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marks some of the oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rock for its metal content has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, and has progressed at different rates in different places, in part because of the kind of metals available from the rock of a region.
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The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under the ground; pressure is
873:
Those three classes are subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard-and-fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions of their minerals, they pass through gradations from one to the other; the distinctive structures of one kind of rock may thus be
712:
Geology is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological
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Mining processes may create negative impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after mining has ceased. These potential impacts have led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative effects of mining operations.
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1247:. The temperatures and pressures required for this process are always higher than those found at the Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures greater than 1500 bars. This occurs, for example, when
2129:
Le Maitre, R. W.; Streckeisen, A.; Zanettin, B.; Le Bas, M. J.; Bonin, B.; Bateman, P.; Bellieni, G.; Dudek, A.; Efremova, S.; Keller, J.; Lamere, J.; Sabine, P. A.; Schmid, R.; Sorensen, H.; Woolley, A. R., eds. (2002).
1368:
that fall to Earth provide evidence of extraterrestrial rocks and their composition. They are typically heavier than rocks on Earth. Asteroid rocks can also be brought to Earth through space missions, such as the
854:. These physical properties are the result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can be transformed from one type into another, as described by a geological model called the
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1081:
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water (
1512:
has a tensile strength of around 350 MPa.) Relatively soft, easily worked sedimentary rock was quarried for construction as early as 4000 BCE in Egypt, and stone was used to build fortifications in
1674:
for mineral deposits, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once mining ceases.
1437:
Anthropic rock is synthetic or restructured rock formed by human activity. Concrete is recognized as a human-made rock constituted of natural and processed rock and having been developed since
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of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting.
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includes many theories of rocks and their origins that have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a formal science during the 19th century.
2132:
Igneous Rocks: A Classification and
Glossary of Terms, Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks
1065:
1155:). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of 6% limestone and 12% sandstone and
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3144:
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traced, gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in rock names simply correspond to selected points in a continuously graduated series.
943:. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.
1008:), and crustal rock tends to be high in silica. Silica content is thus the most important chemical criterion for classifying igneous rock. The content of
2805:; Raphael, Kate; Jaffe, Yitzhak (2011). "Sanzuodian: the structure, function and social significance of the earliest stone fortified sites in China".
3024:
440:
1239:, meaning to "change in form". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the
1259:. Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions.
1410:
The use of rock has had a huge impact on the cultural and technological development of the human race. Rock has been used by humans and other
2928:"Underground Mining Equipment Market 2017 Global Key Players, Share, Challenges, Industry Size, Growth Opportunities & Forecast To 2021"
2054:
2639:
2214:
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2023:
1453:. Geologist James R. Underwood has proposed anthropic rock as a fourth class of rocks alongside igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
1262:
Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess a texture are referred to as
1227:
Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to different
800:, that lack crystalline structure. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which it was formed.
559:
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2311:"Particle size scales and classification of sediment types based on particle size distributions: Review and recommended procedures"
229:
1852:
1163:. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or
674:, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early
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and distinct cultural identities. Stone tools were largely superseded by copper and bronze tools following the development of
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Though most understanding of rocks comes from those of Earth, rocks make up many of the universe's celestial bodies. In the
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1266:; the remainders are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present.
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dominant, and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as
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Klemm, Dietrich D.; Klemm, Rosemarie (2001). "The building stones of ancient Egypt – a gift of its geology".
843:
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was widely used in construction in the Middle Ages in Europe and remained popular into the 20th century.
686:. Modern technology has allowed the development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as
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The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since
Earliest Times and Their Impact on Developing Civilization
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998:. This occurs both because minerals low in silica crystallize out of the magma as it begins to cool (
239:
86:
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1462:
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Magmas tend to become richer in silica as they rise towards the Earth's surface, a process called
762:
2842:"The Judicious Selection and Preservation of Tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*"
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About 65% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks. Of these, 66% are basalt and
28:
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition,
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36:
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1286:, with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock include
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8:
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Allen, Carlton; Allton, Judith; Lofgren, Gary; Righter, Kevin; Zolensky, Michael (2011).
