eventually all the accusations against him were demonstrated to be baseless, and in 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated and re-instated as a major in the French Army. 1683:; it extended over 13,500,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi) of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. In terms of population however, on the eve of World War II, France and its colonial possessions totaled only 150 million inhabitants, compared with 330 million for 4447:

France's republican government had long been strongly anti-clerical. The Law of Separation of Church and State in 1905 had expelled many religious orders, declared all Church buildings government property, and led to the closing of most Church schools. Since that time, Pope

4410:

nationalism, military power, the maintenance of the empire, and national security. The favourite enemy was the left, especially as represented by socialists. The conservatives were divided on foreign affairs. Several important conservative politicians sustained the journal

4149:. Herriot's party was in fact neither radical nor socialist, rather it represented the interests of small business and the lower middle class. It was intensely anti-clerical and resisted the Catholic Church. The Cartel was occasionally willing to form a coalition with the 3031:

publishing, but it did not cover all of the costs involved and had to be supplemented by secret subsidies from commercial interests that wanted favourable reporting. A new liberal press law of 1881 abandoned the restrictive practices that had been typical for a century.

3418:, the scandal undermined support for the Combes government, and he resigned. It also undermined morale in the army, as officers realized that hostile spies examining their private lives were more important to their careers than their own professional accomplishments. 2900:

of many parties that routinely lost and gained a few allies. Consequently, the change of governments could be seen as little more than a series of ministerial reshuffles, with many individuals carrying forward from one government to the next, often in the same posts.

3249:

middle class, who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The republicans detested the Church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the Church represented the

4757:

started a correspondence with Blum, sending him a series of letters written in his idiosyncratic French, encouraging him to support rearmament and oppose appeasement. During the Sudetenland crisis of 1938, Daladier accepted the offer of the British Prime Minister

4168:. Taxation policies were inefficient, with widespread evasion, and when the financial crisis grew worse in 1926, Poincaré levied new taxes, reformed the system of tax collection, and drastically reduced government spending to balance the budget and stabilize the 4135:. The Bloc was supported by business and finance and was friendly toward the army and the Church. Its main goals were revenge against Germany, economic prosperity for French business and stability in domestic affairs. On the other hand, there was the left-center 3473:

French diplomacy was largely independent of domestic affairs; economic, cultural and religious interest groups paid little attention to foreign affairs. Permanent professional diplomats and bureaucrats had developed their own traditions of how to operate at the

3717:

Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy in the period between late 1912 and mid-1914, although it did extend military service to three years from two over strong Socialist objections in 1913. The rapidly escalating

4715:

Germany would defeat France in a war unless Britain intervened. The British thought that allowing Germany to defeat France would unacceptably alter the balance of power, and so Britain would have no choice but to intervene if a French-German war broke out.

3510:

French foreign policy was based on a fear of Germany—whose larger size and fast-growing economy could not be matched—combined with a revanchism that demanded the return of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time, imperialism was a factor. In the midst of the

5691:

1882: Religious instruction was removed from all state schools. The measures were accompanied by the abolition of chaplains in the armed forces and the removal of nuns from hospitals. Due to the fact that France was mainly Roman Catholic, this was greatly

4729:

Unlike Chamberlain, Daladier had no illusions about Hitler's ultimate goals. In fact, he told the British in a late April 1938 meeting that Hitler's real aim was to eventually secure "a domination of the Continent in comparison with which the ambitions of

3523:

arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in

4770:

The Munich Agreement that ended the crisis was a compromise as it was affirmed that the Sudetenland would be transferred to Germany but after only 1 October, albeit on a schedule that favored the German demand to have the Sudetenland "go home to the

3962:

to bypass the censorship. The economy was hurt by the German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast. Although the occupied area in 1914 contained only 14% of France's industrial workers, it produced 58% of the steel and 40% of the coal.

3099:, which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939, its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid 3789:

France successfully integrated the colonies into its economic system. By 1939, one third of its exports went to its colonies; Paris businessmen invested heavily in agriculture, mining, and shipping. In Indochina, new plantations were opened for

4299:

into a series of concessions to Germany. In total, France received £1600 million from Germany before reparations ended in 1932, but France had to pay war debts to the United States, and thus the net gain was only about £600 million.

4210:

not yet severe, the lottery appealed to charitable impulses, greed, and respect for veterans. These contradictory impulses produced cash that made possible the French welfare state, at the crossroads of philanthropy, market and public sphere.

3244:

among the republicans, monarchists and the authoritarians (such as the Napoleonists). The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families. Republicans were based in the

5402:

with Renouvin arguing that French society under the Third Republic was "sorely lacking in initiative and dynamism" and Baumont arguing that French politicians had allowed "personal interests" to override "any sense of the general interest".

5664:

returned triumphant, finally killing off the prospect of a restored French monarchy by gaining control of the Senate on 5 January 1879. MacMahon himself resigned on 30 January 1879, leaving a seriously weakened presidency in the shape of

4806:

Complicating matters was the beginning of a major crisis in Italo-French relations. On 30 November 1938 - the same day as the general strike - a carefully staged "spontaneous" demonstration organized by the Italian Foreign Minister Count

1975:

The principles underpinning the Commune were viewed as morally degenerate by French conservatives at large while the government at Versailles sought to maintain the tenuous post-war stability which it had established. In May, the regular

1705:, and the army. In spite of France's sharply divided electorate and persistent attempts to overthrow it, the Third Republic endured for 70 years, which makes it the longest-lasting system of government in France since the collapse of the 4686:

1935 all presented problems from the French viewpoint. Blum's foreign policy was one of attempting to improve relations with Germany to avoid a war while seeking to strengthen France's alliances and to conclude an alliance with Britain.

3202:. In a neighbourhood with few public spaces, it provided a consumer version of the public square. It educated workers to approach shopping as an exciting social activity, not just a routine exercise in obtaining necessities, just as the 3494:

religion was a hotly contested matter in domestic politics, the Catholic Church made missionary work and church building a speciality in the colonies. Most Frenchmen ignored foreign policy; its issues were a low priority in politics.

2169:

and the establishment of a dictatorship. With his base of support in the working districts of Paris and other cities, plus rural traditionalist Catholics and royalists, he promoted an aggressive nationalism aimed against Germany. The

3195:(1882–83) in the typical department store. Zola represented it as a symbol of the new technology that was both improving society and devouring it. The novel describes merchandising, management techniques, marketing, and consumerism. 2833:

Unlike Germany or Britain, the programs were much smaller – for example, pensions were a voluntary plan. Historian Timothy Smith finds French fears of national public assistance programs were grounded in a widespread disdain for the

4311:

The main goal of foreign policy was the diplomatic response to the demands of the French army in the 1920s and 1930s to form alliances against the German threat, especially with Britain and with smaller countries in central Europe.

2165:. An enormously popular general, he won a series of elections in which he would resign his seat in the Chamber of Deputies and run again in another district. At the apogee of his popularity in January 1889, he posed the threat of a 1898:

Legitimists and Orléanists eventually agreed on the childless Comte de Chambord as king, with the Comte de Paris as his heir. This was the expected line of succession for the Comte de Chambord based on France's traditional rule of

126: 5192:

in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least." France might have agreed about being a republic, but it never fully accepted the Third Republic. France's longest-lasting governmental system since before the 1789

4917:(BEF) to this strategy. Such a strategy also meant that most of the French Army would leave its one-year-old prepared defensive positions in northern France to be committed to joining battle on an unknown Belgian defensive line. 4745:. When Germany has obtained the oil and wheat it needs, she will turn on the West. Certainly we must multiply our efforts to avoid war. But that will not be obtained unless Great Britain and France stick together, intervening in 4968:

had been left intact and was only lightly defended. It was thus quickly captured and exploited by the Germans. Meanwhile, French guns were ordered to limit their firing in case they ran out of ammunition. German Colonel-General

4779:" ("shameful relief") as he wrote that he was happy that France would not be going to war with Germany, but he felt ashamed of an agreement that favored Germany at the expense of Czechoslovakia. On 1 October 1938, Blue wrote in 4749:

for new concessions but declaring at the same time that they will safeguard the independence of Czechoslovakia. If, on the contrary, the Western Powers capitulate again, they will only precipitate the war they wish to avoid."

5687:

on free, mandatory and secular public education, voted in 1881 and 1882, were one of the first sign of this republican control of the Republic, as public education was not any more in the exclusive control of the Catholic

3175:

in Paris in 1838, and by 1852 it offered a wide variety of goods in "departments inside one building." Goods were sold at fixed prices, with guarantees that allowed exchanges and refunds. By the end of the 19th century,

128: 5025:

Historians have debated two themes regarding the sudden collapse of the French government in 1940. One emphasizes a broad cultural and political interpretation, pointing to failures, internal dissension, and a sense of

5749:, was arrested on charges relating to conspiracy and espionage. Allegedly, Dreyfus had handed over important military documents discussing the designs of a new French artillery piece to a German military attaché named 1859:, held in the aftermath when the regime of Napoleon III collapsed, resulted in a monarchist majority in the French National Assembly that favoured a peace agreement with Prussia. Planning to restore the monarchy, the " 4379:

by 17%, and the cost of living rose 46%, so there was little real gain to the average worker. The higher prices for French products resulted in a decline in overseas sales, which the government tried to neutralize by

4516:. Although his tenure was brief during his two tenures in the 1930s as prime minister, his policies played a key role in French policy during the events leading up to World War II. As Prime Minister in the left-wing 2846:

had a national security impact in weakening military recruits, and keeping the population growth rate well below Germany's. There is no evidence to suggest than French life expectancy was lower than that of Germany.

3386:

in France. Then he had parliament reject authorization of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty-four orders in France were banned and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain. In 1904,

3226:, opening up prestigious job opportunities for young women. Despite the low pay and long hours, they enjoyed the exciting complex interactions with the newest and most fashionable merchandise and upscale customers. 10136:(12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th ed., plus three new volumes 30–31–32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th ed., (1926) 3897:, a proto-fascist movement based in the lower middle class, had advocated a war of revenge since the 1880s. The strong socialist movement had long opposed war and preparation for war. However, when its leader 2984:

In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus (now called "Dreyfusards"), such as

2029:), who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and the legislature. Throughout the 1870s, the issue of whether a monarchy should replace or oversee the republic dominated public debate. 1804:

head of a provisional government, ("head of the executive branch of the Republic pending a decision on the institutions of France"). The new government negotiated a peace settlement with the newly proclaimed

4889:

as unlikely to be attacked and chose to defend it with only ten reserve divisions and few fortifications. Much of the French army was posted further northwest along the Belgian frontier. According to General

3375:

fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals in the years 1903 and 1904, and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs in 1904.

2238: 2009:

sympathies and a noted mistrust of secularists, de MacMahon grew to be increasingly at odds with the French parliament as liberal and secular republicans gained a legislative majority during his presidency.

877: 5297:

stated in one radio broadcast, "The regime led the country to ruin." In another, he said "Our defeat is punishment for our moral failures" that France had "rotted" under the Third Republic. In 1942 the

4370:

law facilitated union growth; membership soared from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 in one year, and workers' political strength was enhanced when the Communist and non-Communist unions joined. The government

1697:

called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least"; however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood reformist France, heir to the

5581:. In a formal sense, the Paris Commune of 1871 was simply the local authority that exercised power in Paris for two months in the spring of 1871. It was separate from that of the new government under 5839:

1906: It became apparent that the documents handed over to Schwartzkoppen by Dreyfus in 1894 were a forgery and Dreyfus was exonerated after previously being pardoned after serving 5 years in prison.

3089:

War News. A half-zeppelin threw half its bombs on half-time combatants, resulting in one-quarter damaged. The zeppelin, halfways-attacked by a portion of half-anti aircraft guns, was half destroyed."

4726:

April 1938 represented a British "surrender" to the French, rather than a French "surrender" to the British since Daladier made it clear France would not renounce its alliance with Czechoslovakia.

7180: 3302:

became pope in 1878, he tried to calm Church-State relations. In 1884, he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner toward the State ('Nobilissima Gallorum Gens'). In 1892, he issued an

1597:, but growing support for the republican form of government among the French populace and a series of republican presidents in the 1880s gradually quashed prospects of a monarchical restoration. 7149: 4815:

had intended to use what he called "Sudeten methods" on France as the Italian media started a violent anti-French campaign demanding that France cede Corsica, Nice, Savoy and Tunisia to Italy.

3867:

France entered World War I because Russia and Germany were going to war, and France honoured its treaty obligations to Russia. Decisions were all made by senior officials, especially president

6936: 3144:

France went from backward and isolated to modern with a sense of national identity during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He emphasized the roles of railroads, republican schools, and

3049:

to provide world service. The staid old papers retained their loyal clientele because of their concentration on serious political issues. While papers usually gave false circulation figures,

4858:, a facility completely devoid of telephonic or any other electronic links to his commanders in the field: a massive oversight in the face of the Wehrmacht's subsequent swift and flexible ' 1994:("moral order") subsequently came to be applied to the budding Third Republic due to the perceived restoration of conservative policies and values following the suppression of the Commune. 784: 5209:

monarchists progressively rallied themselves to the Republican institutions, thus giving support of a large part of the elites to the Republican form of government. On the other hand, the

5197:, the Third Republic was consigned to the history books as being unloved and unwanted in the end. Yet, its longevity showed that it was capable of weathering many storms, particularly the 5022:(the portions of Czechoslovakia with German-speaking majorities). Intensive rearmament programs began in 1936 and were re-doubled in 1938, but they would only bear fruit in 1939 and 1940. 4238:. The police shot and killed 15 demonstrators. It was one of the major political crises during the Third Republic (1870–1940). Frenchmen on the left feared it was an attempt to organize a 3306:

advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in republican politics ('Au milieu des sollicitudes'). The Liberal Action was founded in 1901 by

3676:

served as the cornerstone of French foreign policy until 1917. A further link with Russia was provided by vast French investments and loans before 1914. In 1904, French foreign minister

5649:. If his hope had been to halt the move towards republicanism, it backfired spectacularly, with the President being accused of having staged a constitutional coup d'état, known as 3803:

sums in Paris to modernize agricultural techniques with tractors and mechanized equipment. The result was a dramatic increase in the export of wheat, corn, peaches, and olive oil.

3198:

The Grands Magasins Dufayel was a huge department store with inexpensive prices built in 1890 in the northern part of Paris, where it reached a very large new customer base in the

4287:. The main goal of French foreign policy was to preserve French power and neutralize the threat posed by Germany. When Germany fell behind in reparations payments in 1923, France 2130:), were voted in 1881 and 1882, one of the first signs of the expanding civic powers of the Republic. From that time onward, the Catholic clergy lost control of public education. 4390:

Most historians judge the Popular Front a failure, although some call it a partial success. There is general agreement that it failed to live up to the expectations of the left.

10168: 5829: 303: 4304:

In the end, the alliances proved worthless. France also constructed a powerful defensive wall in the form of a network of fortresses along its German border. It was called the

4164:

played a central role in strengthening French finances. The government began a large-scale reconstruction program to repair wartime damages, and was burdened with a very large

3414:

The Combes government worked with Masonic lodges to create a secret surveillance of all army officers to make sure that devout Catholics would not be promoted. Exposed as the

3901:, a pacifist, was assassinated at the start of the war, the French socialist movement abandoned its anti-militarist positions and joined the national war effort. President 5775:

The article alleged an anti-Semitic conspiracy in the highest ranks of the military to scapegoat Dreyfus, tacitly supported by the government and the Catholic Church. The

4466:

The Catholic Church expanded its social activities after 1920, especially by forming youth movements. For example, the largest organization of young working women was the

3714:, in which French public opinion was very much on the side of Britain's enemies. Ultimately, the fear of German power was the link that bound Britain and France together. 2923:

and defended by conservatives and Catholic traditionalists against secular centre-left, left and republican forces, including most Jews. In the end, the latter triumphed.

1796:

After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, and national elections were called to elect a new French government.

5981:

The Americans left their heavy weapons at home in order to use the few available transports to send as many soldiers to front as possible in the shortest amount of time.

3447: 3011:

from intellectuals and teachers. It embittered French politics and facilitated the increasing influence of radical politicians on both sides of the political spectrum.

8772:

Downs, Laura Lee (2009). "'Each and every one of you must become a "chef"': Toward a Social Politics of Working-Class Childhood on the Extreme Right in 1930s France".

5302:

was held bringing several leaders of the Third Republic to trial for declaring war on Germany in 1939 and accusing them of not doing enough to prepare France for war.

5030:

that ran through all French society. A second one blames the poor military planning by the French High Command. According to the British historian Julian Jackson, the

3886:

in September 1914 ensured the failure of Germany's strategy to win quickly. It became a long and very bloody war of attrition, but France emerged on the winning side.

4383:

the franc, a measure that led to a reduction in the value of bonds and savings accounts. The overall result was significant damage to the French economy, and a lower

3879:. Not involved in the decision-making were military leaders, arms manufacturers, the newspapers, pressure groups, party leaders, or spokesmen for French nationalism. 12083: 4184: 3668:

French foreign policy in the years leading up to the First World War was based largely on hostility to and fear of German power. France secured an alliance with the

2881:

after the war, and the maintenance of peace through compulsory arbitration, controlled disarmament, economic sanctions, and perhaps an international military force.

4630:'s administration. Surrendering to German custody in 1942, he was imprisoned in Germany and later Austria until liberation in 1945, where he was released after the 5952: 5287:

Proponents of the concept have argued that the French defeat of 1940 was caused by what they regard as the innate decadence and moral rot of France. The notion of

5154:

Throughout its seventy-year history, the Third Republic stumbled from crisis to crisis, from dissolved parliaments to the appointment of a mentally ill president (

4350:

was made possible with an emphasis on unity against fascism. In 1936, the Socialists and the Radicals formed a coalition, with Communist support, to complete it.

11863: 5962: 5276:

civilization appeared in stasis or on a slow decline, according to this thesis. It first made its appearance in the somewhat bizarre and now obscure writings of

12481: 5927: 1741:

A French propaganda poster from 1917 is captioned with an 18th-century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."

4253: 6972: 5519: 5503: 5277: 3426: 3148:. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until 1900 or so a sense of 10536: 7429:

Alexander, Martin S.; Keiger, John F. V. (1999). "Defending France: foreign policy and the quest for security, 1850s–1990s". In Alexander, Martin S. (ed.).

6468: 5957: 1828:, which maintained a radical left-wing regime for two months until the Thiers government bloodily suppressed it in May 1871. The ensuing repression of the 7857:

Hautcoeur, Pierre-Cyrille (2005). "Was the Great War a watershed? The economics of World War I in France". In Broadberry, Stephen; Harrison, Mark (eds.).

6442: 5322:(written in 1940, and published posthumously in 1946) argued that the French upper classes had ceased to believe in the greatness of France following the 4901:

Gamelin's own views had changed from a purely defensive strategy relying on the Maginot Line. French strategists predicted a German drive across northern

3434:

badly hurt and lost half its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomy; ever after, the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops, thus

12476: 8217:

Delalande, Nicolas (2017). "Giving and Gambling: The Gueules Cassées, the National Lottery, and the Moral Economy of the Welfare State in 1930s France".

7172: 5257: 4913:, fitted with Belgian defensive plans and also with British objectives. Gamelin committed much of the motorised forces of the French Army and the entire 2816: 1455: 7141: 5352:

blamed the defeat on the "corrupt" and "decadent" capitalist Third Republic (conveniently hiding its own sabotaging of the French war effort during the

3980:

Nevertheless, by 1918 France was producing more munitions and artillery than its allies, while supplying virtually all of the heavy equipment needed by

3077:

and stirring up anti-Semitism. After Dreyfus was pardoned, the Radical government closed down the entire Assumptionist order and its newspaper in 1900.

6331:

Smith, Timothy B. (1997). "The ideology of charity, the image of the English poor law, and debates over the right to assistance in France, 1830–1905".

5822: 5515: 3687: 3359:(1894–1906). Catholics were for the most part anti-Dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal 2082:. He promised that he would not use his presidential power of dissolution, and therefore lost his control over the legislature, effectively creating a 3931:, with very high casualty rates. It became a war of attrition. Until spring of 1918 there were almost no territorial gains or losses for either side. 3352:, the movement declined from 1908, when it lost the support of Rome. Nevertheless, the ALP remained until 1914 the most important party on the right. 5387: 4722:

stated at a Cabinet meeting in March 1938, "Whether we liked or not, we had to admit the plain fact that we could not afford to see France overrun."

3235: 754: 4976:

In response, Gamelin withdrew forces in this area so that they could defend Paris, thinking this was the Germans' objective, rather than the coast.

3093:

Regional newspapers flourished after 1900. However the Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the war. The major postwar success story was

9987: 4998: 3776:. French administrators, soldiers, and missionaries were dedicated to bringing French civilization to the local populations of these colonies (the 10687:

Lancereau, Guillaume. "For Science and Country: History Writing, Nation Building, and National Embeddedness in Third Republic France, 1870–1914."

10376:

Institutions and Innovation: Voters, Parties, and Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy – France and Germany, 1870–1939

5396:(profound forces) such as the influence of domestic politics on foreign policy. However, Renouvin and his followers still followed the concept of 10893: 10749: 8821:

Whitney, Susan B. (2001). "Gender, Class, and Generation in Interwar French Catholicism: The Case of the Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne Féminine".

