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allowed private individuals, businessmen, the clergy and government officials to produce the documents essential for social, commercial, religious and political intercourse. This created a need for mail service. Messages were originally carried between settlements on the St. Lawrence by canoe. After 1734, the road between
Montreal and Quebec was used by a special courier to carry official dispatches. In 1755 a post office was opened in Halifax by Benjamin Franklin, the Post Master of the British colonies, as part of a trans-Atlantic mail service that he established between Falmouth, England and New York. In 1763, Franklin opened other post offices in Quebec City, Trois-Rivières and Montreal with a link from the latter city to New York and the trans-Atlantic service. The War of American Independence seriously disrupted mail service in Canada but by 1783 peace had been restored and Hugh Finlay was appointed Post Master for the northern colonies in 1784. That same year Finlay hired Pierre Durand to survey an all-Canadian mail route to Halifax. The path chosen took 15 weeks for a round trip!
1479:. A copper mine was established in Orford County Quebec in 1877, by the Orford Company while the Canadian Copper Company was founded in 1886 to exploit copper deposits at Sudbury made accessible by the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The ore from that mine was found to contain nickel as well as copper and a technique known as the Orford process using nitrate cake (acid sodium sulphate) was developed to separate the metals. Hard rock gold mining became practical in 1887, with the development of the potassium cyanidation process, by Scott MacArthur, which was used to separate the gold from the ore. This technique was first used in Canada at the Mikado Mine in the Lake-of-the-Woods Region again made accessible by the CPR. The CPR also provided access the B.C. interior where lead, copper, silver and gold ores had been discovered in the Rossland area in 1891. The ores were transported to Trail, B.C. where they were roasted. After CPR built the Crowsnest Pass it purchased the Trail roasting facility and in 1899 built a blast furnace to smelt lead ore.
457:, the technology of the trade was the picture of simplicity. Traders, be they French or British, would set out in birch bark canoes loaded with trade goods (knives, axe heads, cloth blankets, alcohol, firearms and other items) and travel west along Canada's numerous rivers, streams and lakes in search of Indians and exchange these items for beaver skins. The skins came from animals trapped by the native peoples and worn as clothing during the long cold Canadian winter. The skins were worn with the fur side next to the skin, and by the spring the long hairs would be worn away, leaving the short hairs which were used to make felt. The skins were then carried by the traders in their canoes back to trading posts in Montreal or on Hudson Bay and transported by sailing ship to England or France. There they were processed by a technique involving mercury, and the felt that resulted from the treatment was used to make beaver hats. This coincidentally gave rise to the associated phenomenon of the
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structure in Canada for the last 400 years has been the wood-frame peak-roofed house. Most domestic homes in New France from about 1650 to 1750, both urban and rural, were simple wooden structures. Wood was inexpensive, readily available and easily worked by most residents. Rooms were small, usually limited to a living/dining/kitchen space and perhaps a bedroom. Roofs were usually peaked to deflect the rain and very heavy snow. After fires in Quebec City in 1682 and
Montreal in 1721, building codes emphasized the importance of stone construction, but these requirements were mostly ignored except by the most affluent. The most popular type of domestic dwelling in Loyalist Upper Canada in the late 18th century was the log house or the wood frame house (or, less commonly, the stone house). When homes were heated, it was by a fireplace burning wood or a cast-iron wood stove, which was also used for cooking, and they were lit by candlelight or whale oil lamp.
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two-man crosscut saw was introduced. The felled trees had their branches removed and were hauled over the snow roads by teams of oxen or horses to the nearest frozen stream or river. In the spring melt they would be carried by the rushing water downstream to the mills. Often the logs "jammed" and on the way the lumberjacks would undertake the very dangerous lob of breaking the "jam". Where there were rapids or obstacles, special timber "slides" were constructed to aid transport. Large numbers of logs were often assembled into rafts to aid their movement or into very large booms which drifted down river to mills and market. A number of large firms appeared as a result of this activity including, Cunard and Pollok, Gilmour and Co. in New
Brunswick, William Price in Chicoutimi, Quebec and J.R.Booth in Ottawa. The introduction of the railway at mid-century served to decrease the importance of water transport for the industry.
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Red River Valley gave way to the "outfield" of pasture lands. Confederation spurred interest in western agriculture with the government of Canada subsequently purchasing Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay
Company in 1870 and suppressing Metis resistance to eastern intervention with armed force that included the use of the Gatling gun in 1885. Conditions were best suited for the growing of wheat but a naturally dry climate and a short growing season as well as low grain prices made the 1890s difficult. However the difficulties were overcome. Reduced rail transportation costs which helped ease the burden of getting wheat to market and a rise in wheat prices served to encourage the development of the industry. In the 1870s and 1880s, ranching gained prominence as well in southern Saskatchewan and Alberta where dry and even drought-like conditions were eventually overcome after the introduction of irrigation in 1894.
1073:. The area around Hamilton had become attractive for iron and steel industries based on railway construction and the source of this raw material made the same area attractive to aspiring farm implement manufacturers. By about 1850 there were factories producing ploughs, mowers, reapers, seed drills, cutting boxes, fanning mills threshing machines and steam engines, established by entrepreneurs including the well known Massey family, Harris, Wisner, Cockshutt, Sawyer, Patterson, Verity and Willkinson. Although the industry was located mostly around Hamilton there were other smaller manufacturers in other locations including, Frost and Wood of Smith Falls, Ontario, Herring of Napanee, Ontario Ontario, Harris and Allen of Saint John and the Connell Brothers of Woodstock, both in New Brunswick and Mathew Moody and Sons of Terrebonne and Doré et Fils of La Prairie both in Quebec.
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Halifax had electric lights installed by the
Halifax Electric Light Company Limited in 1881. The year 1883 saw the introduction of electric street lighting in Victoria, the first city in British Columbia to get public electric power. Vancouver got electricity in 1887. In 1884, the Royal Electric Company began offering commercial power to Montreal. Also in 1884, Saint John, New Brunswick was the first city in that province to have commercially available power delivered by the Saint John Electric Light Company. Edmonton's first power company was established in 1891 and placed street lights along the city's main street, Jasper Avenue. The power company was purchased by the Town of Edmonton in 1902 and to this day remains a municipal government enterprise known as
814:-powered railway service in Canada was offered by the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, Quebec, in 1836. Other railway systems soon followed, including the Albion Mines Railway, Nova Scotia (1839), the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad (1853), the Great Western Railway, Montreal to Windsor (1854), the Grand Trunk Railway, Montreal to Sarnia (1860), the Intercolonial Railway (1876), the Chignecto Marine Transport Railway, Tignish, Nova Scotia (1888), the Edmonton, Yukon & Pacific Railway (1891), the Newfoundland Railway, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador (1893), the White Pass and Yukon Railway, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory (1900), the Kettle Valley Railway, British Columbia (1916) and Canadian National Railways (1917).
442:) off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland became hotly contested by the British and French, in the 16th and 17th centuries. The British used small boats close to shore from which they caught the cod with hook and line. They practised the "dry fishery" technique which involved shore based settlements for the drying of cod on flakes or racks placed in the open air for their subsequent transport back to Europe. The French on the other hand practised the "green fishery" which involved processing the catch with salt aboard ship. At the same time a fleet of schooners fishing for cod, halibut, haddock, and mackerel became prominent off the Atlantic coast. The use of the long line and purse seine net increased the size of the catch.
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introduction of the steam locomotive, long distance inter-city passenger service boomed. However, a means of conveyance was required serve small towns that found themselves short distances from "the end of the line" or beyond the reach of local public horse car service. The stage coach was well-suited to this role. From about 1850 until 1900, in parallel with the explosive growth of the rail network all across Canada, the service grew. However, the ever-expanding reach of the rail network spread eventually even to small towns. The small size of the markets served and arrival of cars and buses put an end to this colourful means of transportation in the early 20th century.
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However, in towns such as
Halifax, Quebec City, Montreal and York (Toronto), these tasks became more difficult due to lack of space and the concentrated population, and the result was very unpleasant. Streets reeked with the smell of decaying garbage as well as pig, horse and cow excrement. Markets were places of animal blood, rotting animal carcasses and fish heads and other decaying organic matter. Human excrement was stored in pails in buildings and then dumped into the streets. Not until the mid-19th and early 20th centuries would these problems be effectively addressed through the installation of sewer systems and the organization of municipal garbage collection.
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exhausted. However mining continued with tunnels extending out under the sea. The coal was used to power steam locomotives and in latter years to make steel, provide fuel for central heating and provide the volatile gases that formed the basis for the coal gasification and related chemical industries. In 1893, a number of Nova Scotia collieries including the
Bridgeport, Caledonia, Clyde, Gardiner, Glace Bay, Gowrie, Lingan, Lorway, Schooner Pond and Victoria were united to form the Dominion Coal Company which by 1912 produced 40% of Canada's total coal output.
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diffusion of a technology can begin modestly and can extend well beyond the "age" of its introduction. To maintain continuity, the treatment of its diffusion is dealt with in the context of its dominant "age". For example, the "Steam Age" here is defined as being from 1840 to 1880. However, steam-powered boats were introduced in 1809, the CPR was completed in 1885 and railway construction in Canada continued well into the 20th century. To preserve continuity, the development of steam, in the early and later years, is therefore considered within the "Steam Age".
1722:, an essential feature in Canada's cold climate. Up to that time large buildings and homes were heated with fireplaces and iron stoves that used wood or coal as fuel. The construction of large multi-story buildings made this impractical. Fireplaces and stoves on the lower floors would have long flues and would not draw properly. On the upper floors, it would be necessary to transport fuel and to remove ashes up and down many flights of stairs or with an elevator. Central heating solved these problems. In 1832, British inventor
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1857. Glass was blown to form tubes which were cut lengthwise, unrolled and flattened. Glass bottles were produced starting in 1851 by the Ottawa factory and Foster
Brothers Glass Works, in St. Jean starting in 1855. Other manufacturers included: the Canada Glass Works, Hudson, Quebec, 1864–1872 and the Hamilton Glass Company, Hamilton, Ont, 1865–96, which produced "green" glass and the St. Lawrence Glass Company, Montreal, 1867–73 and Burlington Glass Company of Hamilton, Ont, 1874–98 which produced "flint" or clear glass.