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developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including
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Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called the
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1002:) and because the magma assimilates some of the crustal rock through which it ascends (
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1579:. The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include
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conditions than those in which the original rock was formed. This process is called
811:, and account for about one-third of all known mineral species and about 95% of the
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Parks and plates : the geology of our national parks, monuments, and seashores
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in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and properties.
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596:, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the
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to sedimentary rock so soft it can be crumbled with bare fingers (that is, it is
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931:. This magma may be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a
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1441:. Rock can also be modified with other substances to develop new forms, such as
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1243:, transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals, by
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612:. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including
2900:
2740:
Bjorhovde, Reidar (2004). "Development and use of high performance steel".
1521:
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cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by
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204:
138:
41:
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2840:
Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.; Cawood, C.; Winkler, E. M. (2005).
1479:
3179:
2155:
1965:"Evolutionary Aspects of Biological Involvement in the Cycling of Silica"
1786:
1777: – Development of planet Earth from its formation to the present day
1701:
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1628:
1627:. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through
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1415:
1228:
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482:
326:
3116:
3047:"Oldest tool use and meat-eating revealed | Natural History Museum"
2719:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute.
2067:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 327.
1467:
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1692:
Stone tools have been used for millions of years by humans and earlier
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2453:"Curating NASA's extraterrestrial samples—Past, present, and future"
2009:
A collector's guide to rock, mineral & fossil localities of Utah
1131:
in a source area and then transported to the place of deposition by
3251:
2409:
1789: – Includes rocks over 4 billion years old from the Hadean Eon
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19:"Rocks", "Stone", and "Stones" redirect here. For other uses, see
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2254:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall.
1750:
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collide. Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume.
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was developed as a theory during this time, and the discovery of
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2961:. Denver, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
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rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or
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893:
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679:
620:. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include
168:
1298:. Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include
858:. This transformation produces three general classes of rock:
784:
Rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are
2562:"Epoxy granite: a structural material for precision machines"
2499:
William
Haviland, Dana Walrath, Harald Prins, Bunny McBride,
1696:. The Stone Age was a period of widespread stone tool usage.
1660:
1396:
1345:
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1132:
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924:
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1857:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–259.
2108:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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1100:) to settle and accumulate or for minerals to chemically
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matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its
584:) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of
2281:(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. p. 438.
1791:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1112:. The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and
717:
understanding of human history, and the development of
1643:. Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any
3287:
3159:
2839:
946:
Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories:
807:, compounds that include silica tetrahedra in their
796:, which are rigid, mineral-like substances, such as
3069:
2801:
2694:
2593:"Forgotten but not lost: the secret of Coade Stone"
2422:. Astronomers' Universe. Springer. pp. 11–23.
2278:
The
Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution
2192:
2190:
2188:
1783: – List of rock types recognized by geologists
1765: – System that relates geologic strata to time
1753: – Natural rock fragment larger than 10 inches
792:into an orderly structure. Some rocks also contain
624:that studies the rocks of other celestial objects.
2232:
1969:Biogeochemical Cycling of Mineral-Forming Elements
1899:
1270:are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of
748:developed in the second half of the 20th century.
627:Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups:
600:, and most of its interior, except for the liquid
44:, an incision through layers of sedimentary rocks.
2833:
1798: – Part of the primary sector of the economy
1043:composition. Granite and similar rocks, known as
3311:
2185:
2164:(2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon. p. 68.
1123:Before being deposited, sediments are formed by
441:Lists of geological features of the Solar System
2106:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
1174:sedimentary rocks can be further classified by
2687:"Strength properties of rocks and rock masses"
2414:"Rocks and Dust in the Planetary Neighborhood"
2274:
1804: – Skill of throwing a stone across water
1708:tools featured sharpened points to be used as
1666:Mining of rock and metals has been done since
1167:, and may be referred to as stratified rocks.
3145:
2876:Conservation of building and decorative stone
2559:
2501:Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge
2103:
553:
2872:
2512:
2252:Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy
2196:
2134:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2104:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1962:
2959:Sustainable Management of Mining Operations
1967:. In Trudinger, P.A.; Swaine, D.J. (eds.).