5843: 5723: 2945:. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris and sent to the penal colony at 4665:

With the building of the Siegfried Line, it was possible for Germany to invade any of France's Eastern European allies with the majority of the

12421: 5047: 4843: 4488:

Catholics on the far right supported several shrill, but small, groupings that preached doctrines similar to fascism. The most influential was

4431:

Summer camps and youth groups were organized to promote conservative values in working-class families, and help them design a career path. The

3882:

Britain wanted to remain neutral but entered the war when the German army invaded Belgium on its way to Paris. The Anglo-French victory at the

3665:. This alliance with Britain and Russia against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia, Britain, and France to enter World War I as Allies. 3547: 3543: 3539: 3382:, when elected Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to defeat Catholicism thoroughly. After only a short while in office, he closed down all 7992:

Ingram, Norman (2016). "Le creuset de la guerre: La Ligue des droits de l'homme et le débat sur "les conditions d'une paix durable" en 1916".

12189: 11755: 8655:

Hurcombe, Martin (2011). "Heroes of the Republic, heroes of the revolution: French communist reportage of the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1938".

5947: 5412:

that offered a total condemnation of the entire Third Republic as weak, cowardly and degenerate. Even more so then in France, the concept of

3538:

France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. At Japan's request, Paris sent military missions in

3519:

of 1898 when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the

3318:. From the Church's perspective, its mission was to express the political ideals and new social doctrines embodied in Leo's 1891 encyclical " 2639: 2113: 1813:

signed on 10 May 1871. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of financial laws, such as the controversial

1578: 1278: 5786:

is founded and remained the most important party of the Third Republic starting at the end of the 19th century. The same year, followers of

10807: 2105: 2095: 2055: 5637:, himself a monarchist, made one last desperate attempt to salvage the monarchical cause by dismissing the republic-minded Prime Minister 4206:

unemployment peaked under 5%, and the fall in production was at most 20% below the 1929 output. In addition, there was no banking crisis.

3355:

The attempt at improving the relationship with republicans failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the

1737: 246: 12396: 10802: 8996: 8858:

Newsome, W. Brian (2011). "French Catholics, Women, and the Home: The Founding Generation of the Jeunesse ouvrière chrétienne féminine".

6031: 4851: 10681: 3786:

were unattached men committed to staying permanently, learning local languages and customs, and converting the natives to Christianity.

2872:, founded in 1901 as the "Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party" ("Parti républicain, radical et radical-socialiste"). It was 10702: 10450: 6945: 5942: 5071: 4914: 6106: 2045:

1877, attempting to quell the Republicans' rising popularity and limit their political influence through a series of actions known as

12471: 11528: 10903: 10519: 7206:

Martin, Benjamin F. (1976). "The Creation of the Action Libérale Populaire: An Example of Party Formation in Third Republic France".

5082:, a broken and heavily forested terrain that had been believed to be impassable to armoured units. The Germans also rushed along the 3844: 3702:

of 1905 and 1911, and by secret military and naval staff talks. Delcassé's rapprochement with Britain was controversial in France as

1856: 6419:

Shapiro, Ann-Louise (1980). "Private Rights, Public Interest, and Professional Jurisdiction: The French Public Health Law of 1902".

3782:). Some French businessmen went overseas, but there were few permanent settlements. The Catholic Church became deeply involved. Its 9499: 4094: 4052:

in 1919. Germany was largely disarmed and forced to take full responsibility for the war, meaning that it was expected to pay huge

1679:

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial empire was the second largest colonial empire in the world only behind the

5530:

had on French rearmament and had nothing to do with French leaders being too "decadent" and cowardly to stand up to Nazi Germany.

4187:. They reported the improvement of financial markets, the brilliance of the post-war literature and the revival of public morale. 3035:, introduced in the 1860s, facilitated quick turnaround time and cheaper publication. New types of popular newspapers, especially 2201:. Plagued by disease, death, inefficiency, and widespread corruption, and its troubles covered up by bribed French officials, the 1624:, all of them acquired during the last two decades of the 19th century. The early years of the 20th century were dominated by the 11354: 10758: 5915: 4543:

became head of government on 10 April 1938, orienting his government towards the centre and ending the Popular Front. Along with

4266: 2809: 1448: 9890:

Jackson, Peter (2006). "Post-War Politics and the Historiography of French Strategy and Diplomacy Before the Second World War".

5672:

1880: The Jesuits and several other religious orders were dissolved, and their members were forbidden to teach in state schools.

5483:

thesis include Talbot Imlay, Anthony Adamthwaite, Serge Berstein, Michael Carely, Nicole Jordan, Igor Lukes, and Richard Crane.

5441:, where the French defeat is explained as the result of the moral weakness and cowardice of the French leaders.Shirer portrayed 12466: 11903: 11888: 11805: 7065:

Rigoulot, Philippe (2009). "Protestants and the French nation under the Third Republic: Between recognition and assimilation".

6558: 4811:

took place in the Italian Chamber of Deputies where on cue all of the deputies rose up to shout "Tunis, Corsica, Nice, Savoy!"

2175:

fall of Boulanger severely undermined the conservative and royalist elements within France; they would not recover until 1940.

101: 6525:

Stone, Judith F. (1988). "The Radicals and the Interventionist State: Attitudes, Ambiguities and Transformations, 1880–1910".

4799:

In an attempt to improve productivity in the French armament industry, especially its aviation industry, the Finance Minister

3943:. A consensus among soldiers agreed to resist any German attacks, but to postpone French attacks until the Americans arrived. 11656: 11098: 10424: 10100: 10062: 10032: 9955: 9925: 9880: 9855: 9820: 9752: 9725: 9424: 9375: 9331: 8910: 8528: 8185: 8070: 7866: 7833: 7766: 7718: 7634: 7319: 7290: 7254: 6910: 6885: 6778: 6749: 6621: 6596: 6082: 5932: 5618:

Feb 1875: Series of parliamentary Acts established the organic or constitutional laws of the new republic. At its apex was a

3889:

French intellectuals welcomed the war to avenge the humiliation of defeat and loss of territory in 1871. At the grass roots,

2459: 1581:

to serve as head of state. Calls for the re-establishment of the monarchy dominated the tenures of the first two presidents,

1098: 17: 5314:

of democracy") had had 103 cabinets with an average length of eight months, and that 15 former prime ministers were living.

3839: 12287: 7890:

Bostrom, Alex (2016). "Fournissant le front: La production de l'artillerie française pendant la Première Guerre mondiale".

7543:

Otte, T. G. (2006). "From "War-in-Sight" to Nearly War: Anglo–French Relations in the Age of High Imperialism, 1875–1898".

4183:

Foreign observers in the 1920s noted the excesses of the French upper classes, but emphasized the rapid re-building of the

1984:

and the Versailles government, marched on Paris and succeeded in dismantling the Commune during what would become known as

10516:

France: 1848–1945: Politics and Anger; Anxiety and Hypocrisy; Taste and Corruption; Intellect and Pride; Ambition and Love

10216: 7595:

Armaments and politics in France on the eve of the First World War: The Introduction of Three-year Conscription, 1913–1914

4718:

The alliance would have turned any German attack on Czechoslovakia into a French–German war. As British Foreign Secretary

3265: 1797: 12411: 12010: 11773: 11429: 11419: 10742: 6140:

Kale, Steven D. (1988). "The Monarchy According to the King: The Ideological Content of the 'Drapeau Blanc,' 1871–1873".

5937: 3451: 2577: 1924: 1216: 9392: 8721: 2070:

subsequently accused by Republicans and their sympathizers of attempting a constitutional coup d'état, which he denied.

11858: 11179: 11055: 10577: 10436: 10190: 8537: 5437: 5363:

called the Third Republic a "weak" regime and argued that if France had a regime headed by a strong-man president like

4524:(1936–1939) to avoid the civil conflict spilling over into France itself. Once out of office in 1938, he denounced the 3976:

have important reverberations after the war, as it would be a first breach of liberal theories of non-interventionism.

2802: 2014: 1566: 1441: 10247: 10137: 8194: 4905:, as in 1914. Gamelin favoured an aggressive advance northward to meet the attacking German forces in Belgium and the 12401: 11830: 11815: 11234: 11162: 11128: 10598: 10350: 10257: 10154: 10005: 8967: 7968: 7028:

McBride, Theresa M. (1978). "A Woman's World: Department Stores and the Evolution of Women's Employment, 1870–1920".

6928:"Warenhausunternehmen und ihre Gründer in Frankreich und Deutschland oder: eine diskrete Elite und mancherlei Mythen" 6025: 5855: 5271:

The topic of the "decadence" of French institutions and France arose as a historiographical debate at the end of the

4651: 4468: 2738: 1377: 425: 4520:

government in 1936–1937, he provided a series of major economic and social reforms. Blum declared neutrality in the

3835: 2036:

In France from 1871 to the end of World War I in 1918, schoolchildren were taught not to forget the lost regions of

1777:(19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871). As Paris was cut off from the rest of unoccupied France, the Minister of War 12426: 12098: 11939: 11893: 6406:

Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal & Infant Health Policy in the United States & France, 1890–1920

5646: 4762:

to serve as a "honest broker" in an attempt to find a compromise. Chamberlain met with Adolf Hitler at a summit at

4354: 3690:, the British Foreign Secretary, an agreement that ended a long period of Anglo-French tensions and hostility. The 3649:

In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain, first by means of the

2869: 2691: 2171: 2074: 1929:

Chambord believed the restored monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution (most famously including the

1330: 6930:[Department store firms and their founders in France and Germany, or: a discreet elite and various myths] 5103: 4338:

In 1920, the socialist movement split, with the majority forming the French Communist Party. The minority, led by

3562:. The treaty ending the war put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into 12491: 12486: 8294: 5900: 5895: 2760: 2478: 1399: 1117: 10560: 6464: 5526:, who argued that French weakness on the international stage was due to structural factors as the impact of the 5473:

as a petty politician controlled by his mistress, Countess Hélène de Portes. Modern historians who subscribe to

5107: 4824:

was called, and the Socialists did not vote for a Communist motion of no-confidence in the Daladier government.

4594:. Daladier remained Minister of Defence until 19 May, when Reynaud took over the portfolio personally after the 4117:, France was governed by two main groupings of political alliances. On the one hand, there was the right-center 2915:

miscarriage of justice in which a central role was played by the press and public opinion. At issue was blatant

1891:

lost legitimacy due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of the

12391: 12118: 11693: 11072: 11067: 10735: 10236: 6849: 6438: 5795: 5548: 5170:

in 1944, few called for a restoration of the Third Republic, and a Constituent Assembly was established by the

4662:

should invade any of France's allies in Eastern Europe, namely Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia.

4622: 3808: 3399:

protested at this recognition of the Italian State. Combes reacted strongly and recalled his ambassador to the

2893: 1960: 1880: 1766: 1625: 10649: 10478: 8341:

Jordan, Nicole (2002). "The Reorientation of French Diplomacy in the mid-1920s: the Role of Jacques Seydoux".

5511: 2137:

were broken up and sold in 1885. Only a few crowns were kept, their precious gems replaced by coloured glass.

12416: 12041: 11661: 11602: 11597: 11082: 5750: 5327:

shortsighted military strategy, and, finally, facilitated German victory in June 1940. The French journalist

4945: 4753:

Despite being on the opposite sides of the ideological divide, starting on 14 April 1938 the Conservative MP

3981: 3862: 3622: 3363:. This infuriated republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Often they worked in alliance with 3295:

society. Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced, and chaplains were removed from the army.

2755: 2748: 2733: 2721: 2706: 2508: 2197:

of 1892, regarded as the largest financial fraud of the 19th century, involved a failed attempt to build the

1394: 1387: 1372: 1360: 1345: 1147: 500: 80: 11683: 5727: 5113:

The Third Republic officially ended on 10 July 1940, when the French parliament gave full powers to Marshal

4678:, it was the unanimous opinion of all French foreign policy and military experts that France needed allies. 4283:, when his promises that the United States would sign a defence treaty with France and join the League were 12369: 12108: 11587: 11424: 11143: 10988: 10862: 5731: 5623: 5552: 4875: 4775:" as soon as possible. When the Munich Agreement was signed on 30 September 1938, Blum wrote that he felt " 4284: 3918: 3672:

in 1894 after diplomatic talks between Germany and Russia had failed to produce any working agreement. The

3563: 3392: 3037: 2018: 1570: 815: 9868:

The Last Battle: When U.S. and German Soldiers Joined Forces in the Waning Hours of World War II in Europe

5882: 2431: 1640:

to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, between the Democratic Republican Alliance and the

1070: 12226: 11946: 11820: 11810: 11558: 11399: 11347: 11259: 11018: 10949: 9619: 8657: 7925: 5597: 5479:

argument or take a very critical view of France's pre-1940 leadership without necessarily subscribing to

5465:(whom Shirer represented as France's most influential intellectual) as the preacher of "drivel"; Marshal 4107: 3928: 3567: 2728: 2017:. At its head was a President of the Republic. A two-chamber parliament consisting of a directly elected 1367: 10670: 8928:, p. 3. The Blum family has always pronounced its name in a way that indicates its Alsatian origin. 7711:

Revanche and Revision: The Ligue des Patriotes and the Origins of the Radical Right in France, 1882–1900

5453:

as a reactionary soldier more interested in destroying the Third Republic than in defending it; General

5293:

as an explanation for the defeat began almost as soon as the armistice was signed in June 1940. Marshal

4072:, Germany's ally during World War I that also collapsed at the end of the conflict, France acquired the 3211:

at reasonable cost. The latest technology was featured, such as cinemas and exhibits of inventions like

3161: 12137: 12058: 11825: 11735: 11714: 11414: 11404: 11394: 11050: 11023: 9713: 6639: 5633:

May 1877: with public opinion swinging heavily in favour of a republic, the President of the Republic,

5559: 5348:

was widely embraced by different French political fractions as a way of discrediting their rivals. The

4960:

aerial bombardment. Although almost all the crossings over the Meuse were destroyed by the French, one

4196: 4042: 3831: 2961: 2743: 2711: 2686: 2246: 2218: 1810: 1774: 1382: 1350: 1325: 885: 857: 10667:

France reviews its revolutionary origins: social politics and historical opinion in the Third Republic

4870:, who advanced a mere 8 km (5.0 mi). They stopped even before reaching Germany's unfinished 3132:

France was a rural nation, and the peasant farmer was the typical French citizen. In his seminal book

1820:

In Paris, resentment built against the government from late March through May 1871. Paris workers and

12406: 12317: 12073: 11988: 11961: 11878: 11673: 11518: 10888: 9866: 8823: 8774: 7030: 6999:

Wemp, Brian (2011). "Social Space, Technology, and Consumer Culture at the Grands Magasins Dufayel".

6812: 6243: 5523: 4150: 4077: 4025: 3940: 3883: 3241: 3240:

Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic (1870–1940), there were battles over the status of the

2942: 2312: 2255: 2109: 1985: 1702: 951: 894: 219: 6099:"The Night the Old Regime Ended: August 4, 1789 and the French Revolution By Michael P. Fitzsimmons" 5798:, which became the main center-right party after World War I and the parliamentary disappearance of 5106:, which was signed on 22 June 1940 in the same railway carriage in which the Germans had signed the 4737:

Daladier went on to say, "Today, it is the turn of Czechoslovakia. Tomorrow, it will be the turn of

3999:

To uplift the French national spirit, many intellectuals began to fashion patriotic propaganda. The

3706:

was prominent around the start of the 20th century, sentiments that had been much reinforced by the

1939: 12461: 12456: 12451: 12446: 12441: 12436: 12431: 11898: 11868: 11473: 11249: 10915: 10850: 9943: 9141:

Aulach, Harindar "Britain and the Sudeten Issue, 1938: The Evolution of a Policy" pp. 233–259 from

4614: 4513: 4235: 4057: 3594: 3270: 3223: 3187:

The French gloried in the national prestige brought by the great Parisian stores. The great writer

2274: 2154: 1864: 913: 9669:(1998). "Forgotten Words and Faded Images: American Journalists before the Fall of France, 1940". 5851: 4436: 2205:

went bankrupt. Its stock became worthless, and ordinary investors lost close to a billion francs.

12154: 12036: 11983: 11929: 11883: 11572: 11312: 11302: 11244: 11184: 11030: 10857: 10840: 5810: 5757: 5680: 5661: 5383: 5367:

before 1940, the defeat could have been avoided. In power, they did exactly that and started the

4161: 4073: 3957: 3753: 3745: 3677: 3673: 3650: 3614: 3479: 3368: 2716: 2696: 2389: 1821: 1518:

The early days of the French Third Republic were dominated by political disruption caused by the

1355: 1335: 1028: 154: 9617:

Zahniser, Marvin R. (1987). "The French Connection: Thirty Years of French-American Relations".

9441: 9035: 7609: 6637:

Wilson, Stephen (1976). "Antisemitism and Jewish Response in France during the Dreyfus Affair".

4855: 2421: 1060: 223: 12259: 12221: 12179: 12164: 11956: 11778: 11678: 11340: 11103: 11040: 10823: 10369:

Reconciling France Against Democracy: the Croix de feu and the Parti social français, 1927–1945

8860: 8745: 8547: 8204: 8106: 7825: 7282: 7001: 6741: 6733: 6689:

Collins, Ross F. (2001). "The Business of Journalism in Provincial France during World War I".

5910: 5783: 5735: 5349: 5323: 5179: 5175: 5075: 4631: 4595: 4517: 4329: 4219: 4154: 4146: 4118: 4061: 3988: 3849: 3765: 3735: 3643: 3578: 3515:, French and British interest in Africa came into conflict. The most dangerous episode was the 3325: 3145: 2701: 2649: 2528: 2066: 2032: 1944: 1641: 1601: 1559: 1512: 1340: 1288: 1167: 638: 360: 215: 86: 10389:

Passmore, Kevin (1993). "The French Third Republic: Stalemate Society or Cradle of Fascism?".

10116: 8900: 8743:

Kennedy, Sean (2008). "The End of Immunity? Recent Work on the Far Right in Interwar France".

8304: 8177: 6015: 12184: 12174: 11966: 11790: 11633: 11189: 11045: 10867: 10719:

The constitutions and other select documents illustrative of the history of France, 1789–1901

10447:

Schism and solidarity in social movements: The politics of labor in the French third republic

9402: 9367: 8694:"Fighting for the Unknown Soldier: The Contested Territory of the French Nation in 1934–1938" 7960: 6102: 5368: 5238: 4618: 4463:(1924), many areas of dispute were tacitly settled and a bearable coexistence made possible. 4423: 4412: 4393:

Politically, the Popular Front fell apart over Blum's refusal to intervene vigorously in the

4367: 4342:, kept the name Socialist, and by 1932 greatly outnumbered the disorganized Communists. When 4180:

did not occur. From 1926 to 1929, the French economy prospered and manufacturing flourished.

3778: 3749: 3723: 3695: 3658: 3550:

to help modernize the Japanese army. Conflicts with China over Indochina climaxed during the

3430: 3262:

continued in operation, but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.

3180:, a French credit merchant, had served up to three million customers and was affiliated with 2659: 2488: 1900: 1545: 1298: 1127: 9810: 8169: 7274: 6927: 6847:

Margadant, Ted W. (1979). "French Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century: A Review Essay".

6072: 5074:

moved in Belgium to meet Army Group B, the German Army Group A outflanked the Allies at the

4674:

could field along with the greater size of the German economy. To even the odds against the

3876: 3051: 2150: 1644:. The government fell less than a year after the outbreak of World War II, when Nazi forces 12209: 11750: 11688: 11577: 11468: 11194: 11113: 11108: 10828: 10468:

The Discovery of France: A Historical Geography, from the Revolution to the First World War

10109: 9948:

Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century

9770: 8104:(2002). "Out of the Ashes: The American Press and France's Postwar Recovery in the 1920s". 7627:

An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914

7110:"Church, State, and Education in France From the Falloux to the Ferry Laws: A Reassessment" 7074: 6970:

Amelinckx, Frans C. (1995). "The Creation of Consumer Society in Zola's Ladies' Paradise".

6241:

Mazgaj, Paul (1987). "The Origins of the French Radical Right: A Historiographical Essay".

6098: 5859: 5799: 5717: 5612: 5540: 5310: 5272: 5167: 4891: 4655: 4231: 4223: 4049: 3951: 3487: 3360: 3067: 3042: 2967: 2873: 2862: 2538: 2264: 2202: 2112:) who supported moderate social and political changes to nurture the new regime, such as a 2083: 1904: 1754: 1555: 1535: 1492: 1177: 903: 712: 560: 470: 369: 357: 142: 10543:

Sexual Moralities in France, 1780–1980: New Ideas on the Family, Divorce and Homosexuality

10104: 5585:. The regime came to an end after a bloody suppression by Thiers's government in May 1871. 5166:

saw much political strife with a growing rift between the right and the left. When France

5098:, the Allies were defeated in stunning fashion. France had to accept the terms imposed by 5038:

was destined for failure, since it drastically miscalculated the ensuing attack by German

3236:

Martin of Tours § Revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin in the Third Republic

1522:

of 1870–1871, which the French Third Republic continued to wage after the fall of Emperor

8: 12292: 12249: 12169: 12123: 12000: 11993: 11973: 11934: 11846: 11638: 11607: 11582: 11548: 11450: 11445: 11174: 10983: 10937: 10908: 10254:

A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930

8271:

Colton, Joel (1969). "Politics and economics in the 1930s". In Warner, Charles K. (ed.).