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261:, with three masts or more. Designs of between 500 and 1000 tons, which sacrificed speed in favour of a voluminous hold, were well-suited to the carriage of timber and therefore preferred. The Californian and Australian gold rushes of 1848 and 1851 respectively further fed the demand for Canada's large ocean vessels. However, the arrival of the iron and steel-hulled steamship associated with the Canadian inability to adapt to this new technology eventually bankrupted the industry in the latter years of the century.
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which officially stood as Canada's currency for almost a century. However, the monetary system was a chaotic affair and the
British coins and paper were circulated along with Spanish dollars, Nova Scotia provincial money, US dollars and gold coins and British paper "army bills" used to buy supplies in the War of 1812. In 1858 the government of the Province of Canada began keeping its accounts in Canadian dollars and to circulate its own paper currency alongside the paper dollars circulated by the
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may therefore have been Canada's first knitting mill before burning down in 1854. There were cloth manufacturing mills in operation at
Ancaster, Ontario by 1859, as well as Merritton, Ontario (the Lybster Mills, 1860). In Montreal a cotton mill operated on the banks of the Lachine Canal at the St-Gabriel Lock from 1853 until at least 1871 and Belding Paul & Co., operated Canada's first silk cloth manufacturing factory in that city starting in 1876.
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going broke in 1860. Through a series of corporate reorganizations, the company manufactured locomotives for both the GRT and the Canadian Pacific Railway. In 1901, further reorganization led to the formation of the Canadian Locomotive and Engine Company Ltd. with the company producing one steam locomotive per week. The company was a significant supplier of stream locomotives until the arrival of the diesel in the fifties when it went into decline.
1177:, opened in that city in 1835. Based on a design by William Powers a deputy warden at the prison in Auburn, New York State, the facility, surrounded by high walls, could hold up to 800 prisoners in minuscule cells measuring 6 feet by 2 feet, separated from each other by stone walls two feet thick. Other prisons of similar design included those at Saint John, New Brunswick, 1839, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1854, St. John's, Newfoundland, 1859, the
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through the creation of the Canadian dollar and the simultaneous appearance of mass-produced goods which allowed uniform pricing for any particular product. In 1884 he created the iconic Eaton's catalogue which formed the basis for his catalogue sales operation which allowed rural dwellers to order and receive by mail or train the products that were available to those who had access to his growing chain of giant urban department stores.
914:. This company was in turn acquired in 1898 by John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust. Oil discovery and development in the west dates from the early 20th century, with Imperial becoming a major player by 1914 at Turner Valley, Alberta and in 1920 at Norman Wells, NWT. British based corporations such as Royal Dutch Shell and Anglo-Persian Oil (British Petroleum) also became involved in oil exploration in the west at this time.
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result, Britain turned to her colonies in North America to supply masts for her ships as well as sawn lumber and square timber. Other wood products included barrel staves, shingles, box shooks and spool wood for textile factories. Growth during this period was staggering. In 1805, 9000 loads of lumber arrived in Britain from Canada. In 1807, the total number rose to 27,000 loads, in 1809, 90,000 and by 1846, 750,000 loads.
928:. In 1853, an iron pipeline from the Maurice River area carried natural gas 25 kilometres to Trois-Rivières, Quebec, where it was used to provide street lighting. In 1862 a pipeline was built to carry oil from wells in Petrolia, Ontario to Sarnia for refining and in 1895 another natural gas pipeline, 20 centimetres in diameter, linked wells in Essex County, Ontario to Windsor and passed under the Detroit River to Detroit.
1316:. In Montreal, the horse car was withdrawn from service in 1894 and replaced with the electric streetcar, operated by the Montreal Street Railway Company from that date until 1911. Many of the streetcars were manufactured by Canadian Car and Foundry of Montreal and the Ottawa Car Company. In Toronto, the horse car gave way to the electric streetcar in 1892, with that service being offered by the
479:, the growing of wheat and the raising of livestock would characterize the nature of maritime agriculture well into the mid-19th century. In 1617, Louis Hebert a colonist in Quebec began to raise cattle and grow peas, grain and corn on a very small plot. In the 1640s, charter companies promoted agriculture and settlers cleared forested land with the use of axes, oxen, horses and asses. In 1663,
593:. Both the procedure and results were usually quite gruesome. Another figure of repute, Michel Sarrazin, a botanist as well as doctor, arrived from France in the latter half of the 17th century and served as the surgeon-major for the French troops in New France. He, too, practised at Hotel-Dieu and while there treated hundreds of patients infected during a
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to a rope or wire which was used to haul logs up to 150 metres across the forest floor. A series of such engines placed at intervals could be used to haul large numbers of logs, long distances in relatively short periods of time. The "high lead system" in which a wire or lead suspended in trees was used to haul logs, was also introduced about this time.
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established in New France made British North America an ideal location for a renewed shipbuilding industry. Quebec City and Saint John, New Brunswick, both centres of timber export also became dominant centres for this activity not only in Canada but worldwide. The ships intended for trade, mostly with Britain and common designs, included the two-masted
1193:) were hanged by the neck. This technique included both the "short" and "long" drop. The short drop, killed by suffocation while conscious, while the “more humane” long drop immediately broke the neck, thus rendering the person unconscious before subsequent death by suffocation. Those convicted of capital military offences were shot by firing squad.
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The introduction of typecasting machines such as the Linotype typesetting machine in the 1890s led to an expansion in size of the individual paper from 8 to 12 pages to 32 or 48 pages. This was also made possible by the availability of cheap newsprint manufactured in huge continuous rolls that could be fitted directly into the high speed presses.
1688:. The first in Canada was the eight-storey New York Life Insurance Co Building in Montreal, 1887–1889, although it did not have a steel frame. The first self-supporting steel framed skyscraper in Canada was the Robert Simpson Department Store at the corner of Yonge and Queen in Toronto with its six floors and electric elevators, built in 1895.
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local grist mill and baked in the home oven with yeast to make bread. Hopps, grain and fruit were fermented to make beer, hard alcohol and wine. Meals were served on pewter or china plates and eaten with a metal knife, fork and spoon. The places were set on a simple wooden table with wooden chairs often made by the man of the house.
1304:) for the Canadian market. AC had an advantage in that it was more amenable to transmission over long distances. The competitor of that company, General Electric of Canada (1892), with production facilities in Peterborough, Ontario eventually followed suit. AC technology has been used for electrical transmission since that time.
245:, a 500-ton merchantman. Demand for ships was such that a second Royal Dockyard was established in 1746, on the St. Lawrence at the foot of Cap Diamante, where the largest vessel of the French Regime, a 72-gun, 800-ton war ship was built. The fall of New France to the British in 1759 put an end to these activities.
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Activity grew to reach an industrial scale by the middle of the 19th century. Laing Packing and Provisions was founded in Montreal in 1852, F.W. Fearman began processing operations in Hamilton, Ontario and in Toronto William E. Davies established Canada's first large scale hog slaughter house in Toronto in 1874.
1557:) to that of fully synthetic products. The Rathburn Company of Toronto began to produce distillates including, wood alcohol and calcium acetate, used to make acetic acid or acetone, in 1897. The Standard Chemical Company of Toronto established in 1897, initiated the production of acetic acid in 1899 and
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in Canada received its first permanent home with the construction in 1877 of Tecumseh Park, built in London, Ontario for the London Tecumsehs baseball team. Other fields followed including Sunlight Park, in Toronto, 1886, Atwater Park, Montreal, in 1890 and Hanlan's Point Ball Field, 1897, in Toronto
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was developed by Jesse Williams in New York in 1851. The first Canadian cheese factory was built in Oxford County, Ontario in 1864 and was followed by a factory in Dunham, Quebec in 1865. By 1873, Canada was home to about 200 cheese factories. The first creamery of note was built at Helena, Quebec in
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The wheat economy developed on the prairies during these years. Agriculture in that region had begun around the Red River Colony in 1812, based on French Canadian survey techniques for land division and Scottish farming practices. The "infield" consisting of long narrow strips of land rising from the
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received its first Canadian demonstration in Manitoba at the Davis House hotel on Main Street, Winnipeg, March 12, 1873. In 1880, the Manitoba Electric and Gas Light Company was incorporated to provide public lighting and power and in 1893 the Winnipeg Electric Street Railway Company was established.
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had been a local undertaking since the beginning of the colony with the farmer and local butcher providing nearby customers with product. Health concerns were evident from the start and regulations for the butchering and sale of meat were promulgated in New France in 1706 and in Lower Canada in 1805.
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were wedged into notches cut into the trunk to serve as work platforms for two loggers using heavy double bit steel axes. Human and animal muscle, powered the industry until 1897 when the steam-powered "donkey engine" was introduced in B.C. from the US. This stationary machine drove a winch connected
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was laid between Heart's Content, Newfoundland and Foilhommerum, Valentia Island, in western Ireland. The first trans-Canada telegraph service was established by Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885. In 1902, Canadian Pacific completed a trans-Pacific cable telegraph, linking Vancouver with Australia and
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came into its own in the mid-19th century. Roads in early colonial Canada were poor and not well-suited to long-distance travel by horse-drawn coach. For this reason, the stage coach was used mostly for short-distance travel and long distance inter-city passenger service was mostly by water. With the
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Medical treatment at this time reflected techniques available in France and was provided by a barber-surgeon. The first in New France was Robert Giffard, who arrived in Quebec City in 1627 and "practised" at HĂ´tel-Dieu, Canada's first hospital, a very modest four-room structure founded by the church.