1039:is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of
3152:
3138:
2766:
2715:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Friable".
2597:Proceedings of the Geologists' Association
2513:Fookes, Peter G.; Walker, Mike J. (2010).
2243:
1937:
1846:
560:
546:
3039:
3017:The Future of strategic Natural Resources
2873:Ashurst, John; Dimes, Francis G. (1998).
2857:
2739:
2640:"Anthropic rocks as a fourth basic class"
2637:
2590:
2484:
2275:Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (2008).
2012:, Utah Geological Survey, pp. 1–22,
1992:
1849:"The Structure of Geological Revolutions"
1325:
2742:Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2644:Environmental and Engineering Geoscience
2308:
2203:, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 23–24,
1963:Heinen, Wouter; Oehler, John H. (1979).
1938:Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996).
1824:Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology
1541:
1524:used it for many buildings and bridges.
1478:
1466:
1390:
1215:
1116:at moderate temperatures and pressures (
1064:
887:
821:
761:
230:Principle of cross-cutting relationships
35:
3071:. Smithsonian Institution. 29 June 2022
2866:
2714:
2638:Underwood, James R. (1 February 2001).
2388:(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
2227:
2161:Plate Tectonics & Crustal Evolution
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1670:times. Modern mining processes involve
3312:
3027:from the original on 20 September 2014
3010:
2981:
2879:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 117.
2383:
2309:Blott, Simon J.; Pye, Kenneth (2012).
2217:from the original on 19 November 2016.
2154:
2148:
2026:from the original on 19 November 2016.
2005:
1822:Haldar, S. K. (2013). "Introduction".
1821:
1700:tools were simple implements, such as
1490:Rock varies greatly in strength, from
1463:Building material § Stone or rock
713:understanding of Earth's history, the
240:Principle of inclusions and components
3133:
3021:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2956:
2925:
2907:from the original on 20 February 2008
2367:, W.H.Freeman, 2nd ed., 1996, p. 355
2249:
2197:Bucher, Kurt; Grapes, Rodney (2011),
2085:. Oxford University Press. March 2021
2049:
2030:
1906:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1897:
1771: – Scientific study of landforms
1516:as early as 2800 BCE. The soft rock,
16:Naturally occurring mineral aggregate
2560:McKeown, P.A.; Morgan, G.H. (1979).
2408:
1971:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 431.
1920:
446:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
2363:Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy,
1826:. Elsevier Science. pp. 1–37.
1205:
1054:
965:. A common example of this type is
215:Principle of original horizontality
13:
2684:
2419:Stardust: The Cosmic Seeds of Life
1567:materials from the earth, from an
1352:are composed of rock, as are many
1159:. Sedimentary rocks often contain
957:rocks result when magma cools and
919:is formed through the cooling and
850:of the constituent particles, and
659:, which in turn are formed by the
14:
3346:
3161:Types and processes of weathering
3086:
2769:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2591:Freestone, Ian (1 January 1991).
2200:Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks
1449:has also been developed, such as
1426:
751:
3297:
3115:
3103:
3092:
3049:. 18 August 2010. Archived from
2859:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00215.x
2696:. University of Colorado Boulder
2539:10.1111/j.1365-2451.2010.00748.x
2335:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2012.01335.x
2037:
639:. Igneous rocks are formed when
527:
69:
3057:
3013:"Environmental Risks of Mining"
3004:
2975:
2950:
2926:Gajul, Shekhar (28 July 2018).
2919:
2901:"Welcome to the Limestone City"
2893:
2795:
2760:
2733:
2708:
2678:
2631:
2584:
2553:
2506:
2493:
2444:
2402:
2377:
2357:
2302:
2268:
2221:
2122:
2097:
1282:has visible bands of differing
899:Igneous rock (derived from the
877:
643:cools in the Earth's crust, or
225:Principle of lateral continuity
2071:
1956:
1942:(2nd ed.). W.H. Freeman.