5714:'s bombing at the National Assembly, killing nobody but injuring one, deputies voted the 5634: 5619: 5593:, angering the Monarchists in the Assembly. As a result, he was forced to resign in 1873. 5544: 5018:

and appeased the Germans by giving in to their demands concerning the acquisition of the

4759: 4711: 4639: 4544: 3894: 3890: 3819: 3769: 3694:, which functioned as an informal Anglo-French alliance, was further strengthened by the 3555: 3512: 3032: 2498: 2407: 2346: 2336: 2134: 1998: 1997:

De MacMahon, his popularity bolstered by his victory over the Commune, was later elected

1981: 1977: 1956: 1868: 1746: 1621: 1592: 1519: 1496: 1137: 1046: 985: 975: 615: 383: 207: 10717: 7078: 5791: 5442: 5220: 4540: 4489: 4371: 4128: 3902: 3868: 3348: 3330:

was the parliamentary group from which the ALP political party emerged, adding the word

3184:, a large French department store established in 1870 by a former Bon Marché executive. 2889: 1773:

to serve as its president. This first government of the Third Republic ruled during the

1730: 66: 12204: 12149: 12103: 11951: 11917: 11501: 11307: 11274: 11239: 11118: 11035: 11013: 10993: 10959: 10473:

Sawyer, Stephen W. "A Fiscal Revolution: Statecraft in France's Early Third Republic."

10461: 10326: 9678: 9636: 8840: 8791: 8713: 8674: 8598: 8577: 8447: 8385: 8150: 8115: 8054: 8036: 7802: 7560: 7223: 7090: 7047: 6858: 6829: 6714: 6656: 6507: 6348: 6313: 6260: 5679:

were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by republicans, called

5652: 5244: 4731: 4568: 4288: 4136: 4124: 4029: 4021: 4005: 3947: 3932: 3590: 3415: 3411:

financing and a stronger network of newspapers, but had far fewer seats in parliament.

3149: 2994: 2046: 1920: 1911:

was recognised. Consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord.

1770: 1617: 444: 346: 149: 10727: 10206: 8430:

Schuker, Stephen A. (1986). "France and the Remilitarization of the Rhineland, 1936".

6074:

Religion, Politics and Preferment in France since 1890: La Belle Époque and its Legacy

5466: 5294: 5114: 4898:

commander, France had more and better tanks than Germany, but chose to disperse them.

4694:

Daladier's last government was in power at the time of the negotiations preceding the

4296: 4142: 3923:

After the French army successfully defended Paris in 1914, the conflict became one of

2998: 2161:

In 1889, the Republic was rocked by a sudden political crisis precipitated by General

1800:

at the time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected

1663: 456: 12350: 12332: 12327: 12312: 12297: 12236: 12199: 12113: 12046: 12024: 12005: 11873: 11800: 11623: 11523: 11409: 11389: 11366: 11294: 11279: 11155: 11123: 11077: 10617: 10594: 10508: 10432: 10346: 10338: 10330: 10096: 10058: 10028: 10011: 10001: 9951: 9921: 9905: 9876: 9851: 9834: 9826: 9816: 9786: 9778: 9748: 9721: 9420: 9371: 9359: 9327: 9163: 8963: 8906: 8844: 8795: 8717: 8678: 8642:

Léon Blum, French Socialism, and the Popular Front: A Case of Internal Contradictions

8524: 8403:

Salerno, Reynolds M. (1997). "The French Navy and the Appeasement of Italy, 1937–9".

8389: 8257: 8181: 8170: 8066: 8059: 8040: 7964: 7862: 7829: 7806: 7762: 7714: 7661: 7630: 7564: 7315: 7286: 7275: 7250: 7094: 6981: 6906: 6881: 6774: 6745: 6718: 6706: 6660: 6617: 6592: 6554:"The Official Philosophy of the French Third Republic: Leon Bourgeois and Solidarism" 6511: 6490:

Halpern, Avner (2002). "Freemasonry and party building in late 19th-Century France".

6352: 6078: 6021: 5642: 5601: 5507: 5432: 5390:, that started a new type of international history to take into what Renouvin called 5372: 5364: 5328: 5262:

The Representatives of Foreign Powers Coming to Greet the Republic as a Sign of Peace

5234: 5194: 5134: 5130: 5091: 5011: 4925: 4754: 4521: 4394: 4359: 4317: 4295:, who viewed reparations as impossible to pay successfully, pressured French Premier 4276: 3586: 3429:. This law was heavily supported by Combes, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 3101: 2946: 2878: 2468: 2367: 2227: 2162: 1698: 1649: 1609: 1107: 1006: 866: 534: 295: 10574:

Legislating the French Family: Feminism, Theater, and Republican Politics: 1870–1920

10196: 8946: 7340: 5630:, who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and Parliament. 5182:(1946 to 1958) that December, a parliamentary system not unlike the Third Republic. 4308:

and was trusted to compensate for the heavy manpower losses of the First World War.

4243: 2990: 2854: 2166: 1769:

as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General

12264: 12216: 12088: 12063: 11553: 11289: 11169: 10964: 10898: 10845: 10787: 10398: 10318: 10176: 10128: 9901: 9628: 9453: 8869: 8832: 8783: 8754: 8705: 8666: 8569: 8501: 8474: 8439: 8412: 8377: 8350: 8253: 8226: 8142: 8028: 8001: 7952: 7934: 7899: 7794: 7782: 7552: 7498: 7215: 7121: 7082: 7039: 7010: 6821: 6702: 6698: 6648: 6567: 6534: 6499: 6340: 6305: 6278: 6252: 6149: 5816: 5776: 5711: 5696: 5684: 5683:

as they were in favour of moderate changes to firmly establish the new regime. The

5590: 5527: 5422:

often described the Third Republic as a tottering regime on the verge of collapse.

5353: 4985: 4837: 4812: 4695: 4602: 4556: 4548: 4457: 4292: 4227: 4202: 4041:

States beginning in the summer of 1918. Peace terms were imposed on Germany by the

3822:

in 1926, and Indochina in 1930, all of which the colonial army quickly suppressed.

3773: 3707: 3682: 3654: 3610: 3598: 3582: 3559: 3520: 3516: 3462: 3383: 3255: 3246: 2834: 2441: 2121: 2117: 2022: 1908: 1892: 1884: 1613: 1605: 1574: 1080: 586: 485: 11726: 11565: 8019:

Stevenson, David (1979). "French war aims and the American challenge, 1914–1918".

5787: 4418: 3251: 3172: 2960:

Two years later, evidence came to light that identified a French Army major named

2885: 2608: 2413: 1848: 1778: 1762: 1708: 1247: 1052: 12359: 12322: 12307: 12302: 12244: 12159: 11719: 11460: 11269: 11264: 10932: 10792: 10772: 10492: 10356: 10142: 10050: 10038: 9982: 9961: 9931: 9892: 9794: 9758: 9731: 9666: 9381: 9001: 8101: 7974: 7872: 7839: 7724: 6807: 6766: 6371: 5905: 5889: 5863: 5862:, abandoned its antimilitarist positions and joined the national war effort. The 5770: 5704: 5491: 5462: 5454: 5419: 5376: 5214: 5198: 5090:

coast to catch the Allies in a large pocket that forced them into the disastrous

5087: 5035: 4847: 4833: 4627: 4493: 4384: 4173: 4165: 4132: 4114: 4089: 4053: 3711: 3551: 3475: 3422: 3177: 3003: 2597: 2194: 2188: 2037: 2002: 1872: 1837: 1782: 1758: 1645: 1474: 1236: 281: 118: 47: 11705: 9324:

Britain, France and Appeasement: Anglo-French Relations in the Popular Front Era

5876: 4909:, as far removed from French territory as possible. This strategy, known as the 3906: 3872: 3502: 3388: 3372: 3020: 2559: 1198: 12282: 12277: 12269: 12093: 12051: 11628: 11213: 11060: 10942: 10927: 10835: 10797: 10653: 10624: 10187: 9913: 8836: 8630: 7798: 7242: 6652: 6068: 5746: 5742: 5608: 5582: 5450: 5446: 5281: 5265: 5228: 5185: 5155: 5015: 4970: 4871: 4867: 4808: 4788: 4699: 4529: 4474: 4375: 4280: 4069: 4033: 3924: 3804: 3795: 3669: 3662: 3618: 3404: 3356: 3259: 3181: 3074: 3062: 2986: 2938: 2931: 2909: 2792: 2378: 2026: 1931: 1801: 1726: 1721: 1692: 1680: 1584: 1500: 1431: 1017: 402: 299: 72: 9168:

The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940

8709: 8505: 8416: 8381: 8354: 8032: 7556: 7086: 6572: 6553: 6503: 6344: 5847: 5666: 4819:

integrity against Italy was politically difficult. At the next session of the

4428:

with its prestigious past and sharp articles, was a major conservative organ.

3898: 3279:

Republicans feared that religious orders in control of schools—especially the

2079: 12385: 12364: 12194: 11978: 11666: 11206: 11201: 10872: 10782: 10322: 10121: 9872: 8997:"World War II's Strangest Battle: When Americans and Germans Fought Together" 8873: 8693: 8670: 8230: 8005: 7903: 7706: 7665: 7652: 7307: 7270: 7014: 6985: 6710: 5920: 5578: 5571: 5308:

in 1940, before the defeat of France, reported that the Third Republic ("the

5189: 5159: 5095: 5083: 5067: 4965: 4763: 4363: 4347: 4099: 3740: 3699: 3635: 3364: 3343: 3319: 3311: 3284: 3199: 3045:), a telegraphic news service with a network of reporters and contracts with 2950: 2937:

The affair began in November 1894 with the conviction for treason of Captain

2916: 2777: 2518: 1969: 1825: 1806: 1684: 1531: 1527: 1416: 1157: 740: 726: 678: 521: 414: 366: 354: 339: 261: 248: 10648:(2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars 10550:

Women and the Second World War in France, 1939–1948: choices and constraints

10496: 10180: 10015: 9735: 9457: 9385: 8758: 7978: 7876: 7843: 6368:

The Divided Path: The German Influence on Social Reform in France After 1870

5764: 5700: 5339:

indicted the pre-war leadership for what he regarded as total incompetence.

4452:

had sought a rapprochement, but it was not achieved until the reign of Pope

3188: 2978: 12078: 11783: 11740: 11540: 11511: 10360: 10042: 9965: 9935: 9798: 9762: 9495: 7938: 7920: 7728: 7365: 6825: 6375: 5833: 5803: 5470: 5458: 5449:

as a corrupt opportunist even willing to do a deal with the Nazis; Marshal

5305: 5122: 5099: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5039: 4993: 4800: 4719: 4707: 4610: 4591: 4583: 4560: 4552: 4533: 4432: 4358:

on labour law changes sought by the trade unions, especially the mandatory

4305: 4248: 4169: 3379: 3339: 3307: 3110: 2838: 2626: 2357: 2198: 2126: 1888: 1750: 1749:

of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France and the overthrow of Emperor

1667: 1633: 1523: 1508: 1504: 1265: 996: 801: 770: 666: 599: 573: 9838: 9790: 6017:

Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia

5418:

was accepted in the English-speaking world, where British historians such

4609:

proposals for the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. After the outbreak of

4509: 4339: 4333: 3314:, former monarchists who switched to republicanism at the request of Pope 2063: 1955:

Following the French surrender to Prussia in January 1871, concluding the

1876: 11745: 11648: 11493: 11321: 11284: 11254: 11218: 11149: 11134: 10978: 10484: 10402: 10383:

To Be a Citizen: The Political Culture of the Early French Third Republic

9806: 6538: 6153: 5676: 5638: 5356:

and its opposition to the "imperialist war" against Germany in 1939–40).

5138: 5019: 4989: 4940: 4906: 4703: 4635: 4606: 4564: 4525: 4449: 4380: 4346:

told French Communists to collaborate with others on the left in 1934, a

3972: 3761: 3719: 3703: 3574: 3483: 3435: 3396: 3291: 3208: 3137: 3117: 2973: 2920: 2858: 2621: 2059: 2006: 1860: 1653: 1637: 1629: 1260: 829: 547: 494: 479: 314: 10531:

Campbell, Caroline. "Gender and Politics in Interwar and Vichy France."

9682: 9444:[French writers and the notion of decadence from 1870 to 1914]. 8478: 8119: 7126: 7109: 4952:

The German wing that attacked further south was able to cross the River

3710:

of 1898, in which Britain and France had almost gone to war, and by the

12254: 11483: 10954: 10920: 10309:

Hanson, Stephen E (2010). "The Founding of the French Third Republic".

9775:

France Under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1939)

9640: 8154: 6862: 6833: 6191: 5315: 5299: 5210: 4863: 4859: 4587: 4575: 4157:

on the left and royalists on the right, played relatively minor roles.

4068:, were partitioned between France and Britain. From the remains of the 3987:

In the end the damages caused by the war amounted to about 113% of the

3783: 3532: 3303: 3216: 3094: 2294: 2101: 2078:

resigned on 30 January 1879 to be succeeded by the moderate Republican

2025:

was created, along with a ministry under the President of the council (

1964: 1831: 1785:, and established the provisional republican government in the city of 1701:. On the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the 933: 163: 10264:

France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–1939

10192:

The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France

9998:

How war came: the immediate origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939

8937:

Sévillia, Jean, Histoire Passionnée de la France, Perrin, 2013, p. 416

8581: 8451: 7227: 7051: 6317: 6283:

The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914

6264: 5225:

in 1898. This far-right monarchist movement became influential in the

4866:, apart from a few French divisions crossing the German border in the 4787:

he knew to be a reluctant appeaser - but rather the Foreign Minister,

4605:

of September 1938, when France and the United Kingdom gave way before

4590:

led to Daladier's resignation on 21 March 1940 and his replacement by

2892:, who would become President of the Council in the 1920s, created the 11592: 10969: 10489:

Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914

5605: 5600:, a conservative Roman Catholic, was made President of the Republic. 5360: 5206: 5031: 4957: 4910: 4670:

Germany as France could only field a third of the young men that the

4666: 4177: 3639: 3335: 3203: 2868:

The most important party of the early 20th century in France was the

309: 9632: 8146: 3954:

imposed, leading to the creation in 1915 of the satirical newspaper

2001:

in May 1873 and would hold the office until January 1879. A staunch

10678:

The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: conflicts and continuities

10634:(1940), pp 269–30 summarizes published memoirs by main participants 10612:

French Women and the First World War: War Stories of the Home Front

10567:

Debating the woman question in the French Third Republic, 1870–1920

10151:

The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: Conflicts and Continuities

8902:

Action Française: Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth Century France

8787: 8573: 8443: 8244:

Millington, Chris (2012). "Political Violence in Interwar France".

7219: 7043: 6309: 6256: 5567: 5332: 5163: 5137:

earlier, exhorting all French not to accept defeat and to rally to

5079: 4931: 4886: 4626:

After unsuccessfully attempting to flee France, he was arrested by

4473:(JOC/F), founded in 1928 by the progressive social activist priest 4185:

regions of northeastern France that had seen warfare and occupation

4172:. Holders of the national debt lost 80% of the face value of their 4048:

Clemenceau demanded the harshest terms and won most of them in the

3935:, whose ferocious energy and determination earned him the nickname 3722:

of July 1914 surprised France, and not much attention was given to

3631: 3400: 3315: 3299: 2896:(ARD), which became the main center-right party after World War I. 2104:

were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by

1551: 673: 372: 10163:(1995), pp 492–537. survey of political history by leading scholar 8600:

The New Jacobins: The French Communist Party and the Popular Front

8465:

Jordan, Nicole (1991). "Léon Blum and Czechoslovakia, 1936–1938".

3059:

had about 70,000. Advertising only filled 20% or so of the pages.

1914: 11506: 11374: 9442:"Les écrivains français et la notion de décadence de 1870 à 1914" 8368:

Thomas, Martin (2008). "Appeasement in the Late Third Republic".

6903:

Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869–1920

5094:. As a result of this brilliant German strategy, embodied in the 5043: 5003: 4973:

disregarded his orders, and attacked aggressively on this front.

4902: 4742: 4579: 4453: 4398: 4239: 4103: 4065: 3815: 3799: 3627: 3525: 3290:

The early anti-Catholic laws were largely the work of republican

3046: 2321: 2013:

In February 1875, a series of parliamentary acts established the

1569:

defined the composition of the Third Republic. It consisted of a

960: 334: 319: 11332: 10621:

Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War

10086:

A Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders since 1870

9918:

France since the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1986

9830: 9782: 7923:; Portier, Franck (2002). "The French depression in the 1930s". 7785:(1995). "War and 'Politics': The French Army Mutinies of 1917". 5794:, who became President of the Council in the 1920s, created the 5010:

The looming threat to France of Nazi Germany was delayed at the

3403:. Then, in 1905, a law was introduced that abolished Napoleon's 2981:. Activists put pressure on the government to re-open the case. 2926: 11795: 11363: 10244:

Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe 1914–1940

9975:

The Third Republic from its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914

8310: 7759:

The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I

6296:

Nord, Philip (1994). "The Welfare State in France, 1870–1914".

5563: 5562:, the peace treaty ending the Franco-Prussian War. France lost 5284:'s writings, and even Brazil was seen as a future rising star. 5121:(the "French State"), commonly known as the "Vichy Regime" or " 5063: 4895: 4746: 4738: 4343: 3338:. In the end, it recruited mostly among the liberal-Catholics ( 3280: 3121:, was modelled on the photojournalism of the American magazine 2325: 1539: 1488: 964: 8802: 7524: 5158:). It fought bitterly through the First World War against the 4881:

Gamelin prohibited any bombing of the industrial areas of the

3065:

revolutionized pressure group media by its national newspaper

3055:

in 1913 probably had a daily circulation of about 100,000 and

2997:, and those who condemned him (the anti-Dreyfusards), such as 2086:

that would be maintained until the end of the Third Republic.

1725:

Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy in front of the

195: 9950:. Vol. 4: The 20th Century in Europe. New York: Harper. 9848:

Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940

8492:

Thomas, Martin (1999). "France and the Czechoslovak crisis".

6391:

Doctors, Bureaucrats & Public Health in France, 1888–1902

5126: 4953: 4056:. France regained Alsace-Lorraine, and the German industrial 3909:" ("Sacred Union"), and in France there were few dissenters. 3807:

became the fourth most important wine producer in the world.

3212: 3141: 1790: 1786: 1562:, instead became the permanent form of government of France. 324: 240: 8880: 6465:"Life expectancy (from birth) in Germany, from 1875 to 2020" 5695:

1889: The Republic was rocked by the sudden but short-timed

5469:

as the senile puppet of Laval and the French royalists, and

3140:

traced the modernization of French villages and argued that

2971:, a vehement open letter published on the liberal newspaper 12068: 11478: 9689: 9598: 9586: 9464: 7328: 5171: 4961: 4936: 4882: 4650:

The most important factor in French foreign policy was the

4016: 3791: 3001:, the director and publisher of the anti-Semitic newspaper 2284: 923: 9576: 9574: 9513: 9511: 9252: 9216: 9173: 8322: 7861:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–205. 7691:

Hamilton, Richard F.; Herwig, Holger H. (2004). "France".

3642:(right) personifying the Triple Entente as opposed to the 3391:, the president of France from 1899 to 1906, visited King 10105:

online review in English by James E. Connolly, Nov. 2013)

9647: 9305: 9303: 9273: 9271: 9269: 9267: 9206: 9204: 9202: 9200: 8521:

The Popular Front in France: Defending Democracy, 1934–38

8133:

Laufenburger, Henry (1936). "France and the Depression".

7479: 7467: 6788: 6734:"The Assumptionist Response to Secularisation, 1870–1900" 6667: 6222: 6210: 5615:

had replaced an absolute monarchy by a parliamentary one.

4645: 4374:

the armaments industry and tried to seize control of the

4011: 2957:, the dry guillotine), where he spent almost five years. 9850:. Vol. 2. London: Aldwych Press. pp. 690–694. 6172: 6160: 5953:

French anti-Southern sentiment during the Third Republic

5406:

In 1979, Duroselle published a well-known book entitled

4362:, down from 48 hours. All workers were given a two-week 200:

Territories and colonies of the French Republic in 1939

10757: 10639:

European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia

10143:

full text of vol 30 Abbe to English History online free

9571: 9559: 9547: 9535: 9523: 9508: 9476: 9101: 9077: 9055: 9053: 9051: 9049: 9016: 8976: 7580:

France and Britain, 1900–1940: Entente and Estrangement

6121: 5963:

Proclamation of the French Republic (September 4, 1870)

5570:, and had to pay a cash indemnity to the new nation of 4060:, a coal and steel region, was occupied by France. The 4045:: Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy. 3448:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

3222:

Increasingly after 1870, the stores' work force became

10646:

Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919

9718:

Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion

9300: 9290: 9288: 9286: 9264: 9240: 9228: 9197: 9185: 8960:

In Hitlers Hand: die Sonder- und Ehrenhäftlinge der SS

7514: 7512: 5928:

French presidential elections under the Third Republic

2054:

On 16 May 1877, de MacMahon forced the resignation of

1863:" in the National Assembly supported the candidacy of 9340: 8560:

Wall, Irwin M. (1987). "Teaching the Popular Front".

7915: 7913: 7824:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 7650:

Evans, Martin (2000). "Projecting a Greater France".