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In the earlier parts of Canada's history, the state often played a crucial role in the diffusion of these technologies, in some cases through a monopoly enterprise, in others with a private "partner". In more recent times, the need for the role of the state has diminished in the presence of a larger
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Sewerage systems were built in substantial numbers, but were not as common as water supply systems. Some of the first included Vancouver, B.C. in 1886 and Charlottetown, PEI in 1898. While the systems collected sewage and liquid waste from homes, public and commercial buildings and industrial sites,
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became notable during these years. Asbestos was discovered and mined in a number of places around the world, including Thetford Mines, Quebec beginning in 1879 and found its way into a bewildering variety of products including, insulation, automobile brake-pads, siding, shingles and fireproofing. At
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was imported from England to Canada in barrels during the 19th century complementing the modest production of hydraulic cement that began in Hull, Quebec in 1830. By 1889 there were noted increases in the output of cement in Hull and other cement factories were built in Montreal, Napanee and Shallow
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The first of these companies, CLC, had its origins in the formation of the “Ontario Foundry” established in 1848, but with the production of its first locomotive in 1854, it became known as the Kingston Locomotive Works. It produced 36 locomotives mostly for the new Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) before
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service from Vancouver with three large steel-hulled ships, the "Empress", liners, India, China and Japan. A fleet of smaller "Princess" steam ships was used for coastal service and the Great Lakes. Of note is the fact that Canadian Pacific, with its combination of steam ships and steam locomotives,
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in Canada's history. Gravity feed systems were in operation in Saint John, New Brunswick in 1837 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1848. Steam powered pumping stations were in service in Toronto in 1841, Kingston, Ontario in 1850 and Hamilton, Ontario in 1859. Quebec City had a system by 1854 and Montreal
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plants were built in these cities and others to provide the gas for the lighting systems. Most remained in operation until the 1950s when they were phased out due to a loss of demand in favour of the more practical and inexpensive natural gas. The decommissioning of these sites was often problematic
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The measurement of time before the coming of the railways was a local matter with towns and cities establishing their own "time zones". There was little coordination of times between cities or regions in Canada or elsewhere in the world. Train travel revealed the shortcomings of this arrangement for
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was popular. This large structure was built from interwoven branches and could house 70 to 80 people. Several of these structures would be built together to form a village which was often surrounded by a palisade of logs stuck vertically into the ground as protection from hostile tribes. On the west
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In the latter part of the 20th century, there is evidence that Canadian values prefer public expenditures on social programmes at the expense of public spending on the maintenance and expansion of public technical infrastructure. This can be seen in the fact that in 2008, the Federation of Canadian
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industry. By the 1880s, the rotary press had evolved into a high speed machine and with the use of stereotyping allowed the production of large numbers daily papers. In 1876, daily newspaper circulation in Canada's nine major urban centres stood at 113,000 copies. By 1883, it had more than doubled.
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made its appearance at this time. The "boneshaker", with pedals connected directly to the front wheel, appeared in the Maritimes in 1866 followed by the penny-farthing bicycle after 1876. The machine evolved and was improved with the addition of pneumatic tires, a central crank for the pedals and a
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developed along the rivers of New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario, including the Mirimachi, St. John, Ottawa and Gatineau. The logging itself was a winter activity and began with the first snowfall when roads and camps were built in the forest. Trees were cut with steel axes until about 1870 when the
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was first undertaken in Canada in 1851 in Enniskillen Township in Lambton County by the International Mining and Manufacturing Company of Woodstock, Ontario. There was fierce competition for oil drilling, refining and distribution in southern Ontario until 1880 when 16 oil refineries merged to form
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service, introduced in 1846, was offered by the Toronto, Hamilton and Niagara Electro-Magnetic Telegraph Co. Others soon followed, including the telegraph system of the Montreal Telegraph Company, 1847 and the telegraph system of the Dominion Telegraph Company, 1868. The production and transmission
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lamps became popular in the 1840s, when Gesner of Halifax developed an effective way to manufacture that product. Water for drinking and washing was carried to the home from an outside source. Tables and chairs, items unknown to Canada's native peoples, were introduced and had an important place in
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invented in 1816. Because doctors were few and far between people with medical problems often had to treat themselves. They used Indian medicines or home remedies based on the internal and external application of various herbal and animal products. Advances in surgery came in the early 19th century
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established the Royal Dockyard on the St. Charles River in Quebec City and the first 120-ton vessel was launched there in 1666. Three other ships, including a 450-ton "galiotte", were built before Talon's departure for France in 1672 and four more were built in Quebec between 1704 and 1712 followed
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industry. Companies such as Bell, Waterloo, Lobsinger, Hergott and Sawyer-Massey were soon shipping their large metal threshing machines and other types of equipment via the CPR to western farms. Arguably the most notable of these corporations was Massey-Harris Co. Ltd. of Toronto, created in 1891
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systems were introduced in Montreal in 1838, in Toronto in 1841, and in Halifax in 1850. Horse-drawn street rail coaches for public transport were introduced in large Canadian cities about his time. In Montreal the Montreal City Passenger Railway Company, formed in 1861, offered horse car service
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grew to become one of Canada's most important economic engines during this period. A market for Canadian wood developed in Britain where access to traditional sources of lumber for the construction of ships for the Royal Navy, as well as industrial structures, was blocked by Napoleon in 1806. As a
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became available to Canadians about mid-century. The technology, which separated the chemicals for match ignition, some on the match head and some on the striking surface, was invented by J.E. Lumdstrom in Sweden in 1855. Canadian production began in 1856 when Ezra Butler Eddy began to manufacture
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production also took its first steps during these years. In 1826, Mahlon Willett established a woollen cloth manufacturing factory in L'Acadie, Lower Canada and by 1844 the Sherbrooke Cotton Factory in Sherbrooke was producing cotton cloth. This establishment also had powered knitting machines and
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manufacturing was introduced at this time. Glass was manufactured at Mallorytown, Upper Canada beginning in 1825. Window glass was produced at the Canada Glass Works in St. Jean, Canada East (Quebec) from 1845 to 1851 and the Ottawa Glass Works at Como in Ottawa, Canada West (Ontario) from 1847 to
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and the knowledge of the means to make them. Les Forges de St. Maurice, which began producing iron in 1738 at facilities near Trois-Rivières and the Marmora Ironworks (established in 1822 near Peterborough), were the first iron works in Canada. Both ceased operations in the latter part of the 19th
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in 1606 and linked the settlement at Port Royal to Digby Cape, 16 kilometres away. By 1734 Quebec City and Montreal were connected by a road, Le chemin du roi, along the north shore of the St. Lawrence. The 267 km distance could be traversed with great difficulty and discomfort by horse-drawn
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began to make its mark during these years. D. Ritchie and Co. began to manufacture the Derby brand in a factory on Dalhousie Street in Montreal in the late 19th century. About the same time the American Cigarette Company also of Montreal began to produce cigarettes in a factory on Côté Street. In
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was introduced during this period. In the 1880s, George Dunning built Canada's first canning factory in Prince Edward County, Ontario, for the canning of fruits and vegetables. By 1900 there were eight such factories in Canada, four of which were in that same county and within a few years canning
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were introduced to Canada in 1720 in what is now Cape Breton, on a coal seam on the north side of Cow Bay. The coal was used as fuel for the inhabitants at Louisburg. Large scale mining developed the Sydney area in particular and continued until 1876 by which time easily reached deposits had been
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The Militia Act of 1855 passed by the Legislature of the Province of Canada established the basis for the Canadian military. The act established seven batteries of artillery, which grew to ten field batteries and 30 batteries of garrison artillery by 1870. Weapons used by these units included the
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in 1914, it eventually overtook the scale of activity in eastern Canada. Different conditions there required different logging techniques. Because the trees were much larger and heavier, three times as many horses or oxen were required to haul them. The more moderate climate meant that the winter
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where they were felled by a single volley of musket fire from the British line. Both the British/Canadian/Native troops and American troops were equipped with cannons and muskets when invading American armies attacked Canada in 1775 and again during the period from 1812 to 1814 with the intent of
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produced for use in New France was the "Gloria Regni", a silver piece struck in Paris in 1670. The first paper money in New France consisted of playing cards signed by the governor and issued in 1685 to help deal with the chronic shortage of coins. After 1760, the British introduced the sterling,
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were quickly introduced to colonial life. The first commercial brewery in Canada was built in Quebec City in 1668 by Jean Talon. This was followed by the construction of other breweries including those of John Molson in Montreal, 1786, Alexander Keith, Halifax, 1820, Thomas Carling, London, 1840,
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developed a steam heating system for domestic use. This inspired the use of closed circuit hot water systems for large buildings. A metal furnace in the basement burning wood or coal was used to heat water in a tank, which in turn was circulated by an electric pump through a system of iron pipes
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The disposal of solid waste became a considerable problem as towns and cities grew. By the mid-19th century, a number of Canadian municipalities used horse-drawn wagons for curbside garbage collection. The refuse was usually taken to a field or dump or in some instances piled along the bank of a
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There were dramatic developments in the field of medicine during these years. In 1834, a British surgeon with the Royal Navy suggested a link between sanitation and disease. This led to the establishment of departments of public health across the country by the end of the century and provided an
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The new arrivals also brought new eating habits. Meat from animals such as cows, sheep, chickens and pigs was common, as were new types of fruits and vegetables. These items were eaten fresh but could be stored for later consumption if salted, pickled or frozen. Grain was ground to flour at the
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to the new world was of paramount importance. The 26-letter, Roman-based alphabet that formed the basis for French and English words was arguably much more flexible that the pictographs that characterized eastern languages. The pen along with ink and paper made written communication possible and
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The Bell Telephone Company of Canada established a manufacturing department to meet some of its equipment needs when it began to offer telephone service in 1882. In 1895, the operation became a separate company known as Northern Electric and Manufacturing Co. Ltd., which was in turn merged with
897:. The latter device, invented in the US, was first used in Canada by George Brown in Toronto starting in 1844 to print copies of the Globe. This process permitted the printing of thousands of copies of each daily paper rather than the mere hundreds of copies possible with previous technologies.