1891:
1879:
1840:
1815:
1520:, is common in Italy, and the
1170:Sediment and the particles of
235:Principle of faunal succession
1:
3272:Factors of polymer weathering
3120:The dictionary definition of
2789:10.1016/S0899-5362(01)00085-9
2754:10.1016/S0143-974X(03)00118-4
2617:10.1016/S0016-7878(08)80072-7
2006:Wilson, James Robert (1995),
1809:
1178:. The smallest sediments are
3019:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
2578:10.1016/0141-6359(79)90104-1
2515:"Concrete: a man-made rock?"
2477:10.1016/j.chemer.2010.12.003
1759:Rocks as a building material
1556:Mining is the extraction of
1471:A stonehouse on the hill in
1386:
830:along a mountain creek near
7:
2428:10.1007/978-3-642-32802-2_2
1741: – Small rock fragment
1731:
1456:
1019:, 16% are granite, and 17%
980:, forming minerals such as
744:of rocks. Understanding of
345:Geological history of Earth
10:
3351:
2664:10.2113/gseegeosci.7.1.104
2384:Lillie, Robert J. (2005).
1902:Introduction to mineralogy
1898:Nesse, William D. (2000).
1854:A Brief History of Geology
1847:O'Hara, Kieran D. (2018).
1720:tools were developed with
1685:
1535:
1460:
1430:
1329:
1209:
1058:
881:
755:
697:
197:Laws, principles, theories
76:Science of the solid Earth
18:
3234:
3203:
3167:
2957:Botin, J.A., ed. (2009).
2819:10.1017/S0003598X00067405
1863:10.1017/9781316809990.013
1531:
1314:—a metamorphosed form of
1757:Rock (building material)
1681:
1383:have also been studied.
740:in 1896 allowed for the
693:
205:Stratigraphic principles
2982:Wilson, Arthur (1996).
2064:Encyclopædia Britannica
1310:. This branch contains
1194:. Some systems include
1085:). This process causes
1012:is next in importance.
1000:Bowen's reaction series
29:Stones (disambiguation)
2986:. Cambridge, England:
1631:processes, or created
1621:construction aggregate
1553:
1487:
1476:
1416:2.5 million years
1407:
1326:Extraterrestrial rocks
1224:
1078:
896:
839:
781:
45:
25:Stone (disambiguation)
21:Rocks (disambiguation)
2566:Precision Engineering
2235:Principles of Geology
1888:, Unusual Places.org.
1747: – Clast of rock
1545:
1482:
1470:
1394:
1219:
1068:
995:magma differentiation
891:
825:
765:
698:Further information:
39:
3112:at Wikimedia Commons
1547:Mi Vida uranium mine
1508:). (For comparison,
1127:of earlier rocks by
1092:(pieces of rock) or
815:. The proportion of
594:chemical composition
220:Law of superposition
3204:Physical weathering
3168:Chemical weathering
2988:Woodhead Publishing
2781:2001JAfES..33..631K
2717:Glossary of geology
2656:2001EEGeo...7..104U
2609:1991PrGA..102..135F
2531:2010GeolT..26...65F
2469:2011ChEG...71....1A
2327:2012Sedim..59.2071B
2250:Boggs, Sam (2006).
1763:Geologic time scale
1486:with natural stones
1220:Metamorphic banded
1010:alkali metal oxides
803:Most rocks contain
364:Branches of geology
303:Landform structures
184:Geologic time scale
3053:on 18 August 2010.
1781:List of rock types
1704:and sharp flakes.
1663:) from the earth.
1554:
1488:
1477:
1408:
1354:natural satellites
1249:continental plates
1225:
1079:
961:slowly within the
897:
892:Sample of igneous
840:
788:formed from atoms
786:crystalline solids
782:
758:Formation of rocks
742:radiocarbon dating
730:history of geology
725:in human society.
534:Geology portal
454:By planet and body
322:Structural Geology
294:Structure of Earth
46:
3285:
3284:
3190:Mineral hydration
3108:Media related to
2997:978-1-85573-301-5
2968:978-0-87335-267-3
2886:978-0-7506-3898-2
2210:978-3-540-74168-8
2079:""igneous, adj.""