6973:

Proceedings of the Western Society for French History

5995: 5858:, the French socialist movement, as the whole of the 5645:

to office. He then dissolved parliament and called a

4571:

in 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

9089: 9065: 9046: 7446:

French public opinion and foreign affairs, 1870–1914

7247:

Religion, society, and politics in France since 1789

5958:

Nomination of Mayors under the French Third Republic

5502:

Young has been followed by other historians such as

4226:

street demonstration in Paris organized by multiple

3528:, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall. 2861:: 5 francs of France 1876, released under President 2108:(pejoratively labelled "Opportunist Republicans" by 10166: 9283: 8610:

The French Socialist Party in the Popular Front Era

7509: 5844:

SFIO (French Section of the Workers' International)

4794: 4254:

Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes

4008:'s demand for total victory and harsh peace terms. 3215:machines (that could be used to fit shoes) and the 2140: 1843: 1757:. After Napoleon's capture by the Prussians at the 1577:to form the legislative branch of government and a 10431:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1982. 8629: 8597: 8058: 7910: 7672: 7281:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5149: 4247:. As a result of the actions of that day, several 3724:conditions that led to the outbreak of World War I 3688:Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne 3269:The first page of the bill, as brought before the 2208: 1632:political alliance, but over time became the main 9973:Mayeur, Jean-Marie; Rebérioux, Madeleine (1984). 9419:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 11. 7312:Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914 7277:The March to the Marne: The French Army 1871–1914 5233:in the 1930s. It also became a model for various 5046:. The Dyle Plan embodied the primary war plan of 4979: 4621:in March 1940. He was also vice-president of the 4512:was a French socialist politician and three-time 1887:, who replaced his cousin Charles X in 1830. The 12383: 8176:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 7401:The End of the European Era: 1890 to the Present 7310:(2008). "Secularization and Religious Revival". 5188:, first president of the Third Republic, called 3427:French law on the separation of Church and State 3127: 2607: 1246: 10417: 10302: 9972: 9504:. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 182. 9036:"Sepp Gangl-Straße in Wörgl • Strassensuche.at" 7695:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 112–129. 7428: 7371: 7346: 5699:, spawning the rise of the modern intellectual 4862:' tactics. France saw little action during the 3840:Diplomatic history of World War I § France 3506:Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913 3109:sponsored a highly successful women's magazine 1915:Monarchists' republic and constitutional crisis 1648:, and was replaced by the rival governments of 10715: 10589:Audoin-Rouzeau, Stephane, and Annette Becker. 10343:The Politics of Depression in France 1932–1936 10266:(2004); Translation of his highly influential 10230: 8288:The foreign policy of France from 1914 to 1945 7919: 7690: 6684: 6682: 6055:France overseas: A Study of Modern Imperialism 5611:, became prime minister. Unintentionally, the 5539:September 1870: following the collapse of the 5490:concept explicitly was the Canadian historian 5252: 4481:("League of Working Christian Women") and the 3441: 633:13,500,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi) 12482:States and territories disestablished in 1940 11348: 10743: 10458:A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France 10237:French colonial empire § Further reading 9742: 9494: 9366:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 9364:The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940 8947:Paul Reynaud | premier of France | Britannica 8316: 8061:Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World 7461:The ideology of French imperialism, 1871–1881 6773:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 492–573. 5948:Purge of the French Civil Service (1879-1884) 5626:was created, along with a ministry under the 5070:. As the French 1st, 7th, 9th armies and the 4442: 2810: 1761:(1 September 1870), Parisian deputies led by 1449: 11724: 11703: 11563: 10659: 10113:The development of modern France (1870–1939) 9988:The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 9745:The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938 9488: 9433: 8919: 8132: 7497: 7398: 7240: 5814: 5768: 5715: 5650: 5474: 5426: 5413: 5407: 5397: 5391: 5343: 5288: 5242: 5226: 5218: 5014:of 1938. France and Great Britain abandoned 4710:. In April–May 1938, British Prime Minister 4499: 3955: 1871:, the last king from the senior line of the 1829: 1706: 1690: 1671: 1657: 1590: 1582: 1543: 1482: 116: 99: 39: 10525: 8273:From the Ancien Regime to the Popular Front 8172:The French Economy in the Twentieth Century 6679: 5675:1881: Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, 5172:government of a provisional French Republic 5125:" following its re-location to the town of 5117:, who proclaimed in the following days the 4642:, took a sniper's bullet to save Reynaud. 3836:Home front during World War I § France 1852:Composition of the national Assembly – 1871 12477:States and territories established in 1870 11355: 11341: 10750: 10736: 10282:The War that Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 9942: 9119:Overy, Richard, & Wheatcroft, Andrew. 9113: 8905:. Stanford University Press. p. 249. 8886: 8808: 8243: 7399:Gilbert, Felix; Large, David Clay (2002). 7297:, is the most thorough account in English. 6277: 5943:Freemasonry under the Second French Empire 5707:also were quickly criticized by the press. 4634:in which one of the leaders, German Major 4492:, founded in 1905 by the vitriolic author 4353:The Popular Front's narrow victory in the 3577:, the Third Republic greatly expanded the 3482:, the foreign minister from 1898 to 1905; 2817: 2803: 1487:) was the system of government adopted in 1456: 1442: 194: 162: 10644:Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. 9743:Bernard, Philippe; Dubief, Henri (1985). 8691: 8627: 8216: 8053: 8018: 7856: 7741: 7611:France and the Origins of the First World 7201: 7199: 7125: 6969: 6846: 6591:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6571: 6077:. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. 6052: 5830:law on the separation of Church and State 5547:, the Third Republic was created and the 5213:remained harshly anti-Republicans, while 4532:in 1940, he became a staunch opponent of 4213: 4020:The Council of Four in Versailles, 1919: 3768:. The largest and most important were in 2089: 1554:(the northeastern part, i.e. present-day 625:536,464 km (207,130 sq mi) 10632:Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy 10388: 9747:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 9616: 9414: 8654: 8523:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 8088:The dark valley: A panorama of the 1930s 7624: 7592: 7334: 7249:. London: Hambledon Press. p. 152. 7107: 7064: 6875: 6388: 6365: 5256: 5141:and continue the fight with the Allies. 5108:armistice that ended the First World War 4997: 4956:faster than anticipated, aided by heavy 4930: 4279:in 1919, but felt betrayed by President 4251:organizations were created, such as the 4093: 4015: 3843: 3764:of the day sweeping Europe, developed a 3739: 3626: 3558:destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at 3501: 3264: 3160: 3156: 2925: 2853: 2149: 2096:Moderate Republicans (France, 1871–1901) 2031: 1963:established a new seat of government at 1938: 1847: 1736: 1720: 1716: 10337: 10203:Democracy in France: The third republic 10095:(Paris: Éditions Belin, 2012) 1152 pp. 9889: 9864: 9712: 9695: 9604: 9592: 9580: 9565: 9553: 9541: 9529: 9517: 9482: 9470: 9398: 9358: 9022: 8994: 8982: 8857: 8820: 8742: 8615: 8518: 8429: 8402: 8328: 8167: 8085: 7959:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7889: 7819: 7756: 7705: 7518: 7443: 7314:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 7173:"Leo XIII – Au milieu des sollicitudes" 7027: 6925: 6880:. New York: Vendome Press. p. 22. 6688: 6551: 6489: 6418: 6001: 5916:List of French possessions and colonies 5641:and reappointing the monarchist leader 4539:After the fall of the Blum government, 4201:The world economic crisis known as the 4098:French soldiers observing the Rhine at 2040:, which were coloured in black on maps. 2015:constitutional laws of the new republic 1857:The French legislative election of 1871 14: 12384: 10701:(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010) 10308: 9981: 9912: 9845: 9805: 9769: 9439: 9321: 9309: 9277: 9258: 9246: 9234: 9222: 9210: 9191: 9179: 8925: 8639: 8623: 8607: 8595: 8543: 8491: 8464: 8367: 8340: 8300: 8270: 8200: 7991: 7678: 7607: 7530: 7485: 7473: 7458: 7413: 7383: 7306: 7205: 7196: 7142:"Leo XIII – Nobilissima Gallorum Gens" 6900: 6794: 6785:Also, pp 522–224 on foreign subsidies. 6765: 6731: 6673: 6636: 6586: 6559:International Review of Social History 6240: 6228: 6216: 6178: 6166: 6127: 6067: 5555:(19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871). 4850:was France's commander in chief, with 4646:Diplomatic situation with Nazi Germany 4504: 4285:rejected by the United States Congress 4153:. Anti-democratic groups, such as the 4012:Peace and revenge in Versailles Treaty 3971:In 1914, the government implemented a 3063:The Roman Catholic Assumptionist order 2977:in January 1898 by the notable writer 2941:, a young French artillery officer of 2179:of the radical left a decade earlier. 1798:French territories occupied by Prussia 1628:, which was originally conceived as a 27:Government of France from 1870 to 1940 12422:Political history of France by period 11336: 10731: 10699:Writing history in the Third Republic 10483: 10195:, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969 10088:(1990), 400 short articles by experts 10049: 10025:The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s 10022: 9920:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9665: 9653: 9346: 9107: 9095: 9083: 9071: 9059: 8951: 8898: 8771: 8618:The French Radical Party in the 1930s 8100: 7951: 7781: 7649: 7629:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7349:, pp. 155–161, 168–169, 272–278. 7269: 6869: 6806: 6769:(1977). "Newspapers and corruption". 6524: 6439:"Life expectancy in France 1765–2020" 6403: 6330: 6034:from the original on 19 November 2021 5933:France in the long nineteenth century 4827: 4289:seized the industrialized Ruhr region 3760:The Third Republic, in line with the 3752:killed on duty for France during the 3573:Under the leadership of expansionist 2849: 2100:Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, 9995: 9815:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. 9294: 8957: 8559: 8285: 7577: 7542: 6998: 6611: 6295: 6139: 6013: 5901:Economic history of France#1914–1944 5896:Economic history of France#1789–1914 5828:1905: The government introduced the 5821:with the British Foreign Secretary, 5796:Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD) 5445:as a well-meaning, but weak willed; 5178:for a successor, established as the 4291:. The British Labour Prime Minister 3729: 3657:with Great Britain, and finally the 3421:In December 1905, the government of 1867:, alias "Henry V," grandson of King 1836:had disastrous consequences for the 1636:party. The period from the start of 1600:The Third Republic established many 10759:International relations (1814–1919) 10605:The Great War and the French People 10569:(Cambridge University Press, 2018). 10557:French Feminism in the 19th Century 10449:(Cambridge University Press, 2001) 10409:Roberts, John. "General Boulanger" 9170:, 1969, Da Capo Press, pp. 339–340. 9145:, Vol. 18, No. 2 April 1983. p. 235 9143:The Journal of Contemporary History 8090:. Knopf. pp. 149–174, 576–603. 7491: 6421:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 6109:from the original on 7 October 2021 5938:History of France (1900 to present) 5533: 4689: 4654:on 7 March 1936 in defiance of the 4275:France enthusiastically joined the 4267:International relations (1919–1939) 4190: 3905:called for unity in the form of a " 3814:Opposition to colonial rule led to 3452:History of French foreign relations 3229: 2145: 2133:To discourage the monarchists, the 1925:Alleged military conspiracy of 1877 24: 12397:Former countries in French history 10709: 10669:(Columbia University Press, 1944) 10591:14–18: Understanding the Great War 10413:(Oct 1955) 5#10 pp 657–669, online 10073: 8724:from the original on 18 March 2022 7183:from the original on 16 March 2015 6937:Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte 6740:. Lexington: D.C. Heath. pp. 6053:Priestley, Herbert Ingram (1938). 5779:nearly causes an Anglo-French war. 5438:The Collapse of the Third Republic 4479:Ligue ouvrière chrétienne féminine 4083: 3825: 3748:commemorating the soldiers of the 3105:. In addition to its daily paper, 1567:French Constitutional Laws of 1875 1526:in 1870. Social upheaval and the 1511:. The French Third Republic was a 25: 12503: 11362: 10371:(McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2007) 10275:Franco-German Relations 1871–1914 7713:. Athens: Ohio University Press. 7418:(5th ed.). pp. 288–299. 7152:from the original on 18 June 2015 5144: 4964:60 km (37 mi) north of 4652:Remilitarization of the Rhineland 4260: 4230:that culminated in a riot on the 3852:among the Entente in World War I. 3014: 2903: 2182: 650:• 1938 (including colonies) 107:("Liberty, Equality, Fraternity") 12472:1940 disestablishments in France 10722:. The H. W. Wilson company 1904. 10289:Foreign Policy of France 1914–45 9906:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00344.x 9846:Hutton, Patrick H., ed. (1986). 9659: 9610: 9408: 9352: 9315: 9157: 9148: 9135: 9126: 9123:. London: Macmillan, 1989. p. 86 9028: 8988: 8940: 8931: 8892: 8851: 8814: 8765: 8736: 8685: 8648: 8588: 8553: 8512: 8485: 8458: 8423: 8396: 8258:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00827.x 7744:The French home Front, 1914–1918 6951:from the original on 11 May 2020 6810:(1992). "Eugen Weber's France". 6471:from the original on 14 May 2020 6445:from the original on 14 May 2020 5726:. The following year, President 5657:after the date when it happened. 5486:The first historian to denounce 4795:Military and diplomatic policies 4483:Mouvement populaire des familles 4439:(CF/PSF) was especially active. 4323: 3798:. In Algeria, land held by rich 2786: 2771: 2237: 2141:Politics during the Belle Époque 1844:Attempts to restore the monarchy 1781:succeeded in leaving Paris in a 1538:, annexed the French regions of 1534:, proclaimed by the invaders in 1499:, until 10 July 1940, after the 1491:from 4 September 1870, when the 1425: 1410: 876: 834: 820: 806: 792: 775: 747: 733: 719: 705: 153: 148: 124: 79: 65: 9812:Leon Blum: Humanist in Politics 9326:. Washington: Berg Publishers. 8995:Roberts, Andrew (12 May 2013). 8361: 8334: 8279: 8264: 8237: 8210: 8161: 8126: 8094: 8079: 8047: 8012: 7985: 7945: 7883: 7850: 7813: 7775: 7750: 7735: 7699: 7684: 7643: 7618: 7601: 7586: 7571: 7536: 7452: 7437: 7422: 7407: 7392: 7386:France and the World since 1870 7377: 7352: 7300: 7263: 7234: 7165: 7134: 7101: 7058: 7021: 6992: 6963: 6919: 6894: 6840: 6800: 6758: 6736:. In Bezucha, Robert J. (ed.). 6725: 6630: 6605: 6580: 6545: 6518: 6483: 6457: 6431: 6412: 6397: 6382: 6359: 6324: 6289: 6271: 6234: 6184: 5975: 5331:, who wrote under the pen name 5150:Interpreting the Third Republic 4613:Reynaud became the penultimate 4404: 4355:elections of the spring of 1936 3875:, and the ambassador to Russia 3871:, Premier and Foreign Minister 3146:universal military conscription 2209:Welfare state and public health 1824:revolted and took power as the 1530:preceded the final defeat. The 816:Italian military administration 11694:Government of National Defense 10583: 10518:(2 vol 1979), topical history 10345:. Cambridge University Press. 10161:Revolutionary France 1770–1880 9705: 9132:Overy & Wheatcroft, p. 115 8698:Modern and Contemporary France 7822:The First World War: 1914–1918 7444:Carroll, Eber Malcolm (1964). 6905:. Princeton University Press. 6878:The World of Department Stores 6738:Modern European Social History 6703:10.1080/00947679.2001.12062578 6616:. New York: Bloomsbury Press. 6492:Modern and Contemporary France 6133: 6091: 6061: 6046: 6007: 5809:1904: French foreign minister 5767:published an article entitled 5745:: a Jewish artillery officer, 5724:1881 freedom of the press laws 5549:Government of National Defence 5457:as incompetent and defeatist, 5359:From a different perspective, 4980:Downfall of the Third Republic 4698:during which France pressured 4623:Democratic Republican Alliance 3966: 3809:Nickel mining in New Caledonia 3463:informal military relationship 2894:Democratic Republican Alliance 2124:free, mandatory, and secular ( 1961:Government of National Defence 1881:Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris 1767:Government of National Defence 1626:Democratic Republican Alliance 13: 1: 12467:1870 establishments in France 11603:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 11598:War of the Spanish Succession 11129:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 11083:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 11073:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 10654:vol 2 excerpt and text search 10533:Contemporary European History 10311:Comparative Political Studies 10167:Lucien Edward Henry (1882). " 10093:Les Grandes Guerres 1914–1945 9996:Watt, Donald Cameron (1989). 8168:Dormois, Jean-Pierre (2004). 7431:French History Since Napoleon 7108:Harrigan, Patrick J. (2001). 6014:Page, Melvin E., ed. (2003). 5988: 5461:as a crooked crypto-fascist; 5104:Second Armistice at Compiègne 4924:In the first few days of the 3941:By 1917 mutiny was in the air 3863:French entry into World War I 3848:France sustained the highest 3623:French entry into World War I 3128:Modernization of the peasants 3033:High-speed rotary Hoe presses 3025: 2965:chiefly owing to the polemic 1947:was built as a symbol of the 10989:Second Industrial Revolution 10863:League of the Three Emperors 10418:Culture, economy and society 10378:(U. of Michigan Press, 2001) 10303:Political ideas and practice 7859:The Economics of World War I 7693:Decisions for war, 1914–1917 7374:, pp. 169–173, 291–295. 6389:Hildreth, Martha L. (1987). 5034:conceived by French General 4469:Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne 3919:Western Front of World War I 3604: 3497: 3468: 3393:Victor Emmanuel III of Italy 3342:) and the Social Catholics ( 3260:Napoleon's Concordat of 1801 2157:, nicknamed Général Revanche 1507:led to the formation of the 168:The French Republic in 1939 102:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 7: 11019:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 10689:Modern Intellectual History 10231:Foreign policy and colonies 10213:France: 1815 to the Present 10055:An Uncertain Idea of France 9620:Reviews in American History 8692:Wardhaugh, Jessica (2007). 8658:Journal of European Studies 7926:Review of Economic Dynamics 7742:Fridenson, Patrick (1992). 7608:Keiger, John F. V. (1983). 7372:Mayeur & Rebérioux 1984 7347:Mayeur & Rebérioux 1984 7114:Canadian Journal of History 6901:Miller, Michael B. (1981). 6103:Penn State University Press 5870: 5598:Marshal Patrice de MacMahon 5512:Jean-Louis Crémieux-Brilhac 5342:After 1945, the concept of 5253:Historiography of decadence 5072:British Expeditionary Force 4915:British Expeditionary Force 4108:Occupation of the Rhineland 3912: 3442:Foreign policy 1871 to 1914 3171:Aristide Boucicaut founded 2172:elections of September 1889 1903:if the renunciation of the 1616:, and large territories in 1602:French colonial possessions 10: 12508: 12412:Former countries in Europe 12084:French subdivisions by GDP 11831:2022 presidential election 11816:2017 presidential election 11068:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 10475:American Historical Review 10296:The French Overseas Empire 10262:Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. 