649:
in Canada were constructed at Port Royal on the Annapolis River in what is now Nova Scotia in 1605. The colonists built simple wooden frame homes with peaked roofs around a central courtyard. This established a house-building tradition that lasts to this day, for by far the most common domestic
418:. Animal power in the form of the horse or ox was used to work the fields. The first horses were introduced to New France in 1665. Fire from a wood or oil fuel source was not new but the use of stone fireplaces and ovens along with metal pots and pans dramatically changed the nature of cooking.
47:
The terms chosen for the "age" described below are both literal and metaphorical. They describe the technology that dominated the period in question but are also representative of a large number of other technologies introduced during the same period. Also of note is the fact that the period of
1094:
of Toronto. He offered for sale large numbers of "consumer" goods such as clothes, shoes and household items under the roof of one large store and sold them at fixed prices eliminating the concept of barter. This had become possible because of the recent stabilization of the Canadian currency
1045:
were manufactured by an increasing number of companies including the Gore Powder Works at Cumminsville, Canada West, 1852, the Canada Powder Company, 1855, the Acadia Powder Company 1862, and the Hamilton Powder Company established that same year. In 1879 that company built Canada's first high
686:
Sewage and garbage disposal were simple tasks in the mostly rural parts of the colonies. Sewage was dumped into a stream or left in pits and buried. Scrap food was fed to farm animals and any other garbage or waste was burned or placed in a quiet corner of the property and left to deteriorate.
571:
made from the ashes of burnt wood was used as a bleaching and dying agent in textile production in Britain. Wood ash and pearl ash (potash mixed with lime) were shipped overseas as early as 1767 and export reached a peak in the mid-19th century. In 1871, there were 519 asheries in operation in
60:" as the totality of all rational methods in every field of human activity so that, for example, education, law, sports, propaganda, and the social sciences are all technologies in that sense. At the other end of the scale, common parlance limits the term's meaning to specific industrial arts.
1545:
also developed during these years. The sulfite pulp process developed in the US in 1866 became the basis for the Canadian industry. The first sulfite pulp mill in Canada, the Halifax Wood Fibre Company, was established in Sheet Harbour, Nova Scotia in 1885. Others followed including plants in
1403:
sound recording technique, established the Berliner Gramophone Company and began to manufacture the first phonograph records in Canada, first produced as seven-inch single-sided discs. These records were played on a gramophone, also manufactured by Berliner. They produced sound through purely
1391:
were introduced to Canada in 1897. In that year, Manitoban James Freer made a series of films about farm life in western Canada. In 1889–1899, the Canadian Pacific Railway sponsored a successful tour by Freer to present these films in Britain to encourage immigration from that country for the
1020:
was built in St. Andrews, Quebec in 1805 by two New Englanders and produced paper for sale in Montreal and Quebec City. By 1869 Alexander Burtin was operating Canada's first groundwood paper mill in Valleyfield, Quebec. It was equipped with two wood grinders imported from Germany and produced
920:
required sulfuric acid, and two entrepreneurs, T.H. Smallman and W. Bowman, established the Canadian Chemical Company in London, Ontario in 1867 to manufacture this product for the region's oil industry. This marked the beginning of the mass production of heavy industrial chemicals in Canada.
248:
However, the beginning of the 19th century witnessed a revival. The British loss of the American colonies with their associated shipbuilding industry, the subsequent British loss of Baltic sources of timber, as well as Canada's abundant supply of wood along with the tradition of shipbuilding
1655:
became an essential item of construction equipment during these years. Invented by William Otis in 1839, it was used widely in Canada, for the excavation of railway right-of-ways and the digging of basements and foundations for skyscrapers and domestic housing, in the late 19th century.
1360:
began to make its mark in Canada, modestly at first. The production, transmission and reception of the sound signal was by means of analog technology which would form the basis of the telephone system for the next century. The telephone system of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada
1574:
Imperial Wire and Cable Co. in 1914 to form Northern Electric Co. By the twenties the company was manufacturing a variety of electrical products, with much of the telephone equipment being produced under licence from AT&T in the US. All equipment was based on analog technology.
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and chloroform as anaesthetics became common in England and the US after 1846. In Canada, Dr. David Parker of Halifax is credited as the first to use anaesthesia during surgery. Antiseptic was being used in the operating rooms of the Montreal and Toronto General hospitals by 1869.
564:, introduced in the 1830s, featured a complex system of punch cards to control the pattern and was the first programmable machine in Canada. With the arrival of industrial textile mills in Montreal and Toronto in the late 19th century, the economic advantage of home weaving faded.
302:
carriage in four to five days. Most roads were of very poor quality especially in wet weather. To overcome this problem logs were often placed side by side crosswise to cover ruts, puddles and mud holes. The result was a more solid but very bumpy surface that was referred to as a
1392:
development of the prairies and therefore boost the business of the railway. This inspired the railway to finance the production of additional films and hire a British firm, which created a Canadian arm, the Bioscope Company of Canada, and produced 35 films about Canadian life.
547:
Early 16th century female settlers along the St. Lawrence and in Acadia were almost all were familiar with the techniques of spinning yarn and weaving cloth for everyday clothes and bedding and the home production of textiles eventually became an important cottage industry. The
719:, Kingston, Ontario, 1812. They were also the primary weapon aboard the warships of the era. French regular soldiers stationed in New France and British regulars stationed in British North America after 1763 were equipped with a musket and bayonet. Ironically, in the
195:), stone blades used as knives and stone and wooden clubs of various types. Because there was no knowledge of metalworking with the exception of some small items of jewelry made from copper, weapons such as swords and metal knives were not part of this early arsenal.
292:
Within settlements, transport was often simply a matter of walking around town. The horse, introduced by the new arrivals in 1665, also provided a new and convenient mode of transport. The wooden cart, wagon and carriage, made possible by the introduction of the
1136:. On the west coast a leper colony was established on D'Arcy Island off the coast of Vancouver Island and patients were treated there until 1924 when it was closed. A number of patients on the island tried to escape by swimming to the larger Vancouver Island.
314:. Initially a trail, it ran from Eglington Avenue to St. Albans (Holland Landing) and later much further north. The task of widening the path into a road fell to local farmers. The period also saw the construction a number of important canals, including the
512:
John Kinder Labatt, London, 1847 and Eugene O'Keefe in Toronto in 1891. Of note is the fact that the first patent awarded by the government of Canada went to Mr. G. Riley in 1842 for "an improved method of brewing ale, beer, porter, and other maltliquors".
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The technology of incarceration was refined during these years. Prisons were built in Quebec City in 1809 and Montreal in 1836. One of the world's largest and most modern prisons, the fortress-like Provincial Penitentiary of the Province of Upper Canada,
776:, a side-wheeler built entirely in Montreal by the Eagle Foundry and launched in 1809, was the first steamer to ply Canadian waters, making its maiden voyage from Montreal to Quebec that same year in 36 hours. Other paddle-wheel steamboats included the
1065:
was introduced during these years. Eleven daguerreotypists were listed in Lovell's Canadian Directory of 1851 while the Canada Classified Directory listed 360 in 1865. Most used the wet collodion process invented by F. Scott Archer in England in 1851.
1590:
1895, the American Tobacco Company, a US owned organization, acquired both of these operations, which were then spun off to a newly formed Canadian subsidiary, the American Tobacco Co. of Canada Ltd., which produced the popular Sweet Caporal brand.
51:
Technology is a major cultural determinant, no less important in shaping human lives than philosophy, religion, social organization, or political systems. In the broadest sense, these forces are also aspects of technology. The French sociologist
847:
Manned flight came to Canada during these years. On 4 August 1840, a hot air balloon took to the air for the first time in Canada when the "Star of the East", piloted by aeronaut Louis Lauriat, rose into the sky over Saint John, New Brunswick.
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Notable works of civil engineering realized during these years included: the Lakehead Terminal Grain Elevators, 1882, the Naden First Graving Dock, Esquimalt, British Columbia, 1887, the St. Clair Railway Tunnel, Sarnia, Ontario, 1890, the
164:
For the most part native peoples were hunters and gatherers, chasing large animals, and fishing for a source of protein. Wild plants and fruits were also an important food source. A common, easily stored and readily transportable food was
1446:
at that facility, which were used to supply the rapidly growing Canadian market for electrical generating equipment. Similar heavy electrical products were manufactured by Westinghouse Canada established in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1897.
176:
The first peoples had techniques for dealing with disease. Medicines included those made from high bush cranberries, oil of wintergreen and bloodroot. A type of tea made from the bark of the spruce or hemlock could prevent or cure
284:
on Hudson Bay. The York boat was larger, more stable, and had a greater carrying capacity than the canoe. The first was built in 1794 and numbers of these craft navigated the rivers of the northern prairie region as far west as
748:
to entertain the idea of creating a transcontinental state. In addition to steam power, municipal water systems and sewer systems were introduced in the latter part of the century. The field of medicine saw the introduction of
1328:
coasting back wheel with brake. The increasing popularity of bicycles led to the formation of a national bicycle club, the Canadian Wheelsman in London, Ontario in 1879. In 1899, five important Canadian bicycle manufacturers,
1053:
began at this time. Livingstone and Johnston, later W.R. Johnston & Company, founded in Toronto in 1868, was the first in Canada to cut cloth and sew together the component pieces with the help of the newly introduced
495:
consisted predominantly of wheat and the census of horses, pigs, cattle and sheep registered 30,0000 animals. In the latter part of the century, the British promoted the cultivation of potatoes. The arrival of the
40:), domestic/consumer and defense technologies. Most technologies diffused in Canada came from other places; only a small number actually originated in Canada. For more about those with a Canadian origin, see
235:
The use of wind and water as sources of power were major developments in the technological history of the new colonies. Ships with large masts and huge canvas sails maintained the link between the colonies.
1727:
throughout the building to radiators in rooms where heat was lost to the ambient air. The cooler water then returned to the water heater with the help of gravity, where it was reheated and recirculated.