2051:Flett, John Smith
2019:978-1-55791-336-4
1949:978-0-7167-2438-4
1872:978-1-316-80999-0
1710:projectile points
1498:in excess of 300
1484:Raised garden bed
1420:Lithic technology
1332:Planetary geology
1272:lamellar minerals
1245:recrystallization
1202:as measurements.
1049:continental crust
978:fragmental ejecta
805:silicate minerals
790:chemically bonded
738:radioactive decay
663:, transport, and
637:metamorphic rocks
633:sedimentary rocks
622:planetary geology
570:
569:
434:Planetary geology
386:Geological survey
3342:
3330:Stone (material)
3302:
3301:
3293:
3267:Space weathering
3211:Frost weathering
3154:
3147:
3140:
3131:
3130:
3119:
3107:
3096:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3008:
3002:
3001:
2979:
2973:
2972:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2934:. Archived from
2923:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2775:(3–4): 631–642.
2764:
2758:
2757:
2748:(3–5): 393–400.
2737:
2731:
2730:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2691:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2635:
2629:
2628:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2510:
2504:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2486:2060/20100042395
2448:
2442:
2441:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2381:
2375:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2321:(7): 2071–2096.
2306:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2194:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2126:
2120:
2119:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2003:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1935:
1918:
1917:
1905:
1895:
1889:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1819:
1792:
1775:History of Earth
1745:Cobble (geology)
1706:Middle Stone Age
1510:structural steel
1496:tensile strength
1447:Artificial stone
1212:Metamorphic rock
1206:Metamorphic rock
1061:Sedimentary rock
1055:Sedimentary rock
1027:. Only 0.6% are
562:
555:
548:
532:
531:
336:Geologic history
73:
48:
47:
3350:
3349:
3345:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3310:
3309:
3308:
3296:
3288:
3286:
3281:
3230:
3221:Thermal fatigue
3199:
3163:
3158:
3089:
3084:
3074:
3072:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3045:
3044:
3040:
3030:
3028:
3009:
3005:
2998:
2980:
2976:
2969:
2955:
2951:
2941:
2939:
2938:on 28 July 2018
2932:Journalist Book
2924:
2920:
2910:
2908:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2871:
2867:
2838:
2834:
2803:Shelach, Gideon
2800:
2796:
2765:
2761:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2713:
2709:
2699:
2697:
2689:
2683:
2679:
2636:
2632:
2589:
2585:
2558:
2554:
2511:
2507:
2498:
2494:
2449:
2445:
2438:
2407:
2403:
2396:
2382:
2378:
2362:
2358:
2307:
2303:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2248:
2244:
2239:. W.H. Freeman.
2226:
2222:
2211:
2195:
2186:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2156:Condie, Kent C.
2153:
2149:
2142:
2127:
2123:
2116:
2102:
2098:
2088:
2086:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2020:
2004:
1993:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1936:
1921:
1914:
1896:
1892:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1845:
1841:
1834:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1790:
1734:
1698:Early Stone Age
1690:
1684:
1625:dimension stone
1585:precious metals
1540:
1534:
1465:
1459:
1435:
1429:
1389:
1334:
1328:
1214:
1208:
1063:
1057:
1047:, dominate the
886:
880:
809:crystal lattice
778:"strange stone"
760:
754:
746:plate tectonics
710:
696:
604:and pockets of
566:
526:
519:
518:
517:
458:
450:
436:
426:
425:
424:
399:
391:
390:
377:
359:
351:
350:
349:
340:
332:
331:
307:
299:
298:
269:
261:
259:
251:
250:
249:
210:
200:
198:
190:
189:
188:
164:Plate tectonics
159:
124:
116:
78:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3348:
3338:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3307:
3306:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3238:
3236:
3235:Related topics
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3171:
3169:
3165:
3164:
3157:
3156:
3149:
3142:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3113:
3101:
3088:
3087:External links
3085:
3083:
3082:
3056:
3038:
3003:
2996:
2974:
2967:
2949:
2918:
2892:
2885:
2865:
2852:(3): 485–510.
2832:
2813:(327): 11–26.