10234: 10173:The Royal Family of France 10078: 9720:. Basingstoke: Macmillan. 8837:10.1177/036319900102600403 8608:Greene, Nathanael (1969). 8370:Diplomacy & Statecraft 8065:. New York: Random House. 7799:10.1177/096834459500200203 7503:The Fall of Imperial China 7384:Keiger, John F.V. (2001). 7360:A History of Modern France 6653:10.1177/026569147600600203 6552:Hayward, J. E. S. (1961). 5856:German invasion of Belgium 5710:1893: Following anarchist 5560:Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) 5337:The Gravediggers of France 4983: 4921:conform to the Dyle Plan. 4876:General Siegfried Westphal 4831: 4578:, France's failure to aid 4443:Relations with Catholicism 4327: 4264: 4197:Great Depression in France 4194: 4087: 3982:the arriving American army 3916: 3860: 3832:French Army in World War I 3829: 3733: 3608: 3445: 3233: 3191:(1840–1902) set his novel 3018: 2962:Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy 2907: 2186: 2114:purge of the civil service 2093: 2021:and an indirectly elected 1918: 622:1894 (Metropolitan France) 284:(official), several others 184: French protectorates 12345: 12235: 12145: 12136: 12032: 12023: 11925: 11916: 11854: 11845: 11766: 11647: 11616: 11588:Second Hundred Years' War 11539: 11492: 11459: 11438: 11430:Liberalism and radicalism 11382: 11373: 11227: 11091: 11004: 10889:European balance of power 10881: 10816: 10765: 10697:Noronha-DiVanna, Isabel. 10680:(Psychology Press, 2000) 10660:Historiography and memory 10477:121.4 (2016): 1141–1166. 10226:(5th ed. 1995) pp 205–382 10169:Current History of France 9944:Latourette, Kenneth Scott 9865:Harding, Stephen (2013). 8824:Journal of Family History 8775:Journal of Modern History 8710:10.1080/09639480701300018 8506:10.1080/09592299908406127 8432:French Historical Studies 8405:English Historical Review 8382:10.1080/09592290802345001 8343:English Historical Review 8317:Bernard & Dubief 1985 8219:French Historical Studies 8033:10.1017/S0018246X00017167 7994:French Historical Studies 7892:French Historical Studies 7557:10.1080/09592290600943064 7362:(4th ed. 2012) pp 170–71. 7208:French Historical Studies 7087:10.1080/14608940802680961 7031:French Historical Studies 6926:Homburg, Heidrun (1992). 6813:Journal of Social History 6612:Read, Piers Paul (2012). 6587:Keiger, J. F. V. (1997). 6573:10.1017/S0020859000001759 6504:10.1080/09639480220126134 6345:10.1017/S0018246X97007553 6298:French Historical Studies 6244:French Historical Studies 6020:. ABC-CLIO. p. 218. 5883:Paris in the Belle Époque 5620:President of the Republic 5425:A notable example of the 5237:that participated to the 4638:, declared a hero by the 4528:of Germany. When Germany 4500:World War II and downfall 4026:Vittorio Emanuele Orlando 3994: 3661:in 1907 which became the 3373:Combes Ministry (1902–05) 3369:Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry 3242:Catholic Church in France 1999:President of the Republic 1691: 1591: 1583: 1544: 684: 672: 662: 658: 648: 644: 637: 630:1938 (including colonies) 629: 621: 614: 610: 596: 583: 570: 557: 546:• France enters the 544: 531: 518: 514: 506: 491: 476: 466: 462: 450: 440:• 1870–1871 (first) 438: 434: 424: 420: 408: 398:• 1871–1873 (first) 396: 392: 382: 345: 333: 288: 277: 233: 193: 161: 140: 111: 95: 61: 56: 34: 12402:Modern history of France 11859:Administrative divisions 11180:Venezuela Naval Blockade 10851:Anglo-Russian Convention 10526:Women, sexuality, gender 10323:10.1177/0010414010370435 9417:Modern France: 1880–2002 9415:McMillan, James (2003). 8874:10.3167/hrrh.2011.370102 8671:10.1177/0047244110391038 8628:Lacouture, Jean (1982). 8519:Jackson, Julian (1990). 8494:Diplomacy and Statecraft 8231:10.1215/00161071-3946492 8006:10.1215/00161071-3438055 7957:France and the Great War 7904:10.1215/00161071-3438019 7625:Daughton, J. P. (2006). 7545:Diplomacy and Statecraft 7533:, pp. 345, 403–426. 7015:10.3167/hrrh.2011.370101 6366:Mitchell, Allan (1991). 5968: 5628:President of the Council 5494:, who, in his 1978 book 5241:that toppled the Second 5062:with their much revered 4514:Prime Minister of France 4401:as heroic predecessors. 4236:French National Assembly 4162:reparations from Germany 3856: 3486:, in London, 1890–1920; 2596: 2558: 2388: 2377: 2356: 2155:Georges Ernest Boulanger 1865:Henri, Comte de Chambord 1235: 1197: 1027: 1016: 995: 410:• 1932–1940 (last) 12427:Republicanism in France 12079:Franc (former currency) 11684:Coup of 2 December 1851 11657:Long nineteenth century 11185:Alaska boundary dispute 10858:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 10841:Franco-Russian Alliance 10716:Anderson, F.M. (1904). 10625:excerpt and text search 10578:excerpt and text search 10561:excerpt and text search 10552:(Harlow: Longman, 1999) 10445:Ansell, Christopher K. 10268:La décadence, 1932–1939 10258:excerpt and text search 10248:excerpt and text search 10155:excerpt and text search 10134:Encyclopædia Britannica 9458:10.3406/roman.1983.4673 9440:Guiral, Pierre (1983). 9322:Thomas, Martin (1996). 8759:10.3167/hrrh2008.340203 8640:Gruber, Helmut (1986). 8616:Larmour, Peter (1964). 8596:Brower, Daniel (1968). 8417:10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.66 8355:10.1093/ehr/117.473.867 8086:Brendon, Piers (2000). 7757:McPhail, Helen (2014). 7593:Krumeich, Gerd (1984). 7578:Bell, P. M. H. (2014). 7414:Wright, Gordon (1995). 6732:Mather, Judson (1972). 6640:European Studies Review 6192:"Jules Grévy 1879–1887" 5832:, heavily supported by 5784:Radical-Socialist Party 5758:Franco-Russian Alliance 5681:Opportunist Republicans 5384:Jean-Baptiste Duroselle 5076:Battle of Sedan of 1940 5050:to stave off Wehrmacht 4586:'s invasion during the 4234:, near the seat of the 4147:Radical Socialist party 4062:German African colonies 3674:Franco-Russian Alliance 3653:of 1894, then the 1904 3651:Franco-Russian Alliance 3615:Franco-Russian Alliance 3134:Peasants into Frenchmen 2943:Alsatian Jewish descent 1980:, under the command of 1646:occupied much of France 1481:, sometimes written as 520:• Proclamation by 12492:20th century in France 12487:19th century in France 12099:Science and technology 11756:Provisional Government 11725: 11704: 11564: 11104:Unification of Germany 11051:Taft–Katsura agreement 10724:, complete text online 10603:Becker, Jean Jacques. 10535:27.3 (2018): 482–499. 10242:Adamthwaite, Anthony. 10224:France in Modern Times 9671:Historical Reflections 8861:Historical Reflections 8746:Historical Reflections 8286:Néré, Jacques (1975). 8107:Historical Reflections 7955:; et al. (2003). 7939:10.1006/redy.2001.0143 7820:Hardach, Gerd (1977). 7499:Wakeman, Jr., Frederic 7459:Murphy, Agnes (1968). 7416:France in Modern Times 7002:Historical Reflections 6876:Whitaker, Jan (2011). 5911:French colonial empire 5854:a few days before the 5815: 5769: 5751:Max von Schwartzkoppen 5716: 5651: 5624:two-chamber parliament 5541:Empire of Napoleon III 5475: 5427: 5414: 5408: 5398: 5392: 5371:. Then was a group of 5350:French Communist Party 5344: 5289: 5268: 5243: 5227: 5219: 5078:by coming through the 5007: 5006:tank destroyed in 1940 4949: 4632:Battle of Itter Castle 4596:French defeat at Sedan 4555:, Daladier signed the 4461:Maximam Gravissimamque 4330:Popular Front (France) 4220:6 February 1934 crisis 4214:6 February 1934 crisis 4110: 4037: 3989:Gross Domestic Product 3956: 3853: 3766:French colonial empire 3757: 3754:South-oranais campaign 3736:French colonial empire 3700:Second Moroccan crises 3646: 3589:, vast territories in 3579:French colonial empire 3507: 3276: 3168: 2934: 2865: 2432:Valois-Angoulême kings 2158: 2090:Republicans take power 2041: 1952: 1853: 1830: 1817:, to pay reparations. 1742: 1734: 1707: 1672: 1658: 1560:provisional government 1513:parliamentary republic 1483: 1478: 1071:Valois-Angoulême kings 361:provisional government 208:Metropolitan territory 117: 100: 40: 12392:French Third Republic 11190:First Moroccan Crisis 10904:Spread of nationalism 10868:Eight-Nation Alliance 10691:20.1 (2023): 88–115. 10637:Tucker, Spencer, ed. 10505:France, Fin de Siècle 10280:MacMillan, Margaret. 10197:online free to borrow 10057:. New York: P. Lang. 10023:Weber, Eugen (1994). 10000:. London: Heinemann. 8962:(in German). Böhlau. 8958:Koop, Volker (2010). 8899:Weber, Eugen (1962). 8135:International Affairs 7761:. London: IB Tauris. 6404:Klaus, Alisa (1993). 5734:by Italian anarchist 5260: 5239:6 February 1934 riots 5110:on 11 November 1918. 5001: 4934: 4437:Parti social français 4424:Revue des deux Mondes 4368:collective bargaining 4265:Further information: 4097: 4019: 3917:Further information: 3847: 3816:rebellions in Morocco 3779:mission civilisatrice 3750:French Foreign Legion 3743: 3659:Anglo-Russian Entente 3630: 3505: 3431:voluntary association 3268: 3164: 3157:City department store 2929: 2857: 2153: 2094:Further information: 2035: 1942: 1919:Further information: 1901:agnatic primogeniture 1851: 1740: 1733:, on 4 September 1870 1724: 1717:Origins and formation 1556:department of Moselle 1546:Territoire de Belfort 1495:collapsed during the 1471:French Third Republic 592:10 May – 25 June 1940 572:• France enters 278:Common languages 18:Third French Republic 12417:Government of France 11904:World Heritage Sites 11821:Coronavirus pandemic 11195:Algeciras Conference 11175:Annexation of Hawaii 11114:Great Eastern Crisis 11109:Unification of Italy 11099:Formation of Romania 10916:French–German enmity 10676:Fortescue, William. 10610:Darrow, Margaret H. 10149:Fortescue, William. 10084:Bell, David, et al. 6850:Agricultural History 6826:10.1353/jsh/25.4.879 6370:. pp. 252–275. 5860:Second International 5496:In Command of France 5311:reductio ad absurdum 4892:Hasso von Manteuffel 4856:Château de Vincennes 4656:Treaty of Versailles 4601:Reynaud opposed the 4559:in 1938, which gave 4417:foremost among them 4232:Place de la Concorde 4224:anti-parliamentarist 4050:Treaty of Versailles 4036:of the United States 3850:number of casualties 3811:was also important. 3371:(1899–1902) and the 3193:Au Bonheur des Dames 3115:. Another magazine, 3075:Dreyfus as a traitor 3043:Agence France-Presse 2919:as practised by the 2863:Patrice de Mac Mahon 2640:Provisional Republic 2422:Valois-Orléans kings 2203:Panama Canal Company 2106:Moderate Republicans 2084:parliamentary system 1755:Second French Empire 1536:Palace of Versailles 1493:Second French Empire 1479:Troisième République 1279:Provisional Republic 1061:Valois-Orléans kings 756:Occupation of France 713:Second French Empire 561:Treaty of Versailles 262:48.87028°N 2.31639°E 143:Great Seal of France 41:République française 12042:Automotive industry 11826:2021 labor protests 11583:Peace of Westphalia 11451:History of Normandy 11446:History of Brittany 11260:Philippine–American 11245:First Sino-Japanese 11078:Racconigi agreement 11024:Treaty of Frankfurt 10984:Great Rapprochement 10938:Scramble for Africa 10381:Lehning, James R.; 9698:, pp. 880–883. 9656:, pp. 259–261. 9607:, pp. 874–880. 9595:, pp. 885–886. 9473:, pp. 871–872. 9261:, pp. 325–327. 9225:, pp. 318–319. 9182:, pp. 306–307. 8811:, pp. 129–153. 8331:, pp. 247–280. 8055:MacMillan, Margaret 7505:. pp. 189–191. 7488:, pp. 286–292. 7476:, pp. 321–326. 7433:. pp. 266–292. 7337:, pp. 104–108. 7127:10.3138/cjh.36.1.51 7079:2009NatId..11...45R 7067:National Identities 6797:, pp. 692–694. 6676:, pp. 690–694. 6231:, pp. 183–213. 6219:, pp. 144–179. 6181:, pp. 127–143. 6169:, pp. 106–113. 6057:. pp. 440–441. 5635:Patrice de MacMahon 5545:Franco-Prussian War 5520:Eugenia C. Kiesling 5504:Robert Frankenstein 5278:Claude-Marie Raudot 5264:, 1907 painting by 5129:in central France. 4821:Chambre des députés 4777:soulagement honteux 4760:Neville Chamberlain 4712:Neville Chamberlain 4640:Austrian resistance 4545:Neville Chamberlain 4505:National government 3950:was proclaimed and 3884:Battle of the Marne 3770:French North Africa 3762:imperialistic ethos 3513:Scramble for Africa 3272:Chambre des Députés 3057:Le Petit Meridional 2955:la guillotine sèche 2874:classically liberal 2135:French Crown Jewels 2110:Radical Republicans 2056:Moderate Republican 2019:Chamber of Deputies 1982:Patrice de MacMahon 1978:French Armed Forces 1959:, the transitional 1957:Franco-Prussian War 1945:Sacré-Cœur Basilica 1883:a grandson of King 1811:Treaty of Frankfurt 1747:Franco-Prussian War 1622:Scramble for Africa 1593:Patrice de MacMahon 1571:Chamber of Deputies 1520:Franco-Prussian War 1497:Franco-Prussian War 501:Chamber of Deputies 452:• 1940 (last) 258: / 12109:Telecommunications 11811:2015 Paris attacks 11674:Revolution of 1848 11502:Visigothic Kingdom 11119:Congress of Berlin 11036:Reinsurance Treaty 11014:Congress of Vienna 10994:Industrial warfare 10960:Scramble for China 10627:, military history 10618:Doughty, Robert A. 10514:Zeldin, Theodore. 10403:10.1093/fh/7.4.417 10339:Jackson, Julian T. 10317:(8–9): 1023–1058. 10294:Quinn, Frederick. 10252:Conklin, Alice L. 10188:Shirer, William L. 10091:Beaupré, Nicolas. 9360:Jackson, Julian T. 8319:, pp. 78–127. 8021:Historical Journal 7358:Jeremy D. Popkin, 6691:Journalism History 6614:The Dreyfus Affair 6539:10.1093/fh/2.2.173 6333:Historical Journal 6285:. pp. 45–242. 6198:. 15 November 2018 6154:10.1093/fh/2.4.399 6130:, pp. 77–105. 5811:Théophile Delcassé 5722:which limited the 5375:, centered around 5335:in his 1943 book, 5269: 5245:Cartel des gauches 5086:valley toward the 5008: 4950: 4946:Divide and Conquer 4828:Strategic missteps 4569:invasion of Poland 4456:(1922–39). In the 4138:Cartel des gauches 4125:Georges Clemenceau 4111: 4078:Mandate of Lebanon 4038: 4030:Georges Clemenceau 4022:David Lloyd George 4006:Georges Clemenceau 3958:Le Canard enchaîné 3948:state of emergency 3933:Georges Clemenceau 3895:League of Patriots 3877:Maurice Paléologue 3854: 3758: 3678:Théophile Delcassé 3647: 3581:. France acquired 3508: 3480:Théophile Delcassé 3416:Affaire Des Fiches 3277: 3169: 3136:(1976), historian 3073:lead in attacking 3052:Le Petit Provençal 2995:Georges Clemenceau 2935: 2866: 2850:Radicals' republic 2793:History portal 2289: until 50 BC 2159: 2062:and appointed the 2042: 2005:conservative with 1953: 1921:16 May 1877 crisis 1854: 1771:Louis-Jules Trochu 1743: 1735: 1432:History portal 928: until 50 BC 445:Louis Jules Trochu 12379: 12378: 12341: 12340: 12132: 12131: 12019: 12018: 12011:Political parties 11947:Foreign relations 11912: 11911: 11841: 11840: 11624:French Revolution 11578:Thirty Years' War 11559:Absolute monarchy 11524:Kingdom of France 11420:Foreign relations 11400:Political history 11330: 11329: 11299:Albanian Revolts 11156:German Naval Laws 11140:Naval arms races 11124:Berlin Conference 11056:Hague Conventions 10541:Copley, A. R. H. 10374:Kreuzer, Marcus. 10159:Furet, François. 10125:France, 1814–1940 10101:978-2-7011-3387-4 10064:978-0-8204-7481-6 10034:978-0-3930-3671-8 9957:978-0-8536-4110-0 9927:978-0-1987-3034-7 9882:978-0-3068-2209-4 9857:978-0-8617-2046-0 9822:978-0-3078-3089-0 9754:978-0-5212-5240-9 9727:978-0-3335-6739-5 9426:978-0-19-870058-6 9377:978-0-19-280300-9 9333:978-1-85973-187-1 9110:, pp. 41–43. 9086:, pp. 40–41. 8912:978-0-8047-0134-1 8889:, pp. 37–38. 8530:978-0-521-31252-3 8479:10.1093/fh/5.1.48 8290:. pp. 11–99. 8187:978-0-521-66787-6 8072:978-0-375-76052-5 7953:Smith, Leonard V. 7868:978-0-521-85212-8 7835:978-0-520-03060-2 7783:Smith, Leonard V. 7768:978-1-78453-053-2 7720:978-0-8214-0589-5 7707:Rutkoff, Peter M. 7636:978-0-19-537401-8 7403:. pp. 64–65. 7388:. pp. 25–47. 7321:978-0-674-03209-5 7292:978-0-521-54592-1 7256:978-1-85285-057-9 6912:978-0-691-05321-9 6887:978-0-86565-264-4 6780:978-0-19-822125-8 6771:France: 1848–1945 6751:978-0-669-61143-4 6623:978-1-60819-432-2 6598:978-0-521-57387-0 6279:McCullough, David 6084:978-0-521-52270-0 5643:Albert de Broglie 5602:Albert de Broglie 5551:ruled during the 5508:Jean-Pierre Azema 5433:William L. Shirer 5373:French historians 5365:Charles de Gaulle 5235:far right leagues 5135:Appeal of 18 June 5131:Charles de Gaulle 5092:Battle of Dunkirk 5066:divisions in the 5012:Munich Conference 4926:Battle of Belgium 4755:Winston Churchill 4567:. After Hitler's 4563:control over the 4522:Spanish Civil War 4395:Spanish Civil War 4360:40-hour work week 4277:League of Nations 4228:far-right leagues 3730:Overseas colonies 3384:parochial schools 3256:Ferry school laws 3150:French nationhood 3102:Le Petit Parisien 2879:League of Nations 2827: 2826: 2778:France portal 2671: 2670: 2568: 2567: 2479:Kingdom of France 2469:French Revolution 2460:Long 19th century 2450: 2449: 2398: 2397: 2368:Kingdom of France 2303: 2302: 2163:Georges Boulanger 2075:October elections 2067:Albert de Broglie 1815:Law of Maturities 1699:French Revolution 1650:Charles de Gaulle 1610:French Madagascar 1484:La III République 1466: 1465: 1417:France portal 1310: 1309: 1207: 1206: 1118:Kingdom of France 1108:French Revolution 1099:Long 19th century 1089: 1088: 1037: 1036: 1007:Kingdom of France 942: 941: 850: 849: 846: 845: 842: 841: 763: 762: 535:Berlin Conference 296:Roman Catholicism 267:48.87028; 2.31639 133: 16:(Redirected from 12499: 12407:Former republics 12143: 12142: 12059:Economic history 12030: 12029: 11923: 11922: 11852: 11851: 11730: 11709: 11608:Seven Years' War 11573:Wars of Religion 11569: 11554:House of Bourbon 11549:Early modern era 11529:Fundamental laws 11405:Military history 11380: 11379: 11357: 11350: 11343: 11334: 11333: 11250:Spanish–American 11170:Fashoda Incident 11046:Treaty of Björkö 11031:Treaty of Berlin 10965:Open Door Policy 10899:Eastern question 10846:Entente Cordiale 10752: 10745: 10738: 10729: 10728: 10723: 10572:Pedersen, Jean. 10548:Diamond, Hanna. 10500: 10442: 10406: 10364: 10334: 10222:Wright, Gordon. 10201:Thomson, David. 10184: 10068: 10051:Young, Robert J. 10046: 10019: 9992: 9978: 9969: 9939: 9909: 9886: 9861: 9842: 9802: 9766: 9739: 9699: 9693: 9687: 9686: 9667:Young, Robert J. 9663: 9657: 9651: 9645: 9644: 9614: 9608: 9602: 9596: 9590: 9584: 9578: 9569: 9563: 9557: 9551: 9545: 9539: 9533: 9527: 9521: 9515: 9506: 9505: 9492: 9486: 9480: 9474: 9468: 9462: 9461: 9437: 9431: 9430: 9412: 9406: 9396: 9390: 9389: 9356: 9350: 9344: 9338: 9337: 9319: 9313: 9307: 9298: 9292: 9281: 9275: 9262: 9256: 9250: 9244: 9238: 9232: 9226: 9220: 9214: 9208: 9195: 9189: 9183: 9177: 9171: 9161: 9155: 9152: 9146: 9139: 9133: 9130: 9124: 9117: 9111: 9105: 9099: 9093: 9087: 9081: 9075: 9069: 9063: 9057: 9044: 9043: 9040:Strassensuche.at 9032: 9026: 9020: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9009: 8992: 8986: 8980: 8974: 8973: 8955: 8949: 8944: 8938: 8935: 8929: 8923: 8917: 8916: 8896: 8890: 8884: 8878: 8877: 8855: 8849: 8848: 8818: 8812: 8806: 8800: 8799: 8769: 8763: 8762: 8740: 8734: 8733: 8731: 8729: 8689: 8683: 8682: 8652: 8646: 8645: 8637: 8635: 8621: 8613: 8605: 8603: 8592: 8586: 8585: 8557: 8551: 8541: 8535: 8534: 8516: 8510: 8509: 8489: 8483: 8482: 8462: 8456: 8455: 8427: 8421: 8420: 8400: 8394: 8393: 8365: 8359: 8358: 8349:(473): 867–888. 