585:, which involved the use of a knife to cut open a blood vessel and drain away a quantity of the patient's blood. There was some surgery, but it was undertaken with primitive instruments and without
289:
until replaced by the steamboat in the 19th century. The flat-bottomed bateau was another craft used on Canada's inland waters by both British and French colonists in the 18th and 19th centuries.
629:
in Nova Scotia, in this case against smallpox. However, it would take another one hundred years for the practice to become widespread. General hospitals were established in Montreal in 1819 and
449:
in North America between 1650 and 1850. The subject of bitter rivalry between the British and French Empires and inter-corporate rivalry among a number of business organizations, notably the
1420:
originated with the formation of the Locomotive and Machine Company of Montreal Limited in 1883 to supply the GRT, the CPR and the Intercolonial Railway with locomotives and rolling stock.
807:, operated a fleet of over 100 oceangoing steam ships, plying the route between Montreal and Britain from that date until 1917, when it was sold to Canadian Pacific Ocean Services Limited.
1046:
explosives manufacturing plant in Beloeil, Quebec. The first salt well was drilled at Goderich, Canada West in 1866. Phosphate fertilizer was first made in Brockville, Ontario in 1869.
131:
coast, native peoples constructed dwellings made from heavy timber. These structures were built near the water's edge and were often decorated with elaborate and elegant carved images.
438:
from the Strait of Bell Isle to the mouth of the Sagenuay River. They constructed stone ovens ashore for fires to melt whale fat. However, as whales became scarce, the cod fishery (
386:
both in 1824. These publications were simple affairs, typeset by hand, consisting of only a few pages, produced in limited quantities on simple presses and of limited distribution.
1212:, Quebec, 1859, Canada's first tunnel, the Brockville Railway Tunnel, Brockville, Ontario, 1869, the Kettle Creek Bridge, St. Thomas, Ontario, 1871 and the Grand Rapids Tramway,
1003:
The industry in western Canada and in particular British Columbia did not develop as quickly as in the east but with the exhaustion of the eastern forests and the opening of the
1880:
1582:
factories were found all across the country. In the forties, high-temperature canning, which sterilized the contents of the can and permitted long-term storage, was introduced.
475:
and grew vegetables, flax and wheat and raised livestock. After 1713, the British promoted the Maritimes as a source of hemp for rope for the Royal Navy, with moderate success.
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138:
was the most common means of transport and was especially practical during the summer, considering the large number of lakes and rivers that characterized the topography. The
1665:
in most cases they merely displaced the problem for they emptied their contents into a nearby river or lake (or in the case of coastal cities, the ocean), without treatment.
1601:
developed in Canada. The Canadian Clock Company (Whitby, 1872) and the Hamilton Clock Company (Hamilton, 1876) were the first in Canada to manufacture these new devices. The
203:
The arrival of white explorers and colonists in the 16th century introduced those technologies popular in Europe at the time, such as iron making, the wheel, writing, paper,
184:
The first peoples did not have a written language. Their extensive knowledge of the natural world and information relating to their customs and traditions was passed orally.
1455:
through the merger of Massey Manufacturing Co. (1847) and A. Harris, Son & Co Ltd. (1857) which became the largest manufacturer of farm machinery in the British Empire.
878:
of the signal was by means of analog technology, and its introduction would form the backbone of communication and computing technology in Canada for the next 140 years.
445:
It is ironic that a phenomenon as fickle as fashion would be responsible for the economic development and exploration of half a continent, but such was the case with the
1770:
1759:
836:
served as an important land transportation route over its 1500 km length from Winnipeg (Fort Garry) to Edmonton, (Upper Fort des Prairies). The simple horse-drawn
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1800:
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Cornwall, Ontario, 1888, Hull, Quebec, 1889, Chatham, Quebec, 1889, the biggest, the Riordon Company in Merritton, Ontario in 1890 and in Hawkesbury, Ontario in 1898.
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nearby river or lake. With the arrival of motor power, the use of the garbage truck became common although the method of disposing of the garbage remained the same.
1348:
built a transportation empire that spanned more than half the globe. Few other companies anywhere in the world at that time could boast of such an accomplishment.
1144:
Water distribution systems also became a feature of many Canadian cities during this period and their installation represented the most significant development in
1561:, from the oxidation of wood alcohol, in 1909. This later product was an essential element in the production of the fully synthetic, phenol-formaldehyde plastic (
1435:
established in Montreal in 1886, became a well-known heavy engineering firm in the field of bridge building and the construction of steel frames for skyscrapers.
280:
were also popular for travel on inland waters. The York boat was used by traders working for the Hudson's Bay Company and was named after the fur trading post at
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1404:
mechanical means, by rotating the discs on a platter turning at 78 r.p.m. and "reading" the grooves with a metal needle, which caused substantial wear and tear.
1069:
The growing agricultural activity in southern Ontario and Quebec provided the basis for farm mechanization and the manufacturing industry to meet the demand for
161:
Clothing was made of animal skins, which were cut with stone and bone tools and sewn with bone needles and animal sinews. Native peoples did not have textiles.
1991:
Muise, McIntosh, Coal Mining in Canada: A Historical and Comparative Overview, Transformation Series 5, National Museum of Science and Technology, Ottawa, 1996
1384:
were also firmly established during these years. Publishers of note included, Beauchemin of Montreal, 1842, and Musson Book Co., 1894, and G.N. Morang, 1897.
1825:
1795:
881:
In 1856, the first underwater telegraph cable in Canada was laid, linking Cape Ray, Newfoundland and Aspy, Nova Scotia. Ten years later, in 1866, the first
821:
and its associated Canadian Pacific trans-Canada telegraph system, was completed in 1885. Between 1881 and 1961, CPR would operate 3,267 steam locomotives.
241:
by another nine between 1714 and 1717. Work at the Royal Dockyard recommenced in 1739 and by 1744, twelve vessels had been constructed there, including the
2341:
1937:
Wilson, Garth, A History of Shipbuilding and Naval Architecture in Canada, Transformation Series 4, National Museum of Science and Technology, Ottawa, 1994
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The founding of the Canadian Manufacturers Association in 1871 was symptomatic of the growth of this sector of the economy with its related technologies.
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with an effective range of up to 100 metres. Close in fighting was conducted with a range of simple armaments including stone-tipped spears, stone axes (
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1744:
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gained prominence and James Davis among others made a mark in this field in Toronto beginning in 1832. Canada became the world's largest exporter of
461:. A combination of diminishing beaver stocks and a change in fashion that saw a decline in the popularity of the beaver hat put an end to the trade.
1750:
A reflection of this intense engineering activity as described above is seen in the founding of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering in 1887.
1553:
became available during this period. The distillation of products from wood characterized the transition from the use of natural chemical products (
3331:
2012:
1739:
was first used by Canadian troops during the Riel Rebellion. The 12-pound field gun was used by Canadian soldiers in the Boer War. To provide the
504:) in the late 18th century resulted in the cultivation of hemp but agriculture was dominated by the wheat culture well into the mid-19th century.
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1165:
from 1861 to 1891 when it was replaced by electric streetcar service. Horse car service began in Toronto in 1861 as well and was offered by the
126:. This consisted of a number of poles arranged to form a conical structure which was in turn covered with animal skins. In central Canada, the
861:, proposed a coordinated worldwide time system at a meeting in Toronto of the Royal Canadian Institute in 1879. His idea was accepted at the
173:
which allowed the storage of some food during times of privation. Of note was the fact that they did not have the plough or draught animals.
1438:
GE Canada, founded by Thomas Edison in Peterborough in 1892, contributed to heavy manufacturing techniques through the fabrication of large
2624:
2116:
560:" methods. Loyalist women settling in Upper and Lower Canada grew flax and raised sheep for wool to make clothing, blankets and linen. The
1624:. The company had its roots in the formation of the Dominion Cotton Mills Company in Montreal in 1880 from eight small inefficient mills.
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in combination with the horse, dramatically improved the transport of people and goods. The first graded road in Canada was built by
1185:, Toronto, 1873, Saint-Vincent-de-Paul, Montreal, 1873, Stony Mountain, Manitoba, 1877, New Westminster, British Columbia, 1878 and
2211:
2560:
1243:
322:, Montreal, 1825, the Ottawa River Canals at Grenville and Carillon, Quebec, 1834 and the Chambly Canal, Chambly, Quebec, 1843.
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1928:
Wright, J.W., A History of the Native Peoples of Canada: Volumes I(2001) and II(1999), Canadian Museum of Civilization, Ottawa
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The introduction of the flush toilet in the US and Canada in the 1880s created a market that inspired the invention of rolled
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1885:
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Coal gas public street lighting systems were introduced in Montreal in 1838, in Toronto in 1841 and in Halifax in 1850. Coal
134:
Transportation techniques were simple. The aboriginal peoples did not have the wheel, horses or the sail. The paddle powered
1507:
began operation in Truro, Nova Scotia. The large scale home delivery of milk began in Toronto, Ottawa and Montreal in 1900.
857:
it quickly led to problems related to the scheduling of arrivals and departures from different cities. A Canadian engineer,
491:
took steps to promote the cultivation of hops and hemp and the raising of livestock. By 1721, the harvest of the farmers of
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to DC. This type of current had the unfortunate property of being difficult to transmit long distances over wires. In 1897
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Municipalities estimated that it would take $ 123 billion to restore and repair aging urban infrastructure across Canada.
118:
used stick frames covered with animal skins for shelter during the summer months, while they built houses made of snow or
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2743:
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1955:
Bliss, Michael, Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1987, p. 111.