2794:
2759:
2732:
2725:
2707:
2677:
2650:(1): 104–110.
2630:
2603:(2): 135–138.
2583:
2572:(4): 227–229.
2552:
2505:
2492:
2443:
2436:
2401:
2394:
2376:
2356:
2301:
2287:
2267:
2260:
2242:
2229:Gilluly, James
2220:
2209:
2184:
2170:
2147:
2140:
2121:
2114:
2096:
2070:
2059:Chisholm, Hugh
2029:
2018:
1991:
1977:
1955:
1948:
1919:
1912:
1890:
1878:
1871:
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1832:
1813:
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1802:Stone skipping
1799:
1796:Stone industry
1793:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1766:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1718:Late Stone Age
1686:Main article:
1683:
1680:
1536:Main article:
1533:
1530:
1514:Inner Mongolia
1458:
1455:
1433:Anthropic rock
1431:Main article:
1428:
1427:Anthropic rock
1425:
1388:
1385:
1330:Main article:
1327:
1324:
1210:Main article:
1207:
1204:
1182:, followed by
1059:Main article:
1056:
1053:
990:
989:
970:
921:solidification
882:Main article:
879:
876:
798:volcanic glass
768:balancing rock
753:
752:Classification
750:
715:archaeological
695:
692:
676:infrastructure
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567:
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123:Key components
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3250:
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3245:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3227:
3226:Thermal shock
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3202:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3155:
3150:
3148:
3143:
3141:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3126:at Wiktionary
3125:
3124:
3118:
3114:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3090:
3070:
3066:
3065:"Stone Tools"
3060:
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3042:
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3022:
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2999:
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2985:
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2673:
2669:
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2634:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
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2587:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2519:Geology Today
2516:
2509:
2502:
2496:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2474:
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2462:
2458:
2454:
2447:
2439:
2437:9783642328022
2433:
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2425:
2421:
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2415:
2411:
2405:
2397:
2391:
2387:
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2373:0-7167-2438-3
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2315:Sedimentology
2312:
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2288:9780495554806
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2189:
2173:
2171:9781483100142
2167:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2151:
2143:
2141:0-521-66215-X
2137:
2133:
2125:
2117:
2115:9780521880060
2111:
2107:
2100:
2084:
2080:
2074:
2066:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2046:public domain
2033:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2011:
2010:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1980:
1978:9780080874623
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1966:
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1913:9780195106916
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1833:9780124167100
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1800:
1797:
1794:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1769:Geomorphology
1767:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1736:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1722:craftsmanship
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1689:
1679:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1664:
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1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
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1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1559:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1443:epoxy granite
1440:
1434:
1424:
1421:
1417:
1414:for at least
1413:
1406:
1402:
1399:of rocks, an
1398:
1393:
1384:
1382:
1381:Martian rocks
1378:
1374:
1373:
1367:
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1234:
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1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
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1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
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1145:mass movement
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1088:
1084:
1083:sedimentation
1076:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1037:oceanic crust
1034:
1031:and 0.3% are
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1006:
1001:
997:
996:
987:
983:
979:
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963:Earth's crust
960:
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930:
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902:
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885:
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871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
852:particle size
849:
845:
837:
833:
829:
824:
820:
818:
814:
813:earth's crust
810:
806:
801:
799:
795:
791:
787:
779:
775:
774:
769:
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709:
705:
701:
691:
689:
685:
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677:
673:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
653:lithification
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
629:igneous rocks
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
610:asthenosphere
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
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543:
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312:Geomorphology
310:
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284:Sedimentology
282:
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262:
255:
254:
246:
245:Walther's law
243:
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38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3256:
3122:
3100:at Wikibooks
3073:. Retrieved
3068:
3059:
3051:the original
3041:
3031:10 September
3029:. Retrieved
3016:
3011:Terrascope.
3006:
2983:
2977:
2958:
2952:
2940:. Retrieved
2936:the original
2931:
2921:
2909:. Retrieved
2895:
2875:
2868:
2849:
2846:Archaeometry
2845:
2835:
2810:
2806:
2797:
2772:
2768:
2762:
2745:
2741:
2735:
2716:
2710:
2698:. Retrieved
2693:
2680:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2600:
2596:
2586:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2525:(2): 65–71.