8338: 8332: 8326: 8320: 8314: 8308: 8298: 8292: 8291: 8283: 8277: 8276: 8268: 8262: 8261: 8241: 8235: 8234: 8214: 8208: 8198: 8192: 8191: 8175: 8165: 8159: 8158: 8130: 8124: 8123: 8102:Young, Robert J. 8098: 8092: 8091: 8083: 8077: 8076: 8064: 8051: 8045: 8044: 8016: 8010: 8009: 7989: 7983: 7982: 7949: 7943: 7942: 7917: 7908: 7907: 7887: 7881: 7880: 7854: 7848: 7847: 7817: 7811: 7810: 7779: 7773: 7772: 7754: 7748: 7747: 7739: 7733: 7732: 7703: 7697: 7696: 7688: 7682: 7676: 7670: 7669: 7647: 7641: 7640: 7622: 7616: 7615: 7605: 7599: 7598: 7590: 7584: 7583: 7575: 7569: 7568: 7540: 7534: 7528: 7522: 7516: 7507: 7506: 7495: 7489: 7483: 7477: 7471: 7465: 7464: 7456: 7450: 7449: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7426: 7420: 7419: 7411: 7405: 7404: 7396: 7390: 7389: 7381: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7356: 7350: 7344: 7338: 7332: 7326: 7325: 7304: 7298: 7296: 7280: 7267: 7261: 7260: 7241:Tallett, Frank; 7238: 7232: 7231: 7203: 7194: 7192: 7190: 7188: 7169: 7163: 7161: 7159: 7157: 7138: 7132: 7131: 7129: 7105: 7099: 7098: 7062: 7056: 7055: 7025: 7019: 7018: 6996: 6990: 6989: 6967: 6961: 6960: 6958: 6956: 6950: 6933: 6923: 6917: 6916: 6898: 6892: 6891: 6873: 6867: 6866: 6844: 6838: 6837: 6804: 6798: 6792: 6786: 6784: 6767:Zeldin, Theodore 6762: 6756: 6755: 6729: 6723: 6722: 6686: 6677: 6671: 6665: 6664: 6634: 6628: 6627: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6589:Raymond Poincare 6584: 6578: 6577: 6575: 6549: 6543: 6542: 6522: 6516: 6515: 6487: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6476: 6461: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6450: 6435: 6429: 6428: 6416: 6410: 6409: 6401: 6395: 6394: 6386: 6380: 6379: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6293: 6287: 6286: 6275: 6269: 6268: 6238: 6232: 6226: 6220: 6214: 6208: 6207: 6205: 6203: 6188: 6182: 6176: 6170: 6164: 6158: 6157: 6137: 6131: 6125: 6119: 6118: 6116: 6114: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6041: 6039: 6011: 6005: 5999: 5982: 5979: 5820: 5817:Entente Cordiale 5792:Raymond Poincaré 5777:Fashoda Incident 5774: 5732:stabbed to death 5721: 5712:Auguste Vaillant 5697:Boulanger crisis 5685:Jules Ferry laws 5656: 5647:general election 5591:Pact of Bordeaux 5534:Timeline to 1914 5528:Great Depression 5516:Martin Alexander 5478: 5443:Édouard Daladier 5430: 5417: 5411: 5401: 5395: 5393:forces profondes 5354:Nazi-Soviet Pact 5347: 5292: 5248: 5232: 5224: 5221:Action française 4986:Battle of France 4852:his headquarters 4844:war was declared 4838:Battle of France 4813:Benito Mussolini 4696:Munich Agreement 4690:Munich agreement 4603:Munich Agreement 4557:Munich Agreement 4549:Benito Mussolini 4541:Édouard Daladier 4490:Action Française 4458:papal encyclical 4293:Ramsay MacDonald 4203:Great Depression 4191:Great Depression 4129:Raymond Poincaré 4074:Mandate of Syria 3961: 3903:Raymond Poincaré 3869:Raymond Poincaré 3774:French Indochina 3708:Fashoda Incident 3692:Entente Cordiale 3683:Entente Cordiale 3655:Entente Cordiale 3611:Entente Cordiale 3521:Khedive of Egypt 3517:Fashoda Incident 3349:Action française 3230:Church and state 3038:Le Petit Journal 2890:Raymond Poincaré 2835:English Poor Law 2819: 2812: 2805: 2791: 2790: 2789: 2776: 2775: 2774: 2667: 2583: 2582: 2465: 2464: 2418: 2417: 2379:Direct Capetians 2318: 2317: 2261: 2260: 2241: 2231: 2213: 2212: 2146:Boulanger crisis 2122:public education 2118:Jules Ferry laws 1909:Peace of Utrecht 1905:Spanish Bourbons 1893:Bonaparte family 1885:Louis Philippe I 1835: 1765:established the 1731:Corps Législatif 1712: 1696: 1695: 1675: 1661: 1614:French Polynesia 1606:French Indochina 1596: 1595: 1588: 1587: 1549: 1548: 1509:Vichy government 1486: 1458: 1451: 1444: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1415: 1414: 1413: 1306: 1222: 1221: 1104: 1103: 1057: 1056: 1018:Direct Capetians 957: 956: 900: 899: 880: 870: 852: 851: 838: 837: 824: 823: 810: 809: 796: 795: 787: 779: 778: 767: 766: 757: 751: 750: 737: 736: 723: 722: 709: 708: 702: 701: 686: 685: 587:Battle of France 579:3 September 1939 540:15 November 1884 527:4 September 1870 273: 272: 270: 269: 268: 263: 259: 256: 255: 254: 251: 236:and largest city 198: 183: 175: 166: 157: 152: 135: 134: 122: 105: 83: 69: 51: 43: 32: 31: 21: 12507: 12506: 12502: 12501: 12500: 12498: 12497: 12496: 12462:1930s in France 12457:1920s in France 12452:1910s in France 12447:1900s in France 12442:1890s in France 12437:1880s in France 12432:1870s in France 12382: 12381: 12380: 12375: 12374: 12355: 12337: 12318:Public holidays 12231: 12190:Life expectancy 12128: 12015: 11908: 11837: 11806:Great Recession 11779:Fourth Republic 11774:1900 to present 11762: 11679:Second Republic 11643: 11612: 11535: 11488: 11455: 11434: 11369: 11361: 11331: 11326: 11265:Boxer Rebellion 11223: 11087: 11041:Treaty of Paris 11006: 11000: 10933:New Imperialism 10894:Ottoman decline 10877: 10824:Triple Alliance 10812: 10773:Austria-Hungary 10761: 10756: 10712: 10710:Primary sources 10662: 10623:(2008), 592pp; 10586: 10555:Moses, Claire. 10528: 10439: 10427:La Belle Époque 10423: 10420: 10367:Kennedy, Sean. 10353: 10305: 10239: 10233: 10127:(2003) ch 9–16 10081: 10076: 10074:Further reading 10071: 10065: 10035: 10008: 9958: 9928: 9914:Larkin, Maurice 9893:History Compass 9883: 9858: 9823: 9755: 9728: 9714:Aldrich, Robert 9708: 9703: 9702: 9694: 9690: 9664: 9660: 9652: 9648: 9633:10.2307/2702049 9627:(3): 486–492 . 9615: 9611: 9603: 9599: 9591: 9587: 9579: 9572: 9564: 9560: 9552: 9548: 9540: 9536: 9528: 9524: 9516: 9509: 9493: 9489: 9485:, pp. 874. 9481: 9477: 9469: 9465: 9438: 9434: 9427: 9413: 9409: 9397: 9393: 9378: 9357: 9353: 9349:, pp. 6–7. 9345: 9341: 9334: 9320: 9316: 9308: 9301: 9293: 9284: 9276: 9265: 9257: 9253: 9245: 9241: 9233: 9229: 9221: 9217: 9209: 9198: 9190: 9186: 9178: 9174: 9164:Shirer, William 9162: 9158: 9153: 9149: 9140: 9136: 9131: 9127: 9121:The Road To War 9118: 9114: 9106: 9102: 9094: 9090: 9082: 9078: 9070: 9066: 9058: 9047: 9034: 9033: 9029: 9021: 9017: 9007: 9005: 9002:The Daily Beast 8993: 8989: 8981: 8977: 8970: 8956: 8952: 8945: 8941: 8936: 8932: 8924: 8920: 8913: 8897: 8893: 8887:Latourette 1961 8885: 8881: 8856: 8852: 8819: 8815: 8809:Latourette 1961 8807: 8803: 8770: 8766: 8741: 8737: 8727: 8725: 8690: 8686: 8653: 8649: 8593: 8589: 8562:History Teacher 8558: 8554: 8542: 8538: 8531: 8517: 8513: 8500:(23): 122–159. 8490: 8486: 8463: 8459: 8428: 8424: 8411:(445): 66–104. 8401: 8397: 8366: 8362: 8339: 8335: 8327: 8323: 8315: 8311: 8299: 8295: 8284: 8280: 8269: 8265: 8246:History Compass 8242: 8238: 8215: 8211: 8199: 8195: 8188: 8166: 8162: 8147:10.2307/2601740 8131: 8127: 8099: 8095: 8084: 8080: 8073: 8052: 8048: 8017: 8013: 7990: 7986: 7971: 7950: 7946: 7918: 7911: 7888: 7884: 7869: 7855: 7851: 7836: 7818: 7814: 7780: 7776: 7769: 7755: 7751: 7740: 7736: 7721: 7704: 7700: 7689: 7685: 7677: 7673: 7648: 7644: 7637: 7623: 7619: 7606: 7602: 7591: 7587: 7576: 7572: 7541: 7537: 7529: 7525: 7517: 7510: 7496: 7492: 7484: 7480: 7472: 7468: 7457: 7453: 7442: 7438: 7427: 7423: 7412: 7408: 7397: 7393: 7382: 7378: 7370: 7366: 7357: 7353: 7345: 7341: 7333: 7329: 7322: 7305: 7301: 7293: 7268: 7264: 7257: 7243:Atkin, Nicholas 7239: 7235: 7204: 7197: 7186: 7184: 7171: 7170: 7166: 7155: 7153: 7140: 7139: 7135: 7106: 7102: 7063: 7059: 7026: 7022: 6997: 6993: 6968: 6964: 6954: 6952: 6948: 6931: 6924: 6920: 6913: 6899: 6895: 6888: 6874: 6870: 6845: 6841: 6805: 6801: 6793: 6789: 6781: 6763: 6759: 6752: 6730: 6726: 6687: 6680: 6672: 6668: 6635: 6631: 6624: 6610: 6606: 6599: 6585: 6581: 6550: 6546: 6523: 6519: 6488: 6484: 6474: 6472: 6463: 6462: 6458: 6448: 6446: 6437: 6436: 6432: 6417: 6413: 6402: 6398: 6387: 6383: 6364: 6360: 6339:(4): 997–1032. 6329: 6325: 6294: 6290: 6276: 6272: 6239: 6235: 6227: 6223: 6215: 6211: 6201: 6199: 6190: 6189: 6185: 6177: 6173: 6165: 6161: 6138: 6134: 6126: 6122: 6112: 6110: 6097: 6096: 6092: 6085: 6069:Larkin, Maurice 6066: 6062: 6051: 6047: 6037: 6035: 6028: 6012: 6008: 6000: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5985: 5980: 5976: 5971: 5906:Women in France 5890:Interwar France 5873: 5864:First World War 5813:negotiated the 5718:lois scélérates 5705:Panama scandals 5536: 5492:Robert J. Young 5467:Philippe Pétain 5463:Charles Maurras 5455:Maurice Gamelin 5420:A. J. P. Taylor 5388:Maurice Baumont 5377:Pierre Renouvin 5295:Philippe Pétain 5255: 5215:Charles Maurras 5199:First World War 5180:Fourth Republic 5164:inter-war years 5152: 5147: 5115:Philippe Pétain 5088:English Channel 5048:the French Army 5036:Maurice Gamelin 4996: 4984:Main articles: 4982: 4874:. According to 4848:Maurice Gamelin 4840: 4834:Maurice Gamelin 4830: 4797: 4692: 4648: 4628:Philippe Petain 4530:defeated France 4507: 4502: 4494:Charles Maurras 4445: 4407: 4336: 4328:Main articles: 4326: 4297:Édouard Herriot 4269: 4263: 4216: 4199: 4193: 4151:Socialist Party 4143:Édouard Herriot 4133:Aristide Briand 4092: 4090:Interwar France 4086: 4084:Interwar period 4054:war reparations 4014: 3997: 3969: 3921: 3915: 3865: 3859: 3842: 3828: 3826:First World War 3738: 3732: 3680:negotiated the 3644:Triple Alliance 3625: 3609:Main articles: 3607: 3556:Admiral Courbet 3552:Sino-French War 3500: 3488:Jules Jusserand 3471: 3454: 3446:Main articles: 3444: 3425:introduced the 3423:Maurice Rouvier 3327:Action libérale 3238: 3232: 3178:Georges Dufayel 3159: 3130: 3028: 3023: 3017: 3004:La Libre Parole 2999:Édouard Drumont 2912: 2906: 2852: 2829: 2823: 2787: 2785: 2772: 2770: 2765: 2673: 2672: 2665: 2650:Fourth Republic 2631: 2598:Interwar period 2580: 2570: 2569: 2529:Second Republic 2462: 2452: 2451: 2410: 2400: 2399: 2315: 2305: 2304: 2258: 2229: 2222: 2211: 2195:Panama scandals 2191: 2189:Panama scandals 2185: 2148: 2143: 2098: 2092: 2058:prime minister 2038:Alsace-Lorraine 1986:The Bloody Week 1927: 1917: 1873:Bourbon dynasty 1846: 1838:labour movement 1822:National Guards 1783:hot air balloon 1759:Battle of Sedan 1719: 1703:Catholic Church 1673:L'État français 1664:Philippe Pétain 1659:La France libre 1468: 1462: 1426: 1424: 1411: 1409: 1404: 1312: 1311: 1304: 1289:Fourth Republic 1270: 1237:Interwar period 1219: 1209: 1208: 1168:Second Republic 1101: 1091: 1090: 1049: 1039: 1038: 954: 944: 943: 897: 868: 861: 835: 821: 807: 793: 786:German military 785: 776: 755: 748: 734: 720: 706: 651: 603: 589: 576: 563: 550: 537: 524: 497: 482: 457:Philippe Pétain 453: 441: 411: 399: 378: 329: 266: 264: 260: 257: 252: 249: 247: 245: 244: 243: 237: 229: 228: 189: 188: 185: 181: 177: 173: 147: 136: 125: 119:La Marseillaise 106: 91: 90: 89: 84: 76: 75: 70: 52: 45: 37: 36:French Republic 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12505: 12495: 12494: 12489: 12484: 12479: 12474: 12469: 12464: 12459: 12454: 12449: 12444: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12424: 12419: 12414: 12409: 12404: 12399: 12394: 12377: 12376: 12373: 12372: 12367: 12362: 12356: 12354: 12353: 12347: 12346: 12343: 12342: 12339: 12338: 12336: 12335: 12330: 12325: 12320: 12315: 12310: 12305: 12300: 12295: 12290: 12285: 12280: 12275: 12274:Cultural icons 12272: 12267: 12262: 12257: 12252: 12247: 12241: 12239: 12233: 12232: 12230: 12229: 12224: 12219: 12214: 12213: 12212: 12202: 12197: 12192: 12187: 12182: 12177: 12172: 12167: 12162: 12157: 12152: 12146: 12140: 12134: 12133: 12130: 12129: 12127: 12126: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12106: 12101: 12096: 12094:Stock exchange 12091: 12086: 12081: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12056: 12055: 12054: 12044: 12039: 12033: 12027: 12021: 12020: 12017: 12016: 12014: 12013: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11997: 11996: 11991: 11986: 11976: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11964: 11954: 11949: 11944: 11943: 11942: 11932: 11926: 11920: 11914: 11913: 11910: 11909: 11907: 11906: 11901: 11896: 11894:National parks 11891: 11886: 11881: 11876: 11871: 11869:Climate change 11866: 11861: 11855: 11849: 11843: 11842: 11839: 11838: 11836: 11835: 11834: 11833: 11828: 11823: 11818: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11791:Fifth Republic 11788: 11787: 11786: 11776: 11770: 11768: 11764: 11763: 11761: 11760: 11759: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11733: 11732: 11731: 11717: 11712: 11711: 11710: 11699:Third Republic 11696: 11691: 11686: 11681: 11676: 11670: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11653: 11651: 11645: 11644: 11642: 11641: 11636: 11634:First Republic 11631: 11629:Napoleonic era 11626: 11620: 11618: 11614: 11613: 11611: 11610: 11605: 11600: 11595: 11590: 11585: 11580: 11575: 11570: 11561: 11556: 11551: 11545: 11543: 11537: 11536: 11534: 11533: 11532: 11531: 11521: 11516: 11515: 11514: 11504: 11498: 11496: 11490: 11489: 11487: 11486: 11481: 11476: 11474:Greek colonies 11471: 11465: 11463: 11457: 11456: 11454: 11453: 11448: 11442: 11440: 11436: 11435: 11433: 11432: 11427: 11422: 11417: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11397: 11392: 11386: 11384: 11377: 11371: 11370: 11360: 11359: 11352: 11345: 11337: 11328: 11327: 11325: 11324: 11319: 11318: 11317: 11316: 11315: 11310: 11305: 11297: 11292: 11282: 11277: 11275:Russo-Japanese 11272: 11267: 11262: 11257: 11252: 11247: 11242: 11240:Anglo-Egyptian 11237: 11231: 11229: 11225: 11224: 11222: 11221: 11216: 11214:Bosnian Crisis 11211: 11210: 11209: 11199: 11198: 11197: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11167: 11166: 11165: 11163:Austro-Italian 11160: 11159: 11158: 11153: 11138: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11111: 11106: 11101: 11095: 11093: 11089: 11088: 11086: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11070: 11065: 11064: 11063: 11061:Martens Clause 11053: 11048: 11043: 11038: 11033: 11028: 11027: 11026: 11016: 11010: 11008: 11002: 11001: 10999: 10998: 10997: 10996: 10986: 10981: 10976: 10975: 10974: 10973: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10957: 10947: 10946: 10945: 10943:Egyptian Lever 10930: 10928:Pax Britannica 10925: 10924: 10923: 10913: 10912: 10911: 10909:Sovereign debt 10906: 10901: 10891: 10885: 10883: 10879: 10878: 10876: 10875: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10854: 10853: 10848: 10843: 10836:Triple Entente 10833: 10832: 10831: 10820: 10818: 10814: 10813: 10811: 10810: 10805: 10803:United Kingdom 10800: 10795: 10790: 10785: 10780: 10775: 10769: 10767: 10763: 10762: 10755: 10754: 10747: 10740: 10732: 10726: 10725: 10711: 10708: 10707: 10706: 10695: 10685: 10674: 10665:Farmer, Paul. 10661: 10658: 10657: 10656: 10642: 10635: 10628: 10615: 10608: 10601: 10585: 10582: 10581: 10580: 10570: 10565:Offen, Karen. 10563: 10553: 10546: 10539: 10527: 10524: 10523: 10522: 10512: 10511:, on 1880–1900 10503:Weber, Eugen. 10501: 10481: 10471: 10466:Robb, Graham. 10464: 10456:Price, Roger. 10454: 10443: 10438:978-0870993299 10437: 10419: 10416: 10415: 10414: 10407: 10397:(4): 417–449. 10391:French History 10386: 10379: 10372: 10365: 10351: 10335: 10304: 10301: 10300: 10299: 10292: 10285: 10278: 10271: 10260: 10250: 10235:Main article: 10232: 10229: 10228: 10227: 10220: 10211:Wolf, John B. 10209: 10199: 10185: 10164: 10157: 10147: 10146: 10145: 10131: 10122:Bury, J. P. T. 10119: 10107: 10089: 10080: 10077: 10075: 10072: 10070: 10069: 10063: 10047: 10033: 10020: 10006: 9993: 9983:Taylor, A.J.P. 9979: 9970: 9956: 9940: 9926: 9910: 9900:(5): 870–905. 9887: 9881: 9862: 9856: 9843: 9821: 9803: 9767: 9753: 9740: 9726: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9701: 9700: 9688: 9677:(2): 205–229. 9658: 9646: 9609: 9597: 9585: 9583:, p. 876. 9570: 9568:, p. 884. 9558: 9556:, p. 878. 9546: 9544:, p. 877. 9534: 9532:, p. 875. 9522: 9520:, p. 873. 9507: 9487: 9475: 9463: 9432: 9425: 9407: 9391: 9376: 9351: 9339: 9332: 9314: 9312:, p. 328. 9299: 9282: 9280:, p. 327. 9263: 9251: 9249:, p. 319. 9239: 9237:, p. 320. 9227: 9215: 9213:, p. 317. 9196: 9194:, p. 316. 9184: 9172: 9156: 9154:Aulach, p. 238 9147: 9134: 9125: 9112: 9100: 9088: 9076: 9064: 9045: 9027: 9025:, p. 169. 9015: 8987: 8985:, p. 150. 8975: 8968: 8950: 8939: 8930: 8918: 8911: 8891: 8879: 8850: 8831:(4): 480–507. 8813: 8801: 8788:10.1086/593154 8764: 8735: 8704:(2): 185–201. 8684: 8647: 8587: 8574:10.2307/493125 8568:(3): 361–378. 8552: 8536: 8529: 8511: 8484: 8467:French History 8457: 8444:10.2307/286380 8438:(3): 299–338. 8422: 8395: 8376:(3): 566–607. 8360: 8333: 8321: 8309: 8293: 8278: 8275:. p. 183. 8263: 8252:(3): 246–259. 8236: 8225:(4): 623–649. 8209: 8193: 8186: 8160: 8141:(2): 202–224. 8125: 8093: 8078: 8071: 8046: 8027:(4): 877–894. 8011: 8000:(2): 347–371. 7984: 7969: 7944: 7909: 7898:(2): 261–286. 7882: 7867: 7849: 7834: 7812: 7793:(2): 180–201. 7787:War in History 7774: 7767: 7749: 7734: 7719: 7698: 7683: 7671: 7642: 7635: 7617: 7600: 7585: 7570: 7551:(4): 693–714. 7535: 7523: 7508: 7490: 7478: 7466: 7451: 7436: 7421: 7406: 7391: 7376: 7364: 7351: 7339: 7327: 7320: 7308:Gildea, Robert 7299: 7291: 7271:Porch, Douglas 7262: 7255: 7233: 7220:10.2307/286210 7214:(4): 660–689. 7195: 7164: 7133: 7100: 7057: 7044:10.2307/286519 7038:(4): 664–683. 7020: 6991: 6962: 6944:(1): 183–219. 6918: 6911: 6893: 6886: 6868: 6857:(3): 644–651. 6839: 6820:(4): 879–882. 6799: 6787: 6779: 6757: 6750: 6724: 6697:(3): 112–121. 6678: 6666: 6647:(2): 225–248. 6629: 6622: 6604: 6597: 6579: 6544: 6533:(2): 173–186. 6527:French History 6517: 6498:(2): 197–210. 6482: 6456: 6430: 6411: 6396: 6381: 6358: 6323: 6310:10.2307/286694 6304:(3): 821–838. 6288: 6270: 6257:10.2307/286267 6251:(2): 287–315. 6233: 6221: 6209: 6183: 6171: 6159: 6148:(4): 399–426. 6142:French History 6132: 6120: 6090: 6083: 6060: 6045: 6026: 6006: 6004:, p. 304. 5993: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5984: 5983: 5973: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5966: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5918: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5872: 5869: 5868: 5867: 5840: 5837: 5826: 5823:Lord Lansdowne 5807: 5780: 5761: 5754: 5747:Alfred Dreyfus 5743:Dreyfus Affair 5739: 5708: 5693: 5689: 5688:congregations. 5673: 5670: 5658: 5631: 5616: 5609:duc de Broglie 5594: 5586: 5583:Adolphe Thiers 5575: 5558:May 1871: The 5556: 5553:Siege of Paris 5535: 5532: 5451:Maxime Weygand 5447:Georges Bonnet 5369:Fifth Republic 5320:Strange Defeat 5282:de Tocqueville 5266:Henri Rousseau 5254: 5251: 5229:Quartier Latin 5186:Adolphe Thiers 5156:Paul Deschanel 5151: 5148: 5146: 5145:Historiography 5143: 5016:Czechoslovakia 4981: 4978: 4971:Heinz Guderian 4872:Siegfried Line 4868:Saar Offensive 4829: 4826: 4809:Galeazzo Ciano 4796: 4793: 4789:Georges Bonnet 4734:were feeble". 