1108:, invented in 1853, was quickly adopted by Canadian doctors. Two other medical innovations also appeared at this time,
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1707:
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The pace of diffusion quickened in the 19th century with the introduction of such technologies as steam power and the
350:, produced on a simple printing press, began publication in 1752 under the watchful eye of John Bushell. In 1764, the
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in the 1830s and 1840s. In 1840 Darling & Brady began to manufacture soap in Montreal. E.B.Eddy began to produce
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Other manufacturing capabilities began to develop during this period, in parallel with shipbuilding. Canada's first
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Although the written word was a vital part of communications, French colonial policy opposed the establishment of
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mill was constructed in Windsor mills, Quebec in 1864 by Angus and Logan. C.B.Wright & Sons began to make "
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Wind power was used to some to turn the sails of the windmill, which did not come into widespread use. However
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In many cases the only technique for dealing with infectious disease was quarantine and this was the case for
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in Niagara Falls, Upper Canada in 1833. Other hotels of note included St. Lawrence Hall, Montreal, 1851, the
882:
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1982:
Ball, Norman R. ed., Building Canada: A History of Public Works, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1988
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with its associated techniques took root in Canada in the 1860s. The process for the factory production of
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Metal mining also became a significant industry during this period. The invention of the electric dynamo,
107:, which they used for heating their dwellings and for cooking which was done on open fires. There were no
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snow roads could not be used and instead necessitated the use of log skid roads. Trees were so tall that
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625:. The early part of the 19th century also witnessed the first halting steps with respect to the use of
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1973:
Warrington, Newbold, Chemical Canada: Past and Present, The Chemical Institute of Canada, Ottawa, 1970
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in New Brunswick and operated there from 1844 to 1849 when patients were transferred to a facility at
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to saw mill and ports as well as providing the power for the saw mills themselves and as a result the
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169:, dried powdered meat mixed with fat, berries and "vegetables". In central Canada, there was limited
1676:. The product was first produced in the US by the Albany Perforated Wrapping Paper Company in 1877.
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were able to produce vast quantities of fabric. The most notable Canadian venture in this field was
518:, then as now was of vital interest to individuals and to the functioning of the economy. The first
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Weapons of war were made by hand from wood and stone. The long range weapon of these times was the
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The construction of skyscrapers, grand hotels and other large buildings led to the development of
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became a practical consideration because of the concurrent development of the hard rock drill and
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impetus to municipalities to supply clean water to their citizens as noted above. The use of the
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with a source of Canadian manufactured munitions, the government established the crown-operated
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Ellul, Jacques. The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkinson (New York: Random House, 1964)
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was founded in that city in 1785 by Fleury Mesplet. Other newspapers followed including the
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One of the largest trans-Atlantic steamship lines was established in Montreal in 1854. The
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Guillet, Edwin C., The Story of Canadian Roads, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1967
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Railway and locomotive construction in the latter 19th century created a huge demand for
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at Newark (Niagara-on-the-Lake) in 1793, the first newspaper in what is now Ontario, the
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In 1891, the newly formed Canadian Pacific Steamship Lines began offering trans-Pacific
1336:, H.A. Lozier, and Welland Vale, combined to form what would become the very well known
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Musical instruments did much to enliven the colonial life. In the well-known documents
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723:, the French General Montcalm ordered his troops out of the ultra-modern stone-walled
707:. The cannon was used to arm a number of important military structures, including the
68:
The diffusion of technology in what is now Canada began with the arrival of the first
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7-pound smooth-bore muzzle-loading and the 9-pound rifled muzzle-loading (RML) guns.
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306:. Work on what would be called the, "longest street in the world", formally known as
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1703:, Lake Louise, Alberta, 1894, and the Manoir Richelieu, Point-au-Pic, Quebec, 1899.
150:
made walking in the deep snow practical. Winter transport in the Arctic made use of
3630:
3507:
3457:
3452:
3036:
2765:
2719:
2335:
2195:
1740:
1706:
Church architecture and construction was also notable as seen in the completion of
1638:
1621:
1472:
1329:
1129:
1026:
952:
footwear was produced by the Canadian Rubber Company in Montreal starting in 1854.
858:
841:
811:
552:
and loom were features of many colonial homes and weaving techniques included the "
524:
331:
265:
310:, began in York (Toronto), in 1795 under the direction of Deputy Surveyor General
3668:
3487:
3424:
3390:
3194:
2919:
2897:
2892:
1719:
1606:
1522:
1443:
1381:
1301:
1161:
1087:
1076:
1030:
996:
981:
142:
was favoured in the waters off the west coast. Summer travel also saw use of the
1964:
McDonnell, The History of Canadian Railroads, New Burlington Books, London, 1985
3542:
3492:
2914:
2902:
2868:
2674:
2179:
1504:
1495:
1464:
1451:
1396:
1285:
1150:
1055:
837:
549:
311:
286:
192:
76:
33:
21:
1605:, established in 1851 in the US, began manufacturing its very popular line of
1009:
924:
The discovery of oil and gas led to the construction of Canada's first energy
695:
The Europeans introduced extremely important innovations relating to warfare:
3684:
3656:
3010:
2924:
2775:
2526:
1710:, a half scale replica of St. Paul's Cathedral in Rome, in Montreal in 1894.
1695:, Banff, Alberta, 1888, the Algonquin, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, 1889, the
1594:
1333:
1149:
by 1857. Most large cities had steam powered municipal systems by the 1870s.
1145:
1117:
1091:
833:
744:. Indeed, it was the introduction of steam power that allowed politicians in
671:
561:
476:
319:
303:
188:
139:
53:
25:
1196:
Notable works of civil engineering realized during this period included the
1090:
also experienced considerable innovation during these years at the hands of
3447:
2878:
2805:
1673:
1652:
1558:
1297:
1292:
established a manufacturing facility in Hamilton and began producing heavy
1154:
1004:
964:
932:
917:
911:
894:
608:, invented in 1714, became a useful diagnostic tool for doctors as did the
582:
467:
was an essential colonial activity. The settlers who founded Port Royal in
415:
411:
315:
307:
281:
122:
during the harsh winter. On the plains, native peoples used the well known
1139:
2973:
2785:
1736:
1483:
1362:
1062:
887:
765:
754:
626:
609:
464:
395:
335:
215:, new crops, livestock, the knife fork and spoon, china plates and cups,
170:
37:
29:
1609:
for the Canadian market at a factory built in St. Jean, Quebec in 1882.
1340:(CCM), with 1700 employees and an annual production of 40,000 bicycles.
354:
was established in Quebec City by William Brown and Thomas Gilmore. The
2609:
2101:
1691:
A number of grand hotels also opened during these years, including the
1685:
1450:
The growth of western agriculture stimulated the growth of the eastern
1400:
1388:
1312:
With the electrification of cities, large and small, came the electric
1113:
1109:
1042:
1017:
893:
The newspaper benefited from the introduction of the telegraph and the
825:
804:
750:
601:
586:
492:
488:
403:
399:
343:
254:
237:
127:
840:
was a common sight on the road. Another overland series of roads, the
572:
Canada. Wood ash was also used in the home by colonials to make soap.
3278:
2149:
1586:
1373:
1369:
1368:
New printing technologies and the availability of this new material,
1357:
1344:
1313:
1238:
Church architecture and construction advanced with the completion of
1223:
made its first appearance during these years with the opening of the
1169:
until 1892, when it was also replaced by electric streetcar service.
1157:
in the 1880s, made popular by Crapper in Great Britain at that time.
1022:
874:
769:
741:
696:
590:
480:
446:
273:
224:
147:
84:
2043:
1284:
Initially electricity was generated using a technique that produced
3532:
2770:
1830:
1644:
1562:
1550:
1535:
1530:
1476:
1178:
1050:
651:
597:
540:
212:
204:
166:
151:
96:
1747:
in Quebec City in 1882. This factory produced bullets and shells.
1616:
production became important at this time. Large powered automatic
1296:(AC) generators and AC motors (based on Serbian-American inventor
2826:
2790:
2760:
1613:
1578:
1324:
1125:
1038:
956:
724:
634:
439:
427:
143:
604:
for the correction of vision became available at this time. The
2800:
2569:
1881:
List of infantry weapons and equipment of the Canadian military
1499:
1034:
992:
949:
745:
704:
700:
667:
646:
594:
568:
468:
407:
277:
258:
216:
178:
123:
69:
1189:, New Brunswick, 1880. Civilians convicted of capital crimes (
2831:
1699:, Quebec, City, 1893, the Queen's, Montreal, 1893, the "new"
1598:
1516:
1468:
1278:
988:
972:
became one of the largest producers of matches in the world.
944:
675:
536:
515:
294:
269:
230:
220:
155:
135:
119:
92:
1471:
in the 1870s created a strong demand for copper and nickel.
1771:
Technological and industrial history of 21st-century Canada
1760:
Technological and industrial history of 20th-century Canada
1617:
519:
508:
250:
115:
108:
104:
100:
80:
1801:
Canadian industrial research and development organizations
2538:
1208:, 1855, The Halifax Citadel, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1856,
936:
due to the accumulation of toxic coal tar in the ground.
906:
711:, Quebec City, Quebec (1745), the Fortress of Louisburg,
567:
Wood ash became a significant export during this period.
88:
1593:
With the coming of the railways and the introduction of
63:
1140:
Public works, water, civil engineering and architecture
732:
annexation. In both cases, the invaders were defeated.
621:) and R.W. Beaumont made a name as a noted inventor of
2034:
Canadian Science and Technology Historical Association
2023:
1458:
975:
768:
was first introduced to Canada via the paddle-powered
727:
with its heavy defensive cannon and onto the adjacent
20:
encompasses the country's development in the areas of
1826:
Canadian university scientific research organizations
1796:
Canadian government scientific research organizations
1627:
817:
One of the great engineering works of the world, the
1503:
1873, while in 1883, the first Canadian producer of
1021:
primarily newsprint. North America's first chemical
211:, stone and brick and mortar construction, surgery,
1431:established in Montreal in 1909, was also of note.