2522:
2518:
2508:
2500:
2495:
2460:
2457:Geochemistry
2456:
2446:
2418:
2404:
2385:
2379:
2364:
2359:
2318:
2314:
2304:
2292:. Retrieved
2277:
2270:
2251:
2245:
2234:
2223:
2199:
2175:. Retrieved
2160:
2150:
2131:
2124:
2105:
2099:
2087:. Retrieved
2082:
2073:
2062:
2032:
2008:
1982:. Retrieved
1968:
1958:
1939:
1901:
1893:
1881:
1853:
1842:
1823:
1817:
1702:hammerstones
1691:
1676:
1665:
1633:artificially
1629:agricultural
1555:
1503:
1489:
1439:Ancient Rome
1436:
1409:
1370:
1338:Solar System
1335:
1261:
1253:
1237:metamorphism
1226:
1169:
1122:
1080:
1069:Sedimentary
1021:granodiorite
1014:
1005:country rock
1003:
993:
991:
977:
972:Volcanic or
959:crystallizes
945:
916:
912:
908:
904:
898:
884:Igneous rock
878:Igneous rock
872:
844:permeability
841:
802:
783:
777:
771:
727:
711:
669:
626:
581:
577:
571:
453:
398:Applications
380:
335:
302:
274:Geochemistry
264:
203:
134:
75:
60:
42:Grand Canyon
33:
3180:Carbonation
2911:13 February
2685:Amadei, B.
2463:(1): 1–20.
1787:Oldest rock
1712:, awls, or
1672:prospecting
1668:prehistoric
1653:natural gas
1581:base metals
1451:Coade stone
1395:Ceremonial
1377:Lunar rocks
1229:temperature
1151:(agents of
1114:cementation
1102:precipitate
1096:particles (
868:metamorphic
864:sedimentary
794:mineraloids
776:(literally
719:engineering
405:Engineering
327:Volcanology
265:Composition
149:Metamorphic
144:Sedimentary
3314:Categories
3216:Haloclasty
3185:Hydrolysis
3175:Biological
2726:0922152349
2395:0393924076
2261:0131547283
2083:OED Online
1810:References
1726:metallurgy
1688:Stone tool
1637:laboratory
1565:geological
1551:Moab, Utah
1492:quartzites
1461:See also:
1366:Meteorites
1362:meteoroids
1308:serpentine
1176:grain size
1153:denudation
1125:weathering
1118:diagenesis
1075:iron oxide
1045:granitoids
1033:ultramafic
856:rock cycle
836:Costa Rica
756:See also:
728:While the
723:technology
708:Mineralogy
665:deposition
661:weathering
649:diagenesis
618:mineralogy
602:outer core
590:mineraloid
317:Glaciology
279:Mineralogy
174:Weathering
3335:Materials
3320:Petrology
3277:Taphonomy
3262:Saprolite
3247:Etchplain
3195:Oxidation
2827:163488276
2807:Antiquity
2672:1078-7275
2625:0016-7878
2547:129456840
2410:Kwok, Sun
2365:Petrology
2351:130084299
2343:0037-0746
2055:Petrology
2053:(1911). "
1940:Petrology
1886:Kummakivi
1649:petroleum
1613:rock salt
1609:oil shale
1605:limestone
1563:or other
1526:Limestone
1494:having a
1475:, Finland
1473:Sastamala
1387:Human use
1375:mission.
1358:asteroids
1316:sandstone
1312:quartzite
1304:soapstone
1292:phyllites
1284:lightness
1241:protolith
1108:) from a
1106:evaporite
1090:sediments
1071:sandstone
974:extrusive
955:intrusive
773:Kummakivi
734:Plutonism
704:Petrology
672:Stone Age
657:sediments
614:petrology
415:Forensics
369:Geologist
289:Petrology
3252:Fracture
3075:9 August
3025:Archived
2905:Archived
2700:18 April
2503:, p. 166
2412:(2013).
2294:13 April
2231:(1959).