4700:Czechoslovakia 4691: 4688: 4647: 4644: 4619:Third Republic 4615:Prime Minister 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4475:Joseph Cardijn 4444: 4441: 4406: 4403: 4385:rate of growth 4376:Bank of France 4325: 4322: 4281:Woodrow Wilson 4262: 4261:Foreign policy 4259: 4215: 4212: 4195:Main article: 4192: 4189: 4176:, but runaway 4088:Main article: 4085: 4082: 4070:Ottoman Empire 4034:Woodrow Wilson 4032:of France and 4013: 4010: 3996: 3993: 3968: 3965: 3925:trench warfare 3914: 3911: 3891:Paul Déroulède 3861:Main article: 3858: 3855: 3827: 3824: 3805:French Algeria 3796:natural rubber 3734:Main article: 3731: 3728: 3670:Russian Empire 3663:Triple Entente 3619:Triple Entente 3606: 3603: 3597:, and much of 3595:Central Africa 3499: 3496: 3470: 3467: 3443: 3440: 3405:1801 Concordat 3365:Masonic lodges 3357:Dreyfus Affair 3285:Assumptionists 3231: 3228: 3182:La Samaritaine 3158: 3155: 3129: 3126: 3091: 3090: 3027: 3024: 3019:Main article: 3016: 3015:Social history 3013: 2991:Henri Poincaré 2987:Anatole France 2947:Devil's Island 2939:Alfred Dreyfus 2932:Alfred Dreyfus 2910:Dreyfus affair 2908:Main article: 2905: 2904:Dreyfus affair 2902: 2851: 2848: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2821: 2814: 2807: 2799: 2796: 2795: 2767: 2766: 2764: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2752: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2731: 2726: 2725: 2724: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2683: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2674: 2669: 2668: 2662: 2660:Fifth Republic 2656: 2655: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2629: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2611: 2604: 2603: 2600: 2593: 2592: 2589: 2587:Third Republic 2581: 2576: 2575: 2572: 2571: 2566: 2565: 2562: 2555: 2554: 2551: 2549:Third Republic 2545: 2544: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2521: 2515: 2514: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2501: 2495: 2494: 2491: 2489:First Republic 2485: 2484: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2471: 2463: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2453: 2448: 2447: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2434: 2428: 2427: 2424: 2411: 2406: 2405: 2402: 2401: 2396: 2395: 2392: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2374: 2373: 2370: 2364: 2363: 2360: 2353: 2352: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2339: 2333: 2332: 2329: 2316: 2311: 2310: 2307: 2306: 2301: 2300: 2299:50 BC – 486 AD 2297: 2291: 2290: 2287: 2281: 2280: 2279:600 BC – 49 BC 2277: 2275:Greek colonies 2271: 2270: 2267: 2259: 2254: 2253: 2250: 2249: 2243: 2242: 2234: 2233: 2224: 2223: 2216: 2210: 2207: 2187:Main article: 2184: 2183:Panama scandal 2181: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2091: 2088: 2027:prime minister 1916: 1913: 1845: 1842: 1802:Adolphe Thiers 1775:Siege of Paris 1729:, seat of the 1727:Palais Bourbon 1718: 1715: 1693:Adolphe Thiers 1681:British Empire 1585:Adolphe Thiers 1501:Fall of France 1464: 1463: 1461: 1460: 1453: 1446: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1406: 1405: 1403: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1370: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1314: 1313: 1308: 1307: 1301: 1299:Fifth Republic 1295: 1294: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1281: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1268: 1263: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1250: 1243: 1242: 1239: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1226:Third Republic 1220: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1205: 1204: 1201: 1194: 1193: 1190: 1188:Third Republic 1184: 1183: 1180: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1134: 1133: 1130: 1128:First Republic 1124: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1102: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1086: 1083: 1077: 1076: 1073: 1067: 1066: 1063: 1050: 1045: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1003: 1002: 999: 992: 991: 988: 982: 981: 978: 972: 971: 968: 955: 950: 949: 946: 945: 940: 939: 938:50 BC – 486 AD 936: 930: 929: 926: 920: 919: 918:600 BC – 49 BC 916: 914:Greek colonies 910: 909: 906: 898: 893: 892: 889: 888: 882: 881: 873: 872: 863: 862: 855: 848: 847: 844: 843: 840: 839: 832: 826: 825: 818: 812: 811: 804: 798: 797: 790: 788:administration 781: 780: 773: 764: 761: 760: 752: 744: 743: 738: 730: 729: 724: 716: 715: 710: 698: 697: 692: 682: 681: 676: 670: 669: 664: 660: 659: 656: 655: 652: 649: 646: 645: 642: 641: 635: 634: 631: 627: 626: 623: 619: 618: 612: 611: 608: 607: 604: 597: 594: 593: 590: 584: 581: 580: 577: 571: 568: 567: 564: 558: 555: 554: 551: 545: 542: 541: 538: 532: 529: 528: 525: 519: 516: 515: 512: 511: 508: 504: 503: 498: 492: 489: 488: 483: 477: 474: 473: 468: 464: 463: 460: 459: 454: 451: 448: 447: 442: 439: 436: 435: 432: 431: 428: 426:Prime Minister 422: 421: 418: 417: 412: 409: 406: 405: 403:Adolphe Thiers 400: 397: 394: 393: 390: 389: 386: 380: 379: 377: 376: 364: 351: 349: 343: 342: 337: 331: 330: 328: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 300:state religion 292: 290: 286: 285: 279: 275: 274: 238: 235: 231: 230: 227: 226: 210: 201: 199: 191: 190: 187: 186: 180: 178: 172: 169: 167: 159: 158: 138: 137: 123: 109: 108: 93: 92: 85: 78: 77: 71: 64: 63: 62: 59: 58: 54: 53: 38: 35: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12504: 12493: 12490: 12488: 12485: 12483: 12480: 12478: 12475: 12473: 12470: 12468: 12465: 12463: 12460: 12458: 12455: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12440: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12428: 12425: 12423: 12420: 12418: 12415: 12413: 12410: 12408: 12405: 12403: 12400: 12398: 12395: 12393: 12390: 12389: 12387: 12371: 12368: 12366: 12363: 12361: 12358: 12357: 12352: 12349: 12348: 12344: 12334: 12331: 12329: 12326: 12324: 12321: 12319: 12316: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12299: 12296: 12294: 12291: 12289: 12286: 12284: 12281: 12279: 12276: 12273: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12246: 12243: 12242: 12240: 12238: 12234: 12228: 12225: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12211: 12208: 12207: 12206: 12203: 12201: 12198: 12196: 12193: 12191: 12188: 12186: 12183: 12181: 12178: 12176: 12173: 12171: 12168: 12166: 12163: 12161: 12158: 12156: 12155:Birth control 12153: 12151: 12148: 12147: 12144: 12141: 12139: 12135: 12125: 12122: 12120: 12117: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12102: 12100: 12097: 12095: 12092: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12067: 12065: 12062: 12060: 12057: 12053: 12050: 12049: 12048: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12038: 12035: 12034: 12031: 12028: 12026: 12022: 12012: 12009: 12007: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11995: 11992: 11990: 11987: 11985: 11982: 11981: 11980: 11977: 11975: 11972: 11968: 11965: 11963: 11960: 11959: 11958: 11955: 11953: 11950: 11948: 11945: 11941: 11938: 11937: 11936: 11933: 11931: 11930:Constitutions 11928: 11927: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11915: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11897: 11895: 11892: 11890: 11887: 11885: 11882: 11880: 11877: 11875: 11872: 11870: 11867: 11865: 11862: 11860: 11857: 11856: 11853: 11850: 11848: 11844: 11832: 11829: 11827: 11824: 11822: 11819: 11817: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11793: 11792: 11789: 11785: 11782: 11781: 11780: 11777: 11775: 11772: 11771: 11769: 11765: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11742: 11739: 11738: 11737: 11734: 11729: 11728: 11727:Années folles 11723: 11722: 11721: 11718: 11716: 11713: 11708: 11707: 11702: 11701: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11692: 11690: 11689:Second Empire 11687: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11671: 11668: 11667:July Monarchy 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11654: 11652: 11650: 11646: 11640: 11637: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11621: 11619: 11615: 11609: 11606: 11604: 11601: 11599: 11596: 11594: 11591: 11589: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11571: 11568: 11567: 11566:Ancien Régime 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11550: 11547: 11546: 11544: 11542: 11538: 11530: 11527: 11526: 11525: 11522: 11520: 11517: 11513: 11510: 11509: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11499: 11497: 11495: 11491: 11485: 11482: 11480: 11477: 11475: 11472: 11470: 11467: 11466: 11464: 11462: 11458: 11452: 11449: 11447: 11444: 11443: 11441: 11437: 11431: 11428: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11411: 11408: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11396: 11393: 11391: 11388: 11387: 11385: 11381: 11378: 11376: 11372: 11368: 11365: 11358: 11353: 11351: 11346: 11344: 11339: 11338: 11335: 11323: 11320: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11300: 11298: 11296: 11293: 11291: 11288: 11287: 11286: 11283: 11281: 11280:Italo-Turkish 11278: 11276: 11273: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11261: 11258: 11256: 11253: 11251: 11248: 11246: 11243: 11241: 11238: 11236: 11235:Russo-Turkish 11233: 11232: 11230: 11226: 11220: 11217: 11215: 11212: 11208: 11207:Treaty of Fes 11205: 11204: 11203: 11202:Agadir Crisis 11200: 11196: 11193: 11192: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11164: 11161: 11157: 11154: 11152: 11151: 11147: 11146: 11145: 11142: 11141: 11139: 11137: 11136: 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11115: 11112: 11110: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11096: 11094: 11090: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11069: 11066: 11062: 11059: 11058: 11057: 11054: 11052: 11049: 11047: 11044: 11042: 11039: 11037: 11034: 11032: 11029: 11025: 11022: 11021: 11020: 11017: 11015: 11012: 11011: 11009: 11003: 10995: 10992: 10991: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10961: 10958: 10956: 10953: 10952: 10951: 10948: 10944: 10941: 10940: 10939: 10936: 10935: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10922: 10919: 10918: 10917: 10914: 10910: 10907: 10905: 10902: 10900: 10897: 10896: 10895: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10886: 10884: 10880: 10874: 10873:Balkan League 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10852: 10849: 10847: 10844: 10842: 10839: 10838: 10837: 10834: 10830: 10829:Dual Alliance 10827: 10826: 10825: 10822: 10821: 10819: 10815: 10809: 10808:United States 10806: 10804: 10801: 10799: 10796: 10794: 10791: 10789: 10786: 10784: 10781: 10779: 10776: 10774: 10771: 10770: 10768: 10764: 10760: 10753: 10748: 10746: 10741: 10739: 10734: 10733: 10730: 10721: 10720: 10714: 10713: 10704: 10700: 10696: 10694: 10690: 10686: 10683: 10679: 10675: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10663: 10655: 10651: 10650:vol 1 excerpt 10647: 10643: 10640: 10636: 10633: 10630:Gooch, G. P. 10629: 10626: 10622: 10619: 10616: 10613: 10609: 10606: 10602: 10600: 10599:0-8090-4643-1 10596: 10592: 10588: 10587: 10579: 10575: 10571: 10568: 10564: 10562: 10558: 10554: 10551: 10547: 10544: 10540: 10538: 10534: 10530: 10529: 10521: 10517: 10513: 10510: 10506: 10502: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10486: 10482: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10469: 10465: 10463: 10459: 10455: 10452: 10448: 10444: 10440: 10434: 10430: 10429: 10426: 10422: 10421: 10412: 10411:History Today 10408: 10404: 10400: 10396: 10392: 10387: 10384: 10380: 10377: 10373: 10370: 10366: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10352:0-521-26559-2 10348: 10344: 10340: 10336: 10332: 10328: 10324: 10320: 10316: 10312: 10307: 10306: 10297: 10293: 10290: 10286: 10283: 10279: 10276: 10272: 10269: 10265: 10261: 10259: 10255: 10251: 10249: 10245: 10241: 10240: 10238: 10225: 10221: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10208: 10204: 10200: 10198: 10194: 10193: 10189: 10186: 10182: 10178: 10174: 10170: 10165: 10162: 10158: 10156: 10152: 10148: 10144: 10141: 10140: 10139: 10138:partly online 10135: 10132: 10130: 10126: 10123: 10120: 10118: 10114: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103:; in French; 10102: 10098: 10094: 10090: 10087: 10083: 10082: 10066: 10060: 10056: 10052: 10048: 10044: 10040: 10036: 10030: 10026: 10021: 10017: 10013: 10009: 10007:0-4348-4216-8 10003: 9999: 9994: 9990: 9989: 9984: 9980: 9976: 9971: 9967: 9963: 9959: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9937: 9933: 9929: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9911: 9907: 9903: 9899: 9895: 9894: 9888: 9884: 9878: 9874: 9873:Da Capo Press 9870: 9869: 9863: 9859: 9853: 9849: 9844: 9840: 9836: 9832: 9828: 9824: 9818: 9814: 9813: 9808: 9804: 9800: 9796: 9792: 9788: 9784: 9780: 9776: 9772: 9768: 9764: 9760: 9756: 9750: 9746: 9741: 9737: 9733: 9729: 9723: 9719: 9715: 9711: 9710: 9697: 9692: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9662: 9655: 9650: 9642: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9621: 9613: 9606: 9601: 9594: 9589: 9582: 9577: 9575: 9567: 9562: 9555: 9550: 9543: 9538: 9531: 9526: 9519: 9514: 9512: 9503: 9502: 9501:Inside Europe 9497: 9496:Gunther, John 9491: 9484: 9479: 9472: 9467: 9459: 9455: 9451: 9447: 9443: 9436: 9428: 9422: 9418: 9411: 9404: 9400: 9395: 9387: 9383: 9379: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9355: 9348: 9343: 9335: 9329: 9325: 9318: 9311: 9306: 9304: 9297:, p. 57. 9296: 9291: 9289: 9287: 9279: 9274: 9272: 9270: 9268: 9260: 9255: 9248: 9243: 9236: 9231: 9224: 9219: 9212: 9207: 9205: 9203: 9201: 9193: 9188: 9181: 9176: 9169: 9165: 9160: 9151: 9144: 9138: 9129: 9122: 9116: 9109: 9104: 9098:, p. 43. 9097: 9092: 9085: 9080: 9074:, p. 32. 9073: 9068: 9062:, p. 20. 9061: 9056: 9054: 9052: 9050: 9041: 9037: 9031: 9024: 9019: 9004: 9003: 8998: 8991: 8984: 8979: 8971: 8969:9783412205805 8965: 8961: 8954: 8948: 8943: 8934: 8927: 8922: 8914: 8908: 8904: 8903: 8895: 8888: 8883: 8875: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8862: 8854: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8830: 8826: 8825: 8817: 8810: 8805: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8781: 8777: 8776: 8768: 8760: 8756: 8752: 8748: 8747: 8739: 8723: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8688: 8680: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8660: 8659: 8651: 8643: 8634: 8633: 8625: 8619: 8611: 8602: 8601: 8591: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8556: 8549: 8545: 8540: 8532: 8526: 8522: 8515: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8488: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8461: 8453: 8449: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8426: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8399: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8375: 8371: 8364: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8337: 8330: 8325: 8318: 8313: 8306: 8302: 8297: 8289: 8282: 8274: 8267: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8240: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8213: 8206: 8202: 8197: 8189: 8183: 8179: 8174: 8173: 8164: 8156: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8140: 8136: 8129: 8121: 8117: 8113: 8109: 8108: 8103: 8097: 8089: 8082: 8074: 8068: 8063: 8062: 8056: 8050: 8042: 8038: 8034: 8030: 8026: 8022: 8015: 8007: 8003: 7999: 7996:(in French). 7995: 7988: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7970:9780521666312 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7948: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7927: 7922: 7921:Beaudry, Paul 7916: 7914: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7894:(in French). 7893: 7886: 7878: 7874: 7870: 7864: 7860: 7853: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7816: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7778: 7770: 7764: 7760: 7753: 7745: 7738: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7702: 7694: 7687: 7680: 7675: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7654: 7653:History Today 7646: 7638: 7632: 7628: 7621: 7613: 7612: 7604: 7596: 7589: 7581: 7574: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7539: 7532: 7527: 7520: 7515: 7513: 7504: 7500: 7494: 7487: 7482: 7475: 7470: 7462: 7455: 7447: 7440: 7432: 7425: 7417: 7410: 7402: 7395: 7387: 7380: 7373: 7368: 7361: 7355: 7348: 7343: 7336: 7335:McMillan 2003 7331: 7323: 7317: 7313: 7309: 7303: 7294: 7288: 7284: 7279: 7278: 7272: 7266: 7258: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7237: 7229: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7209: 7202: 7200: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7168: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7137: 7128: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7104: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7061: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7032: 7024: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7003: 6995: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6974: 6966: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6938: 6929: 6922: 6914: 6908: 6904: 6897: 6889: 6883: 6879: 6872: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6851: 6843: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6814: 6809: 6808:Amato, Joseph 6803: 6796: 6791: 6782: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6761: 6753: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6728: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6685: 6683: 6675: 6670: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6641: 6633: 6625: 6619: 6615: 6608: 6600: 6594: 6590: 6583: 6574: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6560: 6555: 6548: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6521: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6486: 6470: 6466: 6460: 6444: 6440: 6434: 6426: 6422: 6415: 6407: 6400: 6392: 6385: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6327: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6292: 6284: 6280: 6274: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6245: 6237: 6230: 6225: 6218: 6213: 6197: 6193: 6187: 6180: 6175: 6168: 6163: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6136: 6129: 6124: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6094: 6086: 6080: 6076: 6075: 6070: 6064: 6056: 6049: 6033: 6029: 6027:9781576073353 6023: 6019: 6018: 6010: 6003: 5998: 5994: 5978: 5974: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5921:French Africa 5919: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5891: 5888: 5884: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5852:assassination 5849: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5824: 5819: 5818: 5812: 5808: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5788:Léon Gambetta 5785: 5781: 5778: 5773: 5772: 5766: 5763:1898: Writer 5762: 5759: 5755: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5720: 5719: 5713: 5709: 5706: 5703:. Later, the 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5671: 5668: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5654: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5614: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5592: 5587: 5584: 5580: 5579:Paris Commune 5576: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5537: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5524:Martin Thomas 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5500: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5484: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5439: 5435:'s 1969 book 5434: 5429: 5423: 5421: 5416: 5410: 5404: 5400: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5340: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5325: 5324:Popular Front 5321: 5317: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5303: 5301: 5296: 5291: 5285: 5283: 5279: 5274: 5273:Second Empire 5267: 5263: 5259: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5240: 5236: 5231: 5230: 5223: 5222: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5202: 5200: 5196: 5191: 5190:republicanism 5187: 5183: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5168:was liberated 5165: 5161: 5160:German Empire 5157: 5142: 5140: 5136: 5133:had made the 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5119:État Français 5116: 5111: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5096:Manstein Plan 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5068:Low Countries 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5052:Army Groups A 5049: 5045: 5042:into central 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5023: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4948: 4947: 4942: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4899: 4897: 4893: 4888: 4884: 4879: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4839: 4835: 4825: 4822: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4804: 4802: 4792: 4790: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4768: 4765: 4764:Berchtesgaden 4761: 4756: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4735: 4733: 4727: 4723: 4721: 4716: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4643: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4599: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4518:Popular Front 4515: 4511: 4497: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4470: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4440: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4420: 4419:André Tardieu 4416: 4414: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4364:paid vacation 4361: 4356: 4351: 4349: 4348:popular front 4345: 4341: 4335: 4331: 4324:Popular Front 4321: 4319: 4313: 4309: 4307: 4301: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4258: 4256: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4207: 4204: 4198: 4188: 4186: 4181: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4158: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4141:dominated by 4140: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4120:Bloc national 4116: 4109: 4106:, during the 4105: 4101: 4100:Deutsches Eck 4096: 4091: 4081: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4044: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4009: 4007: 4002: 3992: 3990: 3985: 3983: 3977: 3974: 3964: 3960: 3959: 3953: 3949: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3929:Western Front 3926: 3920: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3885: 3880: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3864: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3823: 3821: 3817: 3812: 3810: 3806: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3780: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3727: 3725: 3721: 3720:Balkan crisis 3715: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3684: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3666: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3641: 3638:(centre) and 3637: 3636:Mother Russia 3633: 3629: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3602: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3554:(1884–1885). 