1423:The manufacture of streetcars by companies such as
832:In Western Canada throughout the 19th century, the
325:
207:, books, newspapers, long range navigation, large
2024:Canadian Institute for Advanced Research: Science
1262:
1153:systems necessarily followed, and with them, the
1128:. Canada's first leper colony was established on
500:in Upper Canada (where they were given the title
471:in 1605 drained coastal marshes with a system of
3682:
2013:Bibliography of Science and technology in Canada
1204:, Saint John, New Brunswick, 1853 and 1885, the
1679:
674:in 1661. Quebec City boasted of Canada's first
617:who practised at York Hospital (later known as
18:technological and industrial history of Canada
2554:
2059:
426:Between the 1530s and 1626, Basque whalers (
1846:History of the petroleum industry in Canada
666:, there is reference to the playing of the
2625:World wars and interwar period (1914–1945)
2561:
2547:
2066:
2052:
1856:List of aircraft of the Canadian Air Force
1659:
1534:the turn of the 20th century, a number of
231:Transportation: shipbuilding and the wheel
198:
1967:
1940:
1538:related health concerns were identified.
1267:
939:
346:in New France. Canada's first paper, the
1641:, Ottawa, Ontario – Hull, Quebec, 1900.
735:
95:, scrappers, needles, harpoon heads and
3097:
1526:Lake Ontario and in Vancouver in 1893.
1244:Cathedral Church of St. James (Toronto)
1200:, Ottawa, in 1828, 1844, and 1919, the
589:or any familiarity with the concept of
268:was by way of an Indian invention, the
3683:
3521:
1568:
1407:
690:
640:
483:, through his colonial administrators
154:, and in warmer summer months, use of
103:for food and skins. They also brought
3327:Metropolitan areas and agglomerations
2542:
2073:
2047:
1886:List of reservoirs and dams in Canada
1058:, as part of a continuous operation.
507:The techniques for the production of
64:Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)
2411:Northwest Territories capital cities
968:safety matches in Hull, Quebec. The
792:, Quebec to Halifax (1831), and the
784:Smyth, Saint John River (1816), the
3600:Topics by provinces and territories
1459:Industrial processes and techniques
991:was necessary for the transport of
976:Industrial techniques and processes
13:
2006:
1713:
1708:Mary, Queen of the World Cathedral
1628:Public works and civil engineering
1427:, founded in 1891, in Ottawa, and
1351:
844:, connected Fort Garry to the US.
14:
3707:
2017:
1307:
1248:St. Michael's Cathedral (Toronto)
900:
863:International Meridian Conference
851:
788:, lower Ottawa River (1819), the
681:
3696:Science and technology in Canada
3663:
3662:
3650:
2520:
2508:
2507:
1896:Science and technology in Canada
1338:Canadian Cycle and Motor Company
868:
535:The Europeans brought with them
326:Communication, symbolic language
99:used mostly to kill animals and
2685:Former colonies and territories
2190:Former colonies and territories
1994:
1764:
1753:
1577:The very popular and practical
1372:, had a dramatic effect on the
1206:Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge
75:These people brought with them
2620:Post-Confederation (1867–1914)
2029:Canadian Encyclopedia: Science
2000:web site, www.clockscanada.com
1985:
1976:
1958:
1949:
1931:
1922:
1913:
1735:In 1885, the newly introduced
1637:, Niagara Falls, 1897 and the
1510:
1263:Early Electric Age (1880–1900)
1240:Notre-Dame Basilica (Montreal)
801:Allan Line Royal Mail Steamers
760:
398:was used extensively to power
83:tools. These took the form of
1:
1907:
1901:Scientific research in Canada
1098:
883:transatlantic telegraph cable
318:, Ottawa–Kingston, 1820, the
3691:Industrial history of Canada
2165:Crown and Indigenous peoples
1811:Canadian Mining Hall of Fame
1730:
1680:Skyscrapers and architecture
1603:Singer Manufacturing Company
1191:capital punishment in Canada
613:with the innovative work of
530:
7:
2665:Crown and Indigenous people
1876:List of Canadian Navy ships
1788:
1775:
1365:) was established in 1880.
1235:, Tadoussac, Quebec, 1865.
1029:" in Hull, Quebec in 1830.
780:, Lake Ontario (1816), the
575:
434:and the north shore of the
430:) frequented the waters of
421:
10:
3712:
3555:Provincial and territorial
3478:Inventions and discoveries
2615:British Canada (1763–1867)
2568:
2010:
1866:List of airports in Canada
1861:List of airlines of Canada
1836:Economic history of Canada
1768:
1757:
1253:
3644:
3608:
3582:
3433:
3349:
3319:
3271:
3262:
3163:
3001:
2937:
2853:
2844:
2814:
2781:Newfoundland and Labrador
2753:
2742:
2648:
2585:
2576:
2502:
2471:
2351:
2301:Newfoundland and Labrador
2264:
2140:
2081:
1871:List of bridges in Canada
1648:home of the Maple Leafs.
1418:Montreal Locomotive Works
1210:Victoria Bridge, Montreal
1041:in Hull, Quebec in 1851.
389:
1429:Canadian Car and Foundry
1231:, Toronto, 1862 and the
819:Canadian Pacific Railway
803:company, founded by Sir
619:Toronto General Hospital
2715:Persons of significance
2710:National Historic Sites
2154:Persons of significance
1891:Nuclear power in Canada
1841:Energy policy of Canada
1660:Waste disposal (sewers)
1635:Whirlpool Rapids Bridge
1543:pulp and paper industry
1433:Dominion Bridge Company
1318:Toronto Railway Company
1187:Dorchester Penitentiary
1167:Toronto Street Railways
1134:Tracadie, New Brunswick
1049:The mass production of
502:United Empire Loyalists
199:Age of Sail (1600–1830)
2610:New France (1534–1763)
2185:Events of significance
1821:Canadian space program
1684:It was the age of the
1529:The industrial use of
1268:Energy and electricity
1214:Grand Rapids, Manitoba
1202:Reversing Falls Bridge
1183:Toronto Central Prison
1071:agricultural machinery
940:Materials and products
713:Louisburg, Nova Scotia
2822:Northwest Territories
2725:Territorial evolution
2306:Northwest Territories
2251:Territorial evolution
1395:In Montreal in 1900,
1181:, Toronto, 1864, the
1175:Kingston Penitentiary
736:Steam Age (1830–1880)
264:Inland travel by the
28:, energy, materials,
2796:Prince Edward Island
2326:Prince Edward Island
2039:Innovation in Canada
1724:Angier March Perkins
664:The Jesuit Relations
623:surgical instruments
451:Hudson's Bay Company
436:Gulf of St. Lawrence
360:Upper Canada Gazette
330:The introduction of
3151:Firearms regulation
2241:Population history
2212:Chinese immigration
1816:Canadian scientists
1806:Canadian inventions
1701:Chateau Lake Louise
1693:Banff Springs Hotel
1569:Light manufacturing
1440:electric generators
1408:Heavy manufacturing
1380:The techniques for
1294:alternating current
796:, BC coast (1836).
691:Military technology
641:Domestic technology
606:mercury thermometer
364:Quebec City Mercury
299:Samuel de Champlain
114:In the Arctic, the
42:Invention in Canada
3332:Population centres
1851:Internet in Canada
1482:The techniques of
1425:Ottawa Car Company
1399:, inventor of the
1387:The techniques of
1106:hypodermic syringe
1061:The technology of
970:E. B. Eddy Company
615:Christopher Widmer
455:North West Company
257:, and the popular
223:cloth, horses and
3678:
3677:
3657:Canada portal
3578:
3577:
3345:
3344:
3159:
3158:
3114:Political parties
3082:Foreign relations
2997:
2996:
2884:Canadian Prairies
2874:Pacific Northwest
2840:
2839:
2738:
2737:
2695:Foreign relations
2536:
2535:
2527:Canada portal
2097:18000 BCE–1500 CE
2075:History of Canada
1697:Chateau Frontenac
1555:chemical industry
1274:electric lighting
873:Canada's initial
729:Plains of Abraham
709:Citadel of Quebec
527:and other banks.
380:Colonial Advocate
209:ship construction
72:about 14,000 BC.
3703:
3666:
3665:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3519:
3518:
3362:Higher education
3269:
3268:
3254:Science and tech
3141:Multiculturalism
3095:
3094:
3077:Local government
3042:House of Commons
3026:Governor General
2862:
2851:
2850:
2766:British Columbia
2751:
2750:
2605:Pre-colonization
2583:
2582:
2563:
2556:
2549:
2540:
2539:
2525:
2524:
2523:
2511:
2510:
2462:Name etymologies
2342:Name etymologies
2281:British Columbia
2196:Heritage Minutes
2068:
2061:
2054:
2045:
2044:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1965:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1947:
1944:
1938:
1935:
1929:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1781:private sector.
1745:Dominion Arsenal
1741:Canadian Militia
1639:Alexandra Bridge
1622:Dominion Textile
1473:Hard rock mining
1320:from 1891–1921.
1198:Chaudière Bridge
1160:Coal gas public
1130:Sheldrake Island
1027:hydraulic cement
859:Sandford Fleming
842:Red River Trails
812:steam locomotive
721:Battle of Quebec
670:in 1645 and the
581:The panacea was
525:Bank of Montreal
378:, 1826, and the
356:Montreal Gazette
332:written language
266:coureurs de bois
3711:
3710:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3700:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3651:
3649:
3640:
3604:
3574:
3517:
3429:
3420:Social programs
3386:Law enforcement
3341:
3315:
3258:
3155:
3093:
2993:
2933:
2920:Atlantic Canada
2898:Canadian Shield
2893:Northern Canada
2860:
2859:
2836:
2810:
2746:and territories
2745:
2734:
2644:
2591:
2572:
2567:
2537:
2532:
2521:
2519:
2498:
2467:
2347:
2268:and territories
2267:
2260:
2136:
2085:
2077:
2072:
2020:
2015:
2009:
2007:Further reading
2004:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1791:
1778:
1773:
1767:
1762:
1756:
1733:
1720:central heating
1716:
1714:Central heating
1682:
1662:
1630:
1607:sewing machines
1597:, a market for
1571:
1523:Portland cement
1513:
1461:
1444:electric motors
1410:
1382:book publishing
1354:
1310:
1302:induction motor
1270:
1265:
1256:
1233:Tadoussac Hotel
1162:street lighting
1142:
1101:
1088:retail industry
1077:Meat processing
1031:Leather tanning
997:forest industry
982:lumber industry
978:
942:
903:
871:
854:
763:
738:
693:
684:
643:
578:
533:
424:
392:
368:Montreal Herald
348:Halifax Gazette
328:
233:
201:
111:pots or ovens.