2215:archived
2177:13 April
2158:(2015).
2089:17 April
2024:archived
1984:13 April
1732:See also
1714:scrapers
1694:hominids
1659:or even
1645:resource
1601:diamonds
1561:minerals
1558:valuable
1457:Building
1412:hominids
1405:Mongolia
1372:Hayabusa
1320:hornfels
1296:mylonite
1274:such as
1264:foliated
1233:pressure
1200:boulders
1149:glaciers
1110:solution
1098:detritus
951:Plutonic
915:meaning
909:of fire,
907:meaning
688:concrete
586:minerals
420:Military
358:Research
155:Sediment
130:Minerals
111:Timeline
102:Glossary
97:Category
53:a series
51:Part of
3304:Geology
3242:Erosion
2942:28 July
2777:Bibcode
2652:Bibcode
2605:Bibcode
2527:Bibcode
2465:Bibcode
2323:Bibcode
2061:(ed.).
2048::
1751:Boulder
1641:factory
1593:uranium
1505:friable
1403:, from
1350:Mercury
1268:Schists
1196:cobbles
1172:clastic
1161:fossils
1157:arkoses
1129:erosion
1094:organic
1087:clastic
1029:syenite
1025:diorite
967:granite
905:igneus,
860:igneous
848:texture
828:outcrop
770:called
700:Geology
608:in the
574:geology
463:Mercury
381:Methods
179:Erosion
139:Igneous
107:History
92:Outline
62:Geology
3290:Portal
2994:
2965:
2883:
2825:
2723:
2670:
2623:
2545:
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2057:". In
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1975:
1946:
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1869:
1830:
1739:Pebble
1647:(e.g.
1617:potash
1571:body,
1538:Mining
1532:Mining
1522:Romans
1360:, and
1348:, and
1306:, and
1300:marble
1294:, and
1288:slates
1280:gneiss
1222:gneiss
1192:gravel
1190:, and
1165:strata
1035:. The
1017:gabbro
986:basalt
982:pumice
937:mantle
933:planet
894:gabbro
817:silica
706:, and
684:metals
680:Mining
513:Charon
503:Triton
410:Mining
258:Topics
169:Strata
27:, and
3325:Rocks
3110:rocks
3098:Rocks
2823:S2CID
2690:(PDF)
2543:S2CID
2347:S2CID
1682:Tools
1661:water
1635:in a
1549:near
1397:cairn
1346:Venus
1318:—and
1276:micas
1133:water
1077:bands
1073:with
1041:mafic
941:crust
925:magma
917:fire)
913:ignis
911:from
903:word
901:Latin
832:OrosĂ
826:Rock
694:Study
641:magma
606:magma
598:crust
582:stone
508:Pluto
498:Titan
488:Ceres
483:Vesta
468:Venus
373:List)
87:Index
3257:Rock
3123:rock
3077:2022
3033:2014
2992:ISBN
2963:ISBN
2944:2018
2913:2008
2881:ISBN
2721:ISBN
2702:2021
2668:ISSN
2621:ISSN
2432:ISBN
2390:ISBN
2369:ISBN
2339:ISSN
2296:2020
2283:ISBN
2256:ISBN
2205:ISBN
2179:2020
2166:ISBN
2136:ISBN
2110:ISBN
2091:2021
2014:ISBN
1986:2020
1973:ISBN
1944:ISBN
1908:ISBN
1867:ISBN
1828:ISBN
1657:salt
1623:and
1597:coal
1589:iron
1577:seam
1573:vein
1518:tuff
1401:ovoo
1379:and
1342:Mars
1278:. A
1257:jade
1231:and
1198:and
1188:sand
1184:silt
1180:clay
1137:wind
1023:and
929:lava
866:and
721:and
651:and
645:lava
635:and
616:and
580:(or
578:rock
478:Mars
473:Moon
135:Rock
40:The
2854:doi
2815:doi
2785:doi
2750:doi
2660:doi
2613:doi
2601:102
2574:doi
2535:doi
2481:hdl
2473:doi
2424:doi
2331:doi
1859:doi
1639:or
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1500:MPa
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