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3536: 3534: 3529: 3527: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3504: 3495: 3491: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3466: 3464: 3458: 3453: 3449: 3439: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3417: 3412: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3395:in Rome, and 3394: 3390: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3351: 3350: 3345: 3344:Albert de Mun 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3328: 3323: 3321: 3320:Rerum Novarum 3317: 3313: 3312:Albert de Mun 3309: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3293: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3274: 3273: 3267: 3263: 3261: 3258:were passed. 3257: 3253: 3252:Ancien Régime 3248: 3247:anti-clerical 3243: 3237: 3227: 3225: 3220: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3201: 3200:working class 3196: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3173:Le Bon Marché 3167: 3166:Au Bon Marché 3163: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3125: 3124: 3120: 3119: 3114: 3113: 3108: 3104: 3103: 3098: 3097: 3088: 3087: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3076: 3071: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3058: 3054: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3039: 3034: 3022: 3012: 3008: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2982: 2980: 2976: 2975: 2970: 2969: 2963: 2958: 2956: 2952: 2951:French Guiana 2948: 2944: 2940: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2917:anti-Semitism 2911: 2901: 2897: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2886:Léon Gambetta 2884:Followers of 2882: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2870:Radical Party 2864: 2860: 2856: 2847: 2843: 2840: 2836: 2830: 2820: 2815: 2813: 2808: 2806: 2801: 2800: 2798: 2797: 2794: 2783: 2779: 2769: 2768: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2684: 2682: 2681: 2677: 2676: 2663: 2661: 2658: 2657: 2653: 2651: 2648: 2647: 2643: 2641: 2638: 2637: 2633: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2610: 2609:Années folles 2606: 2605: 2601: 2599: 2595: 2594: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2573: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2542: 2540: 2539:Second Empire 2537: 2536: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2520: 2519:July Monarchy 2517: 2516: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2506: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2496: 2492: 2490: 2487: 2486: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2476: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2455: 2445: 2443: 2442:Bourbon kings 2440: 2439: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2429: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2419: 2416: 2415: 2414:Ancien Régime 2409: 2404: 2403: 2393: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2371: 2369: 2366: 2365: 2361: 2359: 2355: 2354: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2320: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2308: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2292: 2288: 2286: 2283: 2282: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2272: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2235: 2232: 2226: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2214: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2190: 2180: 2176: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2156: 2152: 2138: 2136: 2131: 2129: 2128: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2097: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2050: 2049: 2039: 2034: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1995: 1993: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1973: 1971: 1970:Paris Commune 1966: 1962: 1958: 1950: 1946: 1941: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1926: 1922: 1912: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1850: 1841: 1839: 1834: 1833: 1827: 1826:Paris Commune 1823: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1807:German Empire 1803: 1799: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1779:Léon Gambetta 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1763:Léon Gambetta 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1739: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1709:Ancien Régime 1704: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1686: 1685:British India 1682: 1677: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1586: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1547: 1542:(keeping the 1541: 1537: 1533: 1532:German Empire 1529: 1528:Paris Commune 1525: 1521: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1459: 1454: 1452: 1447: 1445: 1440: 1439: 1437: 1436: 1433: 1422: 1418: 1408: 1407: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1375: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1296: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1286: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1256: 1255: 1251: 1249: 1248:Années folles 1245: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1212: 1202: 1200: 1196: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1179: 1178:Second Empire 1176: 1175: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1161: 1159: 1158:July Monarchy 1156: 1155: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1094: 1084: 1082: 1081:Bourbon kings 1079: 1078: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1068: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1053:Ancien Régime 1048: 1043: 1042: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1025: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1000: 998: 994: 993: 989: 987: 984: 983: 979: 977: 974: 973: 969: 966: 962: 959: 958: 953: 948: 947: 937: 935: 932: 931: 927: 925: 922: 921: 917: 915: 912: 911: 907: 905: 902: 901: 896: 891: 890: 887: 884: 883: 879: 875: 874: 871: 865: 864: 859: 854: 853: 833: 831: 828: 827: 819: 817: 814: 813: 805: 803: 800: 799: 791: 789: 783: 782: 774: 772: 769: 768: 765: 759: 753: 746: 745: 742: 741:German Empire 739: 732: 731: 728: 727:Paris Commune 725: 718: 717: 714: 711: 704: 703: 700: 699: 696: 693: 691: 688: 687: 683: 680: 677: 675: 674:ISO 3166 code 671: 668: 665: 661: 657: 653: 647: 643: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 595: 591: 588: 582: 578: 575: 569: 565: 562: 556: 553:3 August 1914 552: 549: 543: 539: 536: 530: 526: 523: 522:Leon Gambetta 517: 513: 509: 505: 502: 499: 496: 490: 487: 484: 481: 475: 472: 469: 465: 461: 458: 455: 449: 446: 443: 437: 433: 429: 427: 423: 419: 416: 415:Albert Lebrun 413: 407: 404: 401: 395: 391: 387: 385: 381: 374: 371: 370:parliamentary 368: 365: 362: 359: 358:parliamentary 356: 353: 352: 350: 348: 344: 341: 338: 336: 332: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 305: 301: 297: 294: 293: 291: 287: 283: 280: 276: 271: 242: 239: 232: 225: 224:protectorates 221: 217: 214: 211: 209: 206: 203: 202: 197: 192: 179: 171: 170: 165: 160: 156: 151: 146: 144: 139: 121: 120: 114: 110: 104: 103: 98: 94: 88: 82: 74: 68: 60: 55: 49: 42: 33: 30: 19: 12260:Coat of arms 12250:Architecture 12222:Social class 12180:Homelessness 12165:Demographics 12119:Trade unions 12052:Central bank 11994:criminal law 11957:Human rights 11940:presidential 11784:Algerian War 11767:Contemporary 11741:Vichy France 11736:World War II 11706:Belle Époque 11698: 11639:First Empire 11541:Early Modern 11512:West Francia 11148: 11144:Anglo-German 11133: 11005:Treaties and 10777: 10766:Great powers 10718: 10698: 10688: 10677: 10666: 10645: 10638: 10631: 10620: 10611: 10604: 10590: 10573: 10566: 10556: 10549: 10542: 10532: 10515: 10504: 10488: 10485:Weber, Eugen 10474: 10467: 10457: 10446: 10428: 10425: 10410: 10394: 10390: 10382: 10375: 10368: 10342: 10314: 10310: 10295: 10288: 10281: 10274: 10273:Gooch, G.P. 10267: 10263: 10253: 10243: 10223: 10212: 10202: 10191: 10172: 10160: 10150: 10133: 10124: 10112: 10110:Brogan, D. W 10092: 10085: 10054: 10024: 9997: 9986: 9974: 9947: 9917: 9897: 9891: 9867: 9847: 9811: 9807:Colton, Joel 9774: 9771:Brogan, D.W. 9744: 9717: 9696:Jackson 2006 9691: 9674: 9670: 9661: 9649: 9624: 9618: 9612: 9605:Jackson 2006 9600: 9593:Jackson 2006 9588: 9581:Jackson 2006 9566:Jackson 2006 9561: 9554:Jackson 2006 9549: 9542:Jackson 2006 9537: 9530:Jackson 2006 9525: 9518:Jackson 2006 9500: 9490: 9483:Jackson 2006 9478: 9471:Jackson 2006 9466: 9452:(42): 9–22. 9449: 9445: 9435: 9416: 9410: 9399:Jackson 2003 9394: 9363: 9354: 9342: 9323: 9317: 9254: 9242: 9230: 9218: 9187: 9175: 9167: 9159: 9150: 9142: 9137: 9128: 9120: 9115: 9103: 9091: 9079: 9067: 9039: 9030: 9023:Harding 2013 9018: 9006:. Retrieved 9000: 8990: 8983:Harding 2013 8978: 8959: 8953: 8942: 8933: 8921: 8901: 8894: 8882: 8868:(1): 18–44. 8865: 8859: 8853: 8828: 8822: 8816: 8804: 8779: 8773: 8767: 8753:(2): 25–45. 8750: 8744: 8738: 8726:. 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Retrieved 6016: 6009: 6002:Aldrich 1996 5997: 5977: 5879:, 1871–1914 5877:Belle Époque 5842:1914: After 5834:Emile Combes 5804:Bonapartists 5771:J'Accuse...! 5653:le seize Mai 5627: 5566:and most of 5501: 5495: 5488:la décadence 5487: 5485: 5481:la décadence 5480: 5476:la décadence 5471:Paul Reynaud 5459:Pierre Laval 5436: 5428:la décadence 5424: 5415:la décadence 5409:La Décadence 5405: 5399:la décadence 5380: 5358: 5345:la décadence 5341: 5336: 5329:André Géraud 5319: 5318:in his book 5309: 5306:John Gunther 5304: 5290:la décadence 5286: 5270: 5261: 5249:government. 5217:founded the 5203: 5184: 5176:constitution 5153: 5123:Vichy France 5118: 5112: 5100:Adolf Hitler 5040:Army Group B 5027: 5024: 5009: 4994:Vichy France 4975: 4951: 4944: 4935:Gamelin (in 4923: 4919: 4900: 4880: 4841: 4820: 4817: 4805: 4801:Paul Reynaud 4798: 4785: 4781:Le Populaire 4780: 4776: 4772: 4769: 4752: 4736: 4728: 4724: 4720:Lord Halifax 4717: 4708:Nazi Germany 4702:to hand the 4693: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4671: 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France 695:Succeeded by 694: 689: 667:French Franc 606:10 July 1940 600:Vichy France 574:World War II 566:28 June 1919 212: 204: 176: France 141: 112: 97:Motto: 96: 87:Coat of arms 29: 12370:WikiProject 12185:Immigration 12175:Health care 12037:Agriculture 11989:enforcement 11746:Free France 11715:World War I 11662:Restoration 11649:Late Modern 11519:Middle Ages 11494:Middle Ages 11479:Celtic Gaul 11322:World War I 11285:Balkan Wars 11270:Second Boer 11255:Banana Wars 11219:July Crisis 11150:Dreadnought 11135:Weltpolitik 10979:Pan-Slavism 10584:World War I 10219:pp 349–501. 10217:online free 9706:Works cited 9401:, pp. 9310:Colton 1966 9278:Colton 1966 9259:Colton 1966 9247:Colton 1966 9235:Colton 1966 9223:Colton 1966 9211:Colton 1966 9192:Colton 1966 9180:Colton 1966 8926:Colton 1966 8782:(1): 1–44. 8624:Colton 1966 8546:, pp. 8544:Larkin 1988 8301:Larkin 1988 8203:, pp. 8201:Larkin 1988 7679:Keiger 1983 7531:Taylor 1954 7486:Taylor 1954 7474:Brogan 1940 7193:(full text) 7162:(full text) 7009:(1): 1–17. 6795:Hutton 1986 6674:Hutton 1986 6229:Brogan 1940 6217:Brogan 1940 6179:Brogan 1940 6167:Brogan 1940 6128:Brogan 1940 6038:23 December 5892:, 1919–1939 5848:Jean Jaurès 5800:monarchists 5760:was formed. 5728:Sadi Carnot 5677:Legitimists 5667:Jules Grévy 5662:Republicans 5639:Jules Simon 5613:Monarchists 5431:thesis was 5211:Legitimists 5174:to draft a 5139:Free France 5020:Sudetenland 4990:Free France 4941:Frank Capra 4907:Netherlands 4894:, a German 4704:Sudetenland 4636:Josef Gangl 4574:During the 4565:Sudetenland 4526:appeasement 4450:Benedict XV 4244:coup d'état 4166:public debt 3973:war economy 3967:War economy 3899:Jean Jaurès 3756:(1897–1902) 3704:Anglophobia 3591:West Africa 3575:Jules Ferry 3484:Paul Cambon 3436:Gallicanism 3397:Pope Pius X 3292:Jules Ferry 3209:consumerism 3204:bourgeoisie 3138:Eugen Weber 2953:(nicknamed 2921:French Army 2859:Silver coin 2692:Health care 2622:Free France 2509:Restoration 2313:Middle Ages 2285:Celtic Gaul 2228:History of 2167:coup d'état 2102:Legitimists 2080:Jules Grévy 2060:Jules Simon 1991:ordre moral 1988:. The term 1949:Ordre Moral 1861:Legitimists 1654:Free France 1638:World War I 1630:centre-left 1620:during the 1618:West Africa 1331:Health care 1261:Free France 1148:Restoration 952:Middle Ages 924:Celtic Gaul 867:History of 830:Free France 690:Preceded by 654:150,000,000 495:Lower house 480:Upper house 467:Legislature 375:(1875–1940) 363:(1870−1875) 315:Lutheranism 265: / 213:Light blue: 12386:Categories 12313:Philosophy 12298:Literature 12210:secularism 12006:Parliament 11801:2005 riots 11751:Liberation 11617:Revolution 11484:Roman Gaul 11469:Prehistory 11425:Journalism 11007:agreements 10955:Great Game 10921:Revanchism 10181:Q107258923 10027:. Norton. 9654:Young 2005 9446:Romantisme 9347:Weber 1994 9108:Young 2005 9096:Young 2005 9084:Young 2005 9072:Young 2005 9060:Young 2005 8303:, p. 7177:vatican.va 7146:vatican.va 6202:8 November 5989:References 5825:, in 1904. 5790:, such as 5782:1901: The 5765:Émile Zola 5756:1894: The 5741:1894: The 5701:Émile Zola 5577:1871: The 5316:Marc Bloch 5300:Riom Trial 5195:Revolution 5162:, and the 4939:) seen in 4864:Phoney War 4860:Blitzkrieg 4832:See also: 4588:Winter War 4576:Phoney War 4155:Communists 4064:, such as 4058:Saar Basin 4028:of Italy, 3952:censorship 3927:along the 3830:See also: 3587:Madagascar 3533:Suez Canal 3438:was dead. 3336:Integrists 3304:encyclical 3234:See also: 3217:gramophone 3189:Émile Zola 3107:Paris Soir 3096:Paris Soir 3026:Newspapers 2979:Émile Zola 2888:, such as 2328:settlement 2295:Roman Gaul 2265:Prehistory 2007:Legitimist 1972:in March. 1965:Versailles 1879:supported 1877:Orléanists 1832:communards 967:settlement 934:Roman Gaul 904:Prehistory 758:by Germany 639:Population 471:Parliament 347:Government 335:Demonym(s) 253:02°18′59″E 250:48°52′13″N 205:Dark blue: 12170:Education 12124:Transport 11974:Judiciary 11935:Elections 11889:Mountains 11847:Geography 11593:Louis XIV 11383:Overviews 10970:Meiji era 10817:Alliances 10497:17758709M 10331:145438655 10287:Nere, J. 10175:: 39–48. 9736:10550976M 9386:22522982M 9295:Watt 1989 9008:26 August 8845:146472852 8796:142074638 8718:143962782 8679:154974252 8632:Léon Blum 8390:154961834 8041:162914333 7979:22521391M 7877:15182161W 7844:21488370M 7807:154834826 7666:0018-2753 7565:153431025 7095:145338843 6986:0099-0329 6980:: 17–21. 6719:141242021 6711:0094-7679 6661:144943082 6512:144278218 6427:(1): 4ff. 6353:159988092 6113:7 October 5606:Orleanist 5361:Gaullists 5207:Orleanist 5032:Dyle Plan 4958:Luftwaffe 4911:Dyle Plan 4846:in 1939, 4667:Wehrmacht 4510:Léon Blum 4471:/Féminine 4413:Gringoire 4381:devaluing 4340:Léon Blum 4334:Léon Blum 4320:in 1938. 4178:inflation 3818:in 1925, 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12205:Religion 12150:Abortion 12104:Taxation 12001:Military 11962:Intersex 11952:Politics 11918:Politics 11720:Interwar 11415:Economic 11410:Language 11395:Timeline 10487:(1976). 10361:3023833M 10341:(2002). 10177:Wikidata 10053:(2005). 10043:1094174M 10016:19269229 9985:(1954). 9966:6249001M 9946:(1961). 9936:2527483M 9916:(1988). 9831:65-18768 9809:(1966). 9799:6410854M 9783:40033736 9773:(1940). 9763:7738060M 9716:(1996). 9683:41299115 9498:(1940). 9362:(2003). 8722:Archived 8120:41299224 8057:(2003). 7729:4114844M 7709:(1981). 7501:(1975). 7273:(2003). 7245:(1991). 7187:18 March 7181:Archived 7156:18 March 7150:Archived 6955:18 March 6946:Archived 6469:Archived 6443:Archived 6376:1865793M 6281:(2001). 6107:Archived 6071:(2002). 6032:Archived 5871:See also 5692:opposed. 5568:Lorraine 5381:protégés 5379:and his 5333:Pertinax 5080:Ardennes 4943:'s film 4887:Ardennes 4732:Napoleon 4607:Hitler's 4399:Jacobins 4076:and the 4043:Big Four 3937:le Tigre 3913:Fighting 3800:settlers 3712:Boer War 3634:(left), 3632:Marianne 3401:Holy See 3361:La Croix 3316:Leo XIII 3300:Leo XIII 3068:La Croix 2974:L'Aurore 2968:J'accuse 2756:Taxation 2734:Religion 2729:Politics 2722:Consorts 2717:Monarchs 2712:Military 2707:Medicine 2383:987–1328 2372:987–1792 2326:Frankish 2324:and the 2247:Timeline 2219:a series 2217:Part of 2003:Catholic 1753:and his 1642:Radicals 1552:Lorraine 1395:Taxation 1373:Religion 1368:Politics 1361:Consorts 1356:Monarchs 1351:Military 1346:Medicine 1022:987–1328 1011:987–1792 965:Frankish 963:and the 886:Timeline 858:a series 856:Part of 663:Currency 373:republic 220:mandates 216:Colonies 12351:Outline 12333:Theatre 12328:Symbols 12288:Gardens 12278:Fashion 12270:Cuisine 12237:Culture 12227:Welfare 12200:Poverty 12138:Society 12114:Tourism 12074:Exports 12047:Banking 12025:Economy 11984:history 11879:Islands 11874:Borders 11507:Francia 11461:Ancient 11439:Regions 11390:History 11375:History 10950:In Asia 10783:Germany 10593:(2003) 10576:(2003) 10559:(1985) 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Berg. 7075:Bibcode 6863:3742761 6834:3788392 5866:begins. 5846:leader 5736:Caserio 5572:Germany 5543:in the 5102:at the 5044:Belgium 5028:malaise 5004:Char B1 5002:French 4903:Belgium 4854:at the 4743:Romania 4617:of the 4580:Finland 4454:Pius XI 4240:fascist 4222:was an 4145:of the 4123:led by 4104:Koblenz 4066:Kamerun 3546:and in 3526:Morocco 3281:Jesuits 3275:in 1905 3047:Reuters 2749:Judaism 2687:Economy 2666:present 2362:843–987 2351:751–987 2341:481–751 2322:Francia 2256:Ancient 2120:making 1907:in the 1793:river. 1789:on the 1687:alone. 1503:during 1388:Judaism 1326:Economy 1305:present 1001:843–987 990:751–987 980:481–751 961:Francia 895:Ancient 598:• 585:• 559:• 533:• 507:History 493:• 478:• 367:Unitary 355:Unitary 320:Judaism 234:Capital 113:Anthem: 12365:Portal 12265:Cinema 12245:Anthem 12217:Racism 12195:People 12089:Mining 12064:Energy 11899:Rivers 11864:Cities 11796:May 68 11367:topics 11364:France 11308:Second 11295:Second 11092:Events 10882:Trends 10798:Russia 10778:France 10703:online 10693:online 10682:online 10671:online 10641:(1999) 10614:(2000) 10607:(1986) 10597: 10545:(1992) 10537:online 10520:online 10509:online 10495: 10479:online 10470:(2007) 10462:online 10451:online 10435: 10359: 10349: 10329: 10298:(2001) 10291:(2010) 10277:(1923) 10270:(1979) 10207:online 10179: 10129:online 10117:online 10099: 10061: 10041: 10031: 10014: 10004: 9964: 9954: 9934: 9924: 9879: 9854: 9839:265833 9837: 9829: 9819: 9797: 9791:675605 9789: 9781: 9761: 9751: 9734: 9724: 9681: 9639: 9423: 9405:, 181. 9384: 9374: 9330: 8966: 8909: 8843: 8794: 8716: 8677: 8582:493125 8580: 8527: 8452:286380 8450: 8388: 8184: 8153: 8118: 8069: 8039: 7977: 7967: 7875: 7865: 7842: 7832: 7805: 7765: 7727: 7717: 7664: 7633: 7563: 7318: 7289: 7285:–104. 7253: 7228:286210 7226: 7093: 7052:286519 7050: 6984: 6909: 6884: 6861: 6832: 6777: 6748: 6717: 6709: 6659: 6620: 6595: 6510: 6475:13 May 6449:13 May 6374: 6351: 6318:286694 6316: 6265:286267 6263: 6196:Élysée 6081: 6024: 5660:1879: 5604:, the 5596:1873: 5564:Alsace 5522:, and 5064:Panzer 5058:, and 4992:, and 4896:Panzer 4747:Prague 4739:Poland 4421:. The 4344:Stalin 4318:Munich 3995:Morale 3838:, and 3621:, and 3564:Tonkin 3560:Fuzhou 3367:. The 2930:Capt. 2782:· 2780: 2678:Topics 2390:Valois 2331: 2269: 2230:France 2221:on the 2127:laїque 2116:. The 2023:Senate 1875:. 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