66:
34:public services
12:
11:
5:
3709:
3699:
3698:
3693:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3660:
3645:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3621:Historiography
3618:
3612:
3610:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3540:
3535:
3529:
3527:
3516:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3439:
3437:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3383:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3353:
3351:
3347:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3337:Municipalities
3334:
3329:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3275:
3273:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3249:Transportation
3246:
3241:
3236:
3234:Stock exchange
3231:
3230:
3229:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3202:Communications
3199:
3198:
3197:
3187:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3169:
3167:
3161:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3116:
3111:
3105:
3103:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3057:
3056:
3055:
3048:Prime Minister
3045:
3039:
3030:
3029:
3028:
3018:
3013:
3007:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2969:National Parks
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2943:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2915:Eastern Canada
2912:
2911:
2910:
2903:Central Canada
2900:
2895:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2876:
2869:Western Canada
2865:
2863:
2861:(west to east)
2848:
2842:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2757:
2755:
2748:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2660:Constitutional
2656:
2654:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2601:
2599:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2566:
2565:
2558:
2551:
2543:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2530:
2516:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2484:Historiography
2481:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
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26:communication
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3616:Bibliography
3538:Coat of arms
3522:
3443:Architecture
3413:Homelessness
3264:Demographics
3183:Floriculture
3119:Human rights
3098:
3087:Peacekeeping
3016:Constitution
2938:
2879:Great Plains
2854:
2806:Saskatchewan
2649:
2593:
2586:
2518:
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2479:Bibliography
2331:Saskatchewan
2229:Peacekeeping
2194:
2132:1982–present
1996:
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1951:
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1933:
1924:
1915:
1783:
1779:
1765:21st century
1754:20th century
1749:
1734:
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1705:
1690:
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1674:toilet paper
1671:
1667:
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1653:steam shovel
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1611:
1592:
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1576:
1572:
1559:formaldehyde
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1355:
1342:
1322:
1311:
1298:Nikola Tesla
1290:Westinghouse
1283:
1271:
1257:
1246:in 1844 and
1237:
1218:
1195:
1171:
1159:
1155:flush toilet
1143:
1123:
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1082:
1075:
1068:
1060:
1048:
1015:
1010:springboards
1005:Panama Canal
1002:
987:
979:
965:safety match
962:
954:
943:
933:gasification
930:
923:
918:Oil refining
916:
912:Imperial Oil
904:
895:rotary press
892:
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715:(1745), and
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554:Ă la planche
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416:Lower Canada
412:Upper Canada
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366:, 1805, the
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316:Rideau Canal
308:Yonge Street
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282:York Factory
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158:was common.
133:
113:
74:
67:
58:la technique
57:
50:
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30:public works
17:
15:
3498:Individuals
3306:2021 Census
3291:Immigration
3173:Agriculture
3134:Transgender
2974:Great Lakes
2954:Earthquakes
2908:Great Lakes
2815:Territories
2786:Nova Scotia
2705:Monarchical
2690:Immigration
2421:Quebec City
2376:Fredericton
2311:Nova Scotia
2236:Monarchical
2207:Immigration
1737:Gatling gun
1612:Industrial
1484:coal mining
1363:Bell Canada
1221:grand hotel
1063:photography
955:Industrial
888:New Zealand
766:Steam power
761:Steam power
755:antiseptics
637:) in 1829.
627:inoculation
610:stethoscope
465:Agriculture
406:and later,
396:water power
384:Novascotian
372:Le Canadien
336:mathematics
171:agriculture
38:health care
3685:Categories
3626:Historians
3483:Literature
3396:Corruption
3379:Euthanasia
3369:Healthcare
3311:Population
3033:Parliament
3003:Government
2640:since 1982
2489:Historians
2426:Saint John
2391:Lethbridge
2224:Operations
1908:References
1686:skyscraper
1549:The first
1401:gramophone
1389:filmmaking
1114:antiseptic
1110:anesthetic
1043:Explosives
1018:paper mill
826:stagecoach
810:The first
805:Hugh Allan
751:anesthetic
717:Fort Henry
655:the home.
645:The first
602:Eyeglasses
587:anesthetic
493:New France
489:Jean Talon
459:mad hatter
404:New France
400:grist mill
376:La Minerve
344:newspapers
255:brigantine
238:Jean Talon
148:snow shoes
128:long house
85:arrowheads
3401:Terrorism
3357:Education
3296:Languages
3284:Ethnicity
3279:Canadians
3227:Petroleum
3207:Companies
3109:Elections
2989:Volcanism
2964:Mountains
2846:Geography
2754:Provinces
2744:Provinces
2675:Etymology
2635:1960–1981
2630:1945–1960
2588:Year list
2451:Vancouver
2441:Saskatoon
2266:Provinces
2180:Etymology
2150:Canadians
2127:1960–1981
2122:1945–1960
2117:1914–1945
2112:1867–1914
2107:1763–1867
2102:1534–1763
2083:Year list
1587:cigarette
1511:Materials
1374:newspaper
1370:newsprint
1358:telephone
1345:steamship
1332:, Goold,
1314:streetcar
1250:in 1848.
1023:wood-pulp
926:pipelines
875:telegraph
865:of 1884.
778:Frontenac
770:steamboat
742:telegraph
697:gunpowder
678:in 1784.
591:infection
544:century.
531:Materials
498:Loyalists
481:Louis XIV
447:fur trade
274:York boat
225:livestock
193:tomahawks
152:dog teams
97:fishhooks
56:defined "
3669:Category
3609:Research
3583:Contents
3565:Heraldic
3473:Identity
3468:Holidays
3463:Folklore
3374:Abortion
3301:Religion
3239:Taxation
3146:Cannabis
3124:Intersex
3100:Politics
3072:Military
2984:Wildlife
2771:Manitoba
2700:Military
2670:Economic
2595:timeline
2513:Category
2472:Research
2456:Winnipeg
2406:Montreal
2386:Hamilton
2371:Edmonton
2361:Brampton
2286:Manitoba
2219:Military
2175:Economic
2170:Cultural
2088:Timeline
1831:CP Ships
1789:See also
1776:End note
1645:Baseball
1563:Bakelite
1551:plastics
1536:asbestos
1531:asbestos
1477:dynamite
1216:, 1877.
1179:Don Jail
1099:Medicine
1051:clothing
703:and the
652:Kerosene
598:epidemic
583:bleeding
576:Medicine
558:boutonné
541:textiles
453:and the
422:Industry
402:in both
370:, 1811,
213:firearms
205:printing
167:pemmican
3636:Surveys
3631:Studies
3595:Outline
3570:Tartans
3524:Symbols
3513:Theatre
3458:Cuisine
3435:Culture
3408:Poverty
3350:Society
3244:Tourism
3217:Fishing
3190:Banking
3165:Economy
3021:Monarch
2959:Islands
2856:Regions
2827:Nunavut
2791:Ontario
2761:Alberta
2578:History
2494:Surveys
2446:Toronto
2401:Moncton
2396:Markham
2381:Halifax
2316:Nunavut
2291:Ontario
2276:Alberta
1731:Defence
1614:textile
1579:tin can
1330:Gendron
1325:bicycle
1272:Public
1254:Defence
1126:leprosy
1039:matches
957:textile
725:Citadel
635:Toronto
556:" and "
485:Colbert
440:fishing
428:whaling
144:travois
3533:Anthem
3508:Sports
3453:Cinema
3425:Values
3272:Topics
3212:Energy
3195:Dollar
3060:Courts
3037:Senate
2979:Rivers
2949:Cities
2940:Topics
2801:Quebec
2720:Racism
2651:Topics
2570:Canada
2431:Regina
2416:Ottawa
2353:Cities
2321:Quebec
2246:Sports
2142:Topics
1599:clocks
1500:cheese
1035:potash
993:lumber
950:Rubber
794:Beaver
772:. The
746:Ottawa
705:musket
701:cannon
699:, the
668:fiddle
647:houses
633:( now
595:typhus
569:Potash
469:Acadia
408:Quebec
390:Energy
374:1806,
278:bateau
272:. The
259:barque
243:Canada
217:cotton
179:scurvy
156:kayaks
140:dugout
124:teepee
120:igloos
93:blades
70:humans
3590:Index
3560:Royal
3493:Media
3488:Music
3391:Crime
3320:Lists
2832:Yukon
2730:Women
2336:Yukon
2256:Women
1618:looms
1517:steel
1469:steel
1279:EPCOR
1151:Sewer
1118:ether
989:Water
945:Glass
786:Union
676:piano
537:metal
516:Money
473:dikes
295:wheel
270:canoe
221:linen
136:canoe
77:stone
3548:List
3543:Flag
3129:LGBT
3053:list
1651:The
1585:The
1541:The
1494:The
1467:and
1442:and
1416:The
1356:The
1323:The
1219:The
1112:and
1086:The
980:The
963:The
824:The
753:and
631:York
539:and
520:coin
509:beer
487:and
414:and
410:and
382:and
334:and
276:and
253:and
251:brig
219:and
116:Innu
109:clay
105:fire
101:fish
89:axes
81:bone
79:and
16:The
3448:Art
3222:Oil
3011:Law
2152:- (
1565:).
1300:'s
907:oil
3687::
1519:.
1281:.
890:.
757:.
600:.
227:.
181:.
91:,
87:,
44:.
32:,
24:,
3044:)
3035:(
2597:)
2592:(
2562:e
2555:t
2548:v
2464:)
2460:(
2344:)
2340:(
2156:)
2090:)
2086:(
2067:e
2060:t
2053:v
1361:(
36:(
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